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Ilniversity of California Berkeley Department of Economics C 1 APcito-70 ilniversity of California Berkeley ENTER FOR INTERNATIONAL AND DEVELOPMENT --tCONOMICS RESEARCH Working Paper No. C96-070 Method in the Madness? A Political-Economy Analysis of Ethnic Conflicts in Less Developed Countries Pranab Bardhan University of California, Berkeley June 1996 _Department of Economics , !.! JUE,1,5 1996 I GIANNI1J1 ruu0At OF AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS iban CIDER CENTERFOR INTERNATIONAL AND D MENEVELOPT ECONOMICS RESEARCH The Center for International and Development Economics Research is funded by the Ford Foundation. It is a research unit of the Institute of International StudiesII which works closely with the Department of Economics and the Institute of Business and Economic Research. CIDER is devoted to promoting research on international economic and development issues among Berkeley faculty and students, and to stimulating collaborative interactions between CIDER them and scholars from other developed and developing countries. INSTITUIT OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMIC RESEARCH Richard Sutch, Directcor The Institute of Business and Economic Research is an organized research unit of the University of California at Berkeley. It exists to promote research in business and economics by University faculty. These working papers are issued to disseminate research results to other scholars. Individual copies of this paper are available through IBER, 156 Barrows Hall, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720. Phone (510) 642-1922, fax (510) 642-5018. UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA AT BERKELEY Department of Economics Berkeley, California. 94720-3880 SENTER FOR INTERNATIONAL AND DEVELOPMENT -.ECONOMICS RESEARCH Working Paper No. C96-070 Method in the Madness? A Political-Economy Analysis of Ethnic Conflicts in Less Developed Countries Pranab Bardhan University of California, Berkeley June 1996 Key words: institutional failure, credible commitment, rent-sharing. JEL Classification: 017, P16 Abstract This paper is an attempt, from a political economist's point of view, to look for some clear patterns in the horrendous complexities of the ethnic and sectarian conflicts that are raging in less developed countries. We emphasize the importance of some institutional failures (like the decline of mediating institutions or of pre-existing structures of credible commitment) rather than mere cultural and historical animosities behind the collapse of inter-ethnic understandings and compromises. The rise in ethnic conflicts is not always associated with economic deterioration, sometimes quite the contrary. The effects of market expansion are also ambiguous. In our discussion of policy lessons we have tried to look for various ways, both political and economic, of constructing institutionalized incentives for conciliatory actions. Method in the Madness? A Political-Economy Analysis of Ethnic Conflicts in Less Developed Countries* by Pranab Bardhan University of California, Berkeley I Introduction A spectre is haunting much of the world today, that of ethnic and sectarian conflicts. Particularly in countries with less developed or transitional economies the ethnic cauldron frequently seems to be boiling over, leading to much distress and devastation. In this paper we use the word 'ethnic' as a generic label to include all racial, tribal, religious or linguistic groupings. Table 1 provides a rough list of 32 wars or war-like situations raging in almost as many countries in different parts of the world during 1995, wars which were mostly in the nature of civil wars or arising out of them. Figure 1 shows global trends in ethnopolitical conflicts between 1945 and 1989, in which any of the 233 community groups selected for study in Gurr (1993) were involved. Ethnic conflict is clearly widespread and in some areas has increased in intensity in recent years. In the face of this inexorable tragedy the international policy-making and intellectual community are often prone to throw up their hands in utter despair. The foreign policy establishment in Western countries, baffled by the layers of complexity in the problems of the * I have received valuable comments on an earlier draft from Jean-Claude Berthelemy, Kiren Chaudhry, Andrew Goudie, Atul Kohli, Timur Kuran, and Nirvikar Singh. It should also be noted that my several references to Horowitz (1985) understate my indebtedness to that substantial volume. ethnic hotspots, dreads the idea of getting involved in "quagmires". Even the intellectual community, as their eyes glaze over television images of massacres in Rwanda or the destruction of Sarajevo, sometimes tend to attribute all this to the historical memories of primordial hatred • among ethnic groups, about which very little presumably can be done. Yet it is not uncommon to see communities sharing some historical animos.ities coexisting peacefully (sometimes even. intermarrying) for generations (Serbs, Croats, and Muslims in ex-Yugoslavia, for example), and then something snaps and communal violence erupts. To understand these eruptions we have therefore to go beyond pointing to the primordial antagonisms and examine the nature of that crucial 'something' and see if it can be placed within some meaningful framework. Radical sociologists and historians often attribute post-colonial communal conflicts to colonial machinations of divide-and-rule. While there are no doubt many instances of colonial rulers exploiting pre-existing cultural cleavages to their advantage, some of the nationalist or sub- nationalist ideology (for example, that behind Tamil secessionism in Sri Lanka or Sikh secessionism in India, or the successful secession of the Bengalis from erstwhile Pakistan) is actually more modern. Violent ethnic conflicts in the city of Karachi in Pakistan or in the state of Assam in India, in both cases between the locals and recent migrants have also very little to do directly with the distorting legacies of colonial administration. Economists in their turn often associate sectarian conflicts with pre-capitalism and expect these to fade away with the development of markets, modern technology and capitalist institutions. Yet there are cases (the conflict in the advanced state of Punjab in India or the frequent communal riots in recent years in Bombay, the booming financial capital of India, or in Ahmedabad, a leading industrial centre, are examples) where capitalism and communalism have moved together. It is thus important to look for some clear patterns in the horrendous complexities of ethnic and sectarian conflicts (without denying the historical, geo-political and societal particularities in individual cases) and to see if these suggest some ways of mitigating conflicts (without being glib about prescriptions for 'conflict management'). This paper is a brief and partial attempt in this direction, in general from the political-economy point of view. 3 II Inter-group Economic Competition • A commonplace observation in the literature on ethnic conflicts is that a straightforward relationship between these conflicts and conflicts of economic interest is difficult to establish. Passions rather than interests are reported to hold sway, and people often find it more fruitful to try to understand the cultural roots of identity formation and exclusivity and the social process of escalation into violence. There are, however, many important economic factors which often lurk in the background, even though for understanding the origin of ethnic preferences or the level and intensity of hostilities or the group dynamics of their spinning out of control one may have to look elsewhere. We shall start with an enumeration of some of these economic factors. Many of these factors have to do with aspects of inter-ethnic competition on economic matters. This competition may take place at various levels: (a) within the working class, (b) between middleman minorities and their customers, (c) within the professional elite, (d) among producers, traders,.and other operators,(e) between 'ethnoclasses', and .(f) between regions. (a) A common area of conflict is in the low-skill job market. This is familiar enough in Western Europe and North America where the rising tide of anti-immigrant politics reflects the working class fear of being undercut by alien low-wage workers, particularly when unemployment and job insecurity are rampant and prolonged. There are analogous conflicts in poor countries as well: in colonial days in Guyana and Trinidad between the Creoles and the descendants of indentured labourers brought from India; between the Mossi immigrants and the locals in the Ivory Coast; between'the Muslim Bangladeshi immigrants and locals in parts of India in recent years; between the Vietnamese 'boat people' and locals in different parts of Southeast Asia, and so on. But, as Horowitz(1985) points out, the ethnic segmentation of the labour market that usually takes place, with the poorer immigrants taking up jobs which the locals by and large choose to move away from, keeps the inter-ethnic competition from being as acute as it otherwise could be. Even so, as the anti-immigrant tensions in Western Europe show, things can turn quite nasty in spite of a marked ethnic division of labour. (b) Historically, the more well-known conflicts are between certain middleman minority groups (in occupations like money-lending or trading or in renting out) and their resentful customers. The Chinese in Southeast Asia, the Indians in East Africa and the Jews in pre-war Europe have been well-known targets of such ethnic resentment. In the Hindu-Muslim conflicts of pre-Partition
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