THE UNITED STATES IN WORLD WAR I 1917 - 1918 100 YEARS LATER 2017 - 2018

WW1 A Newspaper in Education Supplement to 100 THE UNITED STATES YEARS WORLD WAR ONE CENTENNIAL COMMISSION INTRODUCTION World War I is central to American and world history but few Americans are aware of its impor- tance. For a variety of reasons, World War I has a ONLINE RESOURCES much fainter imprint on the American conscious- This Education Guide is ness than our other two great wars: the Civil War supplemented with tools and World War II. and lessons for further We have a sharply defined sense of the Civil study, available at the web- War, because of its place in our history and our site for the U.S. World War I ability to walk its battlefields. We have a vivid Centennial Commission. mind’s eye of World War II, because of its moral These resources include clarity and the national triumph it represents, as lessons plans, activities, well as the presence of living veterans in our so- videos, photo galleries, ar- ciety. Both wars have also been frequently and ticles and other tools. The richly depicted in popular film. headings on our online di- IN COLLABORATION WITH: Not so World War I. It is distant in time, it was fought overseas, news cov- rectory of resources corre- erage was less immediate, ambivalence surrounded the reasons for the war spond to the page or section and its aftermath, and U.S. forces fought for a relatively brief period of time. headings of this guide. But in that short period, Americans fought with the same tenacity they did in We also encourage you to World War II, and they died at a rate surpassed only in the Civil War. let us know if you’ve used This educational guide is published in the midst of the centennial of the this guide or any of our on- Learn more, and join the Commemoration at: Great War, on the 100-year anniversary of America’s entry into that war. line resources to teach or The United States World War I Centennial Commission was chartered by commemorate World War I Congress to educate the American people about World War I, commemorate in your community! our nation’s role, and honor the courage and sacrifice of American service- ww1cc.org/edu men and women in the war. It is our hope that this guide will inform and inspire Americans of all gen- erations. CREDITS: Research/copy/layout: Ryan Hegg • Historical Advisors: Robert Dalessandro, Edwin Libby O’Connell, PhD Fountain, Libby O’Connell • Proofing/editing: Kevin Fitzpatrick, Kimberly Gilmore, Camille Kulig, Commissioner Clark Munro, Julie Penhallegon, Lora Vogt • Special thanks: Doug Alexander, Stacie Petersen U.S. World War I Centennial Commission

Sketch of WW1 Memorial A NEWSPAPER IN EDUCATION SUPPLEMENT TO THE WASHINGTON TIMES THE WASHINGTON SUPPLEMENT TO IN EDUCATION A NEWSPAPER

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No veteran should be forgotten. World War 1 was a war that changed the world. And yet, World War 1 is the only major war of the 20th century that does not have a national monument in the nation's capital dedicated to the Americans who wore the uniform.

Give to the National World War I Memorial in Washington DC. ww1cc.org/Memorial THURSDAY • APRIL 6, 2017 THURSDAY 2 THE U.S. IN WORLD WAR I: AN OVERVIEW

A U.S. gun crew firing during an advance against German positions, 1918 NATIONAL ARCHIVES

ON APRIL 6, 1917, the United States of America of- most believed that the pointless carnage proved that the At least 8.5 million soldiers had been killed and over ficially entered World War I. Over the next year and a U.S. had been right to stay out of the war. 20 million wounded. In America’s relatively brief in- half, millions of Americans served overseas and sup- However, in early 1917, a series of events changed volvement, it suffered over 116,000 military deaths and ported the nation’s war effort at home. Their contribu- American attitudes. Earlier in the war, Germany had 200,000 wounded. In addition, more than seven mil- tions helped win the war and shaped both America and prohibited its submarines from sinking civilian and neu- lion civilians died worldwide, and countless others had

the world for generations. tral ships, due largely to U.S. protests. In February 1917 been injured, starved, or made homeless. On top of this A NEWSPAPER IN EDUCATION SUPPLEMENT TO THE WASHINGTON TIMES For decades, tensions had been growing between the it resumed unrestricted submarine warfare against all devastation, a global influenza (flu) pandemic in 1918 - nations of Europe. In the summer of 1914, the heir to ships in the war zone. Shortly afterward, an intercepted 1919 struck down tens of millions more. the throne of Austria-Hungary was assassinated, setting German telegram revealed a plan offering Mexico ter- Against this backdrop of loss and suffering, the na- off a sequence of events that eventually drew most of ritory it had lost to the U.S. during the Mexican-Ameri- tions of the world came together in Paris to negotiate Europe into full-scale war. The Central Powers (led by can War (1846-48) in exchange for its support. the post-war peace treaties. People around the globe Germany, Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire) These events finally brought the U.S. into the war on hoped that the peace conference would lead to a new fought the Allies (led by France, Great Britain and Rus- the side of the Allies on April 6, 1917. In the months era of justice and cooperation. Unfortunately, the re- sia) as the conflict spread from Europe to the Middle that followed, over four million Americans of all back- sulting Treaty of Versailles and its related agreements East and then to other parts of the world. grounds entered military service and prepared to go failed to capture this spirit, and in fact planted the seeds The United States remained neutral at the beginning overseas. The U.S. government took an active role in of World War II and other future conflicts. of the war. Individual Americans supported one side mobilizing American industry and society in support of World War I marked the end of the old European or- or the other, although the majority were sympathetic the war effort. In France, General John “Black Jack” der and the beginning of an era that would be dominat- to the Allies. Many contributed to relief efforts; others Pershing led the effort to organize millions of incoming ed by other forces, including the eventual rise of the volunteered as ambulance drivers or nurses, or even as American troops into an effective fighting force. Mean- United States as a global power. The mobilization of pilots and soldiers. However, most agreed with Pres- while, German successes on other battlefronts allowed the U.S. economy and society and the service and sacri- ident Woodrow Wilson’s commitment to keeping the them to focus their efforts on the Western Front. fice of millions of Americans helped bring an end to the U.S. out of the fighting. In the spring of 1918, the Germans launched a major war, and laid the foundation for the emergence of the Overseas, the war continued through 1915 and 1916. series of attacks, finally breaking the stalemate and ad- U.S. as a world superpower later in the 20th Century. |

On the Western Front (in France and Belgium) the vancing all along the Western Front. U.S. forces were fighting bogged down into trench warfare, with com- thrown into action, and helped turn back the German THURSDAY • APRIL 6, 2017 batants on both sides living and dying below ground assault. Over the summer and into the fall of 1918, the WHAT’S IN A NAME (AND NUMBER)? in squalid, filthy conditions. Most of the other battle- Americans played a leading role as the Allies finally For a generation, World War I was known simply as The fronts also remained deadlocked. The opposing armies pushed back the Germans on the Western Front. The World War, or The Great War. It was also sometimes called threw millions of men at each other in massive battles, Allies also advanced on other battlefronts. One by one, “The War to End All Wars”. However, in the late 1930s, it and technological advances provided new ways of in- the Central Powers surrendered, until Germany stood came to be known as World War I, or The First World War, flicting death and damage, but neither side was able to alone. Finally, on the morning of November 11, 1918, to distinguish it from the new emerging global conflict gain the upper hand. Some Americans felt that their Germany signed an armistice that brought the fighting (World War II). country had a duty to step in to stop the slaughter, but to an end. 3 LEARN MORE! HOW THE WAR BEGAN ww1cc.org/edu ON JUNE 28, 1914, a young Bosnian Serb named countries, with its own colonial empire and a growing Gavrilo Princip shot and killed Archduke Franz Ferdi- navy. Many Germans believed that their young nation EUROPE’S ARMIES in 1914 nand, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, in Saraje- was destined to re-energize western civilization, which Germany 4,500,000 vo, Bosnia. The assassination set off a chain of events created friction with the more established powers. that led to the start of World War I. Italy had also come together as a nation relatively Austria-Hungary 3,000,000 TRIPLE EUROPE IN THE 19TH CENTURY recently. However, it had not made the same progress, ALLIANCE Italy 1,251,000 and had struggled to build a colonial empire. It was also The links of this chain had been forged over the pri- frustrated that many ethnic Italians were under Aus- Ottoman Empire 210,000 or century. Since 1815, European nations had used al- tro-Hungarian rule to the north. liances to maintain the balance of power, so that no Austria-Hungary was a large but declining power, single country could become too powerful. There had France 4,017,000 held together by a peculiar “dual monarchy”: one ruler been wars on a limited scale, and new powers arose Russia 5,971,000 with two co-governments. To complicate things fur- TRIPLE

while older ones faded, but overall, there seemed to be ENTENTE ther, it was home to large ethnic populations, especially Great Britain 975,000 peace and prosperity. in Bosnia, Croatia and its other Balkan provinces. But beneath this stability, powerful forces were Russia was considered backwards, but still formi- = CENTRAL POWERS IN WWI = ALLIES IN WWI pushing Europe toward a major conflict. Advances in dable. The world had been shocked when it had lost medicine, food cultivation and transportation tripled to a non-European power in the Russo-Japanese War Europe’s population, expanding the manpower pool. break with tradition and align with its old rival, France, in 1905. However, it remained a force to be reckoned Nationalism was on the rise, fed in part by competition and with Russia, forming the Triple Entente. with, due to its vast resources and population, and its for overseas colonies. By the 1900s, nearly every Euro- The Ottoman Empire remained neutral, although it claim to be defender of all Slavic peoples in Europe. pean power was able to field a massive army of willing leaned toward Germany. At the same time, the nations The Ottoman Empire (Turkey) once ruled the Mid- patriots, ready to fight and die for their nation’s honor. in both coalitions had other agreements with lesser dle East and North Africa, as well as much of Eastern powers. Two of these -- Serbia and Belgium -- would THE EUROPEAN POWERS Europe. By 1914, it had been pushed out of Europe, play key roles in the outbreak of the upcoming war. Great Britain was near the height of its strength. It was and had lost North Africa to various European nations. By 1914, Europe’s nations were so interconnected the center of world finance, a top industrial nation, and Yet it was still a sizable power, and it held an important and intertwined that it was inevitable that a conflict be- it ruled over nearly a quarter of the world’s inhabitants. strategic position, straddling Europe and Asia. tween two powers would pull in one nation after anoth- Britain’s island geography allowed it to avoid long term THE ALLIANCES IN 1914 er until the entire continent was at war. alliances (although it did guarantee Belgium’s neutrali- In the years before 1914, the system of alliances shifted ty). It had a small army, but a dominant navy. EUROPE GOES TO WAR into its final pre-war form. Germany and Austria-Hun- France had historically been Europe’s strongest na- The assassin Princip was part of a Bosnian Serb inde- gary had been close for a half century. Each agreed to tion, but had suffered a humiliating defeat to Germany pendence movement. Austria-Hungary blamed Serbia support the other in case of war. The addition of Italy in 1870-71. Germany worked to keep it isolated and for the shooting, but knew that Russia would support its (despite its tensions with Austria-Hungary) formed the prevent it from regaining its old prominence. France fellow Slavic nation. First it secured Germany’s back- Triple Alliance. still remained a major power, and had colonies around ing in case Russia intervened, and then it issued a series On the other side, France broke its isolation by ally- the world, especially in North Africa and Asia. of demands to the Serbian government. ing with Russia. Russia had been close with Germany, Germany had been formed in 1871 by the unifica- Germany’s involvement escalated the situation to a but had grown suspicious of its motives. Germany’s tion of smaller German-speaking states. It had rapidly continent-wide crisis. Germany assumed the alliance expanding power and growing navy also led Britain to transformed into one of the world’s leading industrial between France and Russia would force it to fight on two battlefronts. Its war plan (the Schlieffen Plan) therefore called for an overwhelming invasion to quickly defeat France before turning to deal with Rus- sia’s massive but slow-moving army. In order to strike France, Germany had to go through Belgium, which would bring in Britain to defend Belgium’s neutrality. Although Serbia accepted nearly all of Austria-Hun- 5 gary’s demands, Austria-Hungary declared war on July 28. As the crisis deepened, other nations activated 1 their war plans. Huge crowds in cities across Europe demonstrated broad public support for war. The war plans took on a life of their own, despite the efforts of diplomats and even after a change of heart by Germa- ny’s Kaiser Wilhelm. Military leaders insisted that the forward momentum of millions of troops and thousands 3 of tons of supplies could not be halted. On August 1, after Russia moved to support Serbia, 4 A NEWSPAPER IN EDUCATION SUPPLEMENT TO THE WASHINGTON TIMES THE WASHINGTON SUPPLEMENT TO IN EDUCATION A NEWSPAPER Germany declared war on Russia. Two days later, it

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attacked France and invaded Belgium. Britain imme- diately declared war on Germany. Europe was at war. 2

6 MAN OF THE CENTURY? 19 year old Gavrilo Princip fired the shots UNIVERSITY OF AMSTERDAM KAARTENCOLLECTIE that started a century of conflict. He has been called the 20th Century’s most in- THURSDAY • APRIL 6, 2017 THURSDAY A British cartoon caricatures the European powers at the outbreak of war. The English bulldog (1) and French poodle (2) face the German dachshund (3) and Austrian mongrel (4), while the Russian bear (5) steamrolls in from the East. Italy (6) stands by, armed but uncommit- fluential person. 4 ted; the Ottoman Empire (7) sits on the sidelines, but German flags show its sympathies. LEARN MORE! THE WESTERN FRONT: 1914 - 1916 ww1cc.org/edu HOLLAND GREAT BRITAIN of a double standard. The combatants introduced new ways to inflict vi- olence. The Germans introduced poison gas on the Brussels GERMANY Western Front during the Battle of Ypres in April. In C H A N N E L May, German zeppelins (airships) over London carried L I S H BELGIUM N G out the first aerial bombing of civilians in history. E S O M G M Also in May, a German U-boat sank the British ocean S E R R LUXEMBOURG E I V E E I N liner Lusitania, resulting in 1,200 deaths, including E R R M I V A 128 Americans. In response to U.S. outrage, Germany E A R N L L S halted unrestricted submarine warfare. I E Over the course of the year, the French tried and failed S Verdun Paris M to push the Germans out of their territory. The British A R N E built up a massive army to join the French in the front R I V E R lines. The Germans held their ground while making progress on the Eastern Front. 1915 closed with the Western Front locked in trench warfare and stalemate -- but with both sides confident of winning the war in 1916. FRANCE 1916: UNPRECEDENTED SLAUGHTER The war’s third year was consumed by two giant of- SWITZERLAND fensives, one German, one Allied. These titanic battles involved millions of men and raged for months, but re- solved nothing. ITALY Germany planned to draw the French into an enor- R. HEGG mous, grinding battle that would drain them of men and By early 1915, the Germans faced the Allies across a continuous 450-mile long battlefront, stretching from the coast of Belgium to the supplies. They launched this effort in February by at- Swiss border. The line would remain essentially unchanged for over three years, despite numerous battles and millions of deaths. tacking at Verdun. For the next ten months, the armies threw millions of men and countless tons of firepower THE WAR IN EUROPE had been set off by Austria- war. Tens of thousands of Frenchmen fell to German at each other. Momentum swung back and forth as the Hungary and Serbia, but the conflict between these two rifle and machine gun fire in wasteful attacks: 27,000 seasons changed. In the end, the Germans called off nations was soon dwarfed by the fighting between their died on August 22 alone. the attack. They had inflicted 370,000 casualties while allies. In the east, Russia’s huge armies moved into The Germans then began their sweep into France. suffering nearly the same number themselves, all for a Germany. In the west, Germany’s attack on France The French armies, supported by the small British Ex- gain of about three miles. The French had held on; by drew in Belgium and Great Britain. peditionary Force, could not hold them back. By early the standards of the war, this was counted as a victory. This struggle on the Western Front would eventual- September, German troops were within sight of Paris. The Battle of Somme was shorter, but even more ly bring the United States into the conflict, but not until The Allies launched a desperate counterattack; the Bat- violent and just as futile. The Somme was the first ma- after three years of slaughter and futility. tle of the Marne finally halted the German advance. jor action for Britain’s new armies. On July 1, the first For the next few weeks, each side tried to get around

1914: OPENING BATTLES day of the battle, the attacking British suffered 57,000 A NEWSPAPER IN EDUCATION SUPPLEMENT TO THE WASHINGTON TIMES the northern end of the other’s lines, in a so-called Germany’s war plan called for it to quickly defeat casualties, with almost 20,000 deaths. Some units lost “race to the sea”. Finally, both sides ran out of room France and then shift east to fight Russia. Its armies over 90% of their men in just minutes. As before, the to maneuver. By year’s end, the Allies and Germans were to sweep down through Belgium and northern attackers achieved initial success, but were unable to faced each other along a continuous line that ran for France toward Paris, like a giant swinging door. On follow through to victory. Later in the battle, the Brit- 450 miles from the coast of Belgium, through north- August 4, Germany invaded Belgium, violating its neu- ish used tanks for the first time, but the new machines ern France, down to the border of Switzerland. This trality. The British upheld their commitment to defend had little impact. The Allied attacks were finally halted line would remain essentially unchanged for over three Belgium, and declared war on Germany. in November by bad weather. In four and a half months years. In less than five months, the armies on the West- However, all Britain could immediately do was to they had advanced six miles, at a cost of over 600,000 ern Front had suffered nearly two million casualties, blockade Germany with its navy and to prepare its un- casualties. German losses are uncertain, but they too including half a million deaths. dersized army for battle. Belgium fought fiercely, but were staggering: between 400-650,000 men. German forces quickly overwhelmed its tiny army and 1915: DIGGING IN AND STALEMATE occupied much of the country. Germany’s aggression, The war’s second year saw the front lines harden, and the harsh actions of its troops during the invasion along with the combatants’ resolve. Trench lines dug “Somme. e whole history of the world and occupation, outraged the world. for the winter became permanent, while offensives cannot contain a more ghastly word.” To the southeast, France opened the war by pushing throughout the year did little but add to the death toll. FRIEDRICH STEINBRECHER into territory it had lost to Germany in their 1870-71 As the war consumed men and resources, both sides GERMAN OFFICER shifted their economies to full wartime production. In January, U.S. President Woodrow Wilson offered

The winter brought an end to a year of slaughter and | to mediate peace talks. No one was interested; both sides were determined that their 1914 losses would not futility. Yet without a clear winner, none of the combat- THURSDAY • APRIL 6, 2017 be in vain, and both believed they would win the war. ants was ready to end to the war. Their horrific losses France launched a February offensive that achieved only stiffened their resolve to keep fighting. nothing, but cost it 250,000 casualties. That same Across the ocean, Americans followed the war in fas- month, Germany began unrestricted submarine war- cination and horror. Many sympathized with the Allies, fare, attacking all merchant ships in the waters around but most were glad that the United States was far re- moved from the unspeakable state of affairs overseas. PUBLIC DOMAIN Great Britain without warning -- even those from neu- No one yet knew that events in early 1917 would force The “Taxicabs of the Marne” rushed 600 men across Paris for tral nations. The Germans responded to protests by France’s last-ditch effort to turn back the initial German invasion. pointing to Britain’s naval blockade and complaining America to make a crucial decision. 5 “At dawn the ridge emerges massed and dun TRENCH WARFARE In the wild purple of the glow’ring sun, Smouldering through spouts of driing smoke that shroud e menacing scarred slope; and, one by one, Tanks creep and topple forward to the wire. e barrage roars and lis. en, clumsily bowed With bombs and guns and shovels and battle-gear, Men jostle and climb to meet the bristling re. Lines of grey, muttering faces, masked with fear, ey leave their trenches, going over the top, While time ticks blank and busy on their wrists, And hope, with furtive eyes and grappling sts, Flounders in mud. O Jesus, make it stop!

“THE ATTACK” SIEGFRIED SASSOON, BRITISH SOLDIER/POET

A rare elevated view of French troops moving through trench PUBLIC DOMAIN lines and artillery shell craters at the Battle of the Somme WEAPONS OF MODERN WARFARE LIFE IN THE TRENCHES which also caused trench foot, a skin infection that could lead to amputation. MODERN ARTILLERY WHILE ARMIES fielded new tools of The stale air carried the smell of sweat, Improved steelmaking techniques produced massive guns war, their commanders clung to outdat- unwashed clothing, lingering gas, smoke that launched enormous explosive shells across great dis- ed concepts and methods of fighting. As and decaying corpses. tances. Artillerymen also developed new methods of aim- always, the soldiers in the field suffered. The threat of death was constant. From ing and concentrating their fire, increasing its deadliness. For three years, men faced each oth- time to time, enemy artillery would Most casualties in the war were caused by artillery. er in opposing trenches, separated by a strike, blasting metal shrapnel through battered strip of “No Man’s Land,” of- the trench, or burying men alive. Snip- MACHINE GUNS ten only a few hundred yards wide. Each ers targeted any head that appeared over At the beginning of the war, most armies had few machine side took turns throwing troops against the edge of the trench guns, gathered in specialized units. After the weapons the enemy. When these attacks ran out Then, at some point, troops would proved their deadliness, all the armies increased their of energy, the other side would counter- sense a change in the routine: increased manufacture and use. Firing hundreds of bullets per min- attack, and things would end up more or movement and artillery fire from the en- ute, a single gun could wipe out dozens of men in seconds. less where they had started -- except for emy across the way... Was the other side those killed or maimed in the fighting. planning an attack? Or perhaps rumors, POISON GAS reinforcements, supplies... Would it soon The most hideous weapon of the war. Gas blistered the be time to climb out of the trenches and skin, eyes, airways and lungs. Masks and protective cloth- “Months of boredom, punctuated head toward the enemy guns? ing helped reduce the lethality of gas attacks. But tens of by moments of sheer terror...” thousands died in agony, and hundreds of thousands suf- fered lingering effects for the rest of their lives. In between these battles, the troops TANKS endured a daily routine of tedium and Early tanks were called “landships” but were renamed to random death. Men spent daylight be- preserve their secrecy. The concept was simple - an ar- low ground level, cleaning themselves mored vehicle that could cross uneven terrain to support and their weapons, and maintaining the

A NEWSPAPER IN EDUCATION SUPPLEMENT TO THE WASHINGTON TIMES THE WASHINGTON SUPPLEMENT TO IN EDUCATION A NEWSPAPER trench. Personal time was limited; read-

infantry. Initial designs were primitive, but improvements

| ing or writing letters from home was a increased their effectiveness later in the war. favorite pasttime. Nightfall gave the men AIRCRAFT more freedom to move above ground. The war began barely a decade after the Wright Brothers’ They patrolled their area, repaired sand- first flight. Airplanes initially served as scouts and observ- bags and barbed wire, and moved in sup- IMPERIAL WAR MUSEUM ers, but pilots soon began carrying weapons into the air. plies and reinforcements. A doctor inspects British troops for trench foot Aircraft designs and weaponry improved rapidly, and soon Their companions were vermin, dis-

THURSDAY • APRIL 6, 2017 THURSDAY both sides battled for control of the skies. ease and filth. Giant rats and hungry lice LEARN MORE! infested everything and spread infection. ww1cc.org/edu 6 IMAGES: NAT’L WWI MUSEUM & MEMORIAL, IMPERIAL WAR MUSEUM (#2 & #4) LIBRARY & ARCHIVES CANADA , ALAMY.COM Frogs lived in pools of standing water, LEARN MORE! THE WORLD AT WAR ww1cc.org/edu THE WAR IN EUROPE quickly expanded to other parts of the world. European colonies and PARTICIPANTS IN WORLD WAR I (1914 NATIONS, IN ORDER OF DECLARATION OF WAR) dominions in the Americas, Africa, Asia and The Allies and Associated Powers The Central Powers the Pacific provided men and resources to their mother countries. In some cases, these colonial 1914 1915 1917 Brazil 1914 territories themselves became battlegrounds. Serbia Italy United States Austria-Hungary 1918 The entrance of the Ottoman Empire set off Russia Cuba Germany 1916 Guatemala fighting in the Middle East and North Africa. Montenegro Panama Ottoman Empire (Turkey) Portugal Nicaragua Fighting spread to the seas, as both sides tried to France Greece Romania Costa Rica 1915 prevent shipments of vital supplies to their op- Belgium Siam Haiti Bulgaria ponents. When colonies and other possessions Great Britain* Liberia Honduras are included, most of today’s modern nations Japan China participated in some way. * Includes Canada, Australia, New Zealand, India, South Africa & other British dominions and colonies

BEYOND THE WESTERN FRONT: 1914 - 1916

NORTH AMERICA SOUTHERN EUROPE THE EASTERN FRONT THE MIDDLE EAST THE FAR EAST While the United States remains After early Serbian victories, Russia sends its armies into The Ottoman Empire (Turkey) joins Japan, an ally of Britain, seizes neutral, Canada, a British domin- Germany sends men to help Germany before they are fully the Central Powers in late 1914. German-controlled territory in ion, immediately declares war. Austria-Hungary and convinces mobilized, leading to a horrific The British occupy its Mesopota- China as well as Germany’s col- Thousands of U.S. citizens cross the Bulgaria to join their cause. Un- defeat at the Battle of Tannen- mian oilfields, but are unable to onies in the Pacific. With the Eu- border to join the Canadian Army. der the combined assault, Serbia burg. It has better results against advance further. Hoping to relieve ropean powers focused closer to Canadian units play a vital role in is overrun by late 1915. Its place Austria-Hungary and the Ottomans pressure on the Western Front, home, Japan expands its influence nearly every major battle fought by is taken by Italy, which renounc- in the south, until the Germans the British invade the Gallipoli in the region. the British in Europe, proving to be es its alliance with Germany and step in to bolster their allies. But peninsula, but are pushed out by tough, effective troops -- but at a Austria-Hungary. But by late 1916, staggering casualties and wide- its Turkish defenders. The Arab terrible cost. the Italian front is as deadlocked as spread anger on the homefront tribes rise against the Turks, as- the rest of Europe. leave the army and the nation on sisted by a young Britsh officer the brink of revolution. named T.E. Lawrence.

Lawrence of Arabia A NEWSPAPER IN EDUCATION SUPPLEMENT TO THE WASHINGTON TIMES

PACIFIC

OCEAN PACIFIC

OCEAN ATLANTIC RED SEA

OCEAN

ON THE SEAS INDIAN The German and British main OCEAN fleets fight an inconclusive bat- tle at Jutland. German U-boats (submarines) take a heavy toll on AFRICA Allied shipping, until international France’s North African colonies outrage forces Germany to restrict send over 600,000 men to fight in their use. Britain’s naval block- Europe. Egypt is Britain’s base for ade begins strangling the German the Middle East; the Suez Canal is SOUTH ASIA |

war effort and civilian economy. SOUTH AMERICA its lifeline to India. The Ottomans

India, a British colony, sends 1.3 THURSDAY • APRIL 6, 2017 The countries of South America incite uprisings against British million men to fight in Europe, the remain neutral until 1917. Allied and French holdings. Farther Middle East, and Africa. Hoping AUSTRALIA/NEW ZEALAND and German naval ships use South south, the British seize control of that wartime service will improve Britain’s most distant dominions American ports for resupply and Germany’s colonies. A small Ger- the status of Indians under British respond enthusiastically to its call repairs. The British and Germans man guerilla force in East Africa rule, Mohandas Gandhi encourag- to arms. The Battle of Gallipoli, fight a series of small naval bat- ties down hundreds of thousands es his countrymen to support the against Ottoman forces, is a defin- Great Britain France tles off the coast of Chile. ing moment for both nations. Belgium Germany German U-Boat of Allied troops until the war ends. war effort. Italy Portugal MAP: ADAPTED FROM U.S. MILITARY ACADEMY COLLECTION • IMAGES: DEUTCHES BUNDESARCHIVE; LOWELL THOMAS/WITH LAWRENCE IN ARABIA (PUBLIC DOMAIN) 7 LEARN MORE! U.S. NEUTRALITY: 1914-1916 ww1cc.org/edu

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS with France going back to the American German U-boats began sinking all mer- Revolution. At the same time, a large chant ships going to or from Great Brit- population of German-Americans sym- ain without warning. U.S. protests es- pathized with their mother country, and calated until a German submarine sank many Irish-Americans held strong an- the passenger liner Lusitania on May ti-British feelings. 7, killing 1,198 people, including 128 Germany’s violation of Belgium’s Americans. U.S. outrage exploded, and neutrality further tilted U.S. public opin- Germany halted unrestricted sinkings. ion toward the Allies. Allied propaganda By this point, U.S. public opinion was exaggerated German brutality, but there firmly against Germany. A “prepared- was truth behind the claims -- German ness” movement arose that argued the troops had burned down the medieval U.S. needed to build up its military in library at Louvain and had shot Belgian case it was pulled into the war. Pre- civilians and Allied sympathizers, in- paredness was backed by many promi- cluding the British nurse Edith Cavell. nent Americans, including former pres- The war at sea also shaped U.S. opin- ident Theodore Roosevelt. It also gave ion. Britain’s naval blockade was un- rise to the Plattsburg Movement, a series The sinking of the Lusitania and loss of 128 American lives helped turn U.S. opinion against Germany, popular, as it prevented neutral nations of summer camps that taught attendees but did not immediately lead the nation to abandon neutrality and enter the war. from trading freely with both sides. At basic military skills. the same time, because of the blockade, However, there was still no wide- WHEN WAR BROKE OUT in Eu- agricultural and industrial producer. It the Allies were able to purchase far more spread support for the war. In the end, rope, the United States immediately de- was in the midst of a shift from a rural to U.S. goods and supplies than the Central preparedness advocates were able to clared its neutrality. President Woodrow an urban society, which created both op- Powers, often with loans from American achieve only a small increase in the U.S. Wilson stated that America must be “im- portunities and challenges. Americans financial institutions. This imbalance Army and Navy. In November 1916, partial in thought as well as in action.” were focused on issues at home, rather gave American businesses a vested in- President Wilson’s peace position was For a century, the U.S. had stayed out than conflicts overseas. terest in an Allied victory. validated as he won re-election with the of European affairs. Most Americans On the other hand, most Americans Also, although the British blockade slogan “He kept us out of war.” Yet less preferred to continue this policy. The had European roots. The majority leaned was controversial, it was far less damag- than four months later, he would ask the country was growing into its potential, toward the Allies, thanks to a shared lan- ing than Germany’s policy of unrestrict- U.S. Congress for a declaration of war. and had emerged as the world’s largest guage and heritage with Britain and ties ed submarine warfare. In early 1915, RELIEF EFFORTS AND VOLUNTEERISM

NATIONAL ARCHIVES JULIEN BRYAN | PUBLIC DOMAIN PUBLIC DOMAIN U.S. AIR FORCE

FEEDING A NATION SAVING LIVES JOINING THE FIGHT Immediately after the war began, Belgium faced a When war broke out, Americans living in Paris or- Despite U.S. neutrality, many young American men food crisis. The country imported most of its food, ganized a field hospital and ambulances to help the were eager to join the fight, especially on the Allied but it was now isolated by the German occupation French Army. This effort evolved into the Amer- side. Thousands crossed into Canada to join the and the British blockade. ican Ambulance Field Service (later the Ameri- British war effort. Others, including the poet Alan An American-led group founded the Commission can Field Service, or AFS) through which volun- Seeger (L), served with the French Foreign Legion. for the Relief of Belgium (CRB). Headed by future teer drivers helped save the lives of thousands of Some American volunteers flew with the Lafay- U.S. president Herbert Hoover, the all-volunteer ef- wounded French soldiers. Other organizations ette Flying Corps or the Lafayette Escadrille, at-

A NEWSPAPER IN EDUCATION SUPPLEMENT TO THE WASHINGTON TIMES THE WASHINGTON SUPPLEMENT TO IN EDUCATION A NEWSPAPER fort raised funds, collected food supplies, chartered raised ambulance units in France and on other tached to the French Air Force. Many of these orig-

| cargo ships, and organized distribution efforts. All fronts. Ernest Hemingway famously drove for the inally volunteered with the American Field Service.

the while, it navigated its way through a complex Red Cross in Italy. Most volunteers paid their own Others came from the Foreign Legion, including web of diplomatic and military considerations in way to Europe, and covered their own expenses. Eugene Bullard (R), the first black fighter pilot. order to ensure that food reached Belgian civilians. American women played a large role in providing When America entered the war, most of these The CRB fed 7.3 million Belgian and 2 million medical support to Allies. A number drove ambu- volunteers were transfered to U.S. command. Bul- French civilians between 1914 and 1919. It demon- lances, many more were nurses, and some wealthy lard was denied a position in the U.S. Army Air strated that humanitarian relief could be success- women funded and ran hospitals. One newlywed Service, due to his race. Yet he, like many other

THURSDAY • APRIL 6, 2017 THURSDAY fully delivered into an active war zone, and set a bride and her husband even spent their honeymoon American volunteers, received numerous honors 8 standard followed by aid organizations to this day. volunteering in France in 1915. and decorations from the French government. LEARN MORE! AMERICA ENTERS THE WAR ww1cc.org/edu

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS LIBRARY OF CONGRESS President Woodrow Wilson asks the U.S. Congress to declare war on Germany; April 2, 1917 The original encrypted Zimmermann Telegram. The message instructed the German Ambassador to Mexico to offer Mexico ALTHOUGH MOST of the American public was sym- the opportunity to regain Texas, New Mexico and Arizona in re- pathetic to the Allies, the United States stayed neutral for “ e world must be made safe for turn for an alliance with Germany. The Mexican government nearly three years. However, in early 1917, a series of refused the offer and remained neutral throughout the war. events finally drew America into the war. Democracy” On February 1, Germany resumed unrestricted sub- PRESIDENT WOODROW WILSON MESSAGE TO CONGRESS; APRIL 2, 1917 marine warfare. Britain’s naval blockade was causing THE DISSENTER severe shortages for Germany’s military and its civilian JEANNETTE RANKIN, the first economy. Germany saw no reason to continue holding Zimmermann Telegram (as it came to be called) was American woman elected to back its most effective naval weapon, especially con- published in U.S. newspapers on March 1, further feed- national office in the United sidering how unprepared the U.S. was for war. German ing U.S. outrage. States, was one of 50 members of U-boats once again began sinking all ships travelling In March, the Germans sank five U.S. merchant ships, the House of Representatives who to or from Allied ports. In response, the United States with the loss of dozens of American lives. In addition, voted against the U.S. declaration broke off diplomatic relations with Germany. the fall of the Tsar’s regime in Russia simplified the of war. In 1941, Rankin would be Then, in mid-February, the British presented the moral argument for the Allied cause: the war was now LIBRARY OF CONGRESS the only member to vote against A NEWSPAPER IN EDUCATION SUPPLEMENT TO THE WASHINGTON TIMES American government with a telegram they had inter- between democratic nations and autocratic empires. war with Japan, making her the only person to vote against cepted from Germany’s Foreign Minister Arthur Zim- On April 2, President Wilson went to the U.S. Con- U.S. entry into both World Wars. Rankin was widely merman to its Ambassador to Mexico. The message gress to formally ask it to declare war on Germany. criticized for both votes, but held true to her pacifist promised to help Mexico recapture territory it had lost The Senate granted Wilson’s request two days later, principles throughout her lifetime, never regretting either to the United States in the Mexican-American War followed by the House of Representatives on April 6. vote. In 1985, Rankin was honored with a statue in the (1846-48) if Mexico joined Germany as an ally. The The United States had joined the war. U.S. Capitol, with the inscription: “I Cannot Vote For War.”

THE ALLIES ON THE BRINK: REVOLUTION, MUTINY AND EXHAUSTION From the Allies’ point of view, events in 1917 proved French Army reached its breaking point. Numerous that the United States had entered the war just in time. units mutinied, refusing to go on any more attacks. Or- In Russia, long-simmering discontent boiled over, due der was restored by punishing individuals and units and to staggering war casualties and shortages on the home- by promising better conditions for frontline troops. But front. In March, nationwide strikes erupted, which the the French Army would be limited to defense for the army refused to put down, forcing Tsar Nicholas to give time being. up his throne. Despite massive losses at the Battle of the Somme, the

Russia’s new provisional British were still ready to press forward. The result was |

government made a number of the Battle of Passchendaele (July 31 - November 10), THURSDAY • APRIL 6, 2017 reforms, but kept Russia in the three months of rain, mud, and misery that cost each side war. A second revolution in No- a quarter million casualties with little result. The British vember brought Vladimir Lenin did better in the Battle of Cambrai in November, thanks (left) and the Bolshevik commu- to their effective use of tanks, but their gains were offset nists to power. Russia ceased by German advances in other sectors. fighting and signed a separate By year’s end, the Allies had lost a coalition partner PUBLIC DOMAIN peace with the Central Powers. and were reduced to a simple strategy: hold on until the LIBRARY & ARCHIVES CANADA After yet another disastrous offensive in April, the Americans were ready. A Canadian soldier surrounded by the mud at Passchendaele 9 LEARN MORE! U.S. ARMYww1cc.org/edu SOLDIERS BY BUILDING A FIGHTING FORCE STATE/TERRITORY THE UNITED STATES was not pre- (1917-1918) pared to fight in World War I. It had a New York 367,864 respectable navy, but the war was pri- marily fought by armies on land, not Pennsylvania 297,891 fleets at sea. America’s army was tiny Illinois 251,074 and designed to do little more than guard Ohio 200,293 its borders. At a time when European Texas 161,065 armies numbered millions of soldiers, Michigan 135,485 the U.S. Army, National Guard, and Massachusetts 132,610 Marine Corps had barely 300,000 men Missouri 128,544 combined. California 112,514 Initially, recruitment was slow, re- flecting the uncertainty the public still Indiana 106,581 felt about the war. To rapidly raise a New Jersey 105,207 large fighting force, Congress passed Minnesota 99,116 the Selective Service Act (commonly Iowa 98,781 known as “the Draft”) to conscript men Wisconsin 98,211 into the Army. Georgia 85,506 THE DRAFT Oklahoma 80,169 All men aged 21-31 were required to Tennessee 75,825 register with a local draft board, and NATIONAL ARCHIVES Kentucky 75,043 were each assigned a draft number from New recruits board a train on their way to basic training at Camp Upton, New York. Alabama 74,678 1 to 10,500. They were inducted into Virginia 73,062 service based on the order in which their North Carolina 73,003 number was selected at a drawing held ere were bartenders, saloon bouncers, ice men, coal min- by the Secretary of War. Louisiana 65,988 ers, dirt farmers, actors, mill hands and city boys who had Kansas 63,428 growed up in the back alleys and learned to scrap ever since Arkansas 61,027 they were knee high to a duck...” West Virginia 55,777 ALVIN YORK Mississippi 54,295 82ND “ALL AMERICAN” DIVISION South Carolina 53,482 Connecticut 50,069 NATIONAL ARCHIVES ca’s first great national effort since the Nebraska 47,805 Civil War. They embarked on troop Maryland 47,054 ships and steamed off to the war zone. Four out of five would travel through Washington 45,154 New York Harbor, passing under the Montana 36,293 NATIONAL ARCHIVES gaze of the Statue of Liberty. For many, Colorado 34,393 U.S. Secretary of War Newton Baker draws the this would be the last view of their coun- Florida 33,331 first draft number on July 20, 1917 try that they would ever see. Oregon 30,116 South Dakota 29,686 The draft was not universally accept- North Dakota 25,803 ed. Groups and individuals raised polit- A British instructor teaches an American trainee Maine 24,252 ical, legal, or moral questions. Members bayonet techniques of certain religious faiths were given ex- Idaho 19,016 emptions as conscientious objectors. Al- war, while building their physical fitness Utah 17,361 vin York, perhaps the most famous U.S. through marching and exercise. Rhode Island 16,861 soldier of the war, initially registered as The Army also worked to create a uni- Puerto Rico 16,538 a conscientious objector before deciding fied force from a diverse, disparate man- Dist of Columb. 15,930 power pool. With the notable exception to serve. New Hampshire 14,374 However, most Americans saw it as of African American troops (see p. 12), New Mexico 12,439 their duty to serve their nation; over 2.7 it largely succeeded. It made a special million men would be drafted into the effort to integrate hundreds of thou- Wyoming 11,393 military. sands of immigrant solders, by teaching Arizona 10,492 them English and instilling a sense of Vermont 9,338

A NEWSPAPER IN EDUCATION SUPPLEMENT TO THE WASHINGTON TIMES THE WASHINGTON SUPPLEMENT TO IN EDUCATION A NEWSPAPER TRAINING “being American” while taking into ac- Delaware 7,484 | Throughout 1917 and 1918, men ar- count their unique cultural backgrounds. rived at training camps from all corners Hawaii 5,644 Meanwhile, as the nation’s young men of America. The average Army trainee Nevada 5,105 actively prepared to go overseas, the would receive six months of training in NATIONAL ARCHIVES Alaska 2,102 public’s support for the war effort grew. the United States before shipping over- As troops completed their training, A soldier from the famed “Fighting 69th” Infantry Philippines 255 seas. Regiment bids his young family farewell they boarded trains and traveled to the Other 2,817 Trainees were taught to drill, follow East Coast. Soldiers from Northern and LEARN MORE! TOTAL 3,757,624 THURSDAY • APRIL 6, 2017 THURSDAY orders, and work as a team. They learned Southern states came together, joined by how to handle weapons and the tools of ww1cc.org/edu SOURCE: ORDER OF BATTLE OF THE UNITED men from the Western states, in Ameri- 10 STATES LAND FORCES IN THE WORLD WAR LEARN MORE! “OVER THERE”: ARRIVING IN EUROPE ww1cc.org/edu THE FIRST TROOPS of the Ameri- can Expeditionary Force (AEF) landed Over there, over there, in France on June 26, 1917. Over two Send the word, million Americans would arrive in Eu- rope by the end of the war. send the word over there The AEF was com- at the Yanks are coming, manded by General the Yanks are coming John “Black Jack” e drums rum-tumming everywhere. Pershing (left), a So prepare, say a prayer, veteran of the Span- Send the word, ish-American War and commander of a 1916 send the word to beware LIB. OF CONGRESS raid to hunt Mexican We’ll be over, we’re coming over, guerilla leader Pancho Villa. On July And we won’t come back 4, Pershing led a parade of U.S. troops till it’s over, over there! through cheering crowds in the streets LYRICS TO GEORGE M. COHAN’S of Paris. The Americans marched to the POPULAR 1917 SONG “OVER THERE” tomb of the Marquis de Lafayette, the MISSION CENTENNAIRE 14-18 French hero of the Revolutionary War, The first troops of the American Expeditionary Force arrive in St. Nazaire, France to die in combat when Germans raided where they declared that the U.S. had their trenches near Bathelemont, France. come to repay its old debt to France. area around Lorraine, in the east of the However, this early optimism faded a bit Through the end of 1917 and into Allied lines. Pershing’s staff set up when it became clear that the new arriv- 1918, the AEF continued to grow and “Lafayette, we are here!” camps to house the troops, training pro- als were not ready to fight. Many British train. Pershing planned to spend 1918 building up an overwhelming force and COLONEL CHARLES STANTON grams to prepare them for combat, and and French troops became resentful of STAFF OFFICER TO GEN. JOHN PERSHING communications and supply networks. the well-fed and well-paid doughboys, then to attack and win the war in 1919. PARIS; JULY 4, 1917 American industry had just begun to who had yet to prove themselves under However, the Germans had other plans. shift to full wartime production, so U.S. fire. America’s fighting men would have A RACE AGAINST TIME units were mostly supplied with Allied to earn respect in combat, not just from Germany had resumed unrestricted BUILDING AN INDEPENDENT FORCE equipment, especially tanks and air- the enemy, but from their allies. submarine warfare in early 1917 know- Pershing and his staff began preparing planes. American troops learned Allied On October 21, 1917, units from the ing it would likely provoke the U.S. to the AEF for battle. In earlier negotia- trench combat techniques, but Pershing U.S. Army’s First Division entered the enter the war. However, it believed that tions, the British and French had pressed insisted on additional training in marks- front lines near Nancy, France. Two days it could defeat the Allies before enough to use American troops to fill in their de- manship and maneuver warfare, as he later, Robert Bralet became the first U.S. Americans arrived to make a difference. pleted ranks. President Woodrow Wil- intended to get the Germans out of their soldier to fire a shot in the war when he After Russia’s departure from the war son and Pershing refused, insisting on positions and into the open. discharged a French 75mm gun at the and Austrian/German victories on the organizing the AEF as an independent At first, the arrival of eager, fresh German lines. On the night of November Italian front, Germany began moving force under American command. Americans provided a much-needed 2, James Gresham, Thomas Enright and men to the Western Front for its own ef- A NEWSPAPER IN EDUCATION SUPPLEMENT TO THE WASHINGTON TIMES The Americans were assigned to the morale boost to the exhausted Allies. Merle Hay became the first U.S. soldiers fort to win the war. WILSON’S FOURTEEN POINTS DEFEATING THE U-BOATS: THE U.S. NAVY As America sent its the nations it had occupied. It would men overseas to fight, also offer self-government to its minori- In early 1917, German submarines British and U.S. started grouping mer- President Woodrow ties, as would the Ottoman Empire. An were sinking one in every four ships chant ships in convoys and protecting Wilson continued to independent Polish state would be estab- that sailed from British ports. German them with escorts. Submarine sink- make a moral case for lished. leaders were confident that they could ings dropped dramatically. its involvement in the On a broader scale, Wilson wanted to minimize the U.S.’s contribution to The U.S. Navy helped ensure that war. address the issues he believed had led to the Allies by preventing supplies and tens of millions of tons of supplies LIB. OF CONGRESS Wilson was a pro- the outbreak and expansion of the war. troops from crossing the Atlantic. reached Europe. Two million U.S. gressive and an idealist. At the same He proposed an end to secret treaties, The U.S. Navy had a sizeable fleet, troops safely crossed the Atlantic; only time, he was deeply prejudiced against freedom of the seas, free trade, reduc- and was building more ships. Howev- 637 were lost to German submarines. African Americans, and for years was tions in armaments and greater rights er, it lacked the smaller vessels needed 431 sailors and coast guardsmen were strongly opposed to voting rights for for colonial peoples. To enforce these to fight submarines and to escort mer- killed and 819 wounded in carrying women. These contradictory attitudes principles, he proposed the creation of a chant ships, and was undermanned. out this vital duty. were not unusual for the time. global “association of nations.” It quickly shifted its shipbuilding

In a speech to Congress on January 8, Wilson’s speech came to be known program to focus on destroyers and |

1918, Wilson laid out fourteen concepts as the “Fourteen Points”. They were submarine chasers. The U.S. decla- THURSDAY • APRIL 6, 2017 that summarized U.S. war aims. embraced around the world as American ration of war automatically placed the Some were specific to the war: Ger- idealism at its best, and were adopted by Coast Guard under Navy command, many was to evacuate Russia, leave the Allies as the central message of their expanding its ranks. Also, since the Belgium and return territory taken from wartime propaganda. Army had priority for manpower, the France in their 1870 war. Italy’s bor- However, Wilson would ultimately Navy expanded its recruiting to in- NAVAL HISTORICAL CENTER ders would be adjusted to encompass find it difficult to turn his ideals into re- clude women in support roles, freeing all Italian speakers (at Austia-Hungary’s ality, even in his home country. up more men for sea duty. American sailors pose next to a 5-inch gun on the deck of a destroyer expense). Austria-Hungary was to leave To combat the submarine threat, the 11 LEARN MORE! AMERICANS AT WAR ww1cc.org/edu THE AMERICAN DOUGHBOY NATIVE AMERICANS Historical accounts show that U.S. in- • 25% of men between the ages of fantry (foot) soldiers had been called 18 and 31 were in military service “Doughboys” as early as the Mexi- • The average height was 5 feet 7 can-American War (1846-48). During 1/2 inches tall; the average weight World War I, the term was universally was 141.5 pounds - about the same adopted as the nickname for all Ameri- as a Civil War soldier, but an inch can troops who went overseas to fight. shorter and ten pounds lighter than They came from every part of the those who served in World War II. country, and represented nearly every segment of America’s large and diverse • 37% were unable to read or write MATHERS MUSEUM population: Ivy League blue bloods and • 39% were immigrants or sons of Choctaw soldiers in uniform immigrants fresh off the boat. Coun- immigrants try boys and city dwellers. Grandsons of Civil War veterans and grandsons of • 10% were African American Despite poor treatment by the U.S. govern- ment, many Native Americans contributed slaves. Sons of settlers and cowboys from • 7 out of 10 soldiers were draftees the West, and Native American warriors to the war effort, in uniform and on the • 53,402 were killed in combat; U.S. ARMY HERITAGE & EDUCATION CENTER & EDUCATION HERITAGE ARMY U.S. carrying on their tribal traditions. homefront. 63,114 died from other causes; ARMY HERITAGE & EDUCATION CTR The following figures help paint a When the U.S. began drafting men into 204,000 were wounded Two very different doughboys in training broad picture of the men who fought for the military, most American Indians were at Camp Custer (Michigan) in 1917. America in World War I: not considered to be citizens, and were therefore not subject to conscription. However, they were required to register for the draft, which caused confusion, resent- AFRICAN-AMERICANS ment and even outright rebellion. More than 350,000 African Amer- Despite these issues, 6,500 Native men icans served during World War I. were drafted, and about 5,000 more enlist- Many were assigned menial support ed, eager to carry on the warrior traditions roles, due to American society’s of their tribes. The Onondaga and Onieda deep fears and prejudices. Despite Nations even declared war against Ger- facing racism at home and in uni- many. Fourteen American Indian women form, tens of thousands of black served in the U.S. Army Nurse Corps. soldiers served courageously and In combat, Native Americans often vol- capably in combat. unteered for dangerous positions, such as When war broke out, black Amer- snipers and scouts, and won praise for their bravery and skill. The cost of this courage icans debated whether or not to sup- was high: about five percent of Native sol- port the war effort if the U.S. joined NATIONAL ARCHIVES diers were killed in combat, compared to the fighting. Some questioned why one percent for U.S. troops overall. they should help the U.S. defend de- Soldiers of the 369th Infantry Regiment, wearing French gear while under French command Although speaking native languages was mocracy overseas, when they were overseas. Many white command- it was also known for its famed reg- discouraged or even punished in the U.S., denied its full benefits at home. ers believed black soldiers would imental band, which brought jazz to many American Indians were fluent in perform poorly under fire. Others Europe, it was first and foremost a their native tongue. Cherokee and Choc- “Let us, while this war lasts, feared that black combat veterans fighting unit. During the Meuse-Ar- taw troops used their language to securely transmit communications that the Germans forget our special grievances would be emboldened to resist rac- gonne offensive at the end of the ism when they returned home. As a war, the 92nd “Buffalo Soldiers” could not understand. These soldiers were and close our ranks shoulder result, most African Americans were Division joined the fighting, serving the precursors to the better-known Code to shoulder with our own white assigned to labor duties in the rear under U.S. command. In addition, a Talkers of World War II. fellow citizens...” areas. small number of African-American Native Americans supported the war on W.E.B DU BOIS General Pershing intended to train women served as nurses and in the the homefront as well. They purchased $25 JULY, 1918 and raise an independent American Navy. million in war bonds, equal to $75 for ev- army, and resisted British and French Unfortunately, the service of ery Indian. Others supported the Red Cross requests for U.S. troops. However, black Americans had little impact on and other relief organizations. When war came, many Afri- However, during the war, the loss of Na- A NEWSPAPER IN EDUCATION SUPPLEMENT TO THE WASHINGTON TIMES THE WASHINGTON SUPPLEMENT TO IN EDUCATION A NEWSPAPER he agreed to send the French several racism in the United States. Many can-Americans chose to prove their | tive land increased, as cattle and sugar beet

African-American regiments from African-American veterans faced right to equality by serving their the 93rd Division. discrimination and violence, despite companies convinced the federal govern- country. African American troops Under French command, black their service. However, their record ment that they needed more land to support were organized into segregated troops experienced far less racism. provided undeniable proof of the the war effort. units, mostly led by white officers. They were given combat assign- willingness and ability of African Nonetheless, Native American contribu- In response to protests, the Army ments like any other French unit, Americans to serve their nation, and tions to the war helped win them greater eventually trained over 1,300 black and fought with courage and skill. further inspired the black communi- rights as Americans. Congress granted officers. citizenship to all Native veterans in 1919, THURSDAY • APRIL 6, 2017 THURSDAY The most famous of these was the ty in its fight to achieve social and 200,000 black troops shipped 12 369th Infantry Regiment. Although political equality. and to all American Indians in 1924. 60 years after the war. WARTIME WORK WOMEN Due to the Army’s manpower needs, the Navy was The expansion of the military pulled 16 percent of the short of personnel. It recruited over 11,000 “Yeoma- U.S. male workforce into uniform. Women filled jobs nettes” who served as clerks, electricians, drivers, as factory workers, clerical staff, drivers, technicians, mechanics, and more. The Marine Corps and Coast researchers... virtually every position in every field. Guard also recruited women for the first time. Most women were released from their jobs as men VOLUNTEER ORGANIZATIONS came home after the war. But they had proved that women could handle “masculine” work, and set the American women had been a part of European relief example for the “Rosie the Riveters” of World War II efforts since the beginning of the war. Once America and future generations of working women. entered the fighting, thousands more joined efforts at home and overseas. Tens of thousands of Red Cross IMPACT NATIONAL ARCHIVES volunteers provided services for troops overseas, The contributions of women in WWI allowed the U.S. Yeomanettes serving in the U.S. Navy Reserve and Red Cross nurses worked alongside their Army to devote its manpower to the battlefield. These wom- counterparts. The YMCA helped the Army provide en led the way for today’s military women, and en- World War I marked the first time American women welfare and comfort services. The Salvation Army’s hanced the position and influence of women in Amer- directly participated in a war effort on a wide scale. contingent was smaller, but beloved for its “Donut ican society in general. Their contributions helped win the war, and also Dollies.” Wealthy women established hospitals and In particular, their service provided momentum for helped them make major strides towards equality. aid programs, and in some cases traveled to Europe to the Women’s Suffrage movement, aimed at winning run them personally. voting rights for women. President Woodrow Wilson WOMEN IN UNIFORM himself publicly reversed his opposition to the move- Women formally served in the U.S. military for the ment, reflecting changing attitudes shared by many first time. The largest group was the Army Nurse men. In 1920, the 19th Amendment to the Constitu- Corps: over 20,000 served, and 10,000 went over- tion gave women the right to vote. seas. Nurses were often close to the front lines, and experienced artillery and gas attacks. They provided care to more than 200,000 wounded men. During the “...We have made partners of the women influenza pandemic of 1918-19, over 200 nurses died in this war... Shall we admit them only treating sick troops. Over 400 women served as telephone operators to a partnership of suering and sacri- in France. These “Hello Girls” spoke English and ce and toil and not to a partnership of French, and played a vital role in connecting Allied privilege and right?” communications. Although they served with the Army NATIONAL ARCHIVES PRESIDENT WOODROW WILSON Signal Corps, they were considered civilians, and did ADDRESS TO CONGRESS, SEPTEMBER 30, 1918 not receive government recognition as veterans until Women shipbuilders at the Puget Sound (WA) shipyard.

intensive classes in English, American IMMIGRANTS history and civics. During World War I, nearly forty per- These measures improved the mo- A NEWSPAPER IN EDUCATION SUPPLEMENT TO THE WASHINGTON TIMES cent of U.S. soldiers were immigrants rale and performance of foreign-born or children of immigrants. Their ser- recruits, which helped them earn the vice not only helped win the war, but respect of their native-born comrades. accelerated the assimilation and accep- By the time their units were sent over- tance of an entire generation of new seas, immigrant soldiers had begun to Americans. develop deeper ties to their fellow sol- Between 1880 and 1910, 17 mil- diers and to their adopted nation. lion immigrants arrived in the United On the battlefield, immigrant and States. By 1910, almost 15 percent of native-born troops toiled, fought, bled the population was foreign born. While and died alongside each other. Under earlier arrivals were largely British, fire, prejudices and stereotypes were ir- Irish or German, most of these recent relevant; all that mattered was whether immigrants were from Eastern, Central a man was a good soldier. The shared MOLE & THOMAS | PUBLIC DOMAIN hardship and sacrifice forged bonds and Southern Europe. A smaller num- Troops at Camp Gordon, GA, pose in a patriotic formation for a group photograph. Camp Gordon ber came from Asian countries. Their pioneered new approaches to training immigrant recruits, helping integrate them into the U.S. Army between troops of all backgrounds and arrival increased the U.S. population and building a sense of cameraderie and shared purpose reinforced their pride in serving under while introducing unfamiliar languages the stars and stripes. immigrants, seeing them as lazy, back- trition and hard labor. Misunderstand- and cultures into American society. Back home, the families of for-

ward, and cowardly. Some questioned ings and prejudices flared up into argu- | The outbreak of World War I in July eign-born soldiers were deeply invest-

whether immigrant recruits who spoke ments and fights, some of them serious. THURSDAY • APRIL 6, 2017 1914 led to concerns about how the ed in the war. They bought war bonds little English and held old-world values The army moved quickly to address immigrant population would react to and proudly hung blue star service could be trained to be effective soldiers. these problems. Foreign recruits were the war, since most recent arrivals had flags in their front windows to show Initially, it appeared that the skeptics organized into training units by lan- direct ties to countries involved in the that they had a loved one in uniform. were right. When the first foreign-born guage, led by multilingual officers. Re- fighting. These concerns deepened By sending their young men overseas recruits and draftees began military sources were provided for traditional when the United States entered the and demonstrating their support for the training, many struggled to understand celebrations and religious services, and war in April 1917. Many native-born war effort, immigrant communities as simple orders, and had trouble keeping ethnic foods were served at mealtime. Americans were prejudiced against a whole were better able to connect to up physically, due to years of poor nu- At the same time, immigrants received mainstream American society. 13 LEARN MORE! BEHIND THE LINES ww1cc.org/edu AMERICAN TROOPS in the field were supported by a wide range of services. Hospitals cared for the wounded and sick. Relief organizations such as the YMCA, Red Cross and Salvation Army provid- ed comfort and morale services. Military bands performed concerts of marching music and the latest popular tunes. Most important of all, there was mail from home -- sometimes containing a sweet treat to be eaten or shared with their comrades. Many of these services were provided by volunteers, including thousands of women. Some worked just a couple of miles from the front lines, and experienced artillery or gas attacks. The doughboys would never forget those who joined them in Europe and NATIONAL ARCHIVES shared some of the hardship and risk. A diverse group of U.S soldiers and sailors, plus an Allied friend or two, enjoy themselves at a Red Cross canteen in France

BRINGING JAZZ HOSPITALS RECIPE: RED CROSS WAR CAKE The American Red Cross promoted a sweet cake rec- TO EUROPE ipe, promising that the end product could reach the Western Front and retain its freshness. The dried fruit helped keep it moist when shipped across the Atlantic. The original recipe came with a recommendation: “Cake keeps fresh for a long time and can be sent to men at the front.” Here is a slightly modified modern version, with only a few alterations. INGREDIENTS: 1 cup orange juice or rum for soaking raisins LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 8 ounces raisins (about one package), chopped, A U.S. hospital, late 1917. Casualties would soon increase dramatically. soaked in orange juice or rum, and drained before use American volunteers had staffed and managed hospitals in 2 cups brown sugar France, Belgium, and England since the beginning of the war. 2 cups hot water The first U.S. military hospital arrived in Europe in May 1917. 2 tablespoons lard (butter may be substituted today, Initially, most U.S. hospitals treated Allied troops, until Ameri- but lard helped the cake stay fresher.) can forces entered heavy combat in early 1918. 1 teaspoon salt Many medical innovations were introduced in World War I. 1 teaspoon cinnamon X-ray equipment, blood transfusions, and better anti-infection 1 teaspoon cloves practices all helped reduce fatalities. In addition to battlefield 1 tablespoon finely grated orange zest wounds, doctors and nurses faced another deadly opponent - the 4 ounces pecans or walnuts, chopped influeza pandemic of 1918-19. Many medical personnel died, 1 tsp baking soda heroically staying by their patients despite the risk. 3 cups flour. DIRECTIONS: U.S. ARMY Soak chopped raisins in orange juice or rum at least James Reese Europe (L) leads the 369th Regi- HOLIDAYS AWAY FROM HOME for a few hours, or up to one week. Drain. ment’s band in a performance in Paris Preheat oven to 350°F. Put sugar, hot water, lard, salt, cinnamon, cloves, and raisins, nuts, and grated zest in Many military units had marching a large pot. Bring to a boil over medium heat, stirring bands, for entertainment and morale. frequently, then reduce the heat to low and cook at a In World War I, the most famous was simmer for 5 minutes. Remove from heat and cool in a attached to the 369th Infantry Regi- large bowl. Sift or stir the flour and soda together, then A NEWSPAPER IN EDUCATION SUPPLEMENT TO THE WASHINGTON TIMES THE WASHINGTON SUPPLEMENT TO IN EDUCATION A NEWSPAPER

ment, a segregated African-American

| add to liquid. Mix well. Generously grease 2 small loaf unit. pans or one tube pan. Pour batter into the pans and Led by composer James Reese Eu- bake for 45 minutes or until a knife blade comes out rope, and drum major Noble Sissle, clean when poked into the cake. You may dust with the band was made up of world class confectioner’s sugar as desired before serving. musicians from New York City and Latin America. It not only performed Adapted from The American Plate: A Culinary Histo- for U.S. troops, but introduced French ry in 100 Bites by Libby H. O’Connell (Sourcebooks,

THURSDAY • APRIL 6, 2017 THURSDAY U.S. ARMY audiences to jazz. 2015) 14 Doughboys open the Christmas mail, December 1917 LEARN MORE! THE HOMEFRONT ww1cc.org/edu

IN 1917, the United States was not ready to fight a modern war. Not only was its military under- PAYING FOR THE WAR sized, but its economy and society were unpre- The United States would pared for the commitment required to wage war spend over $30 billion on in the 20th century. fighting World War I. In After a slow start, the U.S. government imple- 1913, the 16th Amendment mented measures aimed at improving efficien- to the U.S. Constitution had cy and mobilizing public involvement. Some of established a personal in- these efforts were controversial, but for the most come tax. Wartime increas- part, they were successful. es in tax rates significantly The government’s role in World War I set a boosted funds collected by precedent for its increased involvement in Ameri- the government. ca’s economy and society in general. However, most of Amer- WIKIMEDIA COMMONS ica’s wartime spending was funded by war bonds. Like savings bonds, war This iconic image of Uncle Sam first appeared during the war bonds provided purchasers with a guaranteed return at a future date. The gov- ernment promoted its “Liberty Bonds” with a nationwide campaign calling LIBRARY OF CONGRESS on the public’s patriotism. It organized huge rallies with famous actors such PROPAGANDA AND FREE SPEECH as Charlie Chaplin and Douglas Fairbanks (above) and commissioned pro- motional posters by famous artists. Boy Scouts and Girl Scouts helped sell In the first months after the U.S. entered the bonds; Americans from all walks of life purchased them. War bonds would war, many Americans still did not fully sup- raise over $20 billion for the U.S. war effort. port the decision to join the conflict. President Woodrow Wilson created the Committee on Public Information to encourage the Amer- ican people to support the war effort. The WARTIME PRODUCTION Committee produced articles, posters (right), From 1914 to early 1917, America supplied war goods to Europe (predomi- pamphlets, movies, speeches and rallies that nantly the Allies, due to the British naval blockade). promoted the Allied cause and painted the However, when the U.S. entered the war, it faced challenges in ramping up Central Powers (especially Germany) as ene- to full wartime production. The military and private industry did not work mies of democracy and civilization. together to prioritize manufacturing needs, and the transportation of resources In addition, Congress passed two laws of and products was completely disorganized. questionable constitutionality. The Espionage President Wilson created the War Industries Board to set production stan- Act gave the government broad powers to in- dards and coordinate railroad and shipping efforts. The National War Labor spect communications by mail. The Sedition Board secured the cooperation of American workers by setting higher wag- Act made it illegal to even speak against the es and an eight hour workday, and recognized the right to unionize. Many war effort or the U.S. Government. Both laws LIBRARY OF CONGRESS jobs were left vacant by men were challenged in court; at the time, both were upheld by the Supreme Court as called into military service; necessary for the war. women stepped in to fill the A NEWSPAPER IN EDUCATION SUPPLEMENT TO THE WASHINGTON TIMES These measures fueled strong anti-German sentiment. German-Americans faced gaps. harassment and abuse; many changed their names to more English-sounding ver- Although these measures sions. In the hysteria, sauerkraut was renamed “liberty cabbage”, dachshunds were helped make America’s war called “liberty pups” and even German measles became “liberty measles.” effort more efficient, the war ended before they could make a major impact on its CONSERVATION MEASURES actual output. However, they set a precedent that influ- To free up resources for the military and enced the government’s role for America’s European allies, the gov- in the economy a generation NATIONAL ARCHIVES ernment promoted conservation. The later, during the New Deal Inside an American factory producing artillery shells Food Administration was led by Herbert and World War II. Hoover, who had organized relief efforts for Belgium. The agency promoted volun- tary measures, such as meatless Mondays SERVICE AND SACRIFICE and wheatless Wednesdays. It offered canning lessons and modified recipes, and Service flags were hung in the windows of encouraged Americans to plant vegetable homes across America, decorated with a blue |

star for each family member in the military. If a

gardens in yards and vacant spaces. These THURSDAY • APRIL 6, 2017 measures helped double the amount of family member lost their life, the blue star was food shipped to Europe within a year and covered with a gold one. reduced U.S. consumption by 15 percent. Blue and Gold Star service flags were wide- The Fuel Administration adopted similar spread during both World Wars, but fell out of efforts, such as heatless Mondays and gas- use until they were revived by post-9/11 mili- less Sundays. tary families.

Cover of sheet music for a popular song of the time Promoting food conservation to immigrants UNIV. OF MAINE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 15 LEARN MORE! BIRTH OF AN ARMY: SPRING 1918 ww1cc.org/edu BY MARCH 1918, over 300,000 American troops were in France. A AMERICAN AIRMEN few units had been called into action The U.S. Army had just 35 pilots when it during the Battle of Cambrai in No- joined the war, all in the Signal Corps. It vember 1917, but the vast majority began an intensive program to recruit and had yet to see combat. In keeping with train pilots and support personnel. Commanding General John J. Persh- The first U.S. aviation squadron en- ing’s plan to organize an independent tered combat in February 1918, manned American army, most of them were mostly by pilots who had previously training in rear areas, or assigned to volunteered with the French. Ameri- quiet sections of the Allied lines. can-trained squadrons soon joined the The British and French were still fighting, and on May 24, the Air Service recovering from setbacks they had suf- of the U.S. Army was officially formed. fered in 1917, and were simply hold- Most American pilots flew French ing on until the Americans were ready. planes, since U.S. aircraft production was Meanwhile, Germany had quietly still ramping up. Training was hazardous,

moved hundreds of thousands of sol- FRENCH PICTORIAL SERVICE causing twice as many deaths as combat. diers to the Western Front -- forces that American troops attack the village of Cantigny, in the first independent U.S. action of the war In addition, brand new U.S. pilots faced had been freed up by Russia’s depar- experienced German foes, resulting in ture from the war and a major Austrian/ action was an important step forward For the first time, multiple American heavy early losses. German victory on the Italian front. for American troops. divisions fought shoulder-to-shoulder, Despite these challenges, American On March 21, the reinforced German A few days later, U.S. forces rein- as 270,000 U.S. troops pushed the Ger- pilots steadily improved. 71 pilots shot armies attacked. They used new tactics forced Allied positions in the Chemin mans back. Two newly-formed Amer- down at least five aircraft, earning “ace” that relied on speed and surprise, rather des Dames area northeast of Paris, ican corps led much of the advance, status. Former race car driver Eddie than the week-long artillery barrages where they prevented the Germans inspiring further Allied confidence in Rickenbacker (below) led all Americans and mass frontal assaults of the past. from crossing the Marne River to U.S. troops and leadership. In August, with 26 victories. U.S. aviation helped Short, intense artillery bombardments threaten the French capital. To the the advance ran its course, and the Al- beat back the German Spring Offensives, blasted gaps in the Allied lines that west, U.S. Marines halted the enemy lies paused to regroup. and helped control the skies in the final were exploited by specially trained and advance at Belleau Wood and then re- The performance of U.S. forces in Allied offensives of the war. equipped shock troops. These “storm- took the wood, proving that Americans this Aisne-Marne Offensive proved troopers” bypassed strong points and were capable of standing toe-to-toe that the Americans were ready to take moved quickly forward, opening the with battle-hardened Germans. on a full share of the upcoming fight- way for larger units to follow. The Germans launched their last as- ing. The various units that had been At first, the Germans made good sault, which they optimistically named placed under Allied command during progress, advancing deep into Allied Den Friedensturm (Peace Offensive), the German offensives were brought territory. However, the battered British just to the east of their previous effort. back under American control, and the and French troops held, and the Ger- As before, they achieved initial suc- First United States Army was officially U.S. AIR FORCE man attacks ground to a halt without cesses, crossing the Marne River near formed on July 24th, with Pershing as achieving their objectives. A follow-up the town of Chateau-Thierry. Once its commander. offensive in Flanders, to the north, re- again, French and American forces When the Germans had resumed un- SERGEANT STUBBY sulted in a similar outcome. rallied to throw back the German ad- restricted submarine warfare in early Stubby was smug- At first, American forces took little vance. Over 85,000 U.S. troops saw 1917, they had gambled that they could gled to France by part in these battles. However, as the action -- the largest number of Amer- defeat the Allies before the Americans the 102nd Infan- German offensives continued, Pershing icans in combat since the Civil War. could field an effective fighting force. try Regiment of agreed to send individual units to fight The failure of this last offensive ended America’s rapid ability to project pow- the 26th (Yankee) under French or British command. In German hopes of winning the war. er proved that a poor wager. The First Division. He took late May, American soldiers seized the As the last German attack stalled, the Army now stood ready for upcoming part in 17 battles, village of Cantigny, in the first U.S. Allies launched a major counter-offen- American offensives that would help surviving shrapnel attack of the war. Although minor, the sive along the Aisne and Marne rivers. end the war. and gas injuries. SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Stubby’s canine senses helped warn DEVIL DOGS: THE U.S. MARINE CORPS his human comrades of danger. He could smell incoming gas attacks and hear in- Most of America’s troops in France were rines dug in and fought back a German as- bound artillery and approaching enemies. soldiers in the U.S. Army. However, 30,000 sault. They then attacked to push the Ger- He even captured an enemy spy trying U.S. Marines (officially part of the Navy) mans out of the woods. For three weeks, to sneak into camp at night. Stubby also made important contributions to victory on the Marines battled the enemy head-on. A NEWSPAPER IN EDUCATION SUPPLEMENT TO THE WASHINGTON TIMES THE WASHINGTON SUPPLEMENT TO IN EDUCATION A NEWSPAPER

served as a mercy dog, finding and com-

| the Western Front. Due to their inexperience and the strength

forting wounded soldiers on the battlefield. Marines had arrived with the first U.S. of the German positions, Marine casualties For his actions, Stubby was “promot- troops in June 1917. By March 1918, near- were high. But after 20 days of brutal fight- ed” to Sergeant. After the liberation of ly 10,000 were in France. Most were orga- ing, the Marines controlled the wood. Chateau-Thierry, the women of the town nized in a brigade under the U.S. Army’s According to legend, the Marines at Bel- made him a special blanket for him to Second Division. leau Wood were called “Teufelshunde” or wear his many awards. On June 1, the Marine brigade went into “Devil Dogs” by their German opponents. Stubby returned home as a hero and action near Belleau Wood, along the Marne The nickname endures today as part of the THURSDAY • APRIL 6, 2017 THURSDAY celebrity. Upon his death, he received an Marine Corps recruiting poster River. Despite being told to retreat, the Ma- Marine Corps’ legacy. obituary in the New York Times. 16 after the Battle of Belleau Wood IMAGE: LIBRARY OF CONGRESS LEARN MORE! ON TO VICTORY: THE HUNDRED DAYS ww1cc.org/edu

both the North and South had fired in the entire Civil War. The American SERGEANT YORK attack made good progress at first, Raised in rural piercing two out of three German de- Tennesee, Alvin fensive lines. But logistical problems York was an expert and the inexperience of some attacking woodsman and a units stalled the assault in front of the crack shot. He was third German line. Experienced troops also devoutly reli- took the lead, and began a steady push gious, and initially through the German fortifications. The registered as a con- area was finally cleared by October 31. scientious objector The Allied pressure all along the before going to war. U.S. ARMY Western Front was accompanied by On October 8, 1918, York single-hand- success on other battlefronts. Germa- edly attacked several German machine ny’s ally Bulgaria was knocked out of gun positions that had pinned down his the war in late September, followed by patrol. At the end of the engagement, he Ottoman Turkey at the end of October. U.S. ARMY had silenced the guns and captured 132 On November 1, American forc- prisoners. U.S. artillerymen firing gas shells at German positions during the Meuse-Argonne Offensive es once again moved forward. They York received the U.S. military’s high- easily broke through the German lines THE AMERICAN EXPEDITION- gressive leadership of field command- est award, the Medal of Honor, and nu- and advanced rapidly. On November ARY FORCE had planned to build up ers, the assault moved forward rapid- merous other decorations. He returned 4, Austria-Hungary gave up. Germany and then go on the attack in 1919. Ger- ly, disrupting a German withdrawal. home a national hero but declined all stood alone. The Allied victory was all many’s Spring Offensives in early 1918 The attack’s objectives were quickly offers to make money from his fame. but complete, yet the troops in the field forced U.S. troops into the line sooner. achieved, and Pershing halted to orga- Thanks in part to the classic Hollywood continued to fight and die while their Their impressive performance led to nize his forces for the next effort. film, Sergeant York, he remains the most leaders negotiated an end to the war. the formation of the First U.S. Army, On September 26, the Allies launched famous U.S. soldier of the war. and gave Allied leaders the confidence offensives all along the Western Front, to press forward against the drained and in what would become known as the THE LOST BATTALION AND CHER AMI demoralized Germans. Hundred Days Offensives. The AEF The Allies initial task was to push had the task of attacking between the On October 2, 1918, over 500 soldiers of Yet despite severe injuries, Cher Ami back the advances the German attacks Meuse River and the western edge of the U.S. 77th Division were surrounded somehow delivered his message to divi- had made in their lines. In August, the Argonne Forest. This area was by Germans in the Argonne Forest. For sion headquarters, 25 miles away. The American units supported Allied of- heavily defended, and complicated by six days they held on, running low on artillery stopped and a relief force res- fensives in the Somme, Oise-Aisne, difficult terrain. But Pershing believed food, water, and ammunition. They sent cued the survivors of the “Lost Battal- and Ypre-Lys areas. These drives re- that if his troops could push forward runners for help; none made it through. ion” four days later. claimed the territory captured by the with enough momentum, they could Worse, due to an error in a message sent Cher Ami be- by carrier pigeon, Allied artillery began came famous, and Germans, and pushed the Germans break into the open areas behind the A NEWSPAPER IN EDUCATION SUPPLEMENT TO THE WASHINGTON TIMES back towards their defensive positions German lines. The Meuse-Argonne bombarding the trapped unit. was even awarded at the Hindenburg Line. Offensive would involve 1.2 million Desperate to end the shelling, the the French Croix de On September 12, the Americans American troops, making it the largest Americans sent their last pigeon. But Guerre. Today, he launched their first offensive at St. battle in U.S. history. the bird, named Cher Ami (French for can be seen at the Mihiel, supported by French troops, ar- The offensive opened with an enor- “Dear Friend”) was shot down by the American Museum tillery, airplanes and tanks. Thanks to mous artillery barrage. In three hours, Germans, dashing the hopes of the en- of Natural History. U.S. ARMY Pershing’s careful planning and the ag- the Allies used more ammunition than circled men.

THE ARMISTICE: THE ELEVENTH HOUR OF THE ELEVENTH DAY OF THE ELEVENTH MONTH BY THE END of September 1918, Ger- best way to end the war was to drive to the 11th day of the 11th month. man’s military leaders were forced to Berlin. As talks went back and forth, the The fighting continued until the last accept that defeat was inevitable. The fighting continued. possible moment. As a result, there army was on the brink of collapse, and Then, in early November, a mutiny were 10,944 casualties, including 2,738 there was unrest on the homefront. The by the German navy spread to cities deaths, on the war’s last day. Most oc- civilian government was finally embold- throughout Germany. Fearing a repeat cured within a period of three hours. The ened to demand an end to the war. of the communist takeover in Russia, the last soldier to be killed in World War I

On October 3, the German government Germans and the Allies accelerated their was Henry Gunther, an American of Ger- |

sent a note to U.S. President Woodrow negotiations. On November 9, German man descent, who was killed just sixty THURSDAY • APRIL 6, 2017 Wilson, accepting his Fourteen Points as revolutionaries declared a republic. The seconds before the guns fell silent. the basis for peace. However, while the German Kaiser gave up his throne and The news of the armistice was met other Allies were happy to promote Wil- fled to Holland. with jubilation in the Allied nations. But son’s ideals as wartime propaganda, they Early on November 11th, the Germans although the fighting was over, it would were unwilling to apply them to actual met the Allies near Paris to sign an Armi- take months of negotiations at the Par- PUBLIC DOMAIN negotiations with the Germans. Also, stice ending the fighting. The agreement is Peace Conference to formally end the Allied generals pose after the signing of the a number of Allied leaders -- including set 11:00am Paris time as the moment war with the signing of the Treaty of Ver- Armistice, the morning of November 11, 1918 General Pershing -- believed that the the truce would begin - the 11th hour of sailles. 17 LEARN MORE! MAKING PEACE ww1cc.org/edu IN JANUARY 1919, the combatant nations gathered unrest led to conflict throughout the 20th century, which in Paris for a peace conference. Five treaties would be continues today in the Middle East. negotiated at the conference, one for each of the Central Most importantly, the Treaty of Versailles and the way Powers. The most important was the Treaty of Ver- in which it was imposed led to deep and sustained re- sailles, between the Allies and Germany. sentment in Germany. Nationalists began spreading a Initially, the conference was led by England, France, narrative that Germany’s armies had not been defeated, the United States, Italy and Japan, but most major deci- but “stabbed in the back” by its politicians. These sen- sions were made by the first three powers. Lesser Allies timents would be exploited by Adolf Hitler and the Nazi and representatives from colonies and subject territories Party in their rise to power in the 1930s, and contributed around the world also came to Paris. The Central Pow- to the start of World War II barely a generation later. ers were not represented; they would be compelled to accept the terms negotiated by the victors. THE U.S. RETURNS TO ISOLATIONISM HOPES MEET REALITY U.S.ARMY When President Woodrow Wilson brought the Trea- The Allied nations had claimed they were fighting for Allied leaders in Paris (L to R): British Prime Minister David Lloyd ty of Versailles back to the United States, the public justice and freedom. As a result, many around the world George, Italian Premier Vittorio Orlando, French Premier Georges and many state legislatures favored the treaty. How- (including the absent Central Powers) hoped that U.S. Clemenceau, U.S. President Woodrow Wilson. Lloyd George, ever, the U.S. Senate, which held the constitutional Clemenceau and Wilson dominated the peace conference President Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points would power to ratify all treaties, opposed it. Many sen- form the basis for the final peace. Wilson had proposed given independence. Bulgaria lost territory as well. The ators believed that the League of Nation’s powers firm but fair terms and a vision of a world ruled by open Ottoman Empire was dismantled. All the Central Pow- undermined Congress’s own power to declare war. agreements, reduced armaments, self-government and ers were forced to pay reparations to the Allies. In response to this opposition, Wilson began a na- international cooperation. tional tour to rally support for the Treaty. However, However, his allies had other priorities. Britain and SEEDS OF FUTURE CONFLICT in late 1919 he suffered a breakdown and a major France demanded a “war guilt clause” requiring Germa- France and Britain had achieved most of their goals, stroke. Wilson’s condition eventually improved, ny to accept responsibility for the war. France in partic- and many Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman subjects had but he never fully recovered. ular insisted on harsh terms that stripped away Germa- secured their independence. However, much of the rest With Wilson sidelined, Republican Senator Hen- ny’s territory, restricted its military’s size, and required of the world was disappointed by the results in Paris. ry Cabot Lodge, attached fourteen “reservations” it to pay reparations to compensate the Allied nations. Italy and Japan felt that they had been ignored, despite to the pact, a play on Wilson’s original Fourteen Britain was less interested in punishing Germany, but their contributions This dissatisfaction would fuel the Points. Wilson stubbornly refused to accept any was concerned with maintaining its empire. France had rise of militarism in both nations. America’s war aims changes and told Senate Democrats to vote against its own colonies, and shared this goal. These interests were also not met: the outcome bore little resemblance the altered Treaty in November 1919. At a final vote conflicted with Wilson’s ideas about self-government to Wilson’s Fourteen Points, which would weaken his in March 1920, the Treaty failed by seven votes. for all peoples. Wilson did get the Allies to agree to es- case when he tried to secure U.S. Senate support for the By the 1920 presidential campaign, the Ameri- tablish the League of Nations. This international body Treaty of Versailles. can public had tired of international obligations and was intended to preserve peace by promoting dialogue For many colonial peoples, the war’s wasteful devas- idealism. Republican President Warren G. Harding and preventing disputes, and would enforce its efforts tation had already tarnished European civilization. The won election by promising a “return to normalcy,” by calling upon the military forces of member nations. way that subject territories were ignored at the peace ending any chance of reviving the debate. The Germans protested the terms of the treaty, but re- conference further fueled independence movements The U.S. signed separate treaties with Germany lented when the Allies threatened to begin fighting again. around the globe. Many former Austro-Hungarian and and the other Central Powers in 1921, but never The Treaty of Versailles was signed on June 28; treaties Ottoman subjects were unhappy with the borders the joined the League of Nations. America would re- with the other Central Powers followed. Austria-Hun- Allies had drawn for their new nations, which often ig- main aloof from global politics until World War II. gary was split in two and many of its minorities were nored deep ethnic and religious divisions. The resulting THE AFTERMATH

THE HUMAN COST THE INFLUENZA PANDEMIC INTERVENTION IN RUSSIA World War I was one of Dead Wounded The deadliest Nearly 13,000 history’s deadliest wars, Germany 1,773,000 4,216,058 influenza (flu) U.S. troops causing over 20 million Russia 1,700,000 4,950,000 pandemic in took part in deaths. France 1,357,800 4,266,000 modern history Russia’s Civ- il War from Over 8.5 million sol- Austria-Hungary 1,200,000 3,620,000 struck the world August 1918 diers lost their lives, and Great Britain 908,371 2,090,212 in 1918-1919. more than 21 million Researchers to April 1920. Italy 650,000 947,000 BOLANDERA | WIKIMEDIA COMMONS were wounded. There now believe that CENTERS FOR DISEASE CONTROL Other Allied Romania 335,706 120,000 Monument to veterans of the U.S. were about 7 million ci- the virus origi- The deadly 1918-1919 flu virus nations also A NEWSPAPER IN EDUCATION SUPPLEMENT TO THE WASHINGTON TIMES THE WASHINGTON SUPPLEMENT TO IN EDUCATION A NEWSPAPER intervention in Northern Russia Ottoman Empire 325,000 400,000 sent men;

| vilian deaths, and count- nated in China, less others were injured, (Turkey) made its way to North America with Chinese some actively fought alongside the Russian anti-communists starved or made home- United States 116,516 204,002 laborers, and incubated in U.S. Army training (“Whites”) against the Bolsheviks (“Reds”). less. Bulgaria 87,500 152,390 camps in early 1918. It traveled overseas with U.S. forces primarily carried out defensive This table presents Serbia & 48,000 143,148 U.S. troops, and spread rapidly across Europe operations and guarded American property. conservative estimates Montenegro and the rest of the world, aided by wartime However, American participation poisoned re- for military casualties Belgium 13,716 44,686 conditions. Estimates vary, but 20-100 mil- lations between the U.S. and communist Rus- of the major combatant Portugal 7,222 13,800 lion people died -- adding another layer of THURSDAY • APRIL 6, 2017 THURSDAY sia (which became the Soviet Union in 1922). 18 nations. Greece 5,000 21,000 misery to a world already devastated by war. LEARN MORE! LEGACY AND REMEMBRANCE ww1cc.org/edu

PUBLIC DOMAIN AMERICAN BATTLE MONUMENTS COMMISSION ABOVE: The Meuse-Argonne American Cemetery in France, the largest U.S. military burial ground in Europe. INSET: One of the hundreds of statues across America memorializing World War I’s Doughboys

WORLD WAR I changed the world. It ended the era their claim to their fair share of rights and opportuni- of monarchies and set in motion the decline and fall of ties. The assimiliation of millions of immigrants was POPPIES colonial empires. It introduced mass industrial warfare greatly accelerated. and gave rise to over a century of conflict, including a America’s participation in World War I shaped its second global war that was the largest in human history. future and influenced the course of global events. As Yet its legacy extended beyond disruption and dev- the U.S. commemorates its World War I centennial, the astation. The war saw the introduction of large scale war’s impact continues to be felt, from the highest lev- humanitation efforts. It led to technological innovations els of international politics to the countless local street that had widespread peacetime benefits. Subjugated corners, parks and cemeteries that host memorials bear- peoples around the world were emboldened to pursue ing witness to the service and sacrifice of the America’s self-government. International organizaitons arose that World War I generation. formed the model for similar institutions today. The United States initially retreated from internation- al politics shortly after the war. However, World War I WWI MEMORIALS: GET INVOLVED represented a turning point in its relationship with the Grants are available for local WWI memorials needing care: world. It emerged as the undisputed leader in economic (Apply by June 15, 2017) ww1cc.org/100memorials production, and became the center of global finance. Lieutenant Colonel John McCrae, a Canadian phy- Be a Memorial Hunter! Track down hidden and forgotten At home, the war fundamentally changed American sician, wrote the most famous poem of the war after

WWI memorials near you: ww1cc.org/hunter A NEWSPAPER IN EDUCATION SUPPLEMENT TO THE WASHINGTON TIMES society. The role of government in daily life signifi- seeing poppies blooming on graves of the fallen. cantly expanded. Women and minority groups staked McCrae himself died from disease in 1918, near the end of the war. AMERICA’S VETERANS The vast majority of America’s 4.7 million veterans marked the first Armistice Day on November 11, 1919. “In Flanders elds the poppies blow continued to contribute to U.S. society and their com- Americans observed the holiday until after World War Between the crosses, row on row” munities upon returning home. However, many strug- II, when it was renamed Veterans Day to honor the ser- gled, due to physical wounds and psychological scars. vice of veterans in all conflicts. FROM “IN FLANDERS FIELDS” In 1922, the New York Times reported that veteran sui- Today, communities across the United States mark POEM BY LT COL JOHN MCCRAE, CANADIAN ARMY cides averaged two per day -- likely a very low esti- Veterans Day with ceremonies and celebrations salut- mate, given the reporting standards of the time. ing America’s veterans. (Memorial Day in May hon- Inspired by McCrae’s poem, American Moina SERVING THOSE WHO SERVED ors those who lost their lives serving the nation.) The Michael began a campaign promoting the poppy as country’s largest Veterans Day parade takes place on a symbol of remembrance. Her efforts led to the Veterans took action to address these issues. Existing New York City’s Fifth Avenue -- the same route as the adoption of the poppy as a memorial symbol in the groups, such as the Veterans of Foreign Wars (VFW), parades that welcomed home thousands of troops after United States and in English-speaking countries greatly expanded. New groups were formed, including World War I. overseas. the Disabled American Veterans (DAV) and the Amer- In recent years, awareness of the poppy’s signifi- ican Legion, which became the world’s largest veteran

cance has declined in the U.S., although it remains | organization. The American Gold Star Mothers was the strong in Britain, Canada, Australia and New Zea- THURSDAY • APRIL 6, 2017 first of several groups for those who lost a family mem- land. The U.S. World War I Centennial Commis- ber in service. These organizations helped veterans in sion has launched a national campaign to revive the need, lobbied the government for better care and ben- poppy as a national symbol while raising funds for efits, and took active roles in their local communities. a new national memorial for America’s World War I Their work laid the foundation for America’s modern generation in Washington, D.C. veterans community. UWVC To learn more about this effort, visit: VETERANS DAY A diverse group of modern veterans marches in a recent Veterans One year after the war ended, nations around the world ww1cc.org/poppy Day Parade in New York City 19 JOIN HISTORY® IN COMMEMORATING THE 100TH ANNIVERSARY OF WORLD WAR I ©2014 A&E Television Networks, LLC. All rights reserved. 0663. reserved. rights All LLC. Networks, Television A&E ©2014

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