INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL of RESEARCH a Blind Peer Reviewed Biannual Journal (UGC Approved Journal No

ISSN 2231 - 6124 Volume 8 (1) July - December 2018

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH A Blind Peer Reviewed Biannual Journal (UGC Approved Journal No. 63072) Impact Factor SJIF 2018 (6.67) Subject: Multi Disciplinary

Rizvi Education Society`s PROF. PAUL R. P. SPIRITUALISE RIZVI COLLEGE

EDITOR-IN-CHIEF HUMANISE OF ARTS, SCIENCE & COMMERCE Volume 8 (1)  July – December 2018 ISSN 2231 - 6124

International Journal of Research

A Blind Peer Reviewed Biannual Journal (UGC Approved Journal No. 63072)

Subject: Multi Disciplinary IMPACT FACTOR SJIF 2018 (6.67)

PROF. PAUL RAJ P. EDITOR-IN-CHIEF INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH Published under the aegis of Rizvi Education Society’s Rizvi College of Arts, Science & Commerce Bandra (West), Mumbai - 400 050

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Printed by: Gaurang Publishing Globalize Private Limited 1, Plot-72, Wadia C, P.M.M.M. Marg, Tardeo, Mumbai-400034  Mobile: 9969392245  E-mail: [email protected] / [email protected]  www.gpglobalize.com INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH

Chief Patron Dr. Akhtar Hasan Rizvi (President, Rizvi Education Society) Adv. Rubina A.H. Rizvi (Director, Rizvi Education Society)

Editor-in-Chief Prof. Paul Raj P. (Principal I/C) Rizvi College of Arts, Science & Commerce, Bandra (West), Mumbai - 400 050.

Executive Editor Dr. Ashfaq Khan Assistant Prof. & Vice Principal Rizvi College of Arts, Science & Commerce, Bandra (West), Mumbai - 400 050. Email: [email protected] Editorial Board

Dr. Aqil Ahmed, Dr. Abbas A. Rangwala, Professor, Lucknow University, UP Faculty, Dept. of Physics, University of Mumbai, Mumbai Prof. Furqan Qamar, Vice Chancellor Dr. Chandrahauns R. Chavan, Central Univ. of Himachal Pradesh HP JBIMS, University of Mumbai, Mumbai. Dr. G.Y. Shitole, Dr. Gajendra K. Vishwakarma, Principal, S.N.D.T. Arts and Commerce College Indian School of Mines, Dhanbad, Jharkhand. of Women, Pune Dr. G.V. Bhavani Prasad, Dr. G.K. Kalkoti, HOD, Economics, P:rofessor, Kakatiya University, Warangal, Nagindas Khandwala College (Univ. of Mumbai), Andhra Pradesh Mumbai. Dr. Kiran Mangaonkar, Principal, Dr. (Smt) S. Indumati, Vice Chancellor, Guru Nanak Khalsa College (Univ. of Mumbai), Davangere University, Karnataka University, Mumbai. Karnataka. Dr. M.B. Bhide, Dr. Mohd. Ali Akbar Khan, Director, State Ins. For Administrative Careers Dean, Faculty of Commerce, Osmania University, Mumbai. Hyderabad Dr. Paras Jain, Prof. (Dr.) Pranjal Bezborah, Dean of School of M.D. College (Univ. of Mumbai), Mumbai. Commerce & Management Science, Dibrugarh Univ., Assam Dr. Rafat Hussain Rizvi, Prof. Prabir Burman Senior Sciencist, Washington, U.S.A. University of California, Davis Dr. Sabir Ali Siddiqui, Dr. Sachin S. Vernekar, Dhofar University, Sultanate of Oman. Dean & Director, BVIMR University, IMED, Pune. Dr. Sirajuddin Chougle, Dr. Sayed Hasan Tahir, Principal, Maharashtra College of Arts, Science & Scientist, California, U.S.A. Commerce, Mumbai-400 008. Dr. Shakeel Ahmed, Dr. Kumar Pankaj, Vice Principal, Poona College (Univ. of Pune), Director of Arts Faculty, BHU, UP. Pune CA. Kiran Rege, Chief Metor, Dr. Michael Rajamathi, Dr Baba Saheb Ambedkar Institute, Wadala, Department of Chemistry, St. Joseph’s College, Mumbai. Bangalore. Mr. R. Prabakaran, Mrs. Masarrat Saheb Ali, Scientific Officer (D), TIFR, Mumbai. Govt. of Maharashtra’s S.T. College, Mumbai. Mrs. Sheila Master, Dr. Syed Hasan Mahmud, Administrative Consultant, Sophia College Former Professor-Director, UGC-Academic Staff (University of Mumbai), Mumbai College, Jamia Millia Islamia Univ., New Delhi. Dr. Syed Iqbal, Dr. Rakesh Kumar, Former Head of Department, Burhani College, Scientist and Head, Mumbai Zonal Centre, NEERI, Mumbai. Nagpur. Dr. Sanjay Kaptan, Dr. Shaikh Mehmood, Professor and Head, University of Pune, Pune, Principal, A.P. College (University of Mumbai), Maharashtra. Mumbai.

. MESSAGE FROM THE PRESIDENT

Research promotes professional excellence in faculty which is important for delivering outstanding student education and training. Without research, a relevant and modern curriculum cannot exist. Our belief in this ideology has resulted in the birth of International Journal of Research which is one of our many milestones towards excellence. The Journal gives a platform for quality Research and to share and broaden the horizon of Knowledge. The consistent effort to maintain quality and standard has brought us a UGC listing and an Impact factor of 6.67 (SJIF) 2018 in the multi-disciplinary section.

I wish for continual success for the Journal and the researchers.

Dr. A. H. Rizvi President Rizvi Education Society . MESSAGE FROM THE DIRECTOR

“What is important is the translation of research outcomes into products, services, policies—things that actually change the way that we live, hopefully for the better.” — Professor Ned Pankhurst

In our endevour to make this possible we at Rizvi Education Society have started with the International Journal of Research in 2011. Since then there has no looking back. Our partners in this have been all the contributing researchers who have provided the foundation in maintaining the quality that we owe to society. We can proudly say that this focus on quality has earned us a UGC listing and an Impact factor of 6.67 (SJIF) 2018.

We promise to continue to provide a platform for new directions and thoughts in Research so as to make a change for the better.

Adv. Rubina A. H. Rizvi Director Rizvi Education Society . FROM EDITOR’S DESK

I consider myself very fortunate to get an opportunity to serve as the Chief Editor of IJR. It gives me immense pleasure to present this volume of IJR to all our subscribers. This Volume 8(1) July - December 2018 of IJR includes double- blind peer reviewed research papers coming from different places in India and abroad and covers a wide variety of subjects.

All writers from relevant fields have taken tremendous efforts to screen and maintain the quality of research papers. They have taken utmost care to make their papers error free.

The Management and staff of Rizvi College of Arts, Science and Commerce are very much supportive in making this task gorgeous and prolific. I am sure that all papers will help the subscribers for their purpose of application in research activities in their related fields.

We will be highly obliged and thankful for the valuable remarks and suggestions from all the readers for improving the quality of our journal in future issues.

Prof. Paul Raj. P Chief Editor . International Journal of Research, Volume 8 (1)  July – December 2018 ISSN 2231 - 6124

CONTENTS

COMMERCE 1. Mobile Marketing: Customer Perception towards Security of Smartphone Technology 1 - 6 Khan Suhana Begum Sanaulla Shabina and Dr. Shaukat Ali

2. Unorganized Sector and Social Security of Migrant Workers in India 7 - 14 Md. Shahadat Hussain and Dr. Dharam Kaur

3. Factors Determining Consumer Buying Decisions for Health Insurance – 15 - 21 A Study Conducted in Western Suburbs of Mumbai Dr. Megha Somani and Mrs. Rashmi.V. Shetty

EDUCATION 4. An Analytical Study of Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) in 22 - 30 Bihar with Reference to East Champaran District Aftab Alam

5. A Study of the Perceptions of Students towards Rights of Children 31 - 37 Dr. Rucha Desai

ECONOMICS 6. Land and Poverty Interlinkages — A Study on Kalahandi 38 - 55 Kalpita Das

HISTORY 7. Opposition and Discontent in Mughal North India: A Study of Local Potentates in the 56 - 63 Seventeenth and early Eighteenth-Century Saifuddin Ahmad

8. Koragas of Kasaragod ; A Historical Perspective 64 - 70 Vijaya Kumari K.

MARATHI LITERATURE 9. g‘mO ^mfm{dkmZ… à‘wI ^mfmd¡km{ZH$ 71 - 74 S>m°. kmZoída gImam‘ JdirH$a

HINDI LITERATURE 10. dhm©S>r ~mobr H$s ^mfmñVar` ì`dñWm na qhXr H$m à^md 75 - 81 S>m°. eoI AÝgmanmem AãXwbaµÁµOmµH$, {dO` Zaqgh gmJa . MultidisciplinaryMOBILE MARKETING: CUSTOMER PERCEPTION TOWARDSKhan Suhana SECURITY Begum and OFShaukat Ali UGC Approved Journal No. 63072 SMARTPHONE TECHNOLOGY International Journal of Research ISSN 2231 - 6124 VOL 8 (1) 2018 : PP 1 - 6

Mobile Marketing: Customer Perception towards Security of Smartphone Technology

Khan Suhana Begum Sanaulla Shabina Research Scholar: Research Center: Anjuman-I-Islam’s, Akbar Peerbhoy College of Commerce and Economics Grant Road, Mumbai 400008. University of Mumbai. Asst. Professor: Rizvi College of Arts, Science & Commerce, Bandra West, Mumbai 400 050 Email: [email protected]

Dr. Shaukat Ali (Professor) Research Guide: Anjuman-I-Islam’s, Akbar Peerbhoy College of Commerce and Economics Grant Road, Mumbai 400008. University of Mumbai. Email: [email protected]

Abstract Psychologically people are more concern towards their own belongings, things they buy, things they consume, things they like and many as such. Their concern towards that particular asset largely depends on the way of consumption, safety and security. Today we people are more engross towards the use of Smartphone’s. A technology which is getting upgraded day by day, every upcoming hour the features of Smartphone’s are getting enhanced. These upgraded features in technologies are also causing profound changes in the organization of information systems and therefore in the present scenario the same can also be the source of new risks. How keen are we towards our Smartphone’s safety and security. This paper will accent about the customer’s attitude their interest their perception and awareness towards the security and safety of their Smartphone.

Keywords: Smartphone, Customer, Safety and Security, Technology, Perception and Awareness

INTRODUCTION easily susceptible to threats. When we talk about our belongingness, we are keener towards its safety and The current scenario speaks about the utilization of security. Generally we are too sensitive about the Smartphone through various sectors. Smartphone are things we have the things we consume. Smartphone’s now ubiquitous and one of its apex features is its are playing significant role in everyone’s life. simple and it is easy to use, it is been considered as the most convenient mode of communication. How- We normally have a habit of storing our personal ever the major drawback of Smartphone’s is it can be information in our Smartphone device, information

IMPACT FACTOR SJIF 2018 (6.67) Rizvi College of Arts, Science & Commerce  Vol. 8 (1)  July - December 2018  International Journal of Research 1 ISSN 2231 - 6124 Multidisciplinary UGC Approved Journal No. 63072 IMPACT FACTOR SJIF 2018 (6.67) related to one own self personal details inclusive of questions were framed specifying the perception, date of birth, pass words related to banking, locker awareness of customers towards their Smartphone pin, debit and credit card details, email id passwords device. and photos too, even they provide an online access to social media such as Facebook, Whats App, Emails Sources and Methods of Data Collection and many such areas which are confidential. At times Parallel study was conducted wherein importance was necessary files, documents where secrecy needs to be given to both primary as well as secondary data. maintaining even such files are saved in the memory of our Smartphone’s. Every such minute details which A series of questions were framed through which are kept to be conserved and protected is been saved primary data was collected, online survey through in the Smartphone device. Google forms was conducted wherein data was collected from 70 respondents. Whereas secondary data OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY was collected through online avail journals, and articles, learning’s from secondary data had played a To study the Smartphone threats through mobile significant role in enhancing my knowledge in area operating systems. related to the study.

Study the customer’s perception towards security of Security Threats on Smartphone’s through mobile their Smartphone’s. operating system Mobile operating system is a software platform on SCOPE OF THE STUDY which other applications run through devices, such as Smartphone’s, laptops, tablets, etc. Utilizing Smartphone technology is convenient whereas when it comes to its safety and security how specific we are, we normally utilize this technology to the fullest however when it comes to security we are concern about the device safety and protection of the data saved in it, but what necessary steps are we considering in security of the device, in security of the data stored. The study would cover the areas related to the perception and the negligence of customers towards their use of Smartphone’s and their confidential data stored in the device.

LIMITATION OF THE STUDY

Time as a major constraint the study was conducted within the boundaries of Mumbai;

Demographic factors were not considered, questions Fig. 1. Operating System architecture of Smartphone were framed on general outlook designed wherein

2 Rizvi College of Arts, Science & Commerce  Vol. 8 (1)  July - December 2018  International Journal of Research MOBILE MARKETING: CUSTOMER PERCEPTION TOWARDS SECURITY OF SMARTPHONE TECHNOLOGY

A mobile operating system is system software which is able to run on Smartphone devices which allows different applications to run on the Smartphone platform. In simple words it provides a layer on the Smartphone device to run applications, controlling peripherals such as network connections, output peripherals, etc. In general the operating system is placed between the applications and the hardware in order to maintain a relation with them.

Smartphone users has a habit of downloading applications for multipurpose, applications can be down- loaded through various sources. There are certain applications where the users need to pay a specific amount as subscription fees, whereas there are applications which are openly available, applications which can be freely accessed. The users do not generally care about the malicious of applications, that the applications which they are downloading are infected by malware or not. Malware is malicious software Fig. 2 Software Security issues on Smartphone which may steal Smartphone user’s information the Operating System data which has been stored in their Smartphone. security of Smartphone’s. Technically, it is the meet There are several Smartphone’s threats; through the of three bases: Smartphone’s weakness, the attacker’s mobile operating systems. These threats are catego- ability to elicit the weakness and the accessibility of rized in three major categories: the attacker to the weakness. Back Doors and Fake Applications are the types of vulnerabilities on A) Attacks or Threats Smartphone device. These are intrusions that are made by malicious pro- grammers and in addition they use different vulner- C) Malicious Applications able vectors in the targeted operating system or appli- These are hidden malware that can operate in the cations to take over control of the infected Smartphone background of the victims Smartphone imperceptible device. There are four main types of attacks or threats to the Smartphone user, adding on to this it is avail- such as: Mobile Botnets, MITM, (Man-In-The-Middle) able to execute or connect the other networks for Phishing and Social Engineering. getting new instructions. The mobile malicious applications can also manipulate the victim’s Smartphone device and can lead to gaining some of the results B) Vulnerabilities such as abusing sensitive account specifications and In Smartphone operating system vulnerabilities is information. Rootkit, Spyware, Trojan and Virus are another weakness that allows an attacker to break the types of malicious attacks on Smartphone device.

Rizvi College of Arts, Science & Commerce  Vol. 8 (1)  July - December 2018  International Journal of Research 3 ISSN 2231 - 6124 Multidisciplinary UGC Approved Journal No. 63072 IMPACT FACTOR SJIF 2018 (6.67)

Data Analysis and Interpretation It was through the Smartphone users who contributed their perception towards the security of Smartphone’s. On the basis of their reply data was collected, analyzed and interpreted.

An open WiFi is a free access of WLAN connection; one can connect their Smartphone device through an open WiFi on places like Airport, Railway, Coffee Shop and many such public areas.

On awareness towards sharing or downloading data through applications 50% of the total respondents said as they are aware that there are changes of their Smartphone device getting attack, whereas there almost a parallel reply between not aware and never thought of it, 26% were not aware whereas, 24% had never thought about it.

Out of 70 respondents 57 Smartphone users that are 81% of the total respondents have connected their Smartphone devices through an open WiFi, there were 9 respondents that are 13% never connected their Smartphone through an open WiFi. Whereas, 4 respondents that is 6% of the total respondents who were not sure whether they have connected their Smartphone through an open access.

Smartphone’s users quite frequently share or download data through applications. Based on the respon- Majority of the Smartphone users had faced problem dents it was observed that 17% of the total respon- related to virus attack, 53% of the total respondents dents share or download their data on highest fre- have faced problem related to virus attack. 28% of quency. Almost a parallel reply of around 34% has the respondents had never faced a problem related to responded on high sharing or downloading on data virus attack. There were 19% of the respondents who whereas 36% on moderate. 7% as low and 6% of the were not sure whether they have faced problems re- Smartphone user’s has respondent as they don’t share lated to virus attack. not download data through application.

4 Rizvi College of Arts, Science & Commerce  Vol. 8 (1)  July - December 2018  International Journal of Research MOBILE MARKETING: CUSTOMER PERCEPTION TOWARDS SECURITY OF SMARTPHONE TECHNOLOGY

There were 41% of the total respondents who have an Above mentioned questions were completely based antivirus updated in their Smartphone. 36% of the on awareness towards the use of Smartphone technol- respondents were using their Smartphone without ogy, customers awareness in terms of sharing and antivirus software. However there were 23% of the downloading of data, their knowledge towards Smartphone users who were not sure whether their antivirus, and an overall knowledge towards the secu- Smartphone device has updated antivirus software. rity of Smartphone’s.

CONCLUSION

There’s frequent technological up gradation and so simultaneously malware attacks are capturing its place. Smartphone’s configuration can be one of the parameters that can lead to security breaches. Data privacy and threats are the major issues of security of one’s own Smartphone.

Customers using Smartphone device without any concern connect their Smartphone devices with an open WiFi, they even download and do share links and data through their devices, in spite of being aware On the basis of Smartphone user’s knowledge towards that this sharing or downloading might affect their Smartphone security, it was noticed that only 10% Smartphone. On the contrary there are users who not respondents have the highest knowledge towards se- aware about what the virus is what an antivirus is curity of their Smartphone’s, 27% as high knowledge, about, however there’s agreement towards accessing 50% had average or moderate knowledge, 7% as least or accepting something from others or sharing might knowledge towards security of Smartphone’s and 6% bring about threat to their Smartphone device. In spite of the respondents had no knowledge towards secu- of facing problems related to virus attack. Their per- rity of Smartphone’s.

Rizvi College of Arts, Science & Commerce  Vol. 8 (1)  July - December 2018  International Journal of Research 5 ISSN 2231 - 6124 Multidisciplinary UGC Approved Journal No. 63072 IMPACT FACTOR SJIF 2018 (6.67) ception towards security of their Smartphone’s is 3. https://now.tufts.edu/articles/staying-safe-your- unpredictable. smartphone

RECOMMENDATION AND SUGGESTION 4. file:///C:/Users/SK/AppData/Local/Temp/ 9783319297415-c1.pdf Smartphone’s can be more prone towards risk at cer- 5. file:///C:/Users/SK/AppData/Local/Temp/ tain areas, specifically where free WiFi is available, icdt_2011_1_40_20110.pdf where one can access to open WiFi easily. The access to such WiFi can be in Hotels, Coffee Shop, Airport, 6. https://techspective.net/2015/10/05/10-questions- Railways and many such public areas. On should be you-should-ask-about-mobile-security/ careful and specific of such open access. Trying to connect with one of the WiFi hotspot, one should 7. https://whatis.techtarget.com/quiz/Mobile-device- always ensure that the website they browsing or the security-quiz-answers hotspot they are connecting is not vulnerable.  Measures that can be taken to reduce the risk 8. https://www.pcworld.com/article/2010278/10- associated with Smartphone’s: common-mobile-security-problems-to-attack.html  A regular update of Smartphone device can be a 9. https://kgk.uni-obuda.hu/sites/default/files/ good way of reducing risks. 12_Kadena.pdf  Avoid accepting, downloading data, from others. Never access to the link which has been forwarded 10. http://thesai.org/Downloads/Volume8No10/Pa- from an unknown number. per_5-A_Survey_on_Smartphones_Security.pdf  Uninstall applications that are not in use  Applications like Anti-Virus and Anti-Malware 11. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/ might not completely protect your Smartphone’s; PMC5352308/ they do provide a needed layer of security from common malware threats 12. https://www.webopedia.com/TERM/M/ mobile_operating_system.html The future belongs to the world of internet where devices would be interconnected, and so security of 13. https://docs.google.com/forms/d/1617tD_no Smartphone’s will grow risky, however opting for HTpgck9Dbe2HGOFNwlspwBogsmnMbacu careful habits of Smartphone users associated with Huw/edit#responses learning and education can put one on a safer side.

REFERENCES

1. http://www.fraud-magazine.com/ article.aspx?id=4294992799

2. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/ 260671134_A_Survey_on_Security_for_Mobile_Devices

6 Rizvi College of Arts, Science & Commerce  Vol. 8 (1)  July - December 2018  International Journal of Research MultidisciplinaryUNORGANIZED SECTOR AND SOCIAL SECURITY OFMd. MIGRANT Shahadat Hussain WORKERS and Dr. INDharam INDIA Kaur UGC Approved Journal No. 63072 International Journal of Research ISSN 2231 - 6124 VOL 8 (1) 2018 : PP 7 - 14

Unorganized Sector and Social Security of Migrant Workers in India

Md. Shahadat Hussain Assistant Professor (Social Work), VHPG College (University of Lucknow); Dr. Dharam Kaur, Professor (Pol. Science), VHPG College (University of Lucknow). Email: [email protected]

Abstract Migrant workers are the most vulnerable lot. They face double whammy for being migrant and labour. They are exploited by their employer. The laws are in place, but there are flaws in them. Even the good laws are implemented half hearted. There is a need to give more teeth to the laws and also implement the relevant laws with full force.

Keywords: Migration, Social Security, Unorganized Sector, Workers

Migration of workers is a common human phenom- Migration is a widely perceived feature of human and enon especially from backward states in India. In the migrants try to survive in the most testing condi- search of livelihood source and happy life have been tions both natural and man-made. Migration in India prime drivers of migration. Migration of workers has has existed since time immemorial. Migration has profound and deep implications on their lives, their assumed special significance for the country and the family, receiving states, sending states and nation as society especially in the context of globalization and a whole. Migrations have economic genesis but it opening up of the world economy. Widening gulf causes socio-political cultural ramifications. It has been between rich and poor, inequality, income disparities, found that mingling of different cultures has had agrarian distress, inadequate employment generation, positive ramification, besides putting an strain on the vast growth of informal economy and the resultant culture and life of the upcoming society affected in migration from rural areas to urban, urban to urban either way by migration. and backward to comparatively advanced regions in the most appalling conditions have been witnessed Migration is a very complex and multidimensional since India embraced liberalisation, globalisation and issue. Therefore, this paper shall confine to the issues privatisation. of the non-skilled and semi-skilled migrant workers specially construction and domestic migrant workers. Unorganized sector employ approximately 80 million

IMPACT FACTOR SJIF 2018 (6.67) Rizvi College of Arts, Science & Commerce  Vol. 8 (1)  July - December 2018  International Journal of Research 7 ISSN 2231 - 6124 Multidisciplinary UGC Approved Journal No. 63072 IMPACT FACTOR SJIF 2018 (6.67)

Migrant Workers in India, who are deprived of even Moreover, deforestation also played a major role in the bare minimum of basic human rights1. Irregular migration. One of the research study has revealed that employment, lack of opportunities or very limited about 77% of the population i.e. nearly 840 million opportunities are some of the common in rural India. Indians live on less than Rs.20 a day3. Indian agricul- It has led to the seasonal migration for worker. It has ture, which was once the mainstay of the masses been estimated that approximately 120 million people mainly the rural populace has become non remunera- or more migrate from rural areas to urban labour tive, non-rewarding today due to the apathy and policy markets, industries and farms2. It has become essen- failure of the government. One of the research study tial for the people from regions that face frequent has estimated that the lives of 100,000 peasants were shortages of rainfall or suffer floods, or where popu- lost during the period from 1996 to 2003, which translation densities are high in relation to land, limited or lates into suicide of an Indian peasant every 45 min- no opportunities are available. Areas such as Kash- utes. However, majority of the farmer’s suicides were mir, North East, facing unresolved social or political reported from the developed states like Gujarat, conflicts also lead to high out migration. Poverty, lack Maharashtra etc. It can be a separate topic of re- of local options are some of the push factors of mi- search. Large scale migration not only from the rural gration whereas the availability of work elsewhere areas but also from urban areas of the states Bihar, become the pull factor of migration. Migration is Orissa, Uttar Pradesh migrate in search of the liveli- deemed to have happened, when a person engage hood mainly in the informal sector, low end jobs, himself or herself in a remunerative activity in a place seasonal work. About 70% of the ground level of which he is not a native or national. workforce in the factories of Ahmedabad are migrant workers, they largely remains invisible because there CURRENT STATUS OF MIGRATION are no official records of the migrants maintained either by source or destination states4. Social structures and patterns of development, disadvantaged geographical locations etc are the prime Some regions like UP and Bihar have been known for drivers of out migration in India. The development rural migration for decades, the bandwagon has been policies the government post-Independence have ac- joined by the states like Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, celerated the process of out migration. Uneven devel- Rajasthan and recently even North East became ma- opment of the regions, states is the main cause of jor sending regions of manual labour. Among the migration. Besides this there are the disparities among biggest employers of migrant workers is the construc- classes, castes, inter regions and amongst different tion sector (40 million), domestic work (20 million), socio-economic classes. The landless poor who mostly textile (11 million), brick kiln work (10 million), trans- belong to lower castes, indigenous communities and portation, mines & quarries and agriculture, sex work- economically backward regions are compelled by their ers (2 millions), 5 call girls (5 millions) illegal mines livelihood question to migrate. It has been observed (12 million) otherwise called small scale mines. Inter- that the process of globalisation and the intrusion in national migration of unskilled and semi-skilled work- the tribal areas in the name of the development, open- ers have also accentuated. Middle East countries ing up of new industries has led to the displacements employ large chunk of the migrants. At present around of the local tribal people. 5.5 million Indians are working in the oil exporting countries of the Middle-East and another 2 million are working in the developed countries.

8 Rizvi College of Arts, Science & Commerce  Vol. 8 (1)  July - December 2018  International Journal of Research UNORGANIZED SECTOR AND SOCIAL SECURITY OF MIGRANT WORKERS IN INDIA

Managed in many cases by private labour contractors has unleased wide spread construction activities. and fuelled by social networks there are well formed Currently construction sector is the largest employer patterns in movement of labour across hundreds of of the migrant workers with the approximately 40 kilometres within the country. Figure 1: Major net million workers are engaged in it. The working hours migration flows, 2001 (IIPS 2001)5. are from dusk to the down. The work hour often stretches from 14 to 16 hours for male and for female Migration through the lens of census workers it even more gruelling with the additional It is estimated that 60% of migrants changing their responsibility of the looking after the household residences within their district of birth and 20% within chores. It was discovered that there are normal flout- their own states, while the rest move across the other ing of the rules of migrants workers in the construc- states boundaries. tions sites. There is lack of security, compensation for injuries, access to drinking water and health care for Table 1: Estimated migrant workers according to the workers on the worksite. census

Census Year No. of migrant workers Though the Building and Construction Workers Act (in million) 1996 was enacted, but half-hearted implementation 1971 167 has led to the increasing woes of the construction 1981 213 workers. It has been discovered that there is no aware- 1991 232 ness of this Act among the workers and even their 2001 315 employers and their supervisors at worksites. This Source: Census Year (1971 to 2001)i Act has a workers welfare cess pool, but most of the collected money has been remain dormant in the pool A study was commissioned by Social alert and dis- as the benefits are not reaching to the workers. It has covered that alarming 92% of the domestic workers been also discovered that there is almost not aware- are women, girls and children and 20% of these fe- ness among construction workers about this Act and males are under 14 years of age. There is a percep- about the provision of the workers welfare fund col- tible phenomenon in this migration, that is, the tre- lected through the cess. In many of the cases, it has mendous increase of women workers migrating either been found that EPF of the works are deducted and individually or in groups to find work. They are trav- the workers are unaware that they need to claim it elling very long distances even for short-term em- after a certain period or on maturity. ployment, in the absence of any prospect or promise of employment, still they are migrating. This is a GLOBALISATION AND MIGRANTS disturbing trend, as in the event of not getting em- WORKERS ployment, they end up as victims of sexual abuse. Even if they get employment, they have to work under There is no respite in outmigration. In fact the pace inhuman conditions. of migration has quickened after the implementation of the liberalisation, privatisation and globalisation CONSTRUCTION SECTOR AND MIGRANT (LPG) policy in July 1991. This is a clear pointers to WORKERS the fact that LPG policy has led to the development of the selected regions, where the companies preferred Since when India adopted LGP policy it has unleased to invest their money. In fact the policy of the govern-

Rizvi College of Arts, Science & Commerce  Vol. 8 (1)  July - December 2018  International Journal of Research 9 ISSN 2231 - 6124 Multidisciplinary UGC Approved Journal No. 63072 IMPACT FACTOR SJIF 2018 (6.67) ment has also accentuated the outmigration. Condi- support their own and their families’ livelihood. But tions of the migrant workers have become precarious there is much desired on the part of the government and vulnerable on the face of the diluting of the labour to work on the schemes focused on welfare of the laws and social security schemes for the workers. informal migrant workers.

In the name of the ease of doing business, they have There conditions grow from bad to worse where there been left at the mercy of the employer. They are accident on the construction sites. In absence of flout- subjected to long hours of work without adequate ing of the rules, India has recorded the world’s high- social security. The employer has also upper hand est accident rate among construction workers. Accord- and flout even the basic labour and social security ing to International Labour Organization 165 out of norms without impunity. Local workers have even every 1,000 workers are injured on the job. some clout and say. But the migrant workers are most vulnerable lot in the places they work. They are There are number of intermediaries in the construc- working like slaves and reduced to a machine. The tion sector. It can be imagined when there are mul- biggest of the sufferers of the LPG policy seems are tiple intermediaries, how the sucking and parasitic the migrant workers. the system becomes. The small and petty contractors who areoutsourced by the mid-sized contractors, who But it cannot be denied that LPG has also brought in turn are outsourced by principal employer leave no them some benefits in terms of the employment, learn- opportunity to exploit labours. ing new work and life skills, monetary rewards to

Globalisation and migrants workers There is no respite in outmigration. In fact the pace of migration has quickened after the implementation of the liberalisation, privatisation and globalisation (LPG) policy in July 1991. This is a clear pointers to the fact that LPG policy has led to the development of the selected regions, where the companies preferred to invest their money. In fact the policy of the government has also accentuated the outmigration. Conditions of the migrant workers have become precarious and vulnerable on the face of the diluting of the labour laws and social security schemes for the workers. In the name of the ease of doing business, they have been left at the mercy of the employer. They are subjected to long hours of work without adequate social security. The employer has also upper hand and flout even the basic labour and social security norms without impunity. Local workers have even some clout and say. But the migrant workers are most vulnerable lot in the places they work. They are working like slaves and reduced to a machine. The biggest of the sufferers of the LPG policy seems are the migrant workers. But it cannot be denied that LPG has also brought them some benefits in terms of the employment, learning new work and life skills, monetary rewards to support their own and their families’ livelihood. But there is much desired on the part of the government to work on the schemes focused on welfare of the informal migrant workers.

10 Rizvi College of Arts, Science & Commerce  Vol. 8 (1)  July - December 2018  International Journal of Research UNORGANIZED SECTOR AND SOCIAL SECURITY OF MIGRANT WORKERS IN INDIA

CONSTRUCTION SECTOR AND GENDER skilled jobs like masonry, carpentry and other skilled DISPARITY jobs. Women work like collie, porter carry head-loads of brick, sand, stone, cement and water to the ma- Women are not behind to male migrants. Women are sons. They also carry work materials to skilled work- almost half of the interstate migrant workforce. Women ers like carpenters etc. There are wage differentials of constitute more than 1/3rd in the construction indus- male and female, and it is sometime practices even in try. The division of labour is gendered in the con- cases of nature of job being same for both the sex. struction industry. Women are mainly engaged in non- Women are paid much lower wages compared to their skilled work in this sector. Male workers dominate male counterpart.

Figure 1: Disparity in daily wages of informal sector workers aged 15-59 years (in Rs.)

Source: National Sample Survey Organisation1, 68th Round, 2011-12.

This disparity is not only practiced in construction their employer and sometime also by their male co- industry, but this is a common practice in other indus- workers. Some studies have reported that only 15% try also. Like in the mining sector women do un- of the cases of sexual assault are reported. However, skilled jobs above ground. They do not get any paid actual number may be much high. They are not for- leave and they run the risk of losing wages and also mally not reported so they are not on record. So there may lose employment for taking long duration leave. is a chance that they are under reported. There is no They are highly prone to sexual harassments often by awareness on the Vishakha guideline issued by the

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Supreme Court. Rules are openly flouted and women MIGRATION AND RURAL EMPLOYMENT are not provided with any extra facilities to take care SCHEMES of their children while they are working. Despite so much of the exploitation and due to the absence of Numerous schemes have been implemented to address the opportunities in their own native places they have the rural poverty and stem the migration from the no option but to migrate. rural areas. But no policy seems to work on the ground to address the issue of rural poverty, inequality, dis- MIGRANT DOMESTIC WORKERS tress migration. Government of India pledge to reduce the poverty by half by 2015 under Millennium There are 20 million domestic workers mostly mi- Development Goal. On this commitment, the govern- grants from rural India. It has been reported that 92% ment of India has implemented very ambitious scheme of the 20 million domestic workers are women and Mahatma Gandhi Rural Employment Guarantee children and 20% of these females are under 14 years scheme (MGNREGS) in 2005. of age. Regular streams of new migrants leave behind families in Bihar, Orissa, Chattisgarh, Jharkhand, Of late the government has tried to stem the migra- Assam, and Mizoram for Mumbai, Delhi and other tion and generate local employment through imple- cities. They are desperate to join the army of domes- mentation of the Mahatama Gandhi National Rural tic workers in other places in the absence of fruitful Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS). To work in their native villages or town. They are readily very limited extent it has been able to stem the tide eager to grab any job work for much less than those of the outmigration. Mainly the old, infirm, female who are already working. They are silent sufferers are the participants in this scheme, whereas the young and victims of constant verbal and sexual abuse and prefer not to work under this scheme due to the poor they do not possess any grievance redressal mecha- remuneration, irregular work availability, delay in nism at their disposal. wage payments etc. Wide bungling, corruption and siphoning off the funds have been reported from this They often work for the rich people in cities. The scheme, which as a result has marred to the potenti- case of the Bengal workers and employer at Mahagun alities of this scheme. society in Noida was widely reported in the news. The police has held some of the workers on the charge Withering social security for the migrant workers of leading the attack on the society1. Their poor class Their situation is made worse by local governments’ status and precarious conditions being outside of the brutal eviction drives dislocating and destabilizing the native place, and moreover their dependence on their lives of the very people without whom the cities would masters for their livelihood had left them in a utterly come to a crippling halt2. They have to live in make- vulnerable position. The police has also arrested some shift tents with plastic covers. They have no option of the workers at the instance of their employer. The but to bathe and defecate out in the open. They are at police also acted on partisan manner. Media has also double disadvantage as they do not possess Public played partisan role by labelling them as Bangladeshis. Distribution System (PDS) Cards and hence are forced Whereas, they are natives of West Bengal and hold to buy food grains and kerosene at higher than market Indian citizen. prices. Since they are also absent from their native place, they also cannot also available the benefits of

12 Rizvi College of Arts, Science & Commerce  Vol. 8 (1)  July - December 2018  International Journal of Research UNORGANIZED SECTOR AND SOCIAL SECURITY OF MIGRANT WORKERS IN INDIA

the available social security and other government Even the good provisions can’t be implemented. It schemes like PDS etc. The ruling elite are very insen- seems they are implemented only to flout them. The sitive and unable to recognise that child labour a it is Indian Judiciary sometimes came to the rescue of a natural consequence of migrations. migrant labour and makes pronouncements and ob- servations to fill the gap in the justice delivery sys- Flaws in Legal Provisions and half-hearted imple- tem. mentation The Government of India enacted Inter-state Migrant The Employees State Insurance Act, 1948 and the Workmen (Regulation of Employment and Conditions Employees Provident Fund Miscellaneous Provision of Service) Act 1979. The act covers only interstate Act, 1952 can be considered as landmark legislations, migrants. It stipulates that contractors must pay timely besides Building and Construction workers Act, In- wages equal or higher than the minimum wage, pro- ter-state Migration Workers Act etc. Such enactments vide suitable residential accommodation, prescribed have targeted the fundamental problems of labour medical facilities, protective clothing, notify accidents including migrant labour by such provisions which and causalities to specified authorities and kin. The take care of the workers in the exigencies of sickness, principal employer shall be responsible for providing ill-health and other contingencies of life including all the facilities and entitlements as stipulated in the old age. There is a need to strengthen these laws and act. The Act provides for adjudication of industrial implement them in letter and spirit. Further MNREGA disputes in the provincial jurisdiction where they work is very promising, which guarantees 100 days of or in their home province. The act also stipulates employment in a year. More fund should be allo- penalties including, fine or imprisonment or both for cated, the effort should be made to provide regular non-compliance. and seamless work to the workers at the local places. This will reduce the phenomenon of the migration. However, the act provides an escape route to principal employers if they are able to prove that transgres- To alleviate the condition of the construction workers sions were committed without their knowledge. There and improving their lot need concerted effort from all is no need to reiterate that the Act is another prover- the stakeholders and cooperation and coordination bial paper tiger and not much can be shown on the between the government and other social actors in- ground. Very few cases of flouting of the law is re- cluding the trade unions. There is a need to openly ported. That too are not translated into prosecutions. involve the interested NGO’s working for the migrant labours. There should be adequate provisions of fund CONCLUSION to these NGOs. Some funds from the construction workers cess may be earmarked for the NGOs to The migrant labourers face double whammy as they improve the lot of the construction workers. Simi- are both labourers and migrants. Hence, there is no larly, cess may also be imposed on employers of other improvement in the working and living conditions for workers on the line of the Building and Construction migrant workers. There are no structures to adequately workers act. Besides this there is a need to restore address the basic issues concerning migrant labour some rights of the labour unions for which strong relations, leave aside, addressing the whole gamut of will is needed on the part of the government. labour relations. Laws are in place, but they are flaws.

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REFERENCES

1 Kumar, Bhavya (2015), Migrant Workers: An In- visible Community of 80 Million; https:// www.innovairre.com/migrant-workers-invisible- community-80-million/ (accessed on 2 Sept, 2018)

2 Indian Institute of Population Sciences (2001), Mumbai

3 Kumar, Bhavya (2015), Migrant Workers: An In- visible Community of 80 Million; https:// www.innovairre.com/migrant-workers-invisible- community-80-million/ (accessed on 2 Sept, 2018)

4 Ibid

5 Indian Institute of Population Sciences (2001), Mumbai

6 Ibid

7 National Sample Survey Organization, (2012), 68th Round, Govt. of India

8 Mahagun Moderne society in Noida attacked: Keep Bangladeshis out chorus emerges; https://www.financialexpress.com/india-news/ mahagun-moderne-society-in-noida-attacked-keep- bangladeshis-out-chorus-emerges/761331/ (accessed on 12 August, 2018)

9 www.icsw.org/images/docs/Regions/sasia/pub/Mi- grant-workers-B-K-Sahu.doc (accessed on 12 Au- gust, 2018)

14 Rizvi College of Arts, Science & Commerce  Vol. 8 (1)  July - December 2018  International Journal of Research MultidisciplinaryFACTORS DETERMINING CONSUMER BUYING DECISIONS FORMegha HEALTH Somani andINSURANCE-A Rashmi Shetty UGC Approved JournalSTUDY No. 63072 CONDUCTED IN WESTERN SUBURBS OFInternational MUMBAI Journal of Research ISSN 2231 - 6124 VOL 8 (1) 2018 : PP 15 - 21

Factors Determining Consumer Buying Decisions for Health Insurance-A Study Conducted in Western Suburbs of Mumbai

Dr. Megha Somani Assistant Professor M.M.K College of Commerce & Economics, Mumbai Mrs. Rashmi.V. Shetty Assistant Professor, Thakur College of Science & Commerce, Mumbai

Abstract Health Insurance is an important financial security tool. Health insurance provides financial security to individuals in terms of timely treatment against diseases and contributes to the growth of the nation. In India government expenditure in health care is very less and out of pocket expenditure is around 75%, which is very high and very few people are covered through health financing schemes. In fact, more than 10% of the overall income of the household is spent on healthcare. In order to safeguard the interest of the family it is necessary for the people to invest in health insurance. The city of Mumbai faces the problem of increased life style diseases and medical expenses are ever increasing. Health Insurance is no longer luxury for the people but has become a need. But the penetration of insurance is very low. Various factors determines the buying behaviour of insurance product which is generally considered as unsought product, where people voluntarily does not buy the product. The study is conducted in the western suburbs of Mumbai to understand whether people are aware of health insurance benefits and factors affecting the buying behaviour of health insurance policyholders.

Keywords: Health Insurance, Consumer Buying Behaviour Marketing Factors, Social Factors and Personal Factors.

INTRODUCTION OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

Health insurance has a huge potential to grow in In- (i) To understand the factors influencing the purchase dia but people have not taken health insurance in a decision of buyers of health insurance policies. big way in India. Indian health insurance faces the (ii) To assess the extent of influence exerted by domi- various challenges like low awareness level among nant factors in purchase decision of health insu- consumers, high claim ratio, and limited influence rance policies. over healthcare delivery and network. Increasing dis- posable income, a desire for better quality health Consumer Buying Process services and increase in life expectancy will increase The study of consumer buying process is complex as the demand for health insurance. the stimulus to buy and its response i.e., the buying

IMPACT FACTOR SJIF 2018 (6.67) Rizvi College of Arts, Science & Commerce  Vol. 8 (1)  July - December 2018  International Journal of Research 15 ISSN 2231 - 6124 Multidisciplinary UGC Approved Journal No. 63072 IMPACT FACTOR SJIF 2018 (6.67) decision are influenced by a host of intervening vari- pling method has been used. For this purpose, a ques- ables. The stimuli can itself be very complex. What tionnaire was designed. Responses of 136 respondents makes consumers buy– this is the most important from the Western Suburbs of Mumbai (restricting to question in front of the marketers. There are several Goregaon, Andheri, Kandivili, Malad and Borivili factors like demographic, personal, marketing and Areas) were collected. Firstly, the respondents were social factors have a huge impact on buying behaviour. made aware about the purpose of the study, and then Based on the several literature review following hy- were requested to give their, unbiased responses. pothesis are framed for the present study. Secondary data was collected through websites, journals, newspapers and magazines. Hypothesis One H01: The variables that constitute personal factors do The demographic characteristics of the respondents not influence the buying behaviour of health insur- are given below:- ance product. Table 1: Age wise Distribution H11: The variables that constitute personal factors do Age No of Respondents Percentage influence the buying behaviour of health insurance 18-30 10 7.35 product. 31-40 10 7.35 41-50 80 58.82 Hypothesis Two 51-60 32 23.53 H02: The variables that constitute marketing factors Above 60 4 2.94 do not influence the buying behaviour of health TOTAL 136 insurance product. The respondents in the age group of 41 - 50 prefer H12: The variables that constitute marketing factors more health insurance policy. do influence the buying behaviour of health insurance product. The respondents in the age group of above 60 prefer Hypothesis Three least health insurance policy.

H03: The variables that constitute social factors do Table 2: Gender wise distribution not influence the buying behaviour of health insur- Gender Male Female Total ance product. No. Of 100 36 136 Respondents H13: The variables that constitute social factors do influence the buying behaviour of health insurance % 73.53 26.47 100 product 73.53 % of respondents were male and 24.47% of RESEARCH METHODOLOGY respondents were female.

The research methodology for the present study is based on descriptive research design, random sam-

16 Rizvi College of Arts, Science & Commerce  Vol. 8 (1)  July - December 2018  International Journal of Research FACTORS DETERMINING CONSUMER BUYING DECISIONS FOR HEALTH INSURANCE-A STUDY CONDUCTED IN WESTERN SUBURBS OF MUMBAI

Table 3: Educational Qualification Monthly income of family earning above 50000 is 45.59%. Educational No. of Percentage Qualification Respondents Below Graduation 52 38.24 Monthly income of family earning 5001-10000 is Graduate 56 41.18 4.41% Post Graduate 12 8.82 Professional Degree 16 11.76 Table 6: Monthly Medical Expenses Holder Average Monthly No. of Percentage TOTAL 136 Medical Expenses Respondents Upto 500 26 19.12 41.18% of respondents were graduates 501-1000 24 17.65 8.82% of respondents were post graduates 1001-2000 30 22.06 Above 2000 56 41.18 Table 4: Source of Income TOTAL 136 Employment No. of Percentage Respondents Average monthly medical expense of above 2000 Self 76 55.88 respondents is 41.18%. Employed/Business Practicing 12 8.82 Table 7: Source of fund for meeting medical ex- Professional penses Private Organization 28 20.59 Which is the most No. of Percentage Service used source of fund Respondents Govt. Service 20 14.71 for meeting medical TOTAL 136 exp. Free Medical 8 5.88 55.88% respondents of self-employed likely to go for Services from Govt. health insurance policy. Own savings 68 50.00 Paid by 2 1.47 8.82% respondents of practicing professionals least company/employer go for health insurance policy. Health Insurance 58 42.65 Others 0 0.00 Table 5: Monthly Income TOTAL 136

Monthly income of No. of Percentage 42.65% respondents have health insurance. family Respondents Less than 5000 0 0.00 50% respondents has their own savings. Rs.5001 to 10,000 6 4.41 10,001 – 25,000 14 10.29 5.88% respondents has free medical service from 25,000 – 50,000 56 41.48 government. Above 50,000 62 45.59 TOTAL 136

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Table 8: Awareness about health insurance adver- Table 9: Number of respondents opt for health tisements insurance

Have you seen any No. of Percentage Do you have a No. of Percentage Advt. of Health Respondents Health Insurance Respondents Insurance Policy Yes 120 88.24 Yes 100 73.53 No 16 11.76 No 36 26.47 TOTAL 136 TOTAL 136

88.25%respondants have seen health insurance ad- 73.53%respondants have health insurance policy. vertisement. 26.47%respondants do not have health insurance policy. 11.76%respondants have not seen health insurance A questionnaire containing the questions related to advertisement. awareness factors, marketing factors and social factors were given and respondents were asked to give their responses on scale and following observation is made based on their response. Awareness Factors - personal factors observed value

Awareness Factors-Personal Factors 5+4 3 2+1 Total I am aware of companies offering health insurance 111 13 12 136 I am aware of the benefits of health insurance 90 40 6 136 I am aware of the general cost of health insurance premium 92 20 24 136 Rising social awareness about health care has positive influence on purchase decision of health insurance by customers 102 24 10 136 The health insurance policy is a worth investment 110 12 14 136 505 109 66 680 Awareness Factors-Personal Factors expected value I am aware of companies offering health insurance 101 21.8 13.2 I am aware of the benefits of health insurance 101 21.8 13.2 I am aware of the general cost of health insurance premium 101 21.8 13.2 Rising social awareness about health care has positive influence on purchase decision of health insurance by customers 101 21.8 13.2 The health insurance policy is a worth investment 101 21.8 13.2

Chi Sq 2.06 D0F 8 P 0.95

18 Rizvi College of Arts, Science & Commerce  Vol. 8 (1)  July - December 2018  International Journal of Research FACTORS DETERMINING CONSUMER BUYING DECISIONS FOR HEALTH INSURANCE-A STUDY CONDUCTED IN WESTERN SUBURBS OF MUMBAI

If the p > 0.05, null hypothesis is rejected and alternative hypothesis is accepted. Above analysis indicates the null hypothesis is rejected and the variables that constitute personal factors do influence the buying behaviour of health insurance product.

Marketing Factors that influence the consumer buying behaviour Observed Value Table Marketing factors 5+4 3 2+1 Total Brand name is an important factor for me to select health insurance provider 84 40 12 136 Attractive schemes are available under health insurance policies 78 48 10 136 Promotional offers influence my decisions to purchase health insurance policy 44 58 34 136 Marketing initiatives of health insurance companies have positive impact on purchase decision of health insurance by customer 70 44 22 136 Agents persuasion influences my decision while I consider purchase health insurance 66 45 25 136 342 235 103 680

Marketing factors 5+4 3 2+1 Brand name is an important factor for me to select health insurance provider 68.4 47 20.6 Attractive schemes are available under health insurance policies 68.4 47 20.6 Promotional offers influence my decisions to purchase health insurance policy 68.4 47 20.6 Marketing initiatives of health insurance companies have positive impact on purchase decision of health insurance by customer 68.4 47 20.6 Agents persuasion influences my decision while I consider purchase health insurance 68.4 47 20.6

1.4 chi 5 dof 8 0.9 P 5

If the p > 0.05, null hypothesis is rejected and alternative hypothesis is accepted. The variables that constitute marketing factors do influence the buying behaviour of health insurance product.

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Social factors influencing consumer buying behaviour

Observed Value Table Social factors 5+4 3 2+1 Total Present trends in food habits will cause more health problem 120 8 8 136

Work related stress is causing increased health problem 110 20 6 136

A health insurance policy can provide a sense of security 110 16 10 136 regarding medical care for me and my family

Trust in the service provider is essential while selecting a 98 32 6 136 health insurance policy

Government scheme for health insurance for other social 73 38 25 136 sectors motivate me to purchase a health insurance policy

511 114 55 680

Expected Value Table Social factors 5+4 3 2+1 Present trends in food habits will cause more health problem 102.2 22.8 11 Work related stress is causing increased health problem 102.2 22.8 11 A health insurance policy can provide a sense of security regarding medical care for me and my family 102.2 22.8 11 Trust in the service provider is essential while selecting a health insurance policy 102.2 22.8 11 Government scheme for health insurance for other social sectors motivate me to purchase a health insurance policy 102.2 22.8 11

chi sq 1.97 Dof 8 p 0.95

20 Rizvi College of Arts, Science & Commerce  Vol. 8 (1)  July - December 2018  International Journal of Research FACTORS DETERMINING CONSUMER BUYING DECISIONS FOR HEALTH INSURANCE-A STUDY CONDUCTED IN WESTERN SUBURBS OF MUMBAI

If the p > 0.05, null hypothesis is rejected and alter- knowledge about schemes; exclusions, claim process native hypothesis is accepted. Above analysis indi- etc. are not adequate. Insurance agents being a relied cates the variables that constitute social factors do source can be used to create company specific pref- influence the buying behaviour of health insurance erence by promoting its products. Findings are rel- product. evant to the insurance organisations to understand consumer expectations better and government agen- FINDINGS AND SUGGESTIONS cies to enhance their efforts to provide better health cover to different social sector. While 48% of the respondents have some sort of insurance cover for medical expenses that include REFERENCES government schemes, 50% of the respondents have used own funds for meeting the health care expenses. 1. http://www.cognizant.com/insightswhitepapers/ Healthcare-Insurance-Evolution-in-India-An-Op- There is fairly good awareness about health insurance portunity-to-Expand-Access.com across the population groups, with 16% rating their 2. www.kpmg.com/IN/en/.../Insurance_industry awareness on various factors as very high, 26% as _Road_ahead_FINAL.com high. An association between education level and level of awareness was observed with lower classes of 3. Dr. Rao Dayasagar ,www.nrias.net/.../Health education reporting lesser levels of overall awareness insurance,oppurtunities%20&%20challenges.com of health insurance. 4. Health Insurance, The ICFAI University press. The main reasons for consumers buy health insurance can be listed as to protect from rising cost of health 5. -TanmayAcharya, Harshita Mishra and S care, to provide better health care to family and to VenketaSeshaiah, Consumer Preferences In Gen- meet unexpected major expenditures. The increasing eral Insurance Industry In India The ICFAI Jour- cost of medical care is a major factor which influ- nal of Services Marketing, Vol VI, No 3, 2006, ences the buying behaviour. The ICFAI University Press

On the other hand, lack of return for investment, 6. GhoshAbantika, Gove sets out to widen health haven’t felt the need, poor service and high premium insurance scheme to 50 crore people, Indian Ex- are cited as reasons for not taking health insurance. press, 27th January 2016 Higher percentage of the younger age group has cited the reason of, not having felt the need, for not opting for health insurance.

CONCLUSION

Awareness of health insurance, a pre-requisite for market growth, may be good due to the promotional activities undertaken by the insurance companies and the activities of the government but the depth of

Rizvi College of Arts, Science & Commerce  Vol. 8 (1)  July - December 2018  International Journal of Research 21 Multidisciplinary ISSN 2231Aftab - Alam6124 UGC Approved Journal No. 63072 Multidisciplinary UGCInternational Approved JournalJournal ofNo. Research 63072 ISSN 2231 - 6124 IMPACTVOL FACTOR 8 (1) 2018SJIF : 2018PP 22 (6.67) - 30

An Analytical Study of Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) in Bihar with Reference to East Champaran District

Aftab Alam Research Scholar Department of Teachers’ Training and Non-Formal Education (IASE) Faculty of Education, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi-25

Abstract The present study has been carried out with the purpose of studying the activities undertaken by Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) to ascertain their quality and studying the awareness among stake holders of services of Integrated Child Development Services project as well as assessing the availability of basic and required infrastructure facilities at Anganwadi centers. The study also discusses the objectives of ICDS programme, different services of ICDS, the projects and coverage of ICDS in Bihar. In order to achieve objectives of the study a questionnaire consisting of ten questions were asked to study the awareness of key stake holders as parents, mother Anganwadi workers about the services of ICDS. Another questionnaire consisting of twenty five questions were asked to the beneficiaries as Anganwadi workers (AWWs), Anganwadi helpers (AWHs), expectant and nursing mothers and Parents whose children go to Anganwadi centers, to know their opinion and perception regarding the services provided by ICDS and activities undertaken at Anganwadi centres. An Interview was conducted with Child Development Project Officer in order to know the objectives of his project, different services of ICDS, infrascture of Anganwadi Centres, budgets, problems of ICDS and suggestion for betterment. Twenty Anganwadi Centre was observed in order to study the availability of basic and required infrastructure facilities at Anganwadi centers. The result of the study is that the ICDS programme is not operating on the ground in the way that it fails to achieve its objectives to the satisfactory to beneficiaries. Not only the coverage of the services of ICDS is limited and accessible to all citizens, but it is not providing Supplementary Nutrition to beneficiaries throughout the year. That is why the scheme could not improve the nutritional status of the children.

Keywords: Integrated Child Development Programme (ICDS), Supplementary Nutrition, Immunization, Health Check-up, Referral Services, Pre-School Education, Nutrition & Health Education, Anganwadi Worker (AWW).

INTRODUCTION care, nutrition, sanitation, child care, early stimulation, etc. To ensure that all children below 6 years of Integrated Child Development Programme (ICDS) age, even from vulnerable sections of society have As per Census of India 2011, there are 15,87,89,287 access to their basic rights of healthy growth and children below 6 years of age, and it was revealed development, ICDS was launched on 2nd October 1975 that many of them have inadequate access to health to provide a package of basic services to ensure their

IMPACT FACTOR SJIF 2018 (6.67) 22 Rizvi College of Arts, Science & Commerce  Vol. 8 (1)  July - December 2018  International Journal of Research AN ANALYTICAL STUDY OF INTEGRATED CHILD DEVELOPMENT SERVICES (ICDS) IN BIHAR WITH REFERENCE TO EAST CHAMPARAN DISTRICT

holistic development. Today, the ICDS programme has ity, mortality, malnutrition and school dropout, to bring been one of the largest and most unique programmes effective co-ordination amongst various departments in the world for early childhood development. India to promote healthy child development, to lay founda- realizing the importance of pre-school education and tion of proper physiological, psychological and social understanding the responsibility of growth and devel- development of children, to enhance mothers capabil- opment of children below 6 years of age for bright ity to look after and care normal health and nutri- future of the country started such a large and unique tional needs of their children. The services provided scheme (ICDS) to provide preschool education, to by ICDS programme include supplementary nutrition, reduce malnutrition, morbidity and mortality of chil- immunization, health checkups, referral services, nu- dren health development in India. The beneficiaries trition health education and pre-school education. The include children below 6 years of age, expected and distribution of iron and folic acid tablets and mega nursing mothers and adolescent girls. ICDS dose of vitamin A is also undertaken, to prevent iron programme provides an integrated approach for con- deficiency anemia and exophthalmia respectively. Still verting all basic services for improved child care, early future thrust of the programme is necessary for aim- stimulation and learning, health and nutrition. The ing of the improvement of underprivileged sections objectives of ICDS programme are to improve nutri- of the country who themselves not capable to provide tional status of children below 6 years of age, to re- all these services to their children. duce the incidents which the face because of morbid- ICDS Projects and Coverage in Bihar and India (December 2017)

Content India Bihar Anganwari Centers Sanctioned 1400000 115009 Operational Anganwari Centers 1354792 91677 SNP beneficiaries of nutrition (Children aged 6 months to 3 years) 38493515 2438216 SNP beneficiaries of nutrition (Children aged 3 to 6 years) 29645294 2418559 Children 6 months to 6 years (beneficiaries of nutrition) 68138809 4856775 SNP beneficiaries of nutrition (pregnant women and lactating mothers) 16310379 1142712 Pre-school beneficiaries (3-6 years) 30743976 2635413

ICDS IN EAST CHAMPARAN DISTRICT OF According to the 2011 census Purba/East Champaran BIHAR district has a population of 5,099,371. The district has a population density of 1285 inhabitants per square From epic time till today, the history of Champaran kilometre. Its population growth rate over the decade has been glorious and important. On the one hand, 2001-2011 was 29.43%. Purba/East Champaran has a the land of Champaran is sacred due to the Goddess sex ratio of 902 females for every 1000 males, and a of Sita, on the other hand, the Satyagraha of Gandhiji literacy rate of 55.79%. There are more than 4000 in modern India is an invaluable page in the history Anganwadi centers operating in the district and fur- of Indian independence. The British had made ther expansion work is going on. Champaran an independent unit in 1866, but in 1971 it was divided into Eastern and Western Champaran.

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NEED AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE ICDS to ascertain their quality and studying the aware- STUDY ness among stake holders of services of Integrated Child Development Services project as well as as- Children are the future of society and their mothers sessing the availability of basic and required infra- are guardians for that future. The most of the children structure facilities at Anganwadi centers. in India have poor start to life and face various types of physiological, psychological and social deficien- RESEARCH QUESTIONS cies. Twenty five percent newborns are underweight in the country. Malnutrition rate of children in Bihar 1. What were the activities carried out under Inte- is higher than any other state and union territory of grated Child Development Services project and the country rather any other country in the world the quality of services? (Menon et al 2009, Grebmer et al 2011). More than 2. Whether stake holders are aware of services of fifty percent children under five years of age are Integrated Child Development Services project? underweight or stunted, indicating chronic malnour- 3. What are the required infrastructure facilities ishment (NFHS-3). National Rural Health Mission available at the Anganwadi Centers which pro- (NRHM) report-2012-13 for Bihar revealed the real vide the services of ICDS? picture and alarming situation as far as malnourishment among children below five years goes. The re- OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY port says, malnourishment in Bihar in the age group of 0-3 years has increased by 3% since 2002. It has 1. To study the activities undertaken by Integrated put the latest figure at 55%. Around 80% of children Child Development Services (ICDS) to ascertain below five years of age in Bihar are malnourished. their quality. Malnourishment in women in reproductive age group 2. To study the awareness among stake holders (Preg- (15-49 years) has also worsened in Bihar, according nant mothers, Parents whose children go to to the report. It went up from 60% in 1998 to 68.2% Anganwadi centers, Anganwadi workers and help- in 2012. Around 2/3rd women in child-bearing age in ers) of services of Integrated Child Development the state are malnourished, the highest in the country. Services project. Majority of children in India are underprivileged from 3. To assess the required infrastructure facilities birth. The infant mortality rate of Indian children is available at the Anganwadi Centers of ICDS. 44 and the under-five mortality rate is 93. 25% of newborn children are underweight. India is substan- METHOD OF THE STUDY tially worse than the developing country in average (MHFW-2013). Given such a daunting challenge, The present study is the descriptive research in na- ICDS was first launched on 2nd October in 1975 in ture. In order to achieve objectives of the study twenty accordance to the National Policy for Children in India. Anganwadi Centres (AWCs) were conveniently se- Government of India is committed towards ensuring lected to collection of the data. A questionnaire con- universal availability of the programme in each part sisting of twenty five questions were asked to the of the country. Under the umbrella of ICDS a lot of beneficiaries, Anganwadi workers (AWW) and holistic child development programme is going on. It Anganwadi helpers (AWH). Another questionnaire is significance to study the activities undertaken by consisting of ten questions were asked to study the

24 Rizvi College of Arts, Science & Commerce  Vol. 8 (1)  July - December 2018  International Journal of Research AN ANALYTICAL STUDY OF INTEGRATED CHILD DEVELOPMENT SERVICES (ICDS) IN BIHAR WITH REFERENCE TO EAST CHAMPARAN DISTRICT

awareness of key stake holders as parents, mother 3) Observation schedule for different functions of Anganwadi workers about the services of ICDS. An Anganwadi Centres (AWCs). Interview was conducted with Child Development Project Officer (CDPO) for the said purpose and TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES FOR DATA observation was also done in order to see their infra- ANALYSIS structure and other facilities. Appropriate techniques were adopted to analyze the POPULATION collected data and that were analyzed both qualitatively and quantitatively in accordance to the objec- Pregnant mothers, Parents whose children go to tives of the study. The responses from the question- Anganwadi centers, Anganwadi workers & helper and naire items were coded and processed by a computer Child Development Project Officer (CPDO) of Bihart. using the statistical package for social sciences (SPSS). The responses of interview schedule were analysis SAMPLE AND SAMPLING TECHNIQUES based on the objectives of the study.

Selection of Anganwadi centers: 20 Anganwadi MAJOR FINDINGS OF THE STUDY centers were conveniently selected for the study. Activities Undertaken at Anganwadi Centres & Selection of Mothers: 100 mothers from these 20 their Quality Anganwadi centers were randomly selected. All the beneficiaries responded that they are getting all the services. It means that six functions of ICDS Selection of Parents: 100 Parents whose children go are working in all Anganwadi Centre. 82.50% respon- to Anganwadi centers were randomly selected as dents said that they have been provided kichuri with sample in the study. vegetables. 17.50% respondents said that they have been provided kichuri without vegetables. 97.50% Selection of Anganwadi workers & helpers: 40 respondents said that they have been provided SNP in Anganwadi workers & helpers were purposively se- a regular basis. 2.50% respondents said that they have lected in the study. not been provided SNP in a regular basis. 22.50% respondents said that they have been provided good Selection of Child Development Project Officer quality of SNP in a regular basis. 7.50% respondents (CPDO): One Child Development Project Officer said that they are taking weighting of preschool chil- (CPDO) was purposively selected. dren on a regular basis. 92.50% respondents said that they are taking weighting of preschool children on an TOOLS FOR DATA COLLECTION irregular basis. 95.0% respondents said that Anganwadi Workers enrolled their name in the Anganwadi Cen- 1) Questionnaire for pregnant and nursing mothers, tre. 5.0% respondents said that Anganwadi Workers parents and Anganwadi workers and Anganwadi did not enroll their name in the Anganwadi Centre. helpers. 75.0% respondents said that Anganwadi Workers 2) Semi-structured interview schedule for Child extend all type of help during pregnancy. 25.0% re- Development Project Officer (CDPO). spondents said that Anganwadi Workers did not extend any type of help during pregnancy. 95.0% re-

Rizvi College of Arts, Science & Commerce  Vol. 8 (1)  July - December 2018  International Journal of Research 25 ISSN 2231 - 6124 Multidisciplinary UGC Approved Journal No. 63072 IMPACT FACTOR SJIF 2018 (6.67) spondents said that they received supplementary nu- 2.50% respondents said that the reason why the cen- trition everyday from Anganwadi Centre. 5.0% re- tre is close in working days is no food supply. 27.50% spondents said that they did not receive supplemen- respondents said that the reason why the centre is tary nutrition everyday from Anganwadi centre. 2.5.0% close in working days is ill health of the worker. respondents said that mothers during nursing period 17.50% respondents said that there is no specific received SNP up to one month. 5.0% respondents reason why the centre is close in working days. 25.0% said that mothers during nursing period received SNP respondents said that priority is given to supplemen- up to six months. 2.50% said that they received up to tary nutrition. 75.0% respondents said that priority is seven months. 90.0% said that they received whole given to both pre schooling and supplementary nutri- period of nursing. tion. 37.50% respondents said that Anganwadi Work- ers made regular home visit. 62.50% respondents said 30.0% respondents said that the extent of prenatal that Anganwadi Workers did not make regular home care received by the mothers during pregnant and visit. 35.0% respondents said that Anganwadi Work- nursing period was at least three times. 35.0% re- ers extent mothers’ meeting once in a month. 17.50% spondents said that the extent of prenatal care re- respondents said that Anganwadi Workers extent ceived by the mothers during pregnant and nursing mothers’ meeting once in every two months. 47.50% period was four to six times. 2.50% respondents said respondents said that Anganwadi Workers extent that the extent of prenatal care received by the moth- mothers’ meeting occasionally. 30.0% respondents said ers during pregnant and nursing period was more than that the Anganwadi Workers counseled on feeding six months. 32.50% respondents said that they did the children.70.0% respondents said that the not receive any prenatal care during pregnant and Anganwadi Workers did not counsel on feeding the nursing periods. 5.0% respondents said that the ex- children. 30.0% respondents said that the supply of tent of post natal care received by the mothers during food is regular. 2.50% respondents said that the sup- pregnant and nursing period was at least once. 40.0% ply of food is irregular. 67.50% respondents said that respondents said that the extent of post natal care they don’t know about the supply of food. received by the mothers during pregnant and nursing period was two to three times. 20.0% respondents 22.50% respondents said that the quality of supple- said that the extent of post natal care received by the mentary nutrition provided by ICDS is good. 42.50% mothers during pregnant and nursing period was more respondents said that the quality of supplementary than three times. 35.0% respondents said that they nutrition provided by ICDS is average. 35.0% respon- did not receive any post natal care during pregnant dents said that the quality of supplementary nutrition and nursing periods. 22.50% respondents said that provided by ICDS is bad. 20.0% respondents said the average working hours of the study centre is one that they are satisfied with the performance of the hour to less than two hours. 67.50% respondents said Anganwadi Workers. 77.50% respondents said that that the average working hours of the study centre is they are dissatisfied with the performance of the two hour to less than three hours.10.0% respondents Anganwadi Workers. 2.50% mothers did not give any said that the average working hours of the study cen- response. 42.50% respondents said that Govt. should tre is more than three hours. improve the quality and regular availability of the SNP. 10.0% respondents said that Govt. should im- 52.50% respondents said that the reason why the centre prove the infrastructure including toilet facilities. is close in working days is absence of the worker. 22.50% respondents said that Govt. should improve

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the quality of SNP and increase the TLM for preschool education. 5.0% respondents said that Govt. should improve the quality of SNP and Toilet facilities. 2.50% respondents said that Govt. should improve TLM for preschool education and toilet facilities.17.50% respondents said that Govt. should improve the facilities of SNP, & TLM and toilet.

Awareness among Stakeholders & Beneficiaries about the Services of ICDS

The above given figure shows that 70% parents were ICDS and only 80% respondents were aware of the found aware of the service ‘Supplementary Nutrition’ service of ‘Immunization’ but 90% were found aware of ICDS and only 57% respondents were aware of the of the service ‘Health Check up’. The figure illu- service of ‘Immunization’ but 87% were found aware mines that 80% answered that they were aware of of the service ‘Health Check up’. The figure illu- ‘Referral Services’ of ICDS and 100% were of ‘Pre- mines that 77% answered that they were aware of schooling and Non-formal Education’ as services of Referral Services of ICDS and 100% were of ‘Pre- ICDS but 100% found that they knew the service of schooling and Non-formal Education’ as services of ‘Health Education’. ICDS but 97% found that they knew the service of ‘Health Education’. 90% mothers were found aware Required Infrastructure Facility Available at of the service ‘Supplementary Nutrition’ of ICDS and Anganwadi Centers only 77% respondents were aware of the service of The researcher observed and found in interview that ‘Immunization’ but 87% were found aware of the all twenty Anganwadi Centers (AWCs) were running service ‘Health Check up’. The figure illumines that either from rented premises or from places such as 100% answered that they were aware of ‘Referral Panchayat community halls, open spaces etc. obser- Services’ of ICDS and 100% were of ‘Pre-schooling vation of AWCs disclosed that none of the AWCs had and Non-formal Education’ as services of ICDS but separate sitting room for children and women. Uten- 100% found that they knew the service of ‘Health sils for preparation and serving of food were not Education’. 90% Anganwadi Workers were found sufficient. Availability of other required facilities such aware of the service ‘Supplementary Nutrition’ of as kitchen, toilet, drinking water, space for children to play in AWCs are shown in the chart:

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CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS OF programme. Another important reason for tardy imple- THE STUDY mentation of ICDS was vacant posts of officers and non-availability of adequate supervisory staffs. Based It may be concluded that in Bihar, the ICDS on the experiences of the study researcher is making programme is not in a position to achieve its objec- the following recommendations for improving the tives to the desired level. Not only the coverage of implementation of the programme: the services was low, but the scheme was not in a position to provide Supplementary Nutrition (SN) to 1. The basic and essential facilities including re- beneficiaries throughout the year. As such, the scheme quired infrastructure should be provided to was not in a position to improve the nutritional status Anganwadi centers to provide all six services of of the children. Due to lack of nutrition items in the ICDS, to facilitate the beneficiaries as expected ICDS Centers, pre-schooling has become a casualty, and nursing mothers etc. A building for each because many parents send their children to AWCs Anganwadi cenre must be built including at least mainly for Supplementary Nutrition. The scheme was two and three big rooms with enough toilets and not in a position to help majority of the women to specious kitchen. receive ante-natal care services and health education, 2. All vacant positions of the Child Development as only a limited number of women were informed Project Officers, Assistant Child Development by AWWs about ante-natal care services, child im- Project Officers and other officers should be filled munization and management of diahorrea etc. The up as soon as possible. So that the scheme will present study reveals that there was not proper coor- not suffer any more. This will help in proper dination between various departments engaged in planning, implementation, supervision and moni- implementation of the Scheme viz., Health, Rural toring of the scheme. Development, Education and Social Welfare. It was found that lack of coordination was one of the major 3. The Anganwadi workers should be appointed and reasons and factors for under performance of the ICDS selected on the basis of their merit and educa-

28 Rizvi College of Arts, Science & Commerce  Vol. 8 (1)  July - December 2018  International Journal of Research AN ANALYTICAL STUDY OF INTEGRATED CHILD DEVELOPMENT SERVICES (ICDS) IN BIHAR WITH REFERENCE TO EAST CHAMPARAN DISTRICT

tional competence then the services of ICDS can BIBLIOGRAPHY be delivered and provided to the beneficiaries in effective and constructive manner. 1. Arun K, Rajesh K. Long Term Effects of ICDS Services on Behaviour and Academic Achieve- 4. The capacities of officers, staffs and workers ments of Children. Indian Journal of Community working in the ICDS projects should be regularly Medicine [serial on the Internet]. 2009 [cited 2011 improved because it will affect the quality of per- Dec 3].; 25(3) Available from: All Medical Jour- formance. Regular orientation courses and nals Issues Contents Editorial Board & Informa- trainings must be organized for them to increase tion, Web site: http://www.indmedica.com stp1 job clarity, develop positive attitude and commitment. Enhancement in financial allocation for such 2. Avsm YS Gandhi N. Tandon. BN. Krishnamurthy training programmes should be considered. KS . Integrated child development services scheme and nutritional status of Indian children. Journal 5. The honorarium of Anganwadi workers and help- Trop Pediatric. 1995 Apr: 41(2):123-8 ers is too low to survive in such modern and www.pubmed.com. costly society. Therefore, they should be paid a valuable amount of money and their honorarium 3. BN Tandon.A coordinated approach to children’s should be increased periodically. health in India 1981mar22:1(8221):650-3. 6. There is a need to make adequate provision of 4. Biswas AB, Das DK, Roy RN, Saha I, Mitra K. material resources/infrastructure such as weigh- R. G. Kar Medical College, Kolkata, India. (2007) ing scales/growth/immunization cards/Growth “Awareness and perception of mothers about func- charts and registers at the AWCs. Efforts should tioning and different services of ICDS in two be made to improve communication and coordi- districts of West Bengal. Indian Journal Public nation between authorities implementing ICDS and Health functionaries of the Health Department 5. Dash. NC et al (2006). Impact assessment / evalu- 7. The provision of providing Supplementary Nutri- ation of ICDS programme in the state of Orissa. tion in AWCs should be increased to 300 days. Bhubaneswar center for rural development p170. Further, calorific requirements for different target 6. Department Of ICDS Services. [Homepage on the groups of population should be respected. Besides, Internet]. 2007[cited2011Nov14].Available supplies should be regularized and storage facili- from: http://www.infotech.up.nic.in ties in the AWCs should be improved. 7. Executive Summary. [Serial on the Internet]. 2009 8. Adequate provision of resources such as weigh- [cited 2011Nov17].Available from: http:// ing scales, growth charts and register will help in siteresources.worldbank.org/SOUTHASIAEXT/ monitoring the growth of children. Further, more Resources/223546-1147272668285/ emphasis should be given in developing a focus undernourished_executive_summary.pdf on Mother’s meetings and building their capacities and developing their mental capabilities in 8. Gadkar, V.D. et al. (2006).”Situational analysis of addition to introducing community based nutri- anganwadi workers training centres in Jharkhand”. tional surveillances. Jharkhand.

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9. Government of India (1986), A Guide-Book for Programme in Hooghly District, West Bengal”. Anganwadi Workers; Department of Women and Hooghly District, West Bengal. Indian Journal of Child Development, Ministry of Human Resource Public Health. Development 19. Robinson TN (2003) Behavioral treatment of 10. Hesketh k Ball k Crawfrod . D. Campbell k salmon childhood and adolescent obesity. j. mediaters of relationship between maternal edu- 20. Sachdev Y, Neeru G, Tandon BN. Integrated Child cation and children physical activity , Indian Jour- Development Services Scheme and Nutritional nal of pediatrics’ Vol 2 2003. Status of Indian Children. Journal of Tropical 11. Hockenberry MJ. Wong’s Essentials of Pediatric pediatrics [serial on the Internet]. 1995 Nursing. [Monograph on the Internet]. 2005 [cited 21. Swathi v Effectiveness of structure teaching 2011 Nov 30]. Available from: http:// programme on nutrition knowledge among www.elsevierhealth.com childern and adolescent in selected schools of 12. Integrated Child Development Services, GOI - udupi (2007). 2011-12 (NEW). [Serial on the Internet]. 2011 22. Three Decades of ICDS~ An Appraisal. National [cited 2011 Dec 1]. Available from: http:// Institute of Public Cooperation and Child Devel- www.accountabilityindia.in/article/budget-icds/ opment, 5, Siri Institutional Area, Hauz Khas, New 2198-integrated-child-development-services-goi- Delhi-110016. 2011-12-New 13. Integrated Child Development Services [Internet]. Available from: http://wcd.nic.in/icds.htm. 14. Kaur P Singh G department of preventive and social medicine, Banaras Hindu University Varanasi, 456-460. 15. National Institute of Public Cooperation and Child Development (1996-2008)”Research on ICDS”: An Overview: Volume 3. [Internet]. Available from: http://wcd.nic.in/icds.htm. 16. Nayar D Kapil U, Nandan D. community contri- bution to the ICDS scheme in district of Agra ; Published by Indian Journal of maternal and child health . 1999 Jan – Mar: 10 (1) P; 4-5. 17. Programme Evaluation Organisation Planning Commission; 2011, “ Evaluation report on ICDS” Govt. of India 18. R. Biswas, D Chattapadhyay (2011) “Monitoring and Continuing Education System of ICDS

30 Rizvi College of Arts, Science & Commerce  Vol. 8 (1)  July - December 2018  International Journal of Research MultidisciplinaryA STUDY OF THE PERCEPTIONS OF STUDENTS TOWARDS RIGHTS OF CHILDRENRucha Desai UGC Approved Journal No. 63072 International Journal of Research ISSN 2231 - 6124 VOL 8 (1) 2018 : PP 31 - 37

A Study of the Perceptions of Students towards Rights of Children

Dr. Rucha Desai Assistant Professor Naranlala Institute of Teacher Education, Navsari, Gujarat, India Email: [email protected]

INTRODUCTION

“To look into some aspects of the future; we do not need projections by supercomputers. Much of the next millennium can be seen in how we care for our children today. Tomorrow’s world may be influenced by science and technology, but more than anything, it is already taking shape in the bodies and minds of our children”

— (Kofi A Annan, Secretary-General of the UN, 1997)

Children are supremely important national asset. No Universal ratification undoubtedly creates a signifi- nation on this globe can ignore the responsibility to cant global movement for children, leaving universal ensure the proper growth and development of chil- implementation as the ongoing challenge. Translating dren as the future of the country lies within them. the commitment into action to improve the lives of Respect of the rights of all individuals in the society children is a task that is incumbent on everyone. It is the foundation of liberty, justice, development and can only achieve reality when respected by everyone peace in the world. But present status of children – within the family, in school and all other public and shows that their rights are not being observed up to private places. Also children themselves need to know full extent. We have already seen that rights are vio- what rights they are entitled to empathise with those lated not only of those children who are poor, street whose rights have been denied, and to be empowered children, orphan, disabled, illegitimate etc in society/ to take action on behalf of their own rights and those community at large but also in home, neighborhood of others. Learning about CRC is one way to begin as and school too. Children, whose basic needs and fun- people who know their rights are better able to claim damental rights are denied, cannot be expected to them. Making the convention and its provision widely mature into caring, productive adults, who will re- known is therefore an essential step in promoting child spect the rights of others. Violation of rights is not rights. Education can be used as a potent medium for only the cause of personal sufferings; they also sow the purpose. the seeds for political and social unrest and violent conflict which in turn disturbs the harmony of soci- “Education is a fundamental human right and a prime ety.

IMPACT FACTOR SJIF 2018 (6.67) Rizvi College of Arts, Science & Commerce  Vol. 8 (1)  July - December 2018  International Journal of Research 31 ISSN 2231 - 6124 Multidisciplinary UGC Approved Journal No. 63072 IMPACT FACTOR SJIF 2018 (6.67) means in the promotion of child rights. Child – rights It is therefore essential to empower children by mak- education is intended to be a life-long process by ing them aware about their rights. They are legally which people at all level of development and in all entitled to protect themselves from any kind of de- strata of society learn to respect for the dignity of graded treatment and injustice. Educating them about others and the means of ensuring that respect in all Rights of Children surely help them in understanding societies. Child rights education implies that educa- their rights and in dealing with the situation position which enables an individual to understand his/ tively, especially with parents/elders at home. her rights.” Also, researches conducted all over revealed that vio- (UNITED NATIONS) lation of rights of children in family, classroom and society is regular and everyday phenomenon. The Bringing awareness at all levels of society has now studies of Whistler (2006) and Study on Child Abuse become an essential pre-requisite for creating a cul- (2007) advocated that more researches should be ture of Human Rights for children. If we want to conducted in the area of child rights. Also the study create Human Right culture for children and right – conducted by Desai (2007) found that computer en- respecting citizens who have respect for rights of abled educational program was effective in bringing others and knowledge about same then we need to about awareness on child rights among student-teach- make them aware and teach them about it. Society as ers. There is a dire need to create research-cum-knowl- a whole needs to sensitize about the plight of chil- edge base vis-à-vis solving field level problems of dren. rights of children. This area has been untouched by the researcher in the field of education, while it re- Children are taken as granted and they do not have quires due focus. Also present scenario, problems, any voice in decision-making process, especially de- and issues made it imperative to intervene in this cision related to their life. They have to enjoy/suffer area. life according to status of parents. Parents and elders being authorities, treat children the way they like to PERCEPTION treat them. In one or the other way children’s desire or voice remains neglected. Whether it is child of Perception means - The way in which something is elite class, middle class or lower class, childhood regarded, understood or interpreted. neglected up to large extent. Each economic class has different problems. Elite class and middle class chil- Your perception of something is the way that you think dren have pressure of study, no time for recreation, about it or the impression you have of it. The quality of interference of parents in each matter, working par- being aware of things through the physical senses, ents have very less time to spent with their children especially sight. So, it becomes crucial to study per- which leads to other serious problems and poor/lower ceptions of students towards rights of Children post class children do not have their basic facilities met, intervention. relatively their problems are more grave. Rights violated of poor children are apperant, easily observable STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM whereas of middle and elite class children are subtle and difficult to make out. A Study of the Perceptions of Students towards Rights of Children

32 Rizvi College of Arts, Science & Commerce  Vol. 8 (1)  July - December 2018  International Journal of Research A STUDY OF THE PERCEPTIONS OF STUDENTS TOWARDS RIGHTS OF CHILDREN

OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY Data Collection First the EP was implemented on experimental group. To study the perceptions of students towards rights of Picture Perception Test was administered post-inter- children on picture perception test. vention on the experimental group. Students were asked to identify related right on each slide. They Hypothesis were also asked to mention whether the particular There will be no significant difference between mean right has been observed or violated and their com- achievement scores of control group and experimen- ments on it. This way slide-wise presentation was tal group on picture perception test. made and students were given adequate time to respond on each slide. On each slide after they com- Population of the Study pleted their writing part discussion was also conducted. All the secondary schools of Gujarat State constituted the population. The Picture Perception Test was administered on control group in the same manner. Sample of the Study  Two English medium schools following Gujarat Data Analysis and Interpretation Secondary and Higher Secondary Education Board Data collected through Picture Perception Test were (GSHSEB) syllabus were selected by convenient analyzed quantitatively as well as qualitatively. On sampling. correct identification of right related to particular slide  All the students of standard VIII from the se- students were given 1 mark otherwise 0. This way lected schools constituted the sample. Selection total score of each individual was obtained. Summing of students was done by cluster sampling. up total score of each individual grand total was obtained. Subsequently mean, SD, SEm and t-value Delimitation of the Study were computed in order to study the difference be- The study is delimited to English medium secondary tween mean achievement score of both the group. schools of Baroda city following GSHSEB syllabus. The perceptions of students in the form of comments Design of the Study were analyzed qualitatively through content analysis. The study was an intervention program employing Difference in the quality of responses were studied experimental group, control group post-test design. and presented in the form of analyzed responses of students slide-wise. The depth of the responses too Tool was studied and given as comparative analysis. The picture perception test was constructed to achieve the stated objective.

Various pictures cutting across the articles of CRC were down-loaded from internet. 20 pictures were selected on the basis of article coverage capacity, response eliciting capacity and clarity of picture.

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The quantitative analysis of data

Table 1 : Mean, SD, SEm, df and ‘t’- value

Group No. of students Mean Scores SD SEm df t- value & significant level Experimental 43 13.93 3.23 0.4927 21.755 & Control 46 1.956 1.667 0.2457 87 0.01

The computed t-value of 21.755 is greater than the students reflected that though India is an independent table t-value 0f 2.633 at .01 level for 87 degree of country, the girl doesn’t know what rights she has. freedom. The student made very subtle comment on right to information in the form of knowing own rights and So, the null hypothesis that there will be no signifi- thereby practicing those. cant difference in mean achievement scores of control group and experimental group, is rejected. Responses of experimental group students go beyond identification of factual information to levels of con- It means, there is significant difference in the mean cern. Concern expressed at two levels-individual and achievement scores of control group and experimen- national. The student reflected that no one bothers of tal group, in favour of experimental group, indicating her rights. It means as an aware and responsible citi- effectiveness of the developed EP on Child Rights. zen we have kept our eyes closed towards plight of a child, whereas, another student advised Indian Gov- The qualitative analysis of data ernment to put ban on child labour to improve life Qualitative analysis done through content analysis is and living conditions of children of entire nation. presented below in the form of comparative analysis of the responses on the Picture Perception Test, Slide: 2 A boy is admitted to hospital. His right to slidewise. health services has been observed. But at the same time he seems to have become victim of malnourish- Comparative Analysis of Picture Perception Test ment. To study the commonalities and differences among the responses of both the groups, comparative analy- Responses of both the groups differ significantly as sis has been done. majority of experimental group students responded that his right to medical treatment is observed whereas Slide: 1 Here, a girl is selling flag of India on the eve majority of control group students said the boy was of 15th August. It’s a case of child labour. hungry so had food from garbage and was facing a stomach-ache. Congruence was found among the responses of both the groups on some points like child labour at tender The common response of both the group is the boy age, poverty, violation of Right to Education and vio- has shortage of food, water, shelter and clothing. lation of Right to Freedom. Also, differences are found Control group students identified poverty and child in responses of both the groups, like control group labour as causes of such a physical state of the boy.

34 Rizvi College of Arts, Science & Commerce  Vol. 8 (1)  July - December 2018  International Journal of Research A STUDY OF THE PERCEPTIONS OF STUDENTS TOWARDS RIGHTS OF CHILDREN

They also responded that child rights are violated. form of nutritive food, while, all the students of CG Experimental group students said everyone has right were not able to perceive the theme ‘Right to food’. to get medical treatment. They had different views related to presented theme. Many of them were of the view that children are not Slide: 3 Right to Education is observed. being provided sufficient healthy food for their growth Students of EG have highlighted positive and proper and cloths to wear. Some of them reflected on the dimension of presented picture by saying that chil- Government’s policy of providing mid day meal to dren are enjoying right to education while a large underprivileged children. majority of students of CG responded that children in rural areas are not given proper education facilities. Slide: 6 Protection from armed conflict is not ob- The focus of responses of CG students is on not having served. things, they said child rights are given for sake of Difference was found amongst responses of both the giving, unequal right to education. Whereas students groups. CG students have identified poverty as the of EG expressed their concern by saying that every root cause of children indulging themselves into crime, child must get proper primary and secondary educa- whereas, students of EG responded that there is a tion in order to secure bright future by earning well. need to protect children against armed conflict which Further they said all children have right to education is an indicator of Government’s/ Society’s responsi- irrespective of economic status. bility in nurturing the youth of the nation. They also highlighted the importance of parents and family in Slide: 4 Children are enjoying leisure-time activ- developing the healthy personality of the child and ity. Two women are observing and taking care of helping him take up the right decisions. them. The responses of CG and EG differ markedly. The Congruence was observed on the issues of poverty responses of CG converge towards apparent visual- and children being forced for anti-social activities. ization of children not getting proper facilities due to over population in the family and that they were Slide: 7 Here, freedom of association and right to uncomfortable. There were also responses which said non-discrimination – observed. about children being fed mid-day meal and that there were people who worked for the bright future of Congruence was found on one aspect of presented underprivileged children. The responses of the EG picture, that is, non-discrimination. Responses of the were more focused and centralized. The focal point EG students have gone to the level of concern and of their responses is adoption-adopters and care, con- wisdom expressed by saying that children have right cern and love of mother. to form group as long as it is not harmful to others. Whereas CG students perceived that child rights are Slide: 5 Right to food and thereby right to sur- violated, children are working hard in sunlight and vival—observed. thinking about their future. Congruence was observed in the responses of both the groups on the theme ‘Right to food’. EG students Slide: 8 Agrarian labor is shown. unanimously converged to presented theme and said Majority of CG and EG students responded that it that every child should have a standard of living and was the case of child labour, and that children were right to food which they are being provided in the forced to work against their will. Further they be-

Rizvi College of Arts, Science & Commerce  Vol. 8 (1)  July - December 2018  International Journal of Research 35 ISSN 2231 - 6124 Multidisciplinary UGC Approved Journal No. 63072 IMPACT FACTOR SJIF 2018 (6.67) lieved that children should not be hired and put on Slide: 12 A girl without clothes, having doll in her work at this age when they need to studying and hands and standing at a corner of the road in a enjoying their childhood. Apart from this the students confused state. of CG said that the children were hungry and eating A large majority of CG students could describe physi- grass like animals. Some of them also said that the cal state of the girl properly. Only one student per- child neither wished to do labour nor wanted to beg ceived it as violation of rights that too in context of and eat. They wished to have a comfortable life. not getting proper toys.

Slide: 9 Right to leisure, recreational activity, free- A large majority of EG students too could describe dom of thought and Best interest of child. physical state of the girl child properly. They further Students of CG and EG had contradictory views. responded on lonely state of the child in context of Majority students of EG reflected it to be right to name, nationality & parents and said it’s her right to participation. A few were of the view that they ex- know about her name, nationality & parents. Looking pressed the freedom of thinking and enjoying paint- into her physical state one student found her sexually ing together. While responses of CG students do not abused. So, students of EG tried to focus various converge unanimously to the presented theme. The related aspects of the picture observing her physical responses were cutting across the various apparent and mental state. aspects of the presented picture. (which covers aspects like girls were not sent to schools, violation of Slide: 13 Right to freedom of opinion. child rights as no proper education being provided. Responses of both the groups differ significantly. CG Refer to slide no-9 of CG) students could describe about apparent aspects of the picture. They could reflect that, it is rally and for Slide: 10 Right to play-observed. what it is, as written on banner of the rally. They Students of EG were able to identify the theme of the could not correctly identify which right it is and slide and reflected it be an expression of freedom, to whether it is observed or violated whereas all the EG enjoy life and play for physical & mental develop- students could correctly identify the theme of the ment. Most of the students of CG were able to iden- picture. tify the theme correctly, whereas, some of them gave divergent responses, like, the park being flooded and Slide: 14 A case study has been presented of a boy children have no home. Children were forced to work staying away from family and working in a fac- and had to go miles in search of water. tory where conditions are inhuman and harmful. Conditions of living are not maintained. Slide: 11 Street children or children without fam- Students of both the groups correctly identified it as ily. a case of child labour. Students of EG and CG de- Responses of CG are very general and divergent, scribe causes and consequences of such episode. Stu- whereas, responses of EG are specific (and to the dents of CG advised the boy to use his child rights, point). Students of CG tried to guess probable rea- whereas, students of EG blame owner of the factory sons and state of mind of boys (presented in picture) for such illegal practice and consider it as crime. while students of EG could pin point various related aspects of picture.

36 Rizvi College of Arts, Science & Commerce  Vol. 8 (1)  July - December 2018  International Journal of Research A STUDY OF THE PERCEPTIONS OF STUDENTS TOWARDS RIGHTS OF CHILDREN

Slide: 15 Right to live with both the parents, fam- EG students are specific and all the time they are able ily re-unification. to perceive the things in right and relevant dimension. Responses of both the groups differ significantly. All the EG students could correctly perceive the gist of So, suitable intervention can help in cultivating sen- the presented picture, whereas, responses of majority sitivity and sensibility towards rights as evident of the CG students have influence of already formed through the perceptions of the Experimental Group belief/perception rather than what presented picture students. speaks. A few CG students could respond that children with family are living happily while one EG BIBLIOGRAPHY student go above/beyond what picture speaks and advised family members to spare quality time with 1. Aggarwal, Y.P (1998). Statistical Methods: Con- each other for observing healthy constellation. cepts, Application and Computation, New 2. Delhi: Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd. Slide: 16 Abused child is shown. Differences are found among responses of both the 3. Agraval, R (1999). Street Children, Delhi: Shipra groups. Responses of EG are specific and centralized publication. to the theme, whereas, CG students could read the 4. Bajpai, A (2006). Child Rights in India: Law, theme correctly up to a large extent. One CG student Policy & Practice, New Delhi: Oxford University go to the level of concern by expressing that we should Press. support these children. 5. Best, J.W. & Kahn, J.V (2002) Research in Edu- cation (7th edition), New Delhi: Prentice FINDINGS 6. Hall of India Ltd.

 The mean achievement score of Experimental 7. Franklin, W.A (1975). Concerning Child Abuse, Group was found to be significantly greater than London and New York: Churchill that of Control Group on picture perception test. Livingstone 8. Garrett, H (2006). Statistics in Psychology and  Suitable intervention can help in cultivating sen- Education, Delhi: Surjeet Publication sitivity and sensibility towards rights of children 9. Gopalkrishna,B (2004). Rights of Children, as evident through the qualitative analysis of the Raipur: Aavishkar publishers. perceptions of the Experimental Group students. 10. Joyce, S (2002). ‘Guidelines for social Workers CONCLUSION Rendering Sevices Concerning Child Abuse’, Dis- sertation Abstract International, 63(8): Feb-2003 Comparative Analysis cutting across all the slides 11. Wal, S (1999). International Encyclopedia of Child indicates that responses of a large majority of CG Development, New Delhi, students are very general in nature and very often 12. Sarup & Sons., Vol:1 remain at identification of fact and apparent perception. Even they reflected negative aspects of the posi- 13. Wal, S (1999). International Encyclopedia of Child tively presented picture. This might be attributed to Development, New Delhi, the already formed thinking patterns. Responses of 14. Sarup & Sons

Rizvi College of Arts, Science & Commerce  Vol. 8 (1)  July - December 2018  International Journal of Research 37 Multidisciplinary ISSN 2231Kalpita - 6124 Das UGC Approved Journal No. 63072 Multidisciplinary UGCInternational Approved JournalJournal ofNo. Research 63072 ISSN 2231 - 6124 IMPACTVOL FACTOR 8 (1) 2018SJIF : 2018PP 38 (6.67) - 55

Land and Poverty Interlinkages — A Study on Kalahandi

Kalpita Das M.A. (DU), M.Phil (DU), PhD (Pursuing), Centre for Law and Governance Jawaharlal Nehru University (JNU), New Delhi. Email: [email protected]

Abstract Land is the most critical resource in an agrarian economy. In a region like Kalahandi where more than 80% people depend on agriculture for their livelihood, defective landholding structure continuous to be a major contributing factor to poverty and destitution. People who do not have sufficient access to land or landless are victim of multidimensional poverty manifested in various ways not just economic. This study explores into the relationship between Poverty and Land in a region that has been notorious for poverty since long time.

Declaration: This is my original research work based on my M.Phil Dissertation it is not published.

Existence of widespread poverty is one of the central between poverty and the most critical resource “land”. issues concerning developing countries. Absolute The study focuses on Kalahandi district of odisha poverty1is overwhelmingly concentrated in rural ar- which is predominently a rural region quite well eas, although a significant proportion of urban popu- known for persistent poverty world over. Although lation also fails to meet its basic need (Ojungu 1992). there are multiple arguments on Kalahandi’s poverty As per human development report 1990, three quarter this article establishes the strong relationship between of the developing countries poor live in rural areas. Poverty and land. The study Land and Poverty Even after passage of two decades the situation re- Interlinkagesis based on analysis of multiple second- mains more or less the same. According to recent ary sources especially important literatures, articles, observation made by World Bank, close to 800 mil- studies, reports, surveys and datas (formal and infor- lion people around the world or 78% of the world’s mal), journalistic publications etc. In addition to all poor live in rural areas2. The causes behind rural pov- this discussions in a planned manner with research- erty are complex and multi dimensional, lot of factors ers, social activists, non- governmental organisations, like policy failures, poor governance, geographic and policy makers, government officials and journalists economic reasons, social backwardness etc. are re- have been immensly helpful in shaping this article. sponsible but this study seeks to analyse the link

IMPACT FACTOR SJIF 2018 (6.67) 38 Rizvi College of Arts, Science & Commerce  Vol. 8 (1)  July - December 2018  International Journal of Research LAND AND POVERTY INTERLINKAGES — A STUDY ON KALAHANDI

DEFINING POVERTY This kind of poverty is commonly prevelant in countries of South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa (Sen1999). For long time poverty was economically determined Another relevant definition of poverty is given by and standard of living was mesured as income per UNDP (2003), as it considers human right and human capita (Nussbaum 2006; Sumner 2007; Chowdhury development as two sides of a coin. It says that pov- and Mukhpadhya 2014). According to income per- erty is denial of human rights. Poor is one who is spective, a person is poor if and only her income is often denied to participate in the process of develop- below the defined poverty line. Often the cut off ment or decision making, discriminated socially and poverty line is defined in terms of having enough politically and not adequately empowered. The report income for a specified amount of food (HDR1997). puts the responsibility on state-society actors who do Many view this approach as crude and narrow (Sen not create a condusive environment (transparent and 1982, 83; Nussbaum 2006). Notable breakthrough in accountable) for realisation of human rights by the the thinking occurred during 1990 with the emergence poor. The most remarkable definition of poverty came of Human Development approach that defined well- up in World Bank’s World Development Report (2000- being as ‘the process of enlarging peoples choices’ 2001), it describes poverty as “pronounced depriva- published in UNDP’s first development report (1990). tion in well-being”. This landmark defination covers Amartya Sen is the primary architect of this approach, multiple aspects of hardship faced by the poor like his ideas from his successive works from early 80’s to lack of access to income and assets (human, natural, end of 90’s, (see Sen1981; 1982; 1983; 1985; 1988; physical, financial, social assets), sense of voiceless- 1989; 1993; 1999) constitutes the core principles of ness and powerlessness in the institutions of state and Human Development, illustrated in UNDP’s annual society, vulnerability to adverse shocks, linked to an reports since 1990 (see 1990; 91; 92; 95; 97; 98; 99; inability to cope with the all these according to the 2000 reports). From the perspective of Human Devel- report put large burden on poor people. World Bank opment, poverty is multidimensional in nature as it in this report lays down three important measures of covers various aspects of Human deprivations both attacking poverty like opportunity creation, empow- economic and non-economic. It is defined as capabil- erment and security. Opportunity can be given through ity deprivation. Capability Poverty occurs when a access to economic resources (land, jobs, skills, credit, person lacks the opportunity to achieve some mini- access to market etc.) and basic services (health, mally acceptable level of functioning. The functionings education, other infrastructures). Secondly, empower- can vary from such physical ones as being well nour- ment through sound governance and accountability ished, being adequately clothed and sheltered and mechanisms, community empowerment. Thirdly, se- avoiding preventable morbidity, to more a complex curity through access to financial market or credit social achievements such as per taking in the life of facilities so that poor can manage risks. In short, the community (Sen 1999, HDR97). In simpler words, poverty is a multi-dimensional concept beyond mon- a person is poor when he is denied of basic choices etary dimensions, it is systemic deprivation of basic which he or she values in life. Capability poverty is human needs and opportunities like income, health, manifested in various forms like premature mortality, education, essential human security, rights and dig- undernourishment, illiteracy, poor maternal health and nity, empowerment etc. that are required for wellbeing. illness from preventable diseases, exclusion and lack of participation of poor in the community life etc.

Rizvi College of Arts, Science & Commerce  Vol. 8 (1)  July - December 2018  International Journal of Research 39 ISSN 2231 - 6124 Multidisciplinary UGC Approved Journal No. 63072 IMPACT FACTOR SJIF 2018 (6.67)

LAND AND POVERTY—A THEORITICAL but it is a means to achieve many other things that STUDY they usually do not possess. World Bank in a policy research report (2003) says that secure property rights In a predominently agricultural economy ownership to land is pivotal for poverty eradication because it of land continues to be the major economic asset of provides access to economic opportunities, increases rural households. But many rural households are un- the net wealth of the poor, allows him to the financial able to gain sufficient access to land which is one of market and makes him less reliant to labour market the major cause of poverty. With respect to non- and reduces his or her vulnerability to shocks. More- OECD3 countries, landlessness is widely recognized over the report also opines Control of land improves as a cause of deprivation and despair: ‘Hunger tends the socio economic status of the poor in the commu- to be concentrated among the landless or among farm- nity, particularly women who have been historically ers whose plots are too small to provide for their disadvantaged in terms of land access. needs (UN, 2005, 8; see also UN 2008, 6). The relationship between poverty and landlessness is not a Robin Mearns (1999)on the context of rural India new observation. In his classical work, ‘Poverty and opines that land plays a dual role aside from its value Famine’(1981) Sen claims that poverty and famine is as a productive factor, land ownership confers collat- caused not due to unavailability of food grains in eral in credit markets, security in the event of natural society but due to lack of entitlement to food and hazards or life contingencies and social status. Those from an uneven distribution of such entitlements. The people who control land according to Mearns tend to entitlement failure could happen either because of fall exert a disproportionate influence over other rural of endowment (alienation of land, loss of labour power institutions, including labour and credit markets and etc.) or an exchange crisis (loss of employment, fall they have more bargaining power vis-a-vis the rural in wages etc.)4. It is understood from Sen’s theory poor who do not have much access to land. Likewise, that land along with labour are critical resources in Bardhan (1984) mentions that agrarian capitalism is rural society, if due to certain factors if one loses sprouting in rural regions in India .Many of the fami- control over them or fails to utilise them properly lies of capitalist landlords and the rich farmers have owing to adverse exchange conditions then his or her involved themselves in roles like money lending, trad- access to various entitlements drastically declines ing, transport and other business and services. This resulting in poverty and also he might get expose kind of portfolio diversification has made these fami- himself to extreme situations like famine and starva- lies less susceptible to the vagaries of agricultural tion. It is found that in many famines most of the production, apart from strengthening their urban po- victims are landless labourers (agricultural and non litical and economic connections. The studies men- agricultural) and small and marginal landholders. In tioned above provide sufficient evidence to conclude Bangladesh Famine of 1974, the first signs of distress that in rural areas if people do not have a access to were found among the landless rural labourers. These primary resource land, there is maximum possibility labourers led a hand to mouth existence and were that they become victim of multi-dimentional poverty forced to starve as a result of loss of wage employ- manifested in various ways like lower income, lim- ment5. ited access to other socio-economic opportunities, simultaneously are also victim of inequality and For the poor living in rural areas in developing coun- powelessness in society and always in a vulnerable tries access to land is not just a source of livlihood state unlike landed sections.

40 Rizvi College of Arts, Science & Commerce  Vol. 8 (1)  July - December 2018  International Journal of Research LAND AND POVERTY INTERLINKAGES — A STUDY ON KALAHANDI

“Everybody loves a Good Drought” (1996), P. Sainath, In another paper “Poverty and the Distribution of an eminent journalist has made a sociological obser- Land” (2001) Keith Griffin, Azizur Rahman Khan vation of various issues related to poverty in and Amy Ickowitz argues that unequal distribution of Kalahandi. He has focused on socio-economic factors land or concentration of land in fewer hands per sec like loss of access to land, credit, forest, market, is also responsible for poverty and inequality in rural employment etc. Bob Currie in his book, “The poli- areas, which is true in most of Asia where labour is tics of hunger in India – a study of Democracy, abundant relative to land. In such an environment Governance and Kalahandi’s poverty” (2000) have they opine that returns of land will be high and the studied the situation of Kalahandi from political returns to labour will be low leading to widespread economy perspective. Food crisis in Kalahandi is not income inequality and poverty among the assetless. only due to economic factors but also due to failure For them a successful redistributive land reform is of political mechanism to prevent it. Jagdish Pradhan, essential for poverty eradication. in his article “Drought in Kalahandi – The Real Story” (1993) has argued that poverty in kalahandi is rooted Kalahandi – In brief in the distorted development perspectives of the state. Kalahandi a Southwestern District in Orissa had suf- Manoranjan Mohanty, in article, “Kalahandi; Desti- fered a serious problem of persistent poverty and tution and under development” (1999) has argued that hunger. Especially during 80s and 90s Kalahandi was poverty in Kalahandi is due to under development highlighted by national, regional newspapers, jour- and lack of access to entitlements. Arima Mishra nals for situation like droughts, starvation deaths, sale (2005) in “Local perceptions of Famine” argues that of women and children etc. Investigative journalistic Kalahandi’s famine is embedded in its culture and studies had shaken up public institutions and public society over the years but the state refuse to acknowl- conscience6. Constant occurrences of starvation deaths edge it because the local perceptions does not comply were considered as violation of article 21 of the In- with the etic notion of famine as mass mortality. Dan dian Constitution, “right to life and personal liberty” Banik, In “India’s freedom from famine: the case of by the social activists. Due to their efforts Kalahandi Kalahandi”(1998) argues that although India has been was brought into the corridor of Supreme Court successful in combating famine because of its suc- through public interest litigation7. Researchers and cessful public action but Kalahandi is an exceptional academicians have done research on various aspects case where public action has failed to counter famine of poverty in the district. They have attempted to and drought conditions over the years. B. Pati and B. understand various aspects of poverty in the district. Dash (1994) have observed that situation of economic Following are some of the prominent ones that have backwardness in the district is rooted in its past his- helped shaping this study. tory.

Review of Literature on Kalahandi A Study on Land and Poverty in Kalahandi ‘Human encounter with drought’ edited by P.K. Nayak Kalahandi is predominantly a rural and agro-based and Anil Mahajan (1992), is purely an anthropologi- region. 93 percent population stay in rural areas and cal investigation that argues that poverty in Kalahandi more than 80 percent depend on agriculture for their is related to drought or fluctuation in rainfall. The livelihood8. But unfortunately many rural households focus is on man and how do a natural calamity affect today do not have sufficient access to land. It is found man and his livelihood. In his award winning book, that 79 percent of total farming population are small

Rizvi College of Arts, Science & Commerce  Vol. 8 (1)  July - December 2018  International Journal of Research 41 ISSN 2231 - 6124 Multidisciplinary UGC Approved Journal No. 63072 IMPACT FACTOR SJIF 2018 (6.67) and marginal farmers (Table1). Bob Currie (2000) At the same time there were a number of large size mentions that small and marginal holdings in landholding, i.e. above 10 hectares out of total Kalahandi district has dramatically increased between 2,36,000 cultivable land (Table 2). The above facts 1970 and 1990. The percentage of farmers having give a clear impression that majority of Kalahandi’s marginal holding (one hectare or less) had more than population not only have limited access to land but doubled during this 20 year period, such that the also unequal access to land. Even after 20 years(since proportion of Kalahandi’s cultivating population with 1990-1) not much change occurred in the land own- plots of one hectare or less increased from 17% in ership pattern in the district as we find still 79% are 1970 to approximately 40% in 19959 (see table 2 and small and marginal landholders in the district (Table 3). It is evident from the table 2 and 3 that about 67% 1) much higher than what it used to be during of the farming community belongs to small and mar- 1990-1 (67%).The sections that do not have any ac- ginal framers holding only 32% of the operational cess to land are mostly landless agricultural laborers. land holding during that time (1990-1) in Kalahandi.

Table 1:

Total Farming Small and Number of My Calculation My Calculation Population Marginal Large Farmers of % of Small of % of Large Farmers and Marginal Farmers Farmers 183984 145024 38960 145024 38960 100 100 183984 183984 = 78.824% = 21.175% = 21% (approx.)

Source: General information of Kalahandi District as per 2011 census, extracted from the office of Deputy Director Agriculture, Bhawanipatna, Kalahandi.

Table 2: Operational land holdings in Kalahandi – number in each size category

Category 190-71 1980-81 1985-86 1990-91 Number % Number % Number % Number % Marginal 24700 17.4 61100 29.7 76900 35.7 93700 39.6 Small 40500 28.5 63700 30.9 60900 28.3 65500 27.7 Semi- 26900 19.0 56900 27.6 51000 23.7 51800 21.9 medium Medium 43200 30.4 21100 10.2 23500 10.9 23400 9.9 Large 6700 4.7 3300 1.6 3100 1.4 2200 0.9 Total 142000 100.0 206100 100.0 215400 100.00 236600 100.0

Source: Government of Orissa, Board of Revenue, Agricultural Census (various years) and personal calculations of Bob Currie extracted from Bob Currie (2000)

42 Rizvi College of Arts, Science & Commerce  Vol. 8 (1)  July - December 2018  International Journal of Research LAND AND POVERTY INTERLINKAGES — A STUDY ON KALAHANDI

Table 3: Operational land holdings in Kalahandi – total area in each size category

Category 190-71 1980-81 1985-86 1990-91 Area % Area % Area % Area % (Hectares) (Hectares) (Hectares) (Hectares) Marginal 15600 2.8 36600 8.4 43700 9.9 53600 12.0 Small 66000 11.7 85600 19.6 83000 18.8 91000 20.3 Semi- 83800 14.8 150200 34.3 134000 30.4 139300 31.2 medium Medium 279900 49.6 119900 27.4 132600 30.1 130700 29.3 Large 119100 21.1 44900 10.3 47400 10.8 32300 7.2 Total 564400 100.0 437200 100.0 440700 100.00 446900 100.0

Source: Government of Orissa, Board of Revenue, Agricultural Census (various years) and personal calculations of Bob Currie extracted from Bob Currie (2000)

A contemporary study on Kalahandi reveals that Number of Tribals who are Marginal Landless = 54% population in the district are landless agricultural laborers1 .The district has large 2 proportion of tribal population (around 75%) but Interestingly even today land remains under the con- most of them are landless. Around 79 percent of trol of few. NABARD1 estimates that there are 1205 them do not have any access to land and 72 large holdings in Kalahandi covering total area of percent of tribal are marginal land holders3 (Table 17985 hectares2. It means that per head one family 4). holds around 37.31 acres of land (as 1 hectare is 2.5 acres approx). As per 2011 census there are 38960 Table 4: Social Categories and Landholdings in large farmers in the district (see table1) constituting Kalahandi around 21% of the total farming population (table 1). Category Landless <2 acress (Marginal Large landholders are called Gountias (ex- landholders) zamindars)3.According to Antodaya they belong to the SC 4 5 upper-caste mostly Brahmins. Antodaya claims that ST 19 21 they are around 3,420 in numbers but own an average OBC 1 3 4 General 0 0 of 51 hectares of land per head or 127 acres per head . Total 24 29 There were also Gountias who were STs but gradully their position declined 5. Although different sources give divergent figures about number of Large land Source: Mohanty, Aggarwal, Trivedi, Ray and N. Sukumar holdings in the district but it is quite clear that land (2003) in the district is inaccessible to many. My calculations: As mentioned (Mearns 1999; Pranab Bardhan 1984; Number of Tribals who are Landless = World Bank 2003) in rural India ownership of land confers certain sections (rich farmers or landlords) higher stake in the market (labor, credit, trade etc.) security in the event of natural hazards or life contin-

Rizvi College of Arts, Science & Commerce  Vol. 8 (1)  July - December 2018  International Journal of Research 43 ISSN 2231 - 6124 Multidisciplinary UGC Approved Journal No. 63072 IMPACT FACTOR SJIF 2018 (6.67) gencies and gives them higher social- political clout intensity of poverty. Likewise, the study Mohanty, in the society. During colonial times Gountias Aggarwal, Trivedi, Suranjita Ray and N. Sukumar (zamindars) being landed sections were very power- (2003) also notices a peculiar picture of a landless ful in the villages. They dominated the power struc- household in Kalahandi earning Rs 4750 per year and ture, money-lending as well grain trade. Although the spending only about 1820 per year for food. This Gountia system was abolished in 1956, the power and certainly does not mean that the rest is saved for position of Gountia remained intact6. Dillip Kumar other non –food items. It only means that more than Das says that “Gountias because of their land owner- half of their earnings are spent on items such as debt ship have dominated in all spheres like education, serving and repayment of festival expenses which are economic activities, politics and services etc.”7. customary compulsions. A certain amount is neces- sarily spent on maintaining their shelter and for clothes In a regionwhere more than 80% people depend on and medicines. Thus less than half of the overall in- agriculture for their livelihood, defective landholding come is available for consumption of food11. The study structure is a major contributing factor to poverty and also estimates the annual expenditure of landless and destitution. Once Ashok Dalvai, former collector of small and marginal farmers on non-food items like Kalahandi, in 1993, commented that “the main reason medicine, clothing, housing, education which is also for today’s poverty and hunger in Kalahandi is its marginal12 (Table7). The expenditure figures (both skewed distribution of asset like land”8. Although it’s weekly and annual) gives evidence that the landless been 20 years since 1993 but landlessness still re- and the marginal landholders do not have access to mains as a major perpetuator of poverty.96% of land- essential items both food and non- food. For instance, less, 93% of marginal holders and 87% of small land- one of the most essential non-food items is education. holders are below poverty line9 (Table 5). It is seen It is found that per capita annual expenditure of land- that almost 65% of the landless spend less than Ru- less on education is Rupees 59 only and per capita pees 35 on food and only 21% spend between Rupees expenditure of marginal farmer on education is just 35 to Rupees 50 on food weekly. Similar response is Rupees 71(Table 7). Besides, 50% of the population seen in case of marginal farmers also10 (Table 6). The in the district are illiterate, majority of them come weekly expenditure data on food shows enormous from landless and marginal farmers13.

Table 5: Number of Households below poverty line with landholding size in Kalahandi

Land Holding Size Kalahndi My Calculation % below poverty line Landless 24 (25) 24 100 = 96% 25 <2 acres (marginal landholders) 27 (29) 27 100 = 93% 29 2.5 acres 28 (32) 28 100 = 87% 32

Source: Mohanty, Aggarwal, Trivedi, Ray and N. Sukumar (2003) Figure in parenthesis shows a number of households.

44 Rizvi College of Arts, Science & Commerce  Vol. 8 (1)  July - December 2018  International Journal of Research LAND AND POVERTY INTERLINKAGES — A STUDY ON KALAHANDI

Table 6: Consumption Expenditure on Food Items (Weekly)

Landholdings size <35 35-50 >50 Landless 15 5 3 <2 Acres 15 9 3 2-5 Acres 15 8 8 Source: Mohanty, Aggarwal, Trivedi, Ray and N. Sukumar (2003) My Calculation of % of landless that spends <35 on total item

My Calculation of % of landless that spends 35-50 on food items

Table 7: Consumption Expenditure on Non-Food Items

Annual Expenditure in Rs. Landholding Medicine Shelter Clothes Education Size IAY Self Expenditure PHH PC PHH PC PHH PC PHH PC PHH PC Landless 550 145 18570 441 750 188 594 140 257 59 < 2 Acres 469 107 21000 1615 1200 100 962 200 400 71 2-5 Acres 381 77 14750 1513 100 25 1300 240 235 39 Source: Mohanty, Aggarwal, Trivedi, Ray and N. Sukumar (2003)

As most of the tribals do not have access to land hunger per se but they succumb to death because they (table 4), they are worst victim of poverty and desti- do not consume essential nutrients required for a tution. Amrita Rangasami (2002) prominent sociolo- healthy living, have no access to basic health facili- gist opines that periodic and seasonal hunger is a ties and most of the time are victim of distress. lifelong experience for majority of the landless tribals in the district. Even when their death cannot be in a World Bank in its report (2000-2001) mentions the strictly clinical term be related to starvation, tragic importance of access to financial market for poor reality remains that they die of prolonged malnutri- people. An easy access to it helps to manage the risk tion and continuum of distress, which has, inter alia, and to smooth consumption in the face of sharp fluc- rendered them unable to withstand common disease tuations in agricultural yields and prices, economic such as Malaria and Diarrhea1. It is evident from shocks and even natural disasters. Unfortunately in Rangasami (2002) that landless tribals not just die of Kalahandi landless poor do not have much access to

Rizvi College of Arts, Science & Commerce  Vol. 8 (1)  July - December 2018  International Journal of Research 45 ISSN 2231 - 6124 Multidisciplinary UGC Approved Journal No. 63072 IMPACT FACTOR SJIF 2018 (6.67) formal credit facilities, as a consequence of which of their economic assets to them including the land in they are pushed towards further pauperization and the process6.The system of land mortgage is the most become most vulnerable sections in the society. exploitative practice born out of the informal Antodaya claims that their access to formal banking moneylending tradition of the district, in which the facilities is extremely insignificant. Private money- victim especially small and marginal landholders lenders dominate the credit market2. Poor burrow during agricultural seasons, festivals, marriages, ill- maximum from private moneylenders or sahukars even ness, deaths also for liquour mortgages land to the though they charge more than 50% as monthly inter- moneylender and eventually falls into his trap when est3 (Table 8). A study points out that local banks in not able to pay back and that ends in loss of land to the district insists on collateral in addition to delay in the moneylender7.Studies provide evidence of extreme processing the loans4. Out of 59 total borrowings as practices like labour mortgage to the money lender8, mentioned in the study, 20 burrowers belong to land- but now a days such practices are rarely visible9.But less category that accounts to 33% of the total bor- even today land mortgages to the moneylender con- rowings. Similarly 17 burrowers are marginal land- tinuous especially among tribals in the district and it holders and 16 burrowers are small landholders, both is one of the most important reason responsible for of them together account to 55% of total borrowings tribal landlessness(around79%).Studies cite that tribals (Table 9). Majority of the burrowers are tribals who have lost most of their lands to money lenders in are either landless or small and marginal farmers5 form of land mortgages10.Not just land mortgages to (Table 9). Excessive dependence on informal sources the money lender but also distress selling of land drastically affects the lives of the landless poor. It is during emergency situations, setting up of new devel- found that most of the burrowers remain perennially opment projects and also geographical limitations of indebted and become easy prey to various exploita- the tribal lands have contributed towards tribal land- tions of the moneylender and eventually loose most lessness in Kalahandi11.

Table 8: Sources of Credit and Percentage of total credit transaction in village Nagupala of Kesinga Block of Kalahandi

Sources No. of Percentage of Credit Description Households Government 13 20-25 Bullocks, Fertilizer, Paddy for seeds Relatives and Kin 18 15-20 Wedding expenses rice as udhar Saukars 61 60-65 Bullocks, seeds udhar and rin

Source: Arima Mishra (1999) Table 9: Borrowings of Social categories with landholding size Landholding SC ST OBC General Total Size Landless 2 18 0 0 20 < 2 Acres 1 13 3 0 17 2-5 Acres 0 12 4 0 16 5-10 Acres 0 4 1 0 5 > 10 Acres 0 1 0 0 1 Total 3 48 8 0 59 Source: Mohanty, Aggarwal, Trivedi, Ray and N. Sukumar (2003)

46 Rizvi College of Arts, Science & Commerce  Vol. 8 (1)  July - December 2018  International Journal of Research LAND AND POVERTY INTERLINKAGES — A STUDY ON KALAHANDI

It is interesting to know that moneylenders are also the Brick Kilns6. But unfortunately working condi- land-owning sections. In Mishra (1999) it is mentioned tions outside is very oppressive, as the contractors that during 70s probably to escape ceiling laws Land- and the middlemen inhumanely treat them. We have lords or Gountias began selling land to Marwaris, been hearing such news of extreme atrocities done to Sundhis, Goudas, Kultas, who are mostly money lend- them in the labor market outside the district for quite ers. The 1988 settlement shows that 40% of land is long time7. They are referred as Dadan laborers in the held by these communities1. Likewise, Antodaya chair- local language. The Inter-State Migrant Workmen person Dillip Kumar Das claims that money lenders (Regulation of Employment and Control of Services) mostly belong to Sundhis, Marwaris, Komati and Act of 1979 defines inter-state migrant workmen as Kulta, Dom castes who are also significant land own- any person who is recruited by or through a contrac- ers in the district. Their ownership of land may or tor in one State under any agreement or other ar- may not be responsible for their dominance in the rangement for employment in an establishment in credit market as there is no evidence but it is quite another State, with or without the knowledge of the apparent that ownership of land has given them higher principal employer in the relation to such establish- social status in the society and absence of formal credit ment (see Mishra1999, page 103). Although this is facilities has further strengthened their position2. Dillip the meaning of what dadan laborer stands for, but in Kumar Das further says that, “Bengali and Tibetan actuality they are treated like bonded laborers or even money lenders, Self-help groups and micro-finance worst than that by the labor contractors or the middle- companies are new additions in the credit market in men8. Kalahandi but they are not any way different from the old moneylending class prevailing in the district. In As World Bank (2000-2001) describes poverty as fact they are also parallel bodies who exploit the land- “pronounced deprivation in well-being” since it cov- less poor when they are not able to pay the debt”. ers multiple deprivations faced by the poor in the society. Kalahandi suffer from multiple hardships, both In absence of alternative source of employment in the economic as well as non-economic. As we have seen region landless and marginal landholders mostly de- that most of them are not just deprived of basic in- pend on labor market but opportunities available are come (table 6) but also are victim of capability pov- seasonal and wages are also low and only few get erty, as they do not have much access to essential opportunity to work.Even the government programme choices which one values in life (including food and such as ‘Food For Work’ are for a limited period during non-food items). In addition to all this, they are de- the year and only a few get opportunity to work e.g. prived of financial support (formal credit facilities), only 4 of the landless benefited from SGSY3 and 3 alternative employment opportunities that makes them from EAS4 according to the survey report5. insecure and powerless and voiceless in the market (labor, credit etc.) and are incessant sufferer of in- Distress migration of the landless and small and mar- equality and exploitations in society. Not much change ginal landholders to the labor markets outside is also has occurred in their living conditions since late 80s a common phenomenon in the district. To avoid ex- and 90s (during this period the district came to be treme impoverishment they migrate to places like known for its extreme poverty).It is systemic depriva- Raipur, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala and Delhi (also to tion of basic human needs and opportunities like in- other districts of Odisha like Bargarh, Sambalpur in come, health, education, essential human security search of work). In South India (in A.P) they work in rights and dignity, empowerment etc. that are required

Rizvi College of Arts, Science & Commerce  Vol. 8 (1)  July - December 2018  International Journal of Research 47 ISSN 2231 - 6124 Multidisciplinary UGC Approved Journal No. 63072 IMPACT FACTOR SJIF 2018 (6.67) for wellbeing. actual practice in Kalahandi it has not put much impact in controlling land alienation. Bob Currie (2000) puts Interestingly land legislations have been implemented a valid argument on this. According to him inadequa- for ensuring land rights to the poor but they have not cies in land record and limited legal proof on the part had any significant impact in changing the defective of the tribal community in the district has severely landholding structure in Kalahandi. It is found in limited the degree to which such legislation has been Mishra (1999) that after implementation of land re- used in practice to counter land transfer away from forms, land remained under the control of former tribal groups14. Moneylenders have taken the best landlords called Gountias and the ownership right to advantage of the situation and exploited the tribals the tiller were not successfully transferred. As noted and usurped their land; this has been widely reported15. in the study, attached laborers cultivated the marginal Hence, weak land administrative system and absence land but the right over the land was not recorded in of records are two important factors responsible for their name but under the ownership of Gountia9. Bob poor implementation of reforms in the district and Currie (2000) cites the reason why the reforms did they are also the reasons why Gountias and money not work in Kalahandi. He puts the blame on the land lenders maintained their monopoly over land by tak- administrative system in the district that failed to ing advantage of it. Moreover above-mentioned fac- control concentration of land in fewer hands. He tors were also responsible for delay in implementa- opines that due to absence of proper land records and tion of land reforms throughout Odisha16. corrupt and apathetic attitude of revenue officials’, ceiling laws were easily bypassed by big landowning As World Bank (2000-2001) lays down three impor- sections like Gountias. They manipulated village deeds tant measures of attacking poverty like opportunity to their advantage particularly by registering the land creation, empowerment and security. In a rural of other villagers in their own name10. The house- economy like Kalahandi access to land would not just holds who were interviewed indicated that they were provide multiple socio-economic opportunities to the unaware that they should register their land with the poor but also empower them making them self-reliant government. Several others indicated that they were enhancing their status in society and would provide reluctant to do so because the government demanded security to the poor in the event of natural hazards or a side payment as a condition for performing registra- life contingencies. Hence to overcome multi-dimen- tion11 Dillip Kumar Das says, “ceiling laws were bla- sional poverty in Kalahandithe critical resource “land” tantly violated by Gountias through manipulationof needs to be systematically managed through proper records, forced division of family and Benami trans- implementation of land legislations towards a more actions. In fact the Gountias took the advantage of equitable distribution and the tribal land laws needs heavy presence of landed class (who were also to be executed properly as they are worst victims of Gountias) in local bureaucracy especially in land conditions of landlessness. administration who helped them in manipulation of records”12. As already mentioned Gountias being As we have seen that landless community especially landed sections dominated in all spheres in society tribals are in acute distress because of informal money even after abolition of Gountia system, so their pres- lending system in the district, so easy access to for- ence in land administration was quite a normal thing. mal credit will bring drastic transformation in their lives. There is law to control tribal land alienation13, but in

48 Rizvi College of Arts, Science & Commerce  Vol. 8 (1)  July - December 2018  International Journal of Research LAND AND POVERTY INTERLINKAGES — A STUDY ON KALAHANDI

For landlessness to bring lesser destitution on affected Study of Democracy and Kalahandi’s Poverty, social group in the district it is advisable to develop London: Macmillan, 2000. agro-based industries in Kalahandi to provide alternative opportunities. It would be a suitable step consid- 8. Dalvai, Ashok, Ceiling Laws on Orissa State, ering the huge potential for such industries to prosper Paper Presented at workshop in Land Reforms in in the region because of the district’s higher food Orissa, Gopabandhu Academy of Administration, production within Odisha17. Bhubaneswar, 4-6 Feb, 1993. 9. Davy, Benjamin, The Poor and the Land: Poverty, Notes: Landless poor in this study indicates not just Property, lanning, The Town Planning Review, those section who do not have any access to land but Vol .80,No3,P227-265,Liverpool University it also constitutes those who are marginal and small Press,2009 landholders. 10. Dreze, Jean and Amartya Sen, Hunger and Public REFERENCES Action, UK:OUP, 2003.

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Starvation and Destitution, submitted by Amrita Story, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. XXXII Rangasami to NHRC, Delhi School of Econom- (1993) p. 1084. ics, New Delhi. 50. Sainath, P, Everybody loves a Good Drought – 40. Narayan Deepa, Robert Chambers, Meera K. Shah Stories from India’s Poorest Districts, New Delhi: and Patti Petesch, Voice of the Poor: Crying out Penguin Books (P) Ltd, 1996. for change, New York: Oxford University Press, 2000. 51. Sen, A.K, “Capability and Wellbeing”, Martha Nussbaum and A.K. Sen (ed), 30-53, UK: Oxford 41. Narayan, Deepa, Rajj Patel, Kai Schafft, Anne University Press, 1993. Rademacher and Sarah Koch-Schulte, Voices of the Poor: Can any One Hear us? New York: 52. Sen, A.K, “Poor, Relatively Speaking”, Oxford Oxford University Press, 2000 Economic Papers 35:153-169, 1983.

42. New Delhi: Reliance, 1992. 53. Sen, A.K, and Development as Freedom, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000. 43. Nussbaum, Martha, “Poverty and Human Func- tioning: Capabilities as Fundamental Entitlements” 54. Sen, A.K, Choice, Welfare and Measurement, in Grusky, David B and Ravi Kanbur(ed) Poverty Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1982. and Inequality, Stanford: Stanford University 55. Sen, A.K, Commodities and Capabilities, Oxford: Press, 2006. Elsevier Science, 1985. 44. Omara-Ojungu, Peter H., Resource Management 56. Sen, A.K, Development as Freedom, UK: Oxford in Developing Countries, UK: Longman, 1992. University Press, 1999. 45. Omvedt, Gail, “Worst in Hundred Years: The 57. Sen, A.K, Poverty and Famines: An Essay on Kalahandi Drought”, Manushi (1997), p1-28. Entitlement and Deprivation, Oxford: Clarendon 46. Ostrom, E, Institutional Arrangements and the press, 1981. Commons Dilemma In Ostrom, Feeny Picht (ed), 58. Sen, A.K, Resources, Values and Development, Rethinking Institutional Analysis and Develop- Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1984. ment, International Centre for economic Growth, Institute for Contemporary Studies, USA, 1988. 59. Sen., A.K., Poverty and Famines, An Essay on Entitlement and Deprivation, Oxford: Clarendon, 47. Ostrom, E., How Inexorable is the “Tragedy of 1981. Commons”? Distinguished Faculty Research Lec- ture 1986, Office of Research and Graduate De- 60. Sumner, Andrew, Why do ‘Economic’ Indicators velopment, Indiana University, the USA, 1986. of Poverty Still Predominate? Development in Practice, vol.17, No 1(Feb. 2007), pp4-13 48. Pattnaik, K.M (Ed.), Economic Profile of Orissa, Cuttack, 1980. 61. The profile of Kalahandi, Shodhaganga. inflibnet.ac.in 49. Pradhan, Jagdish, ‘Drought in Kalahandi: The Real

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62. United NationsThe Millennium Development Footnotes Goals Report 2005, New York, 2005. 1 Mishra (1999) 63. United Nations The Millennium Development Goals Report 2008, New York, 2008. 2 Dillip Kumar Das is chairperson of Antodaya (antodaya.org.in) 64. World Bank Policy Research Report 2003, Land Policies for Growth and Poverty Eradication, 3 Swarnajayanti Gram Swarojgar Yojna Klaus Deininger, World Bank and OUP, 2003. 4 Employment Assurance Scheme 65. World Development Report 2000/2001. Attack- ing Poverty, Published for World Bank, Oxford 5 Mohanty, Aggarwal, Trivedi, Suranjita Ray and University Press. N. Sukumar (2003)

6 NEWSPAPER & INTERNET SOURCES Source: Antodaya (antodaya.org.in); P. Sainath, Everybody loves a Good Drought (1996), 1. Alien land, death destination for migrant workers Mohanty, Aggarwal, Trivedi, Suranjita Ray and from Odisha, Express News Service, 16 October N Sukumar (2003), Arima Mishra, Famine and 2016 scarcities (1999).

2. Fruits of development still elusive in Kalahandi 7 Source: Antodaya (antodaya.org.in); Mohanty, 30,000 people migrate, The New Indian Express, Aggarwal, Trivedi, Suranjita Ray and N. Sukumar 23 September 2016 (2003); Sainath (1996); Arima Mishra, Famine and scarcities (1999); Odisha: Kalahandi migrant 3. Migration unabated in KBK, district, The Hindu, laborer, whose palm was chopped off 3 years ago April27, 2012. dies, The Indian Express, September 22,2016; Alien land, death destination for migrant workers 4. Odisha: Kalahandi migrant laborer, whose palm from Odisha, Express News Service, 16 October was chopped off 3 years ago dies, The Indian 2016;Fruits of development still elusive in Express, September 22,2016 Kalahandi 30,000 people migrate, The New In- 5. For up to 800 million Rural poor, a strong World dian Express, 23 September 2016;Migration un- Bank commitment to Agriculture, The World Bank abated in KBK, district, The Hindu, April27,2012. IBRD.IDA,Nov12,2014(http:// 8 Arima Mishra, Famine and scarcities, 1999; P. www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2014/11/12/ Sainath, Everybody loves a Good Drought, 1996; for-up-to-800-million-rural-poor-a-strong-world- Antodaya (antodaya.org.in); Odisha: Kalahandi bank-commitment-to-agriculture) migrant laborer, whose palm was chopped off 3 years ago dies, The Indian Express, September 22,2016; Alien land, death destination for migrant workers from Odisha, By Express News Service, 16 October 2016; Fruits of development still elusive in Kalahandi 30,000 people migrate, The New

52 Rizvi College of Arts, Science & Commerce  Vol. 8 (1)  July - December 2018  International Journal of Research LAND AND POVERTY INTERLINKAGES — A STUDY ON KALAHANDI

Indian Express, 23 September 2016;Migration rich in food or agro–based production but unfor- unabated in KBK district, The Hindu, April27,2 tunately it still reels under poverty. 012 18 The profile of Kalahandi, Shodhaganga. 9 Arima Mishra, Famine and Scarcities, a socio- inflibnet.ac.in logical study of two villages in Orissa, PHD the- 19 sis submitted to the University of Delhi Depart- Dillip Kumar Das is chairperson of Antodaya ment of Sociology, Delhi School of Economic, 20 Ashok Dalvai, “Ceiling laws on Orissa State”, New Delhi, 1999. Paper Presented at workshop in land reforms in 10 Currie, Hunger (2000). Orissa Gopabandhu Academy of Administration, Bhubaneswar, 4 Feb 1993. 11 Ibid 21 Mohanty, Aggarwal, Trivedi, Suranjita Ray and 12 Dillip Kumar Das is chairperson of Antodaya N. Sukumar (2003) (antodaya.org.in) 22 Ibid 13 Land Orissa Regulation (2) of 1956 officially pre- 23 vents by law the transfer of Land from tribal to Ibid non-tribal unless previous assent is obtained in 24 Ibid writing from required authorities. This legislation also entitles government officers to restore land 25 Ibid to the tribal community that had previously been appropriated from them under pressure of debt, 26 Relief Administration in the KBK Region, Orissa, See Currie, Hunger (2000). Suggestion for the Elimination of Starvation and Destitution, submitted by Amrita Rangasami to 14 Bob currie (2000) NHRC, 2002

15 B.Mishra1991; Arima Mishra 1999;Information 27 Antodaya, it is the leading non-governmental or- obtained from Antodaya (antodaya.org.in) ganization that works in Kalahandi, Thumal Rampur block (antodaya.org.in 16 Robin Mearns and Sinha (1999) 28 Arima Mishra, Famine and scarcities, 1999 17 Interview with Deputy Director of Agriculture, L.K. Paltasingh, Kalahandi, Bhawanipatna. He 29 Mohanty, Aggarwal, Trivedi, Suranjita Ray and argues that Kalahandi is very rich in agricultural N. Sukumar (2003) production and there is maximum possibility of small- scale agro based industries to come up in 30 Ibid the area and gradually the government is taking up various initiatives in developing agro based 31 Arima Mishra, Famine and scarcities, industries. And see other references like Sainath 1999;P.Sainath, Everybody loves a Good Drought, (1996), Gail Omvedt (1997), Mohanty (1999), Bob 1996; Mohanty, Aggarwal, Trivedi, Suranjita Ray Currie (2000). They mention that Kalahandi is and N. Sukumar (2003); Antodaya

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(antodaya.org.in). (2003); Sainath (1996); Arima Mishra, Famine and scarcities (1999); Odisha: Kalahandi migrant 32 This argument is being supported by social activ- laborer, whose palm was chopped off 3 years ago ists working in Kalahandi specifically Antodaya, dies, The Indian Express, September 22, 2016; it is the leading non-governmental organization Alien land, death destination for migrant workers that works in Kalahandi, Thumal Rampur block from Odisha, Express News Service, 16 October (antodaya.org.in), also see Mohanty, Aggarwal, 2016; Fruits of development still elusive in Trivedi, Suranjita Ray and N. Sukumar (2003), Kalahandi 30,000 people migrate, The New In- Sainath (1996) dian Express, 23 September 2016; Migration unabated in KBK, district, The Hindu, April 27, 33 P. Sainath, Everybody loves a Good Drought 1996; 2012. Arima Mishra 1999. 44 Arima Mishra, Famine and scarcities, 1999; P. 34 Source: Antodaya (antodaya.org.in) Sainath, Everybody loves a Good Drought, 1996; 35 Mishra (1999), Currie (2000), B. Mishra, Report Antodaya (antodaya.org.in); Odisha: Kalahandi on Inquiry into the Alleged Occurrence of Starva- migrant laborer, whose palm was chopped off 3 tion Death in Kalahandi and Bolangir District, years ago dies, The Indian Express, September High Court of Orissa, Cuttack, 1991. 22, 2016; Alien land, death destination for migrant workers from Odisha, By Express News 36 Dillip Kumar Das is chairperson of Antodaya Service, 16 October 2016; Fruits of development (antodaya.org.in) still elusive in Kalahandi 30,000 people migrate, The New Indian Express, 23 September 2016; 37 Mishra (1999) Migration unabated in KBK district, The Hindu, April 27, 2012. 38 Dillip Kumar Das is chairperson of Antodaya (antodaya.org.in) 45 Arima Mishra, Famine and Scarcities, a sociological study of two villages in Orissa, PHD the- 39 Swarnajayanti Gram Swarojgar Yojna sis submitted to the University of Delhi Depart- ment of Sociology, Delhi School of Economic, 40 Employment Assurance Scheme New Delhi, 1999. 41 Mohanty, Aggarwal, Trivedi, Suranjita Ray and 46 Currie, Hunger (2000). N. Sukumar (2003) 47 Ibid 42 Source: Antodaya (antodaya.org.in); P. Sainath, Everybody loves a Good Drought (1996), 48 Dillip Kumar Das is chairperson of Antodaya Mohanty, Aggarwal, Trivedi, Suranjita Ray and (antodaya.org.in) N Sukumar (2003), Arima Mishra, Famine and scarcities (1999). 49 Land Orissa Regulation (2) of 1956 officially pre- vents by law the transfer of Land from tribal to 43 Source: Antodaya (antodaya.org.in); Mohanty, non-tribal unless previous assent is obtained in Aggarwal, Trivedi, Suranjita Ray and N. Sukumar writing from required authorities. This legislation

54 Rizvi College of Arts, Science & Commerce  Vol. 8 (1)  July - December 2018  International Journal of Research LAND AND POVERTY INTERLINKAGES — A STUDY ON KALAHANDI

also entitles government officers to restore land to the tribal community that had previously been appropriated from them under pressure of debt, See Currie, Hunger (2000).

50 Bob currie (2000)

51 B. Mishra 1991; Arima Mishra 1999; Information obtained from Antodaya (antodaya.org.in)

52 Robin Mearns and Sinha (1999)

53 Interview with Deputy Director of Agriculture, L.K. Paltasingh, Kalahandi, Bhawanipatna. He argues that Kalahandi is very rich in agricultural production and there is maximum possibility of small-scale agro based industries to come up in the area and gradually the government is taking up various initiatives in developing agro based industries. And see other references like Sainath (1996), Gail Omvedt (1997), Mohanty (1999), Bob Currie (2000). They mention that Kalahandi is rich in food or agro-based production but unfortunately it still reels under poverty.

Rizvi College of Arts, Science & Commerce  Vol. 8 (1)  July - December 2018  International Journal of Research 55 Multidisciplinary ISSNSaifuddin 2231 -Ahmad 6124 UGC Approved Journal No. 63072 Multidisciplinary UGCInternational Approved JournalJournal ofNo. Research 63072 ISSN 2231 - 6124 IMPACTVOL FACTOR 8 (1) 2018SJIF : 2018PP 56 (6.67) - 63

Opposition and Discontent in Mughal North India: A Study of Local Potentates in the Seventeenth and Early Eighteenth-Century

Saifuddin Ahmad R.T. House, Mansarowar Hostel Universaity of Delhi, Delhi-110007. Email: [email protected]

Abstract Various family and kinship groups of diverse stature had dominated the land and its rich resources by the time the Mughals established themselves in India. Locally styled as rajas, ranas, rais, et.el. and usually referred to as zamindars, marzban, etc. in the contemporary sources. They ruled mostly hereditarily and some of them had vast domains with almost complete political autonomy in their respective territories. The zamindar class played a crucial role in the political, economic and cultural life of medieval India. Mughals were largely able to integrate the zamindars in the imperial edifice, though there was inherent clash of interest between the two over securing larger share of the revenue resources, yet they became allies of the Mughals in power and economic exploitation. Zamindari resistance was more or less endemic whenever the opportunity to rebel presented itself; however by middle of the seventeenth century, resistance from the countryside became quite evident. The present study focuses on the discontent and opposition in Mughal North India and differs from the earlier studies, as it emphasizes the discontent on the part of local potentates as being the crucial decisive factor. The steady loss of Mughal authority could also be traced to lack of flexibility in the Mughal institutions where superior positions were not available to the local potentates from outside the erstwhile ruling families. This paper examines the response of local potentates to the Mughal system of accommodation in the official hierarchy through the assignment of mansab and jagir.

Keywords: Jagir, Mansab, Mufsid, Zamindar, Zortalab.

INTRODUCTION marzban, kalantarans and so forth in the contemporary and near contemporary sources. They ruled mostly Various family and kinship groups of diverse stature- hereditarily in their respective territories. Some of autonomous and semi-autonomous ones had domi- them were not only the rulers of vast domains but nated the land and its rich resources by the time the also commanded considerable number of troops while Mughals established themselves in India. These groups others were petty chiefs with meager territorial as of the local political and administrative elites played well as military resources. They also enjoyed almost a significant part in integrating countryside with the complete political autonomy in their respective terri- outer world. They were locally styled as rajas, ranas, tories. There seems to be in fact a chain of local rais, rawats et.al. and usually referred to as zamindars, potentates, ranging from powerful rulers, who could

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be called ‘kinglets’ to the petty chiefs of one or two It was for these reasons medieval regimes could not parganas or of a group of villages. The sultans also afford to ignore them. No power from outside could appeared to have strived to control the resources of have ventured to sustain a claim over the surplus this region to their advantage. produce without their support, following either an all out war against them or often a series of diplomatic The zamindars gradually acquired a discrete identity maneuvers and bargains. As allies, they were incred- that differentiated them from the peasantry on the one ible source of strength for any ruler but as opponents hand, as well as the Mughal jagirdars. Politically, were a source of immense political threat. The economically and culturally the zamindar class played Mughals in a large measure were able to integrate the a crucial role in medieval India. The origins of power zamindars in the imperial edifice and even though, vested with the zamindars were independent of the inherently, there was clash between the two for secur- Mughal system. The claims of many of them pre- ing a greater share of the revenue, yet they turned out dated Mughal rule and the Mughals inevitably reached to be the partners of the Mughals in power and eco- some kind of adjustment with them; at times using nomic exploitation.3 intimidation and armed coercion to offering rewards, from assimilation into the new order to serve the REVIEW OF CURRENT LITERATURE empire in return for assured income and privileges. They had established their sway over a large part of Major discussions on the Mughal economy revolve the countryside through coercion exercised by the around the agrarian sector. It has also been suggested might of troops they maintained. The power exer- that around ninety per cent of the state revenue col- cised by them in the countryside over agricultural lected through highly systematized arrangements, was production, handicrafts and trade was tremendous. from agrarian production. Also the local potentates and the revenue officials were brought in as system- When Babur conquered Hindustan he found that one atized sharers in the surplus revenue. To agree that sixth of its total revenue came from the territories of the local potentates had voluntarily accepted the con- chiefs. He writes: trol over their fiefdoms and shares would be too sim- plistic, yet for a considerable period of time there ‘The jama of the territories, from Bhira to Bihar, which was apparent peace and not much difficulty in the are now in my possession, is fifty two crores as will collection of revenue by the agents of the Mughal be known in detail from the following summary. Eight state. Zamindari resistance was, however, more or less or nine crores of this are from the parganas of the rais endemic whenever the opportunity to rebel presented and the rajas who, as obedient from old, receive al- itself. By the middle of the seventeenth century, the lowance and maintenance’.1 resistance from the countryside became too obvious. This has legitimately received the attention of schol- The power and strength of zamindars can be esti- ars. However, in these studies the focus continued to mated from the account of Arif Qandhari about Akbar’s be on the reign of Aurangzeb, and area wise they are reign who describes: limited to the region of Mathura-Kol and Narnaul. Despite the very fact that, acts of defiance and rebel- ‘There were two three hundred rajas and zamindars, lion in later periods in different regions also took who were for long in possession of strong forts’.2 place like that of Baiswara, Khairabad, trans-Ganga

Rizvi College of Arts, Science & Commerce  Vol. 8 (1)  July - December 2018  International Journal of Research 57 ISSN 2231 - 6124 Multidisciplinary UGC Approved Journal No. 63072 IMPACT FACTOR SJIF 2018 (6.67) region (Bahraich), Etawah, Mewat,4 etc. Further, these refractory, contumacious, zortalab, mufsid. The mufsid resistances have been shown as arising from amongst are the source of disturbances, disorder, and insurrec- the peasants in which the zamindars have been in a tion.7 It argues the subordination by the Mughal state, way forced to participate. It has been held for long of the Bais, Bhadurias, Jats, and Meos etc. was ac- that the exploitation of the peasantry on account of cepted by them intermittently and only under com- the transferable nature of the jagirs was the motivat- pulsion. It would also try to find out what the rebels ing factor that caused the subsequent decline of the perceived of the state action? What measures did the Mughal Empire.5 State take to arrest the recalcitrance of these local potentates and how successful they were? The study In recent years marked shift is noticeable, in favor of also proposes to ascertain the nature, extent and the the study of economy and local politics of the regions magnitude of imperial control over the zamindars and over the high imperial government and administration was it able to erode their power base and weaken of the Mughals. It enriched our understanding of the them at the grass-root level? circumstances, that preceded and accompanied Mughal decline. It questioned the validity of the Mughal de- THE COMPOSITION OF RURAL ELITES cline in purely economic terms, although there is lack of unanimity on the issue. Consequently, it succeeded Superior rights in land could be linked in our region in critiquing and revising many of the existing studies of study, as elsewhere with the domination of a pow- of Mughal politics and economy. 6 erful clan or caste over an area. A large portion of land and rural property in India in our region was SCOPE OF STUDY under the control of Rajputs. The fact that frequently the district in their control formed a contiguous block The present study focuses on the discontent and in- added to their power and strength in the countryside.8 surrections in the Mughal North India; however it is Mirat-ul-Auzza, an 18th century source states- restricted to the Mughal subas of Awadh, Allahabad, and Agra. It differs from the earlier studies in that it “within the total population of Hindus, the Rajputs emphasizes the discontent on the part of the local were in a majority, and the zamindars and talluqadars potentates as being the crucial determining factor. The were mostly from this caste. The Muslim zamindars gradual loss of Mughal authority could also be traced and talluqadars were comparatively less numerous. to lack of adaptability in the Mughal institutions where Consequently, most of the uprisings and rebellions senior positions were not available to the local poten- appear to be fomented and precipitated by the Rajputs. tates from outside the erstwhile ruling families. The The fact that they possess large body of (armed) re- study would examine the response of local potentates tainers and forts had made them arrogant and hence to the Mughal system of accommodation in the offi- they had become disrespectful towards the others. The cial hierarchy through the assignment of mansab and additional income was invested by the zamindars in jagir. raising the number of retainers, forts and cannons”. 9

The Mughal historical texts are not of much help, In the suba of Awadh one such block was Baiswara, when it comes to the question of the causes of rebel- the stronghold of Bais Rajputs around Lucknow, an lions and oppositions? The only reference one comes area noted for zamindar and peasant uprisings in the across in the Mughal sources is that so and so became seventeenth and early eighteenth century.10 Sending

58 Rizvi College of Arts, Science & Commerce  Vol. 8 (1)  July - December 2018  International Journal of Research OPPOSITION AND DISCONTENT IN MUGHAL NORTH INDIA: A STUDY OF LOCAL PO- TENTATES IN THE SEVENTEENTH AND EARLY EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY

expeditions by the local officials against the zamindars supplanted the dominant zamindar castes mentioned in the plains quite close to heart of the empire had in the Ain in Agra suba. In the suba of Allahabad and become a regular feature.11 Gaurs, were in control of especially in the Banaras region the traditional castes a large area around Khairabad to the northwest of held on to power with little change. Lucknow, in Bahraich the Raikwars and Janwars, while in Gorakhpur the Bisens, the Surajbansis, and Mughal endeavor at controlling the Local Poten- the Sombansis, dominated, accounting for almost sev- tates enty per cent of the revenue of the district.12 The Mughal Empire in the later half of the seventeenth century made an onerous endeavor to affect a In Agra the Rajputs- Chauhans and Gaurs were domi- greater control over the zamindars. It attempted to nant, in Mainpuri district, the Bhaduria Rajputs, intensify its direct control over the sources of rev- Dhakras and Chauhans accounted for over ninety enue. Despite these attempts, the empire could not percent of the land revenue. In Etawah, different clans erode the socio-economic base of the zamindars to an of Rajputs were dominant.13 In Allahabad, different appreciable extent. The policy of forceful subjugation clans of the Rajputs - Bisens in Manikpur, Bais in of the zamindars by bringing extra pressure from above pargana Kharelah, Rajputs in Kara and Baghelas were without making equally effective inroads into the cita- the hereditary zamindars in Baghelkhand.14 A close del of their powers, failed to bring any qualitative study of the A‘in and the relevant District Gazet- change.19 teers,15 show that in some of the parganas of the suba Allahabad, there was continuity in the zamindaris of The Empire in a way sought to reduce the zamindars some caste or clan even unto the early years of the and assign them a position that was not analogous to twentieth century. The Rajputs were the leading land- their strength lead to hostility. The imperial at- holding class in Banaras region prior to the eigh- tempts to bring extra pressure, in a way proved coun- teenth century. They were the principal landholders terproductive. The zamindars reacted increasingly and in Jaunpur, while Brahman-Bhumihars caste domi- thus forced the empire to over stretch its resources. nated Ghazipur and Banaras areas.16 As a result, rigidity and uncompromising attitude gave way to compromises and leniency. Gradually the The Mewatis or the Meo as described in the sources empire showed signs of fatigue and loss of vigor.20 were known for their defiance and did not acknowl- The turn of events in the early eighteenth century edge the suzerainty of Delhi Sultans and even the provided impetus to the ongoing process. The Mughals.17 They were the independent rulers of Mewat zamindars repelled the administrative control in the area which included Rewari, Sonah (Gurgaon) adding countryside almost completely. The peshkash and mal- upto 1,484 villages and towns extending over Mewat.18 i-wajib, which were duly assessed and demanded on a regular basis, could now be realized only sporadi- The caste composition of the zamindars in the region cally. Gradually the state’s demand acquired the char- under study was devoid of uniformity and regional acter of a casual claim, enforced by the actual use of variations existed. In the suba of Awadh, the Rajput force.21 On the part of zamindars, they offered it as zamindars on the whole maintained their domination the price of forbearance, rather than as a duly estab- since the period of A‘in with slight modifications. lished claim of the state. The amount of the peshkash However, new castes (not even mentioned in 1595 or mal-i-wajib came to be determined in accordance CE) with sizeable land holdings are found to have with their relative strength as distinct from the actual

Rizvi College of Arts, Science & Commerce  Vol. 8 (1)  July - December 2018  International Journal of Research 59 ISSN 2231 - 6124 Multidisciplinary UGC Approved Journal No. 63072 IMPACT FACTOR SJIF 2018 (6.67) capacity to pay. The capacity of the administration to Shahjahanabad (Delhi).24 It has been described that as enforce its claim came to be inversely related with a result of the depredations, the traffic on the road the resourcefulness of the zamindars, i.e. the stronger was completely stopped for two months leading to and more resourceful the zamindar the lesser the hundreds of travelers getting stranded. In August 1707 magnitude of the state demand. Zamindars resource- CE, troops were sent to chastise them.25 fulness and capability to resist emerged as a prominent factor in deciding the amount and chances of The efforts of the faujdar of Mewat Izzat Khan in making or evading payments.22 restoring peace and order also didn’t bear any fruitful result.26 The case of zamindars of Khairabad, Tiloi, Discontent and Insurrection by the Local Poten- Etawah,27 Benaras region of Suba Allahabad,28 Kol,29 tates Bayana, Sahar, Kaman Pahari30 in Suba Agra are other notable examples of the magnitude of rural resistance Widespread uprisings rocked different parts of north against the Mughals in North India. There was a re- India during the late seventeenth and early eighteenth surgence of these local ruling groups in most parts of centuries significantly impacting the polity, economy the empire with the decline of the Mughal authority.31 and society, accelerating the decline of the Mughal In the subsequent periods the Bais zamindars of imperial authority. Several parganas in the subas of pargana Baiswara rebelled against the Mughals in suba Agra, Awadh, Allahabad and Delhi were the centers of Awadh in the seventeenth century and by the early of this lawlessness (fasadat). There were different caste parts of the eighteenth century and began to offer stiff and clans of rajputs involved in these revolts organized resistance against the imperial Mughal (mawasat). These mawa/mufsids areas differed from power.32 the others in their intensity and interests. These revolts continued to jolt the Mughal Empire for a con- The hostility and recalcitrance among zamindars found siderable period. an overt manifestation in the forceful collection of land revenue on their part, which should have gone to The overall economic condition of the region during the imperial jagirdars. This is substantiated by a pe- the period under review was fairly good. The strate- tition sent from the imperial jagirdar to the Mughal gic location of the subas under study and its growing court regarding Churaman Jat and his allies withhold- economy added to the sustained power of the ing the land revenue of the entire pargana of Kohri.33 zamindars. By the early part of the eighteenth cen- Further it has been reported that the Jat zamindar was tury, motivated by the instability of the Mughal Em- involved in plundering activities in the whole region pire, they assumed remarkable political power. The between Akbarabad (Agra) to Shahjahanbad (Delhi).34 hostility and recalcitrance among zamindars is sub- The magnitude of resistance to the Mughal imperial stantiated by a petition sent by the imperial jagirdar authority can be ascertained from statements made by to the Mughal governor of Awadh, Muzaffar Ali Khan the faujdar of Baiswara R’ad Andaz Khan and his in 1716 CE regarding zamindars of Tiloi with holding deputy Sher Andaz Khan. One of these arzdashst revenue due to the jagirdar, acting on their petition mentions- ‘the Chauhan zamindar of pargana Kanjura the governor sent troops to chastise the zamindar.23 refused the payment of land-revenue and with the Further it has been reported that the Jat zamindar help of 8000-9000 men attacked pargana Shahpur’.35 Chauraman was involved in plundering activities in the whole region between Akbarabad (Agra) to

60 Rizvi College of Arts, Science & Commerce  Vol. 8 (1)  July - December 2018  International Journal of Research OPPOSITION AND DISCONTENT IN MUGHAL NORTH INDIA: A STUDY OF LOCAL PO- TENTATES IN THE SEVENTEENTH AND EARLY EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY

CONCLUSION Position of the Zamindars in the Mughal Empire. The Indian Economic & Social History A large part of Mughal north India experienced wide- Review, 1(4), pp.107-119; Habib, I. spread agrarian uprisings during seventeenth and early (1999). Agrarian System of Mughal India. Delhi: parts of the eighteenth centuries, accelerating to the Oxford University Press, pp.136-89; Khan, A.R. decline of the imperial authority. These revolts were (1997). Chieftains in the Mughal Empire during inevitably multi-dimensional in nature and multi-causal the Reign of Akbar. Shimla: Indian Institute of in origin. Advanced Studies.

The turbulence of the zamindars was symptomatic of 4 For Mewati rebellion see, Khan, I., Begley, W. their growing wealth, power and the urge to preserve and Desai, Z. (1990). Shahjahanama. Delhi, and sustain their rights and privileges. So whenever pp.148, 151; Mughal Farman No. 77, 28 there was any dislocation effected by the imperial September, 1650 as cited in Hasan, S. N. (1978). authorities, there was disaffection and resistance, Further Light on Zamindars under the Mughals- weather overtly in the form of rebellion or covertly A Case Study of (Mirza) Raja Jai Singh under such as the withholding of the revenues or other such Shahjahan. Proceedings of Indian History methods. The reason of their refractoriness seems to Congress (PIHC), 39, p.498; Rana, R. P. (1981). lay in the aims and ambitions of the state. The Mughal Agrarian Revolts in Northern India during the state, in its eagerness to promote its dominance, power Late Seventeenth and early Eighteenth and legitimacy, on the one hand, and growth and Centuries. The Indian Economic & Social History expansion of the economy and enhancement of rev- Review, 18(3-4), pp.287-325 ; Bilgrami, M. enue, on the other, reinterpreted and reformulated local Tabsirat un-Nazrin, Aligarh MS, Farsiya Akhbar, custom, tradition and law. These local potentates owing f. 55a, 204, for Khairabad. For Jat rebellions see, to the improved economic prosperity and social pres- Manucci, N., Irvine, W. (1981). Storia do Mogor. tige were in no mood to accept any dislocation or Delhi, I, pp. 204, 133; Khan, K., Ahmad, K. D. disruptions in their status, rights and privileges. Any and Haig, W. (1860-74). Mutakhab-ul Lubab. move by the imperial authorities to force upon changes Calcutta, I, p.552; Khan, S. M., Sarkar, J. N. lead to rebellions and anarchy. However, the zamindars (1947). Ma’asir-i Alamgiri. Calcutta, pp. 83, 91- fought for a very limited cause, and their strength 94,340, 498. was often impaired by the internal social differences. 5 Habib, I. Agrarian System of Mughal India, pp. NOTES AND REFERENCES 367-69.

1 Babur, Z., Beveridge, A. (1922). Baburnama. 6 Alam, M. (1986). The Crisis of Empire in Mughal London: Luzac & Co., Vol. II. pp. 520-21; 577- North India: Awadh & the Punjab, 1707- 1748. 78. Delhi: Oxford University Press; Alam, M., Aspects of Agrarian Uprisings in Mughal India, 2 Qandhari, A., Nadwi, M. and Ali, A. et. al in Bhattacharya, S. and Thapar, R. (1986). Eds. (1962). Tarikh-i Akbari. Rampur, p. 47. Situating History. Delhi: Oxford University Press, 3 For an account of the position of zamindar in pp. 146-70; Washbrook, D. (1988). Progress and Mughal India see Hasan, S. N. (1964). The Problems: South Asian Economic and Social

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History c.1720–1860. Modern Asian Studies, Land Controlling Classes in Awadh: A Study of 22(01), pp.57-96; Singh, C. (1988). Conformity Changes in their Composition, 1600-1900, and Conflict: Tribes and the Agrarian System of Proceedings of Indian History Congress, 43rd Mughal India. The Indian Economic & Social Session, Kurukshetra. History Review, 25(3), pp. 319-40; Khan, A. R. Chieftains in the Mughal Empire; Trivedi, K.K. 13 A‘in i- Akbari, II, Account of ‘Twelve Subas’ (1998). Agra: Economic and political Profile of a provides the names of the dominant zamindar Mughal Suba, 1580-1707. Pune: Ravish castes; Trivedi, K. K. (1975). Changes in the Caste Publishers. Composition of Zamindar Class. Indian Historical Review (IHR), II, (l). 7 Steingass, F. (1963). A Comprehensive English- Persian Dictionary. London & Kegan Paul: 14 A‘in i- Akbari, II, pp. 172-78. Rutledge, p. 1286. It describes the word mufsid as one who is mischievous, pernicious, corrupter, 15 Ibid., pp. 172-78 for the composition of zamindari depraver, destroyer, author of evil, seditiousness. in the suba Allahabad; Pratapgarh District Gazetter, p. 148 . 8 Fazl, A., Jarrett, H. S. and Sarkar, J. N. (1978). A‘in i- Akbari. Delhi, II, Account of ‘Twelve 16 Ibid., pp. 173-7. Subas’, pp. 170-90. 17 Baburnama, pp. 577-78. Babur mentions about 9 Laljee, Mirat-ul-Auzza. MS. Aligarh: Maulana the revenue from Mewat and the nominal Azad Library (MAL, hereafter), ff. 74a- 76b, 91. acceptance of the authority of Delhi Sultans by Hasan Khan Mewati’s ancestors, who were the 10 Rai, Bhupat. Insha i- Roshan Kalam, Aligarh MS: rulers of the area for more than hundred years. It MAL, f. 7a. Considerable recalcitrance of the Bais also describes , neither conquest nor the appears for the first time during the reign of administrative control could be achieved due to Shahjahan and led to the creation of special its hilly terrain and its topography; Khan, I., faujdari jurisdiction of Baiswara, it consisted of Begley, W. and Desai, Z. (1990). Shahjahanama, many mahals that are the house of the seditious pp. 148, 151, for constant military expeditions zamindars of the qaum of Bias; Malik, Z. (1973). against the Meos; Tirmizi, S.A.I. (1995). Mughal Problems of Faujdari Jurisdictions in Baiswara, Documents- A.D. 1628-1659. Delhi: Manohar, p. Proceedings of Indian History Congress (PIHC). 97. Chandigarh. I, pp. 211-15. 18 Powlett, P. W. (1878). Alwar Gazteer. London: 11 Ibid., ff.2a-4a, 6a-b. Trubner & Co., p. 7.

12 A‘in i- Akbari, II, pp. 184-90; Elliot, C. A. (1862). 19 Chandra, S. (1991). The Eighteenth Century in Chronicles of Oonao. Allahabad, pp. 67-73. For India: Its Economy And the Role of the Maratha, an analysis of the A‘in’s account of the zamindar Jats, the Sikhs and the Afghan. Delhi, p. 29. castes in Awadh, see Jafri, S. Z. H. (1982). The

62 Rizvi College of Arts, Science & Commerce  Vol. 8 (1)  July - December 2018  International Journal of Research OPPOSITION AND DISCONTENT IN MUGHAL NORTH INDIA: A STUDY OF LOCAL PO- TENTATES IN THE SEVENTEENTH AND EARLY EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY

20 Hasan, S. N. (1964). Observes that the numerous of Chauraman’s cavalry and also states that his measures by the Mughal government to resolve followers’ strength rose to 14,000. these contradictions worked well, but only for a time. Gradually the government had become too 27 Insha-i-Roshan Kalam, ff. 2-21; Akhbarat, FS, 4th weak to maintain the equilibrium between the RY, I, p. 7; Akhbarat, FS, 5th RY, II, p.122. conflicting interests. 28 Akhbarat. (Monday 9th Aug. 1714 CE). vol. 21 Bhakkari, S. F., Zakhirat-ul Khwanin. Aligarh XII, part II, p.22. MS., f. 108a, for expedition to realize mal-i-wajib from the zamindars in suba Agra; Akhbarat-i 29 Sharma, U. N. (1977). A New History of Darbar-i Mu‘alla: Newsletters from the Imperial Jats. Jaipur, p. 176 Court. Malwa: Sitamau Collection, FS, 5th R.Y., II, p. 122 for expedition to Tiloi in suba Awadh. 30 Rana, R. P. (1981). Agrarian Revolts in Northern India. 22 Elliot, C. A., Chronicles of Oonao, p. 73, Chait Rai, a zamindar of Baiswara was asked to pay 31 Ibid. only half the sum fixed on his zamindari; Mitra, R. (1882). The Bisen Talukadars of North Oudh. 32 Akhbarat, FS, 4th RY, I, p.121. Calcutta Review, pp. 367-70, Bisen zamindar of Gonda was made independent of the jurisdiction 33 Ibid., for Churaman Jat and his allies withholding of the nazim of Gorakhpur and Bahraich and was the land revenue of the entire pargana of Kohri; to pay only a tribute to the governor. Lahori, Badshahnama. Calcutta, II, pp.71-2, 76, mentions of a campaign in 1634 A.D. on an 23 th Akhbarat, FS, 5 R.Y., II, p. 122; Rana, R. P. elaborate scale against “the malefactors” on both (1981). For Churaman Jat and his allies side of the Yamuna in which 12,000 troops withholding the land revenue of the entire pargana deployed against the rebels, 7,000 to the east and of Kohri. 5,000 to the west of Yamuna; Akhbarat, FS, 5th R.Y., II, p. 122 for zamindars of Tiloi withholding 24 Lahori, A. H., Ahmad, K. and Rahim, A. (1872). revenue due to the state. Badshahnama. Calcutta, II, pp.71-2, 76. 34 Irvine, W. (1971), p.321. 25 Irvine, W. (1971). Later Mughals. Delhi, II, p.321. 35 Rai, B. Insha-i- Roshan kalam. Arzdasht No.1.

26 Lakhnawi, Shivdas, Askari, S. H. (1980). Shahnama-i-Munnawar Kalam. Patna, pp. 16-18; Mirza, M., Zakaria, M. (1928). Iqbalnam-i- Jahangiri. Hyderabad: Jamia Usmania, pp. 22- 24; Naqavi, G. A. (1808). Imad-us-Saadat. Lucknow: Nawal Kishore, p.83, refers to strength

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Koragas of Kasaragod ; A Historical Perspective

Vijaya Kumari K. Asst. Professor, Dept. of History, All Saints’ College, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala- 695007. Email [email protected]

Abstract Tribal communities face marginalisation in every sphere of social life over decades. Koragas, a primitive tribal group became the most subjugated tribal community suffered the outcome of social evils and deprivation from time immemorial. Koragas, once upon a time real lords of the land, possessed immense cultural heritage, traditional knowledge and contributed tremendously to the Indian culture but now under threat due to marginalisation, gradation, deprivation and backwardness. Koragas, once upon a time real lords of the land, possessed immense cultural heritage, traditional knowledge and contributed tremendously to the Indian culture. The present paper is about one of the most backward primitive tribal group, Koragas who were found in South Canara district of Karnataka and Kasaragod district of Kerala. Koraga community is so distinct even today with its background of history, tradition, legend and moral condition. It tries to highlight the geographical sketch of Tulu Nadu, South Canara and Kasaragod. There were different interpretations and legends regarding their origin. An attempt is made to incorporate different interpretations and legends regarding the origin of Koragas. This paper is an attempt to make a sketch on the origin and historical background of Koragas and to analyse how Koragas, an old primitive tribal group has been marginalized and thrown in to the lowest bottom of the social ladder and now are on the verge of extinction

Keywords: Tribes, Primitive Vulnerable Tribal Group, Koragas, Tulu Nadu, South Canara, Kasaragod,

INTRODUCTION tion in India represents diversity of groups. They are divided into several communities according to their History will become rich only if the history of the customs and practices and geographical distribution. less or marginalized i.e., deprived or backward people They vary among themselves in respect of language of the history like Tribes, Dalits, Women the Subal- and linguistic traits, ecological settings in which they terns are included in the history of our country. India live, physical features, size of the population, the has one of the largest tribal concentrations in the extent of acculturation, dominant modes of making a world. Tribes have preserved their culture, tradition livelihood, level of development and social stratifica- and ethnic identity to contribute to the astonishing tion. The Shilu Ao Committee, constituted by the cultural diversity of our country. The tribal popula- Planning Commission in 1969 for reviewing the tribal

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situation observed that a large number of tribal com- East India Company of the areas under Tipu Sultan munities continued to be extremely backward and who was killed in the Third Mysore War in 1799. some of them were still in the primitive food-gather- After Munroe left the Province in October, 1800 it ing stage. It was emphasized that these communities was divided into two divisions, Northern and South- needed special attention. An outstanding fact is that ern. In April 1862, the district of North Canara was primitive Tribal Groups are most vulnerable and eco- transferred to the Bombay Presidency, but the taluk nomically backward communities within Scheduled of Coondapoor was transferred to South Canara which Tribes. The Government of India initiated four crite- became part of Madras Presidency.2 ria in identifying Primitive Tribal Groups. They are pre-agricultural level of technology, very low level of Tulu language is spoken by the inhabitants of the area literacy, a subsistence level of economy and stagnant lying between Brahmavar river in the north and or declining population. Chandragiri river in the south and this area is known as Tulu Nadu. Buchanan records “Beyond this, the The Government of India in 1976 has categorized 75 country rises into the open rising lands, all the way to tribal groups or communities as Primitive Tribal Chandragiri river which is the northern boundary of Groups following the criteria of geographical isola- Malayala3. Stuart points out “The Kasaragod taluk tion, distinctive culture, primitive traits, and shyness originally formed the southern portion of the ancient of contact with the community at large and economic Tuluva Kingdom and was separated from the king- backwardness coupled with discrimination and exploi- dom of Kerala by the Chandragiri river which was tation by the outsiders are generally considered rel- formerly called “Permpula”. “The river on which it evant for their exclusion. They are not only deprived (the fort) stands is shallow but very wide and formed of basic needs of life but suffering a lot due to social the southern boundary of the ancient Tuluva King- exclusion and discrimination. The Primitive Tribal dom. The Nayars and the other females of the Groups are known as Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Kasaragod Taluk of South Canara, are prohibited from Groups, primarily based on the criteria of pre-agricul- crossing this river”4. It is also noteworthy that in the tural level of technology, less than five per cent lit- work called Gramapaddhati which deals with the dis- eracy and marginal or stagnant rate of growth. Ac- tribution of the gramas (villages) to Brahmin settlers, cording to Annual Report 2016, there are 675 tribal the names of several villages of Kasaragod Taluk north groups in India in which 75 are Particularly Vulner- of Chandragiri river are but none south of it in Hosdurg able Tribal Groups1 out of which five are in Kerala, Taluk5. According to Saletore, “Tuluva Rajya Com- viz. Koraga, Cholanaickan, Kattunayakan, Kurumbar menced from Gokarna in the north as far as Perumpula and Kadar. (Chandragiri) in the south6. Tulunadu is known as the place where people speak Tulu language. All these TULU NADU narratives, thus, show that though Tulu language was spoken in the area between Brahmavara and The area comprising the present Dakshina Kannada Chandragiri only, the area called Tuluva extended district of Karnataka and Kasaragod district of Kerala beyod Kundapura where Kannada is still spoken as together with North Kanara district (now known as mother tongue. Evidently the Tuluva kings had the Uttara Kannada) was originally known as Canara suzerainty or sway beyond this area too, as observed Province, when Sir. Thomas Munro became the first by Salatore.7 Collector of that Province, after the annexation by the

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South Canara District (up to 1-11-56) Kasargod was part of the Kumbala Kingdom in which there were 64 Tulu and Malayalam villages. South Canara district was bounded on the south by Kasaragod, the nothern most part, is surrounded by Malabar district and on the west by the Arabian Sea. the district of Dakshina Kannada (old name South It had a coastal length of about 220 km. from north Kanara) and Kodagu (Coorg) in Karnataka State, on to south. The terrain of the area is sandy but thickly the north and east respectively, by the Arabian sea on populated with coconut plantations, the easternmost the west and Cannanore district on the south. It has highland area, lying on the lap of the sloping western a coastal length of about 88 km from north to south. ghats which is forest area while the midland, in be- It consists of two taluks , Kasaragod and Hosdurg by tween these two is the most fertile, cultivated with the 1st of November 1956. The boundary between different crops like paddy, coconut, areca, cashew, Kararagod and Hosdurg taluks, is Chandragiri river. pepper, cardamom etc. With the ushering in of the ‘The district has seven rivers the origins of which are linguistic States on 1-11-1956, Kasaragod Taluk was either in the Western Ghat or its foothill portions. Of separated from South Canara and added to Kerala these, Chandragiri, known as Payaswini (also formerly State. Kasaragod Taluk and Hosdurg Taluk were known as perumpula) is the major river.’9. In the old formed into a district called Kasaragod in 1984. The Censuses, where classification of certain communi- Inhabitants in both the areas belong to the major re- ties was made on language or race basis, all the three ligions of Hinduism, Islam, Christianity and Jainism. communities came under Canarese caste, 10 though The languages spoken are, Tulu, Kannada, Malayalam, Koragas and Kudiyas alone are the original inhabit- Marati, Konkani and Hindustani. The tribes in both ants of South Kanara, while Maratis are reported to the areas are also common viz., the Koragas (primi- have come from the north six or seven centuries back. tive) and Kudiyas and Maratis (Scheduled Tribes). While the same language is spoken by members of ORIGIN OF KORAGAS different communities, in some cases, the same community speaks different languages.8 Whether a tribe or a family was racially Aryan or Dravidian was a question which never troubled the KASARAGOD DISTRICT people of India, until foreign scholars came in and began to draw the line. The colour of the skin had Kasaragod District has a long history starting from long ceased to be a matter of importance.11 According pre-historic times to modern period. It lies on the to Dr. Ayyappan, the so called aboriginal tribes were northwestern coast of Kerala State. Many Arab trav- wrongly believed to be the different from the plains elers who came to Kerala between 9th and 14th cen- population in ethnical and racial terms, the chief dif- turies A.D. invariably visited Kasargod. In 1514 ference being only in economic terms. He says, “The Mr.Barbose the Portuguese traveler visited Kumbla diehards in England made Herculean efforts to create near Kasargod. According to him rice was exported as extensive and numerous excluded areas as pos- to Male Island whence coir was imported. Dr.Fracis sible” and adds that “they (tribes) are Indians and Buccanan, who was the family doctor of Lord Hindus”12 Wellesly, visited Kasargod in 1800. In his travelogue, he has included information on the political and com- The origin of the word ‘Koraga’ has not acquired any munal set-up in places like Athiparamba, Kavvai, unanimity in it definition13. It was H.H. Wilson who Nileshwar, Bekkal, Chandragiri and Manjeshwar. first attempted to give a definition, echoed later by

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Gustav Oppert. According to him, the word Koraga is the uncivilized excluded people without any social a derivative of Ko meaning mountain and this argu- status usually the people of untouchable communities ment is extended to other tribes like Kodagus are called by a suffix Ga. Koragas did not enjoy the (Coorgis), Kuravas, Korchas Koramas etc14. Accord- same social status. Superior caste of untouchables did ing to Rao, the Koragas were once Sun worshippers not touch or mingle with lower caste. Koragas are a and they used to name their children after the names primitive tribal community and led an isolated life. of the days of the week (in a distorted form). This is But they have their own settlements called Koppu in supplemented by Dr. Ayyappan, according to whom the villages, generally near a wooded area which fa- the probability is that it has sprung from the word cilitates them to collect firewood and carry on their Kora, meaning, Sun which is applied to some north- traditional work of basket making for which creepers. ern tribes like Gadaba, Muka, Dora and Rona. Dr. Ayyappan also speculates on the probability of the HISTORICAL BACKGROUND word Koraga being a corruption of Kurava meaning hill man. 15The lexical meaning of the word Kora is The first chronicle available about the Koragas, is rough, not fine, harsh etc., and Koragas’ nature being that of Francis Buchanan (written in February, 1801) identified with such qualities, apparently seem to have who assembled the Koragas at Udupi in South Canara lent some semblance to such an interpretation16. The District 20 While he gives a general description of the word Koragu according to Fr. Kittel, means to be- Koragas, not much is available about their history, come deprived of juice, sapless, to shrivel, to be except a reference to the rule of their Chieftain, emaciated, to ware, to sorrow17. In a similar vein the Hubashika for a short period. For this, Buchanan seems Administration Report defines the word Cora from to have depended on Ramappa Vormika, whom he the root coor meaning small, defective, narrow, sharp, befriended and called him an intelligent Brahmin. A rude hence a low set of people and is specially ap- detailed description about the Koragas is available in plied to this tribe in South Canara 18.According to Ramappa Vormika’s work, “The Memoirs of the Ori- Ramappa Vormika, Koragas belonged to the ‘slave gin of the Slaves21” which was written in 1819. It is caste’ of which there were fifteen sub divisions, the also evident from the chronicles of several other Koragas being the last two in that order. The sub writers of later period that they depended on this work divisions are (1) Hambatar or Fammadas (2) Panar (3) of Ramappa Vormika. Hasalar (4) Paravar (5) Belar or Medarar (6) Battadar (7) Merar (8) Karajar (9) Asadi (10) Holeya (11) According to Dr. Vasanth Madhav, Durat Barbosa Madiga (12) Bakada with three sub divions viz., (a) (1512) was the first to mention about the Koragas. Chujana Bakada (b) Turubina Bakada (c) Goddina Quoting Barbosa, Dr. Madhav says “the Koragas (the Bakada, (13) Nuliga (14) Kappada Korgar and (15) agrarian serfs) dwell on the fields and open campaign Soppina Koragar.19. The name koraga has been seems in secret lurking places which folks of good castes to be referred by different authors in different ways. never go save by mischance”. But the actual word Many authors and scholars have associated and ana- used by Barbosa, is “Pulear” (Puler) Dr. Madhav lyzed the name with different sources. According to explains that the Koragas came under the category of the traditional belief among the people of Tulunadu Holiyar. According to Ramappa Vormika, a chieftain the word koraga is associated with the condition of among the “Slave caste” called Hubashika whom he tribe who lives in utmost untouchability and social called a famous ‘hero’, defeated a King called exclusion. The word Ga is terms of ridiculing to call Lokadiraya and was ruling his caste people

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22.Hubashika with his people were killed by Lokadithya Canara jungles. In the 1881 Census, they have been and those who escaped were captured and punished described as Aborigines. In both these Censuses they and forced to remain as slaves of landlords or domi- have been included under the main caste “Pariah”. In nant class. Buchanan, while he does not touch upon the 1891 census the Koragas were treated as “Forest the original history of the Koragas, refers to them as and Hill tribes” coming under the main category, “Masters of Tuluva”. He quotes from a work made ‘Agriculture’. The Administration Report (1893) of available by Ramappa Vormika, called Raya Padithi the erstwhile Madras Presidency describes them as or “succession of the Rajas” who governed Tuluva23. “praedial tribe”, “a low set of people based on the They were subjected to such extreme conditions of meaning of the word Cora as “defective, narrow, sharp, living that they agreed to remain as slaves under the rude”. The most reliable authority, Ramappa Vormika former landlords. Rao opines that the Koragas who while mentioning the fifteen subdivisions of the ‘slave come under the category of ‘slave caste’ ie., the chil- castes’ (of which the last two are the Koragas) says dren of high caste women by a Sudra, were forced to that only four sub divisions viz., Holeya, Asadi, resort to the forest by the Brahminical class because Madiga and Nuliga are the aborigines of the Ghauts, they were beef eaters which was repugnant to the the remaining eleven classes being inhabiants of the Brahmins. Walhouse points out that even after defeat plains. It is therefore evident that the Koragas are “They accepted slavery under certain conditions”, from the plains.27 The 1901 census describes them as which means that even as slaves they had some kind a “wild tribe of basket makers. In 1901 and 1911 of freedom which they were not willing to part with. censuses they were classified as a wild tribe of South According to Sturrock there are several traditions Canara. In the census of 1921, 1931 and 1941 they which go to show that Mayura Varma of Kadamba were classified as Depressed Classes and in 1951 as dynasty, was responsible for settling the Tulu Brah- Scheduled Castes. From 1961 to 1981 they were re- mins in South Canara and that one such account is classified as Scheduled Tribes. In 1986 they were that Hubashika, chief of the Koragas defeated Mayura classified as Primitive Tribes. ‘Peoples of India form Varma but was later, in turn, defeated by Lokaditya, a homogeneous whole. The various races of India, son or son-in-law of the latter24.Thurston (1909)25 occupying definite territories, have fused into more quotes Buchanan, Rao and describes them as a tribe or less one another and do possess a cultural unity noted for their honesty and straight dealings and well which is the only criterion of a homogeneous popu- known for their truthfulness and whose word has lation’ 28 Most of the indigenous tribal people in India become proverbial.26 refer themselves as adivasis which literally means first inhabitants. The tribal population in India, though a The first mention about Koragas as “hill tribe” is numerically small minority, represents a diversity of found in the first regular Census Report of 1871 in groups. They are also spread over the length and which they have been described as the “wild race of breadth of the country though their geographical dis- Koragas” and Rao’s description account has been tribution is far from uniform29. The ethnic and quoted ‘in extenso’. In the first Census Report of anthropometrical features reveal that the Koragas are 1871 relating to South Canara district, it was reported aboriginal Dravidian tribe. Indigenous people clearly that “there are properly speaking no hill tribes living distinguish themselves from the other segments of exclusively in the jungles in this district with the society by way of historical and structural features as exception of Malekudiyas”, though mention has been well as their self –identification. Their cultural dis- made as “the wild race of Koragars who inhabit the tinctiveness is often based on language, social orga-

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nization, religion and spiritual values, modes of pro- customs, myths and rituals, deities, arts and perfor- duction, as well as laws and institutions.30 mance. Recent descriptions of simpler social systems have emphasized the meaningful uses of leisure time The tribal as man is simple, humble and possesses a and discussed topics of common concern, talk about great amount of feeling for his co-villagers and kins- events of the past in such a way to reinforce the basic men in particular and community members in gen- values of the society. Stories are told and embellished eral. He grows in the intimacy of the social atmo- as a rich oral literature is transmitted. sphere of his community. His close association with nature inspires him to lead a carefree life. He feels Koragas as primitive societies referred as pre-literate pleasure in roaming about hills, forests and fields. and their social systems are small, relatively isolated, Nature makes him intimate with the environments. homogeneous and simply organized. Early man was He often meets friends and visits his own relations on forced to eke out a meagre existence, frequently suc- different festive occasions and in periodical markets cumbing to starvation, developed hunting and gather- to minimize his natural isolation. This again paves ing groups, designed sophisticated techniques to get the way for new relations and association with his the essentials from nature without exploitation. They people. 31 Smaller the group, lesser is the possibility depend on nature for livelihood and little control over of accepting change as a natural phenomenon. The natural forces. The obtained goods were limited and very existence of a small group depends on its ex- comfort level was close to the survival level. They treme cohesiveness. Consequently, dissidence is se- were forced to be mobile to cover areas extensive verely punished. Small groups are known to exist in enough to collect food and other resources. Such extreme hostile circumstances in a state of continued nomadism was followed by tribes, on a daily or pe- conformation. If they lose the nerve, they soon be- riodic basis allows group survival. Nomadism pre- come extinct. But they continue tenaciously as a group cludes the possibility of raising the comfort level by keeping the change to the minimum or accepting through the development of complex storage facili- the change almost as a mutation when the whole ties, constant water or food surpluses, more substan- community may accept a new behavior pattern within tial housing or inventories of other material goods a short period. 32 which would contribute to physical comfort. This has enabled them to live in circumstances of relative se- CONCLUSION curity, high per capita productivity and comfort. Primi- tive societies have been forced to live in marginal Like other primitive tribal societies, Koragas are es- resource areas as a result of direct political interven- sentially very simple ones. They do not experience tion, expansionist migrations of other groups forced the stresses and strains that we experience in our life. the tribes to live in minimal survival conditions with However, it should be noted that despite the low low comfort levels either because resources are scare comfort level of tribal societies, life in such societies or technology is not suited for the new environment. frequently had a vitality and sense of meaning which For development of tribal communities, special atten- stemmed from rich social relationships and belief tion is inevitable to the smaller groups to avoid the systems. Such richness is not always found in the possibility of extinction of any small group by con- more comfortable segments of complex society. They flict, confrontation or maladjustment of a large group have own traditional beliefs and practices, language or of external influences. or dialect, unique and distinctive culture, traditions,

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NOTES AND REFERENCES dras. 1893, p.225. 18. Ramappa Vormika, Memoirs of the Origin or 1. Annual Report 2016-17,p. 259 Slaves (Translation by Joseph Saldhana), Madras, 2. Stuart H.A, Madras District Manual, South 1865. The Hill Ranges of Southern India, Part Canara, Vol. II, Madras 1895 pp. 274-75. IV. p. 17. 3. Buchanan, Dr. Francis, A Journey from Madras 19. Buchanan, A Journey....’.1807 p.100 through Mysore, Canara and Malabar. Vol. III, 20. Ibid, pp.15-35 London 1807, p. 11. 21. Vasudevan, Forgotten... op.cit p. 23 4. Stuart, op.cit, pp. 247, 256. 22. Buchanan. A Journey...., op.cit p.100 5. Saletore, Bhaskar Anand, Ancient Karnataka, Vol. 23. Lavie, William, Geography and History of Canara I History of Tuluva, Poona, 1936. pp. 301-302. (unpublished), quoted by Gustav Oppert in The 6. Ibid. pp. 1-2. Original Inhabitants of Bharata Varsha , London, 7. Saletore, Supplement to South Canara District 1893, pp. 173-74. Mannual, Krishna Swami Iyer and J.F. Hall, 24. Sturrock J. Mannual of Soth Canara, Vol. I, Ma- Madras. 1938. p. 171. dras, 1894. 8. Vasudevan. C, Koragas:The Forgotten Lot : the 25. Thurston Edgar, Caste and Tribes of South India, Primitive Tribe of Tulu Nadu : History and Cul- vol. III (K). Madras, Government Press. 1909, p. ture, The Ethos,Thrissur, 1998, p.6 426 9. Ibid, p.8 26. Vasudevan, op.cit, p.33 10. Census Report of India 1901, Vol XV Madras 27. Vasudevan, op.cit, pp.33-34 part X. p. 163. 28. B.R. Ambedkar, Castes in India, Indian Antiquary 11. Ambedkar, B.R, Castes in India. The Indian An- No. XLVI Bombay, 1917, pp. 81-82. tiquary, May,No. XLVI. Bombay, 1917 p. 94. 29. Report of the High Level Committee on Socio- 12. Ayyappan, Report on the Socio-Economic Con- Economic, Health and Educational Status of Tribal dition of the Aboriginal Tribes of the Madras Communities of India, Ministry of Tribal Affairs Presidency Madras, 1948, pp 3-4. Government of India May, 2014, p.24 13. Vasudevan C, Dravidian Encyclopaedia, Vol. II 30. M.V.Rao, Persistence and Change in Tribal In- (People and Culture). The International School dia, Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi, of Dravidian Linguistics. Trivandrum. 1993 p. 2012, p-79 405. 31. George Dalton(Ed), Tribal and Peasants Econom- 14. Ayyappan, op.cit, 1948, p. 115. ics, The Natural History Press, Garden city New 15. Manner, Rev. A., Tulu – English dictionary, New. York, 1967, p-272. Delhi. Reprint. 1983. 32. Sharma. B. D, Development of Small Tribal Com- 16. Kittel, Kannada-English dictionary, Vol. II, Ma- munities, A Theoretical Frame, Sahyog Pustak dras, 1988, Reprint, p. 488. Kuteer Trust, New Delhi, 2001, p.24 17. Government of Madras, M.A. M.P Vol. III. Ma-

70 Rizvi College of Arts, Science & Commerce  Vol. 8 (1)  July - December 2018  International Journal of Research Multidisciplinary g‘mO ^mfm{dkmZ… à‘wI ^mfmd¡km{ZH$ S>m°. kmZoída gImam‘ JdirH$a UGC Approved Journal No. 63072 International Journal of Research ISSN 2231 - 6124 VOL 8 (1) 2018 : PP 71 - 74

g‘mO ^mfm{dkmZ… à‘wI ^mfmd¡km{ZH$

- S>m°. kmZoída gImam‘ JdirH$a ghmæ`H$ àmÜ`mnH$, ‘amR>r {d^mJ èd§Vamd MìhmU H$bm, dm{UÁ` d {dkmZ ‘hm{dÚmb` {g„moS> ‘mo. Z§. 9404694035 B©-‘ob- dsg150379gmail.com àñVmdZm g‘mO ^mfm{dkmZ `m ^mfm{dkmZmÀ`m Cn`mo{OV emIoMm CX` 1960 À`m gw‘mamg Pmbobm Amho. `m H$mimV g§aMZmdmXr aMZmdmXr g§àXm`mnojm doJim Agm {dMma H$mhr ^mfmä`mgH$ ‘m§S>V hmoVo, nU g§aMZmdmXr g§àXm`mÀ`m ÌwQ>r bmoH$m§Zm OmUdy bmJë`m‘wio `m g§àXm`mÀ`m AZw`m`m§Zr ^mfoÀ`m ì`dhmamV dmnaë`m OmUmè`m ê$nmH$S>o Xwb©j H$ê$Z H¥${Ì‘ Aem AmXe©^yV ì`dñWoda Amnbo bj H|${Ð` Ho$bo. `m§Mm n[aUm‘ åhUyZM gmR>À`m XeH$mV ""^mfoÀ`m gm‘m{OH$ g§X^m©Mm {dMma H$aUmè`m EH$ ñdV§Ì Aä`mgemIoÀ`m CX` Pmbm VrM g‘mO^mfm{dkmZ hmo`''1 `m emIoV ^mfmôXmMm, Ë`m§À`m ~XbË`m ñdê$nmMm Ë`m‘mJrb gm‘m{OH$ H$maUm§Mm AS>MUrMm d Cn`moOZm§Mm àm‘w»`mZo {dMma Ho$bm OmVmo. EHy$UM H$m` Va ^mfoH$S>o gm‘m{OH$ Ñï>rH$moZmVyZ nmhUmè`m Aä`mg emIog gm‘m{OH$ ^mfm{dkmZ Ago åhUVmV. ^mfm g‘mOm‘Üò g§nH©$ àñWm{nV H$aÊ`mMo ‘hËdmMo H$m`© H$aVo åhUyZ {VMm g§~Y Vr ^mfm dmnaUmar ì`º$s, g‘mO d Ë`m g‘mOmMr g§ñH¥$Vr `m§À`mer òV AgVmo. Ë`m‘wio gm‘m{OH$ ^mfm{dkmZmMo ñdê$n ‘Zmo{dkmZ, g§ñH¥$Vr{dkmZ (‘mZdd§e{dkmZ) Am{U g‘mO{dkmZ Ago A§Va{dÚmemIrM Amho. ""g‘mO^mfm{dkmZmV ^mfoMo {dl²bofZ H$aÊ`mda â AgVmo. dU©ZmË‘H$, Cn`mo{OV d Am¡n{ÎmH$ Aem gd© àH$mam§Zr {VMmM Aä`mg Ho$bm OmVmo.''2 `m {dYmZmÀ`m AmYmao `m emIoMm Aä`mghr {H$Vr {dñV¥V nÜXVrZo H$aVm òVm ho hr bjmV òVo. bmoH$m§H$Sy>Z ì`dhmam‘Üò ^mfoMo Oo doJdoJio à`moJ qH$dm dmna Ho$bm OmVmo `mMm Aä`mg H$aUo ho à‘wI H$m`© g‘mO ^mfm{dkmZmMo ‘mZbo OmVo. S>m°. a‘oe Km|JS>o `m§À`m ‘Vo, ""Ho$di EH$ ^mfm AgUo qH$dm g§nH©$ AgUo `mnojm ^mfm ì`dhmamVrb g‘mZ [aVr, g‘mZ Am¡{MË` H$ënZm, {OdZm~m~V g‘mZ Aem, AmH$m§jm g‘mZ kmZ d lÜXm `m§Zrhr g‘mO ~ZVmo.''3 `m AmYmao g‘mZVobm A{Ve` ‘hËd Ë`m§Zr òWo {Xbobo Amho. VgoM ~mobÊ`mMr {H«$`m, ~mobbobo Ago H$mhr Am{U ho XmoÝhr eŠ` H$aUmar ^mfm `m VrZ Jmoï>r doJdoJi`m AmhoV. ^mfm{dkmZmV ^mfmj‘VoMm Aä`mg Ho$bm OmVmo Vmo Am§V[aH$ ñdê$nmMm AgVmo Va g‘mO ^mfm{dkmZmV ~mh` ^mfm§Mm Ë`m§À`m dmnam§Mm Aä`mg Ho$bm OmVmo. gm‘m{OH$ dmñVd g‘OmdyZ ¿`md`mMo Agob Va g‘mOm{Vb {Za{Zami`m g‘mO JQ>m§Mr ^mfm g‘OmdyZ KoUo Amdûm`H$ Amho d Ë`mgmR>r g‘mO ^mfmd¡km{ZH$ Ñï>rH$moZ ‘mobmMm R>ê$ eH$Vmo Ago AÜ`mZmA§Vr bjmV òVo. g‘mO ^mfm{dkmZ ho ^mfoMm Cn`mo{OV A§JmZo Aä`mg H$aUmao EH$ ‘hËdmMo AÜ``Z joÌ Amho. g‘mO{Zð> g§ñH¥$VrMr Aä`mg H$aÊ`mMr N>moQ>`m OZOmVrÀ`m d Cno{jV g‘mOJQ>m§À`m ‘m¡pIH$ d {bIrV dmL>‘`rZ Am{dîH$maÀ`m Aä`mgmgmR>r `m AÜ``ZemIoMr ‘‘©Ñï>r AgUo Oê$arMo Amho. VgoM JQ>m-VQ>m§À`m {d^mJë`m Joboë`m Amnë`m {df‘Vm‘wbH$ g‘mOaMZoV gm‘m{OH$ MidirVë`m H$m`©H$Í`m§Zrhr ^mfoMm Aä`mg ^mfm{dkmMm Aä`mg H$aÊ`mMr JaO Amho.4

IMPACT FACTOR SJIF 2017 (5.002) Rizvi College of Arts, Science & Commerce  Vol. 8 (1)  July - December 2018  International Journal of Research 71 ISSN 2231 - 6124 Multidisciplinary UGC Approved Journal No. 63072 IMPACT FACTOR SJIF 2018 (6.67)

`m {dYmZmMm gImob Aä`mg Ho$ë`mg g‘mOmVrb AZoH$ àl²Z d g‘ñ`m gmoS>dÊ`mgmR>r g‘mO ^mfmd¡km{ZH$ Ñï>rH$moZ {H$Vr Cn`wº$ ho g‘OVo. AmYw{ZH$ ^mfm{dkmZmMr EH$ ‘hËdmMr emIm g‘mO^mfm{dkmZ AmO ‘mZbo OmVo. g‘mOmVrb ^mfoMm àË`j dmna H$gm hmoVmo. `m AÜ``Zmbm `m emIoV ‘hËd Amho qH$dm `mM nÜXVrZo AÜ``Z Ho$b OmVo. g‘mOmVrb dJ©, dU© OmVr `m§À`mer ^mfm g§~§{YV AgVo, nU Ë`m§Zm OIS>bobo ZgVo. ""{d{eï> ^mfm Am{U {d{eï> g‘mO ~mOybm R>odyZ "^mfm Am{U Vo dmnaUmao ^mfH$ `m§À`mVrb g§~§YVmMm {dMma gm‘m{OH$ ^mfm{dkmV Ano{jV Amho.''5 VgoM ho g§~§Y doJdoJi`m nÜXVrZo VnmgÊ`mMm à`ËZhr `m emIoV Ho$bo OmVmV. Aem àH$mao Mm°‘ñH$s VgoM Ë`m§À`m AmYrMo g§aMZmdmXr ^mfmd¡km{ZH$ `m§Mo Ñ{ûmQ>H$moZ nwaogo ì`mnH$ Zgë`m‘wio gm‘m{OH$ ^mfm{dkmZ `m Zì`m Aä`mg emIoMm CX` Pmbm. EodT>oM Zìho Va bãhgma»`m ^mfmä`mgH$mMo g‘mO ^mfm{dkmZ hoM Iao ^mfm{dkmZ Amho. Ago YmS>gmZo {dYmZ Ho$bo Vmo Ago åhUVmo H$s, gm‘m{OH$ g§X^m©nmgyZ ^mfobm doJio H$mTy>Z ^mfm{dkmZ Ago H$mhr Aä`mjoÌ AgyM eH$V Zmhr, òWwZ nwT>o hr emIm {dH$grV hmoV OmD$Z AmO gd© ì`mnH$ ê$n {VZo YmaU Ho$bobo Amho. g‘mO ^mfm{dkmZ: à‘wI ^mfmd¡km{ZH$ :- ""{Od§V ^mfm H${YVM EH$ê$n ZgVo. Ë`m‘wio {Vbm gH$g§Y ‘mUyZ {VÀ`m AmXe© ê$nmMo Ho$bobo dU©Z ho VrMo `WmW© dU©Z hmoD$ eH$V Zmhr hr ÌwQ>r 1950 Z§Va H$mhr ^mfmd¡km{ZH$m§Zm OmUdy bmJbr hmoVr, nU Ë`m AmJmoXa H$mhr {dMmad§VmZr ^mfo~Ôb doJdoJi`m {XeoMo {dMma H$am`bm gwê$dmV Ho$br hmoVr. Ë`m§À`m `m {dMmamVwZ nwT>o g‘mO ^mfm{dkmZ `m emIoMm CX` Pmbm.''6 {‘btX ‘mbeo `m§Zr Zm|X{dbobo ho {Z[ajU ‘mÂ`m ‘Vo g‘mO ^mfm{dkmZmÀ`m CX` Á`m ^mfmd¡km{ZH$m§‘wio Pmbm. Ë`m§À`m H$m`m©Mr XIb KoUmao Amho. Ë`m ^mfmd¡km{ZH$m§Mm C„oI d H$m`m©Mm n[aM` òWo H$ê$Z XoUo ho ‘r ‘mPo H$V©ì` g‘OVmo. H$maU Ë`m§À`m H$m`m©À`m C„oIm A^mdr g‘mO ^mfm{dkmZmMm Aä`mg AnyU© Amho. 1. ‘°{bZmoìhñH$s Am{U ’$W© :- ‘°{bZmoìhñH$s (1884 Vo 1942) `m {~«{Q>e ‘mZdd§emók hmoVm. ""^mfm åhUOo Ho$di g§kmnZmMo gmYZ ZgyZ H$mhr àg§Jr Vr àË`j H¥$VrMhr H$m`© H$aVo.''7 Ago ^mfoMo ì`mnH$Ëd Xe©{dUmao ‘m¡brH$ {dMma Ë`m§Zr ‘m§S>bo. ^mfoMm Aä`mg åhUOo ì`dñWoMm Aä`mg gmoñ`yaÀ`m {dMmambm N>oX XoV ^mfm ì`dñWonojm ^mfm ì`dhmam§MmM Aä`mg ^mfm d¡km{ZH$mZo Ho$bm nm{hOo Ago Ë`mZo AmJ«hmZo gm§{JVbo `mMmM ghH$mar ’$W© `m§Zo ^mfoMm Aä`mg {VÀ`m gm‘m{OH$ ñdê$nmVM H$am`bm hdm Ago gm§{JVbo. `m {dMmam§VyZM àoaUm KoD$Z AmO Ë`m Ë`m gm‘m{OH$ g‘whmMr d¡{eï²>` g‘mO aMZm, dJ©aMZm, OmVY‘©, gm‘m{OH$ gm§ñH¥${VH$ ‘yë`, ^m{fH$ Apñ‘Vm `m Ñï>rH$moZmVyZ ^mfoMo AÜ``Z Ho$bo OmVo. 2. gnra Am{U ìhmo’©$:- gnra Am{U ìhmo’©$ A‘[aH$Z ^mfmd¡km{ZH$m§Mo gdm©V ‘hËdmMo `moJXmZ åhUOo gmnojVmdmXmMm {gÜXm§V hmo`. ""g‘mOmMo dmñVdmMo kmZ Á`mà‘mUo gmnoj AgVo Ë`mà‘mUo Ë`m§À`m ^mfoMo ñdê$nhr gmnoj AgVo. AWm©V, ^mfm§Mr gmnoj {^ÞVm hr ñWybì`dhmamnyaVr AgVo. A§{V‘V… OJmVë`m gd© ^mfm kmZmÀ`m H$moUË`mhr joÌmÀ`m A{^ì`º$sgmR>r gma»`mM g‘W© AgVmV.''8 òWo àËòH$ ^mfm hr A{^ì`º$sg gj‘ AgVo Ago Ë`m§Zm dmQ>Vo. àËòH$ ^mfH$ g‘mOmMr ^mfm BVa ^mfH$ g‘mOm§À`m ^mfonojm doJir AgVo Agm {dMma `m§Zr ‘m§S>bm. EdT>oM Zìho Va àËòH$ g‘mOmMo ~mh` g¥ï>rMo AmH$bZ ho {^Þ Agë`mMo {XgVo. `m‘wioM g‘mOmVrb kmZmà‘mUoM dmñVdmMo kmZ ho gmnoj AgVo Ë`m‘wio ^mfm hr gmnoj AgVo.

72 Rizvi College of Arts, Science & Commerce  Vol. 8 (1)  July - December 2018  International Journal of Research g‘mO ^mfm{dkmZ… à‘wI ^mfmd¡km{ZH$

3. ’$W© d hm°{bS>o (1890 Vo 1960) :- ^mfoMm Aä`mg H$aVm§Zm Vmo {VÀ`m gm‘m{OH$ ñdê$nmVM H$am`bm hdm Agm {dMma àW‘ Ë`m§Zo ‘m§S>bm. {dMmamVwZM àoaUm KoD$Z AmO Ë`m Ë`m ^m{fH$ g‘whmMr d¡{eï>` g‘mOaMZm, dJ©aMZm, OmV, Y‘© gm‘m{OH$, gm§ñH¥${VH$ ‘wë` ^m{fH$ Apñ‘VoÀ`m Ñï>rZo ^mfoMo AÜ``Z Ho$bo OmVo Amho. 4. b~°d Am{U {’$e‘Z :- ^mfoMm Aä`mg hm Am§Va{dÚmemIr` ñdê$nmMm H$am`bm hdm hm ‘m¡{bH$ {dMma àW‘V… `m§Zr ‘m§S>bm. ^mfoMm Aä`mg H$aV AgVm `mV BVa {dÚmemIm§Mr Ogo g‘mOemó, ‘mZdd§eemó, g§»`memó BË`mXr ‘XV KoVbr nm{hOo. VgoM ^mfoVrb à^mdrnUm d Ord§VnUm bjmV KoD$Z ^mfoMm Aä`mg H$am`bm hdm Ago Ë`m§Zr gm§{JVbo. 5. S>ob hmB©åg: - `mZo g§XoedhZ j‘VoMr g§H$ënZm ‘m§S>br. ^mfoÀ`m ê$nmnojm {VÀ`m H$m`m©daM A{YH$ bj H|${ÐV Ho$bo nm{hOo Ago Ë`m§Mo ‘V hmoVo. Vmo åhUVmo, ""H$moUVmhr ^m{fH$ eãX{MÝhm§À`m ‘mÜ`‘mVyZ g§XoedhZmMo Ooìhm g§àoeZ H$aVmo. Voìhm Ë`mbm ^m{eH$ g§Ho$V ì`dñWoMo kmZ AgVo, nU g§àoeZ ì`dhma A‘b MmbV AgVmo. åhUyZ ^mfm Am{U g‘mO `m§À`mVrb g§kmnZ ì`dhmamV ^m{fH$ j‘VoBVHo$M gm‘m{OH$ {Z`‘m§À`m kmZmbmhr ‘hËd AgVo.'' 6. JånP© :- ^mfm dmnamg§X^m©V JånP© `mZo Cn`wº$ Agm {gÜXm§V ‘m§S>bm. Ë`m§À`m ‘Vo, ""EH$ ^m{fH$ g‘mOmVrb gd© ì`º$s EH$g§Y EH$M ^mfm dmnarV AgVmV Ago ZgyZ àËòH$ ì`º$ {Za{Zami`m g§X^m©V {Za{Zami`m ^mfm dmn[aV AgVmV.''9 `mMo H$maU Ago H$s, àËòH$ ì`º$sH$S>o ñdVm…Mo ñdV§Ì ^m{fH$ ^m§S>ma AgVo d Vmo g‘moaÀ`m ì`º$sZwê$n, àg§JmZwê$n, g§X^m©Zwgma Amnbr ^mfm ~XbVmo. Ë`m‘wio nwU©nUo EH${OÝgr pñWa EH$ gwar ^m{fH$ {Z`‘ì`dñWm H$moUË`mhr g‘mOmV AmT>iV Zmhr. Ë`m‘wio Ë`mgmR>r pñWa Aer ì`mH$aU ì`dñWm J¥hrV YaVm òV Zmhr Ago ^mfmd¡km{ZH$ ‘mZVmV. 7. pí‘Q> d amoa:- joÌ d¡{eï>`mZwgma àËòH$ joÌmMr eãX{d{eï>Vm bjmV `mdr `mgmR>r bKyjoÌmMr g§H$ënZm àW‘V… {ûm‘Q> d amoa `m§Zr ‘m§S>br. ""^mfm dmnamÀ`m joÌmV g§X^©J{UH$ doJdoJio H$ßno V`ma hmoVmV Ë`m§Zm bKyjoÌ (Linguistic Domain) Ago åhUVmV.''10 ^mfm dmnaVmZr Ë`m Ë`m bKyjoÌmMm g§X^© Ü`mZmV KoD$ZM ì`º$sbm ^mfoMr {ZdS> H$amdr bmJVo. g§dmX gmYVmZm H$moU Hw$Umer ~mobV Amho. dº$m d lmoVm `m§Mo ZmVo, g§^mfU ñWmZ, {df`, ^mfm d g§X^© `m§Zm ‘hËd AgVo. `m‘wio ^mfm dmnaVm§Zm gm‘m{OH$ g§Ho$VgaUrMo kmZ Amdûm`H$ Amho. g‘mamon :- Aem àH$mao ^mfoMm Aä`mg {Vbm pñWa d gm‘mÝ` ‘mZyZ Ho$ë`mg AnwamM R>aob ho 1960 Z§VaÀ`m ^mfm d¡km{ZH$m§Zm dmQy> bmJbo. VgoM Vo AÝ` {dÚmemIoVrb Aä`mgH$m§Zmhr dmQy> bmJbo åhUyZ {VMm g‘mOgmnoj {dMma hmoD$ bmJbm. AmO amoOr ì`º$s~mobrnmgyZ amï´> ^mfon`ªVÀ`m gd© nmVirdarb ^mfmì`dhmamMm g‘mOmnojm Aä`mg hr g‘mO ^mfm{dkmZmMr EH$ Cn`wº$ Aä`mg emIm Amho.11 `m‘wioM ì`º$s d g‘mO `m§À`mer g§~§{YV gd©M ~m~rZm ñnf© H$aUmar Aer hr ì`mnH$ emIm Amho. `m ^mfmä`mgH$m§Zr Cnamoº$ {gÜXm§VmÛmao g‘mO ^mfm{dkmZmVrb AZoH$ g§H$ënZm§Mm n[aM` H$ê$Z {Xbm. Ë`m‘wio EH$ Zdm Ñï>rH$moZ {Z‘m©U hmoÊ`mg ‘XV Pmbr Ago ‘bm dmQ>Vo. `mZ§Va g‘mO ^mfm{dkmZ `m emIoÀ`m {dñV¥V Aä`mgmg àoaUm d Ñï>r {‘imbr.

Rizvi College of Arts, Science & Commerce  Vol. 8 (1)  July - December 2018  International Journal of Research 73 ISSN 2231 - 6124 Multidisciplinary UGC Approved Journal No. 63072 IMPACT FACTOR SJIF 2018 (6.67)

g§X^© … 1. H$mio H$ë`mU d gmo‘U A§Obr (g§nm) (2003) AmYw{ZH$ ^mfm{dkmZ ({ÛVr` Amd¥Îmr) nyUo: à{V‘m. 2. nmQ>UH$a O`lr (2005) gm‘m{OH$ ^mfm{dkmZ: H$jm d Aä`mg Zm{fH$ amoS> g§X^© àH$meZ n¥.6 3. Km|JS>o, a‘oe (2006). ^mfm Am{U ^mfm{dkmZ… nwUo {XbrnamO àH$meZ n¥.6. 4. daIoS>o a‘oe (1992). g‘mO ^mfm{dkmZ: à‘wI g§H$ënZm. lram‘nya eãXmb` àH$meZ, n¥.6. 5. Ym|JS>o a‘oe (2006). ^mfm Am{U ^mfm{dkmZ… nwUo {XbrnamO àH$meZ n¥.6. 6. H$mio H$ë`mU d gmo‘U A§Obr (g§nm) (2003) AmYw{ZH$ ^mfm{dkmZ ({ÛVr` Amd¥Îmr) nyUo: à{V‘m àH$meZ ‘¥.336 7. H$mio H$ë`mU d gmo‘U A§Obr (g§nm): VÌ¡d n¥. 334 8. nmQ>UH$a O`lr (2005) gm‘m{OH$ ^mfm{dkmZ: H$jm d Aä`mg Zm{eH$ amoS> g§X^© àH$meZ n¥.306 9. nmQ>UH$a O`lr (2005): VÌ¡d n¥.6 10. nmQ>UH$a O`lr (2005): VÌ¡d n¥. 11. ‘moao Z§XHw$‘ma (2012). g‘mO ^mfm{dkmZ Am{U ‘amR>r H$mX§~ar, nwUo… nÚJ§Ym àH$meZ. n¥.24

74 Rizvi College of Arts, Science & Commerce  Vol. 8 (1)  July - December 2018  International Journal of Research Multidisciplinary dhm©S>r ~mobr H$s ^mfmñVar` ì`dñWmS>m°. na eoI qhXr AÝgmanmem H$m à^md AãXwbaµÁµOmµH$, {dO` Zaqgh gmJa UGC Approved Journal No. 63072 International Journal of Research ISSN 2231 - 6124 VOL 8 (1) 2018 : PP 75 - 81

- S>m°. eoI AÝgmanmem AãXwbaµÁµOmµH$ - {dO` Zaqgh gmJa

‘Zwî` Ho$ OrdZ ‘| ^mfm {dMmam| H$m AmXmZ-àXmZ H$aZo H$m g~go à‘wI gmYZ ‘mZm OmVm h¡& ^mfm Ho$ O[aE ‘Zwî` AnZr ~mV EH$-Xwgao VH$ nhÿ±Mm gH$Vm h¡& ^mfm Ho$ XmoZm| ê$nm| H«$‘e… ‘m¡pIH$ Am¡a {bpIV H$m à`moJ dh AnZo g§àofU ‘| H$aVm h¡& H$^r dh Am¡nMm[aH$ ê$n ‘| Vmo H$^r dh AZm¡nMm[aH$ ê$n ‘| CgH$m à`moJ H$aVm h¡& AZm¡nMm[aH$ ñVa na à`wº$ ^mfm H$m à`moJ ‘Zwî` ^m{fH$ {Z`‘m| Ed§ g§aMZm Ho$ AmYma na Zht H$aVm& `h Ho$db ‘m¡pIH$ A{^ì`{º$ na Am{lV hmoVr h¡& "‘amR>r" ‘hmamï´> H$s EH$ à‘wI ^mfm h¡& `h ‘hmamï´> Ho$ g^r àmVm| ‘| ~mobr Am¡a {bIr OmVr h¡& {bpIV ê$n ‘| BgH$m à`moJ ha àm§V ‘| EH$ O¡gm {XImB© XoVm h¡, bo{H$Z ‘m¡pIH$ ê$n ‘| `h AbJ-AbJ àm§Vm| ‘| AbJ-AbJ ê$n ‘| ~mobr OmVr h¡& Bg{bE O~ {dX^© H$m H$moB© AmX‘r n{l²M‘ ‘hmamï´> `m ‘amR>dm‹S>m àm§V ‘| Mbm OmE Vmo ~mobZo H$s e¡br Ho$ AmYma na Vwa§V nhMmZ ‘| Am OmVm h¡ {H$, `h ì`{º$ {dX^© go h¡& `hr pñW{V n{l²M‘ ‘hmamï´> `m ‘amR>dm‹S>m àm§V Ho$ ì`{º$ Ho$ g§X^© ‘| ^r {XImB© XoVr h¡& H$hZo H$m VmËn`© `h h¡ {H$, ì`{º$ O~ {H$gr ^mfm H$m à`moJ EH$ gr{‘V joÌ go Xygao gr{‘V joÌ ‘| à`wº$ H$aVm h¡, V~ CgHo$ ‘m¡pIH$ e¡br ‘| n[adV©Z {XImB© XoVm h¡& Bg{bE H$hm J`m h¡ {H$, ^mfm n[adV©Zerb hmoVr h¡& ^mfm g‘`, ñWmZ, gmnojVm Ed§ ì`dhma Ho$ AZwgma n[ad{V©V hmoVr ahVr h¡& gm‘Ý`V… bmoJ Bgo ~mobr H$hVo h¡²§& ^mfm ‘Zwî` Ho$ OrdZ go Ow‹S>r hþB© EH$ Eogr g§H$ënZm `m {dYm h¡, {OgH$m à`moJ {H$E {~Zm ‘Zwî` AnZo {dMma Xygam| na ^br-^m±{V àH$Q> Zht H$a gH$Vm& ^mfm H$m CØd hmoZo go nhbo ‘Zwî` AnZo {dMma g§Ho$Vm| Ho$ AmYma na H$aVm Wm bo{H$Z AmO Ho$ Bg AmYw{ZH$ `wJ ‘| ‘Zwî` AnZo {dMmam| H$mo ‘m¡pIH$ Am¡a {bpIV XmoZm| ê$nm| ‘| ì`º$ H$a gH$Vm h¡& ^mfm H$m à`moJ ‘Zwî` O~ AnZo g§àofU AWdm ì`dhma ‘| H$aVm h¡, V~ CgHo$ g§àofU ‘| `h n[adV©Z ‘w»`V… Xmo Vah go {XImB© XoVm h¡- Am§V[aH$ Ed§ ~mø n[adV©Z& Am§V[aH$ n[adV©Z ‘w»` ê$n go ^mfm Ho$ ñVam| (Üd{Z, én, eãX Ed§ dmŠ`) na, O~{H$ ~mø n[adV©Z Eo{Vhm{gH$, ^m¡Jmo{bH$, amOH$s` Ed§ Am{W©H$ ñVa na {XImB© XoVm h¡& dhm©S>r ~mobr na {XImB© XoZodmbo qhXr à^md H$mo ^mfmB© ñVa na ñnï> H$aZm Bg emoY AmboI H$m ‘w»` CÔoûm` h¡& dhm©S>r ~mobr {dX^© Ho$ `dV‘mb, A‘amdVr, AH$mobm, dm{e‘ Ed§ ~wbT>mUm {Obo ‘| ~mobr OmVr h¡& gm‘J«r g§H$bZ hoVw A‘amdVr Vhgrb ‘| A‘amdVr eha, dbJm±d, VnmoZol²da ~m|S>Zm Ed§ qnnar `mX{Jar Am{X J«m{‘Z joÌ O~{H$ ‘moeu Vhgrb ‘| ‘moeu, {MIbgmd§Jr, ImonS>m ~m|S>Zm Ed§ S>m|Ja `mdbr Am{X joÌm| ‘| emoY gm‘J«r g§H$bZ H$m H$m`© nwam {H$`m h¡& Cº$ g^r joÌm| ‘| emoY gm‘J«r g§H$bZ H$m H$m‘ nyam H$aZo Ho$ {bE AbJ-AbJ Am`w dJ© Ho$ bmoJm| H$s àl²Zmdbr Ho$ ‘mÜ`‘ go ‘wbmH$mV H$s Am¡a A§V ‘| Bg emoY gm‘J«r H$m {dl²bofU H$a dhm©S>r ~mobr na {XImB© XoZo dmbo qhXr à^md H$mo ^mfmB© ñVa na ñnï> {H$`m h¡& ‘hmamï´> Ho$ {dX^© àm§V ‘| ~mobr OmZodmbr dhm©S>r ~mobr H$m {dñV¥V ê$n go ^mfm d¡km{ZH$ AÜ``Z H$aZo na

IMPACT FACTOR SJIF 2018 (6.67) Rizvi College of Arts, Science & Commerce  Vol. 8 (1)  July - December 2018  International Journal of Research 75 ISSN 2231 - 6124 Multidisciplinary UGC Approved Journal No. 63072 Impact Factor SJIF 2018 (6.67)

`h ~mV ñnï> hþB© {H$, Bg ~mobr Ho$ ^mfmB© ñVa (Üd{Z, ê$n, eãX Ed§ dmŠ`) na qhXr H$m à^md {XImB© XoVm h¡& ~mobr H$m AnZm EH$ ì`mH$aU hmoVm h¡& CgH$s AnZr EH$ eãXmdbr hmoVr h¡ {OgH$m à`moJ dh AnZo {Z{l²MV joÌ ‘| H$aVm h¡& dhm©S>r ~mobr H$s ^mfmñVar` ì`dñWmAm| na à`wº$ qhXr à^md H$mo {ZåZ àH$ma go ñnï> {H$`m Om gH$Vm h¡, O¡go …- àmUËd na à^md àmUËd Ho$ AmYma na dhm©S>r ~mobr ‘| 2 ôX {H$E OmV| h¡²§& A) AënàmU Am) ‘hmàmU {OZ Üd{Z`m| Ho$ CƒmaU ‘| ‘wI go H$‘ ‘mÌm ‘| dm`w {ZH$bVr h¡ CÝh| AënàmU Am¡a {OZ Üd{Z`m| Ho$ CƒmaU ‘| ‘wI go µÁ`mXm ‘mÌm ‘| dm`w {ZH$bVr h¡ Cgo ‘hmàmU H$hm OmVm h¡& nhbt, Vrgar Am¡a nm±Mdr ìÒ§Z Üd{Z AënàmU Ed§ Xygar Am¡a Mm¡Wr Üd{Z ‘hmàmU hmoVr h¡& dhm©S>r ~mobr ‘| àmUËd Ho$ AmYma na {XImB© XoZodmbo qhXr à^md H$mo {ZåZ CXmhaUm| Ho$ AmYma na ñnï> {H$`m Om gH$Vm h¡ - ‘hmàmU H$m AënàmU åh > ‘ - Amåhr - Am{‘, ~«måhU - ~m‘Z, Vwåhmbm - Vw‘mbo W > V - {VWMo - {VVMµm, BWMo - BVMµ§ h > ` - nhm - nm`, Zmhr - Zm`, n{hbm - n`bm d > ` - doi - òb, ì`mµOmZo - `mµOmZo, doMµUmar - òMµUmar Am{X& Cº$ ê$n ‘| dhm©S>r ~mobr Ho$ àmUËd Ho$ n[adV©Zm| na qhXr H$m à^md {XImB© XoVm h¡& `h à^md ‘w»`V… ‘hmàmU Üd{Z Ho$ CƒmaU na {XImB© XoVm h¡, O¡go …- 1. Amåhr > Am{‘ > h‘ 2. Vwåhr > Vw{‘ > Vw‘ 3. H|$ìhm > H$dm > H$~ 4. O|ìhm > Odm > O~ dhm©S>r ~mobr ‘| à`wº$ CƒmaU ñWmZ Ed§ CƒmaU à`ËZ ‘| {XImB© XoZodmbo qhXr à^md H$mo {ZåZ ê$n go ñnï> {H$`m Om gH$Vm h¡& ‘wY©Ý` "U" H$s OJh dhm©S>r ‘| X§Ë` "Z" H$m à`moJ {H$`m OmVm h¡& Omo{H$ qhXr Ho$ à^md Ho$ H$maU dhm©S>r ‘| à`moJ {H$`m OmVm h¡& O¡go - 1.nmUr > nmZr > nmZr 2. H$moUr > H$moZ§ > H$m¡Z 3. ~«m÷U > ~m‘Z > ~m‘Z 4. H$hmUr > H$hmZr > H$hmZr Am{X& X§V‘ybr` "Mµ" Am¡a "Pµ" H$m dhm©S>r ‘| Vmbì` "M" Am¡a "P" Ho$ ê$n ‘| à`moJ {H$`m OmVm h¡ Omo{H$ qhXr Ho$ à^md Ho$ H$maU dhm©S>r ‘o à`wº$ {H$`m OmVm h¡, O¡go - 1.IM©µ > IaMb§ > IaMm 2. Mµ‘Mµm > M‘Mm > M‘Mm Am{X& Vmbì` H$s OJh dhm©S>r ‘| X§V‘ybr` Kf©H$ "g" Ho$ ê$n ‘| à`moJ {H$`m OmVm h¡, Omo{H$ qhXr go {‘bVm- OwbVm h¡, O¡go - 1. H$er > H$gr > H¡$gr 2. Ver > Vgr > V¡gr 3. ‘mder > ‘mdgr > ‘m¡gt

76 Rizvi College of Arts, Science & Commerce  Vol. 8 (1)  July - December 2018  International Journal of Research dhm©S>r ~mobr H$s ^mfmñVar` ì`dñWm na qhXr H$m à^md

"ê$" H$m Cƒma dhm©S>r ‘| "ar" H$s Vah {H$`m OmVm h¡, O¡go - 1. F$U > arZ > arZ 2. F$fr > arer > arfr 3. H¥$nm > {H«$nm > {H«$nm Bg Vah Cº$ {ddoMZ Ho$ AmYma na dhm©S>r ~mobr H$s ì`§OZ ì`dñWm na qhXr H$m à^md ñnï> ê$n go XoIm Om gH$Vm h¡& dhm©S>r ~mobr H$s ê$nñVar` ì`dñWm na ^r qhXr H$m à^md àË`` ì`dñWm Ed§ ì`mH$a{UH$ ì`dñWm na {XImB© XoVm h¡& àË`` ì`dñWm ‘| na àË``, nwZwê${º$ Ed§ g‘mg à{H«$`mAm| na `h à^md {XImB© {X`m O~{H$ ì`mH$a{UH$ ñVa na `h à^md nwê$f, H$maH$, H$mb, nj Ed§ d¥{Îm na {XImB© {X`m& ê$nñVar` ì`dñWmAm| na à`wº$ qhXr à^md H$mo g§{já ê$n go XoIm Om gH$Vm h¡& O¡go:- àË`` ì`dñWm:- na àË``:- ‘yb eãX Ho$ A§V ‘| bJZodmbo àË`` na àË`` H$hbmVo h¡²§& nyd© àË`` H$s Vah dhm©S>r ~mobr ‘| ‘yb eãX Ho$ gmW qhXr nagJ© H$s Vah Hw$N> qhXr àË`` bJVo h¢ Vmo H$ht-H$ht {d^{º$ àË``m| H$m ^r à`moJ {H$`m OmVm h¡& Bg g§X^© ‘| ‘amR>r ^mfm{dX ‘mbeo, nw§S>o, gmo‘Z Zo AnZr {H$Vm~ ‘| H$hm h¡ {H$, ‘amR>r Ho$ Abmdm dhm©S>r Ho$ gd©Zm‘ ê$nm| ‘| AbJ {deofVm {XImB© XoVr h¡&1 na àË`` ì`dñWm H$mo {ZåZ {bpIV CXmhaUm| Ho$ AmYma na ñnï> {H$`m Om gH$Vm h¡, {OgHo$ AmYma na dhm©S>r ~mobr ‘| à`wº$ qhXr à^m{dV na àË``m| H$mo ñnï> {H$`m OmEJm& dhm©S>r ~mobr ‘| qhXr àË``m| H$m à`moJ H$a eãX ~Zm`o OmVo h¡²§& O¡go- ~r, Or, Om, Z, dmbr Am{X qhXr na àË``m| H$m à`moJ dhm©S>r ~mobr Ho$ ‘yb eãXm| Ho$ gmW {H$`m OmVm h¡& BZ àË``m| H$m à`moJ ‘amR>r ‘| Zht {H$`m OmVm& O¡go:- dhm©S>r ~mobr ‘| à`wº$ qhXr à^m{dV "µOm" na àË`` 1. ‘mP H$m‘ H$a ‘mP§ H$m‘ H$aµOm ‘oam H$m‘ H$aZm/H$a Xmo 2. n¡go Ko n¡go KoµOm n¡go bo bmo dhm©S>r ~mobr ‘| à`wº$ qhXr à^m{dV "Or" na àË`` 1. n§S>rV > n§S>rVOr > n§S>rVOr 2. AmµOmo~m > AßnmOr > XmXmOr dhm©S>r ~mobr ‘| à`wº$ qhXr à^m{dV "~r" na àË`` 1. H$YrnU > H$dm~r > H$^r ^r dhm©S>r ~mobr ‘| à`wº$ qhXr à^m{dV "dmbm' na àË`` 1. g‘moa > gm‘Zodmbr > gm‘Zodmbo 2. ‘mPo > ‘m`mdmbo > ‘oaodmbo Cº$ {ddoMZ Ed§ CXmhaUm| Ho$ AmYma na H$hm Om gH$Vm h¡ {H$, dhm©S>r ~mobr Ho$ àË`` ì`dñWm na qhXr H$m à^md h¡& Cgr àH$ma dhm©S>r ~mobr H$s nwê$f ì`dñWm na ^r qhXr H$m à^md {XImB© XoVm h¡& `h à^md àW‘ Ed§ {ÛVr` nwê$f EH$dMZ ì`dñWmAm| na {XImB© XoVm h¡, O¡go:- àW‘ nwê$f EH$dMZ 1. ‘r H$m‘ Ho$bo(‘amR>r) {‘Z§ H$m‘ Ho$b(dhm©S>r) ‘¢Zo H$m‘ {H$`m(qhXr) {ÛVr` nwê$f EH$dMZ 1. Vy H$m‘ Ho$bo Zmhr (‘amR>r) VwZ§ H$m‘ Zm` Ho$b§ (dhm©S>r) VwZo H$m‘ Zht {H$`m (qhXr)

Rizvi College of Arts, Science & Commerce  Vol. 8 (1)  July - December 2018  International Journal of Research 77 ISSN 2231 - 6124 Multidisciplinary UGC Approved Journal No. 63072 Impact Factor SJIF 2018 (6.67)

Cº$ CXmhaUm| Ho$ AmYma na `h ~mV ñnï> hmo OmVr h¡ {H$, dhm©S>r ~mobr H$s nwê$f ì`dñWm na qhXr H$m à^md àW‘ Ed§ {ÛVr` nwê$f EH$dMZ ì`dñWmAm| na h¡& H$maH $…- H$maH$ à‘wI ì`mH$a{UH$ H$mo{Q>`m| ‘| go EH$ h¡& dmŠ`JV eãXm| Ho$ ^rVa AÝd` H$aZodmbm H$maH$ EH$ AW©VËd H$hbmVm h¡& ‘amR>r ^mfm ‘| {d^{º$`m| H$m g§~§Y H$maH$ Ho$ AmYma na ‘mZo `m àË``m| Ho$ AmYma na Bg ~mV H$mo boH$a ‘V {^ÞVm nmB© OmVr h¡& S>m°. A§~mXmg Xoe‘wI Zo Bg g§X^© ‘| H$hm h¡ {H$, H$maH$ g§~§Y Ho$ AmYma na {d^{º$`m± ‘mZZm R>rH$ ahoJm Š`m|{H$, g§~§Y {XImZo Ho$ {bE {dH$ma hmoVm h¡& AV… àYmZVm g§~§Y H$s h¡, {dH$ma Vmo BZ g§~§Ym| H$mo ñnï> H$aVo h¡²§&2 dhm©S>r ~mobr ‘| à‘mU ‘amR>r H$s Vah {ZåZ H$maH$m| H$m à`moJ {H$`m OmVm h¡& dhm©S>r ~mobr H$s H$maH$ ì`dñWm H$m g§~§Y h‘ {d^{º$`m| Ho$ AmYma na {ZåZ ê$n go ñnï> H$a gH$Vo h¡²§& {d^{º$ H$maH$ dhm©S>r EH$dMZ àË`` AZoH$dMZ àË`` àW‘ H$Vm© (Nominative) Z§ - {ÛVr` H$‘© (Accusative) g, bo g,bo,Zm V¥Vr`m H$aU (Instrumental) ZZ MVwWm© g§àXmZ (Dative) g, bo g,bo,Zm n§M‘r AnmXmZ (Ablative) CZ, hþZ CZ, hþZ fð>r g§~§Y (Genitive) Mm,Mr,Mo,`m,` Mo,Mm,`m,` gá‘r A{YH$aU (Locative) V,B,AmV,Z BZ,V g§~moYZ g§~moYZ (Vocative) ao, hmo hmo Cº$ Vm{bH$m Ho$ AmYma na H$hm Om gH$Vm h¡ {H$, à‘mU ‘amR>r ‘| EH$dMZ H$Vm© H$maH$ ‘| {H$gr ^r Vah H$m àË`` Zht bJVm& dht dhm©S>r ‘| EH$dMZ H$Vm© H$maH$ Ho$ gmW H$V¥© H$maH$ àË`` "Z§" H$m à`moJ {H$`m OmVm h¡& H$Vm© H$maH$ Ho$ gmW dhm©S>r ‘| V¥Vr` "Z" àË`` bJZm EH$ Vah qhXr H$m hr à^md h¡, Š`m|{H$ qhXr ‘| ^r àW‘ nwéf ê$nr H$Vm© H$maH$ Ho$ gmW "Z" àË`` H$m à`moJ {H$`m OmVm h¡& O¡go - 1. ‘r H$m‘ Ho$bo (‘amR>r) {‘Z§ H$m‘ Ho$b§ (dhm©S>r) ‘¢Zo H$m‘ {H$`m (qhXr) 2. Vy H$m‘ Ho$bo (‘amR>r) VwZ§ H$m‘ Ho$b§ (dhm©S>r) VwZo H$m‘ {H$`m (qhXr) H$‘© Ed§ g§àXmZ {d^{º$ àË``m| ‘| "bm' H$s OJh dhm©S>r ‘| "bo' H$m à`moJ {H$`m OmVm h¡& AWm©V H$‘© Ed§ g§àXmZ H$maH$ ‘| Ohm± à‘mU ‘amR>r ‘| g, bm, Zm H$m à`moJ {H$`m OmVm h¡, dht dhm©S>r ‘| g, bo, Zm H$m à`moJ {H$`m OmVm h¡& O¡go - 1. Ë`mbm ‘maUma (‘amR>r) Ë`mbo ‘maZma (dhm©S>r)Cgo ‘mé§Jm (qhXr)

H$mb…- AnyU© dV©‘mZ H$mb 1. Vmo AmO `oV Amho (‘amR>r) 2. Wmo AmObm `odwZ am{hbm hm` (dhm©S>r ~mobr) 3. dh AmO Am ahm h¡ (qhXr)

78 Rizvi College of Arts, Science & Commerce  Vol. 8 (1)  July - December 2018  International Journal of Research dhm©S>r ~mobr H$s ^mfmñVar` ì`dñWm na qhXr H$m à^md

AnyU© ^yVH$mb 1. Vmo hgV hmoVm (‘amR>r) 2. Wmo hgwZ am{hbm hmoVm (dhm©S>r ~mobr) 3. dh hg ahm Wm (qhXr) Bg Vah Cº$ {ddoMZ Ed§ CXmhaUm| Ho$ AmYma na `h ñnï> hmo OmVm h¡ {H$, dhm©S>r ~mobr H$s ê$nñVar` ì`dñWm na qhXr H$m à^md à`wº$ {H$`m OmVm h¡& dhm©S>r ~mobr H$s eãXñVar` ì`dñWm na ^r qhXr H$m à^md à`wº$ {H$`m OmVm h¡& eãX ì`dñWm H$mo {dH$mar Ed§ A{dH$mar eãX dJ© Ho$ AmYma na {dl²bo{fV H$a eãX dJ© na à`wº$ qhXr à^md H$mo Xem©`m J`m h¡& O¡go…- g§km na à^md:- ‘amR>r eãX dhm©S>r ~mobr qhXr 1. {ejm gOm gOm 2. åhVmam ~wT>m ~w‹T>m 3. CnMma BbmO BbmO 4. Ìmg {X¸$V {X¸$V 5. boInmb nQ>dmar nQ>dmar

gd©Zm‘ na à^md:- ‘amR>r eãX dhm©S>r ~mobr qhXr 1. ‘r {‘, å`m, {‘Z§ ‘¢Zo 2. Amåhr Am{‘ h‘ 3. Vy Vw, Ww, VwZ§ Vw‘ Zo 4. Vwåhr Vw{‘ Vw‘ 5. ‘bm ‘bo ‘wPo 6. Vwbm Vwbo VwPo 7. Ë`mbm Ë`mbo Cgo

{deofU na à^md:- à‘mU ‘amR>r dhm©S>r ~mobr qhXr 1. Mm§Jbm ~{T>`m ~{T>`m 2. AmOmar ~r‘ma ~r‘ma 3. Iam~ gS>b`§ g‹S>Zm 4. dmB©Q> ~oH$ma ~oH$ma 5. g‘moa gm‘Zo/gm‘moa gm‘Zo 6. bwH$S>m nVbm nVbm

Rizvi College of Arts, Science & Commerce  Vol. 8 (1)  July - December 2018  International Journal of Research 79 ISSN 2231 - 6124 Multidisciplinary UGC Approved Journal No. 63072 Impact Factor SJIF 2018 (6.67)

{H«$`m na à^md:- à‘mU ‘amR>r dhm©S>r ~mobr qhXr 1. Wm§~bm ê$H$bm ê$H$m 2. ^m§S>bm PJS>bm PJS>m 3. ngabr ’¡$bbr ’¡$bbr 4. g§nd IV‘ IV‘ 5. Xo XodwZ Xo Xo Xmo 6. Wm§~ Wm§~wZ Xo ê$H$dm Xmo 7. gm§J gm§JwZ Xo ~Vm Xmo

{H«$`m{deofU na à^md:- à‘mU ‘amR>r dhm©S>r ~mobr qhXr 1. AmV A§Xa A§Xa 2. doJio AbJ AbJ 3. Zoh‘r/dma§dma h‘oem h‘oem 4. Xadfu hagmb hagmb 5. gVV AŠga AŠga 6. ‘m{hV ‘mbw‘ ‘mby‘

Aì`` na à^md:- à‘mU ‘amR>r dhm©S>r ~mobr qhXr 1. {edm` {gdm {gdm 2. N>mZ ~{T>`m ~{‹T>`m 3. N>o ! hQ> ~o ! Om ~o ! 4. WmoS>M BVH$M BVZmgm Cº$ CXmhaUm| Ho$ AmYma na `h ~mV ñnï> hmo OmVr h¡ {H$, dhm©S>r ~mobr H$s eãX ì`dñWm na ^r qhXr H$m à^md {XImB© XoVm h¡& dhm©S>r ~mobr H$s dmŠ`ñVar` g§aMZm na ^r H$ht-H$ht qhXr H$m à^md {XImB© XoVm h¡& dhm©S>r ~mobr H$s dmŠ` ì`dñWmAm| H$mo Xmo q~XwAm| Ho$ AmYma na ñnï> {H$`m J`m h¡ - nX~§Y ì`dñWm Ed§ dmŠ` ì`dñWm& nX~§Y ì`dñWm na AÜ``Z H$aVo g‘` `h à^md {H«$`m nX~§Y na {XImB© {X`m O~{H$ dmŠ` ì`dñWm na `h à^md ZH$mamWu dmŠ` Ed§ AmkmWu dmŠ`m| H$s g§aMZm na {XImB© {X`m& O¡go:- {H«$`m nX~§Y:- 1. Vmo `oUma Amho (‘amR>r) Wmo `odwZ am{hbm hm` (dhm©S>r) dh Am ahm h¡ (qhXr)

80 Rizvi College of Arts, Science & Commerce  Vol. 8 (1)  July - December 2018  International Journal of Research dhm©S>r ~mobr H$s ^mfmñVar` ì`dñWm na qhXr H$m à^md

ZH$mamWu dmŠ`…- 1. Ë`mZo ‘bm ‘mabo Zmhr (‘amR>r) Ë`mZ§ ‘bo Zm` ‘mab§.(dhm©S>r) CgZo ‘wPo Zht ‘mam (qhXr)& AmkmWu dmŠ`…- 1. Ë`mÀ`mH$S>o bj Xo (‘amR>r) Ë`mÀ`mH$S§> Ü`mZ Xo Om..(dhm©S>r) Cgna Ü`mZ aIZm/XoZm (qhXr) Cº$ CXmhaUm| Ho$ AmYma na H$hm Om gH$Vm h¡ {H$, Üd{Z, ê$n Ed§ eãX H$s Vah dhm©S>r ~mobr H$s dmŠ` ì`dñWm na ^r qhXr H$m à^md {XImB© XoVm h¡&

g§X^©:- 1. ‘mbeo, nw§S>o, gmo‘Z, ^mfm{dkmZ n[aM` n¥ð>. 101 2. Xoe‘wI A§~mXmg, qhXr Am¡a ‘amR>r H$s ì`mH$a{UH$ H$mo{Q>`m± n¥ð>. 313

g§X^© J«§W gyMr:- 1. Hw$bH$Uu H¥$.nm.(2009). ‘amR>r ^mfm: CÕd Ed§ {dH$mg. nwUo: ‘ohVm npãbe hmCg. 2. OmoJioH$a J.Z.(1951).‘amR>r H$m dU©ZmË‘H$ ì`mH$aU dYm©: amï´>^mfm àMma g{‘{V. 3. H$mio `m.‘m (1924). dhm©S>Mm B{Vhmg. `m.‘m. H$mio àH$meH$. 4. B§Jmobo à{V‘m.(2006).dhm©S>r bmoH$^mfm: ^mfmemór` Aä`mg X`m©nwa: gmoZb àH$meZ 5. Zm’$S>o emo^m.(2007). dhm©S>r ‘amR>r: CÒ‘ Ed§ {dH$mg. Am¡a§Jm~mX: ñdê$n àH$meZ 6. dhm©S>nm§S>o dg§VHw$‘ma.(1972).ZmJnwar ~mobr. ZmJnwa: B§{Xam àH$meZ 7. Xoe‘wI A§~mXmg.(1960). qhXr Am¡a ‘amR>r H$s ì`mH$a{UH$ H$mo{Q>`m± H$mZnwa: AVwb àH$meZ. 8. qgh gyaO ^mZ. (2000). qhXr H$m dmŠ`mË‘H$ ì`mH$aU. {X„r: gm{hË` ghH$ma àH$meZ A§J«oOr {H$Vm~|:- 1. Pandharipande Rajeshwari. (1997). Marathi. Londan : New Fetter Lane. 2. Dhongde Ramesh and Wali Kashi. (1984). Marathi. -msterdam‹S>Philadelphia: John Benjaming Publishing Company. 3. Grierson George. (1905). The Linguistic suruay of India Vol.VII. Culcutta : Gov. Of India.

S>m°. eoI AÝgmanmem AãXwbaµÁµOmµH$ {dO` Zaqgh gmJa ghm`H$ àmÜ`mnH$, qhXr {d^mJ, nrEMS>r emoYmWu, [aµOdr ‘hm{dÚmb`, ~m§Ðm (npíM‘) gm.’y$. nwUo {díd{dX²¶mb`, Xya^mf- 9764150907 Xya^mf- 9665835078

Rizvi College of Arts, Science & Commerce  Vol. 8 (1)  July - December 2018  International Journal of Research 81 ISSN 2231 - 6124 Multidisciplinary UGC Approved Journal No. 63072 Impact Factor SJIF 2018 (6.67)

82 Rizvi College of Arts, Science & Commerce  Vol. 8 (1)  July - December 2018  International Journal of Research. Guidelines to the Contributors a) The manuscripts should normally not exceed 2500 words (A 4 Size) pages, margin 1 inch in all sides including figures and tables, typed in 1.5 space in 1l-point - in Times New Roman font. b) A hard copy of the article should be submitted followed by a soft copy of MS word of the same through e-mail. c) The author should declare that the article is the author’s original work. The article has not been previously published elsewhere and not currently under consideration for another publication. If excerpts from copyrighted works are included, the author should obtain written permission from the copyright owners and show credit to the sources in the article. The author should also warrant that the article contains no libelous or unlawful statements and does not infringe on the rights of others. We expect no plagiarized material in the research paper submitted to us. If we find that the author/s did not abide to the above guidelines, his work will be disqualified and no further work of the author/s will be ever considered in our journal. d) The cover page of the article should contain: (i) Title of the article (in bold),Title should be short and precise (ii) Name(s) of authors (iii) Professional affiliation (iv) Address of correspondence (v) Contact No and Email. Kindly note the author’s name should not be mentioned in any other page. e) Full paper should generally consist (i) Title of the article (Time New Romans 14, in bold) (ii) an Abstract of the paper in about 250 words (Times Roman 11-point, Italics), the abstract should be in single paragraph and indicate methods used, significant findings and conclusions in brief (iii) Keywords : 3 to 5 words, arranged alphabetically and (iv) Main text. f) Main text should have (i) Introduction (highlighting the review of current literature, aims and the objectives of the study) (ii) Research Methodology (or Materials & Methods) (iii) Results & Discussions (iv) Research limitations/ implications (if any) (iv) Conclusions and Suggestions (v) Acknowledgements (optional). g) References in the text should be given by surname of the author, no initials: If single author, write author surname and year in parenthesis e.g. Mathur (1987). With dual authorship give both the named e.g. Leeds and Solanki (1970), for three or more use “et.al” e.g. Murthy et. al. (1967). If more than one references in the single year, distinguish between them by use of letters “a, b....” e.g. Olsen (l980a). If multiple references to be quoted, separate them by semi-colons, e.g. (John (1987); Singh (1990); Rosen (2009)). The Authors are supposed to follow Harvard Style of Referencing. h) All Figures (charts, diagrams and line drawings) and Plates (photographic images) should be submitted in electronic form. They should be of clear quality, in black and white and numbered consecutively. Tables and diagrams should be numbered consecutively and included in the text. Sources must be mentioned below the table. The titles must be above the tables/figures/charts. i) The location of endnotes (instead of footnotes) within the text should be indicated by superscript numbers. j) Mathematical expressions should be presented in away that can be easily edited and printable. k) Please check your manuscript for clarity grammar, spellings, punctuation, and consistency of references to minimize editorial changes. l) The editorial team has the right to modify or edit the work in order to match the standard and style requirement of the journal. m) References should be in the end arranged alphabetically. Only references cited in the text should be presented in the list of references. For titles in a language other than English, provide an English translation in parentheses. n) The following format should be used for referring books, articles in journals, electronic documents etc. Author surname, Initial (Year), Title of the article, Journal’s Name (in Italics), Vol. No (Issue No), Page Number.

Examples are given below For Journal Article: Ahmad, A. (2011), Estimating discrete parameters: An application to cointegration and unit roots, International Journal of Research, 1 (1), l-6. For Books: Montgomery, D. C. and Peck, E. A. (1982), Linear Regression Analysis, John Wiley, New York For Online Document: Kelkar V. (2009), Towards a New Natural Gas Policy, Economic and Political Weekly, http://epw.in/epw/user/view abstract, viewed on February 17, 2011. For Edited Volume: Safilios-Rothschild and Constantina B.F. (1982), Female power autonomy and demographic change in the Third World, In Richard Anker et al. (198l)(Ed), Women’s Roles and Population Trends in the Third World, Peterson and Company, London, 117-I32. Conference papers: Chandel K.S. (2009), Ethics in Commerce Education, Paper presented at the Annual International Conference for the All India Management Association in June, New Delhi, India, 19-22. Unpublished dissertations and theses: Kumar S. (2006), Customer Value: A Comparative Study of Rural and Urban Customers, Thesis, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra. General Information

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For any Query/Information, please contact The Principal (Editor in Chief, IJR) Rizvi Education Society’s, Rizvi Collge of Arts, Science & Commerce Off. Carter Road, Bandra (West), Mumbai – 400 050, India. Phone : +91-22-2648 0348, +91-22-2604 1696, 9657725810 / 9930925628 Fax : +91-22-2649 7448 E-mail: [email protected]; Website : http://www.rizvicollege.edu.in . The Family RIZVI EDUCATION SOCIETY Rizvi House, Hill Road, Bandra (West), Mumbai - 400 050.

MUMBAI Rizvi Springeld School (SSC) Rizvi Springeld High School (ICSE) Rizvi College of Arts, Science & Commerce Rizvi College of Hotel Management & Catering Technology Rizvi School of Hotel Management Rizvi College of Architecture Rizvi Institute of Management Studies & Research Center Rizvi Academy of Business Management Rizvi College of Engineering Rizvi Law College Rizvi College of Education (B.Ed.)

JAUNPUR Dr. A. H. Rizvi College of Science & Commerce Meena Rizvi Intermediate College R. D. M. Intermediate College Dr. Rizvi Learner’s Academy (CBSE) Dr. Rizvi College of Education (B.Ed.)

KARARI, KAUSHAMBI (ALLAHABAD) Dr. A. H. Rizvi College of Arts & Science Dr. Rizvi College of Education (B. Ed.) Dr. Rizvi Springeld High School (CBSE) Dr. Rizvi Law College Dr. Rizvi College of Engineering

Rizvi Education Society`s SPIRITUALISE RIZVI COLLEGE

HUMANISE OF ARTS, SCIENCE & COMMERCE

Rizvi Educational Complex, Off. Carter Road, Bandra (W), Mumbai-400 050. Maharashtra Phone: 022 2600 4245 l Email: [email protected] l Website : www.rizvicollege.edu.in