THE UNIVERSITY OF SYDNEY
Copyright and use of this thesis This thesis must be used in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright Act 1968.
Reproduction of material protected by copyright may be an infringement of copyright and copyright owners may be entitled to take legal action against persons who infringe their copyright.
Section 51 (2) of the Copyright Act permits an authorized officer of a university library or archives to provide a copy (by communication or otherwise) of an unpublished thesis kept in the library or archives, to a person who satisfies the authorized officer that he or she requires the reproduction for the purposes of research or study.
The Copyright Act grants the creator of a work a number of moral rights, specifically the right of attribution, the right against false attribution and the right of integrity.
You may infringe the author’s moral rights if you:
- fail to acknowledge the author of this thesis if you quote sections from the work
- attribute this thesis to another author
-subject this thesis to derogatory treatment which may prejudice the author’s reputation
For further information contact the University’s Copyright Service. sydney.edu.au/copyright "THE CONTRIBUTION OF DR JOHN DUNMORE LANG
TOWARDS EDUCATION IN NEW SOUTH WALES«
1825-1878
By Kenneth J,Harman#
Submitted to the Education Department, Sydney University, as a partial requirement for the degree of Master of Education. January,1961. w aw nidii J (From an engraving by H.S.Sadd by engraving an(From H UMR LN M.A..D.D.--- LANG DUNMORE OHN n h Mthl Library.) the Mitchell in
-Contents- A. Introduction, (i) The Man John Dunmore Lang - early background; brief summary of his social and political work* (ii) His interest in education - the low moral tone of the colony*
B*PART 1 - THE AUSTRALIAN COLLEGE. Chapter 1* (a) Lang's reaction to the establishment of the Church and School Corporation; his Caledonian Academy, 1826 - its Scottish character-broad curriculum, Protestant nature, the training of missionaries. Financial crisis and failure* (b) The more elaborate plan for the '"Darling Institution" - Governor Darling refuses assistance. (c) Lang’s connection with the establishment of the Sydney College; -his desertion of the project - visits England to seek aid for the establishment of an institution of his own. Chapter 2.(p*24.) The Foundation of the Australian College. Lang obtains a loan of £1500 from Lord Goderich for the foundation of the Australian College; Lang's principles of staff selection - the college library and scientific apparatus; Lang violently attacks the Church and School Corporation - serious repercussions. Lang attacked by the friends of the Sydney College. Loss of public support; financial difficulties and Parliamentary censure. Chapter 3. The History of the Australian College 1852-41.(p.50) A. The First Period 1851-1855. The evening lectures of McGarvie and Carmichael; shortage of staff - Carmichael left alone to conduct the affairs of the college; Lang's differences with Carmichael and the latter's gift to education. B. The Second Period 1855-41*The period of Mackenzie, Aitken and Wylde; revolutionary teaching techniques at the college; Judge Burton's iavourable comments on the instruction at the college; The ’’’pastoral’" activities of the staff bring the college into disrepute. Chapter 4. The Inquiry of the Legislative Council into the Affairs of the College, 1841» (p.74) The withdrawal of public support from the college; Lang asks for Government assistance and a Council Committee of Inquiry is set up; the views of Lang and his teachers on higher education. The exposition of Lang’s irregular financial transactions and threatening disaster; Lang finally defeats the action brought against him by the government.
Chapter 5« The Revival and Failure of the Australian College,1841 to 1854* (p.89) Partial operation to 1846 - Lang visits England to revive the college; the period of Ridley, Goethe and Quaife. Why the Australian College failed..
PART 11. Lang and the Attempts to Establish a National System of Education made by Governors Gipps and Bourke. Chapter 1. Background. Goderich's liberal, national view of education; Bourke's opposition to the Anglican monopoly under the Church and School Corporation and his support of Stanley's Irish National System. Chapter 2. Lang's Opposition to Bourke's Proposals. Lang attacks the Irish National System through his newspaper, "’The Colonist"', 1835 and 1836. Lang's philosophy of education- the place of religious instruction in moral training -Carmichael again- Lang's suggestion of state aid to all religious groups. He supports the Australian School Society movement. The part played by'"The Colonist'" in the defeat of Bourke’s proposals. Chapter 3» The Lowe Committee. Lang visits Dublin in 1837 and changes his views on the Irish National System ; the reasons for his change of attitude; his opposition to the expensive and inefficient Denominational System. Lang initiates agitation in Parliament for general education; the Lowe Committee and Lang's influence. PART 111, THE SYDNEY UNIVERSITY AND ST ANDREW * S COLLEGE. Chapter 1. The Foundation of Sydney University« (p.137). First suggestions of a university; the influence of the Australian College and the Scottish Universities. Lang supports the establishment of Sydney University but opposes Wentworth. Lang favours the examples set by the University of London and the American Universities. His ambitions for the Australian College. Chapter 2. St Andrew*s College, (p.155) The Affiliated Colleges Act, 1854 and Lang’s fight to establish a Presbyterian College affiliated with the Sydney University. The divided state of the Presbyterian Church a hampering factor until 1865« The ppposition of the other Presbyterian groups to Lang’s Synod of New South Wales. Lang uses his position in Parliament to establish St Andrew's College after much opposition from his church bretheren. Finally denied the position of Principal•
CONCLUSION, (p.173) Lang's great importance in seeing the value of education in raising the moral standards of the colony, and keeping the importance of education before the public eye. His belief in high teaching standards and his valuable work in introducing men of outstanding ability to teach in New South Wales. The beneficial impetus given to education in New South Wales by the Scottish influence.Lang as a pio^er of University education; the limitations of his achievement resulting from his overbearing personality.
**************** BIBLIOGRAPHY - p.177 List of Illustrations» 1. John Dunmore Lang M.A.,D.D. opposite p.l
2. Prospectus of the "Caledonian Academy" p.8
3. Prospectus of the proposed '"Darling Institution'" p.15.
4. List of a few of the books purchased by Lang and Carmichael in England for the opening of the Australian College, p.31.
5. Mrs John Dunmore Lang.(With a note on the family history) p.32.
6. Henry Carmichael accepts an appointment to the Australian College. p.58.
7. Australian College Fees Account, 1836. p.65.
8. The Australian College. p.74.
9. Receipt from Rev T. Aitken to Lang for £200 -"a bonus for leaving the institution....after(having) fairly ruined it". p.85.
10. Moral Philosophy Exercise set by Rev. Barzillai Quaife at the Australian College, 1850. p.92.
11. Sir Richard Bourke p.105.
12.Sir George Gipps - Supporter of National Education. p.128.
13. Robert Lowe. p.128
14* William Charles Wentworth -Founder of Sydney University. p*142
15.St Andrew's College p.155
16. Lang the Fighter. (Cartoon) p.176.
************ PREFACE
I wish to thank the many friends who have assisted me in producing this work. I am deeply indebted to the staff of the Mitchell Library for their courtesy and assistance over the past two years. I wish to thank especially Mr Frank Meaney who assisted with the photography, Mr David MacMillan for the use of the Sydney University Archives and the Right Reverend Monsignor J.J.McGovern P.P. for the use of his books and other material. INTRODUCTION.
A. THE MAN - JOHN DUNMORE LANG. John Dunmore Lang was born in Greenock, near Glasgow, on August
25, 1799. He was the eldest child of Mary (nee Dunmore) and Wil
liam Lang who was connected with the building trade. (1)
After William Lang’s retirement from business in Greenock, in
1807, the family moved to a farm near Largs and John was immediate
ly sent to Largs Parish School where he commenced the study of
Greek and Latin, ,fin addition to the usual branches of an English
Education” , with a view to entering the ministry. In 1811, at the
very early age of twelve years, John entered the University of
Glasgow where he studied Arts for four years and then Theology for
a similar period. Of the eight years at the university then pre
scribed for the ministry of the Church of Scotland, the first four
included courses in "the learned languages, logic, mental philios-
ophy and mathematics." The remaining four years were spent in the
study of "theology, church history and the oriental tongues". Lang
tells us that most of the theology students had the opportunity of
attending classes other than those prescribed by the church. Lang
himself regularly attended classes for modern languages, anatomy
and natural history.
During his first eight years at the university, Lang displayed
considerable merit in his studies, collecting nine class prizes
(especially in the latter years). Because he anticipated leaving
1. Unless otherwise specified, the material dealing with Lang’s early career is taken from Vol. 2L of the Lang Papers in the Mitchell Library. In this volume is to be found Lang’s unfinished "Reminiscences of My Life and Times", 1877, some in printed form and some in Lang’s very shaky handwriting. 11.
Scotland for "some foreign part", he decided to take his M.A. and
was awarded for this purpose "the largest bursary for scholarship
in the gift of the University, fifty pounds a year." He graduated
M.A. on April 11, 1820. (Five years later, after he had been in
New South Wales for two years, the Glasgow University conferred on
him the degree of Pmr-bnr of Doctor of D ivinity. At the age of 25
years, Lang was extremely young to gain such an honour, and the con
ferring of the degree, at the request of the Professor of Divinity,
Rev. Dr. Stevenson McGill, was doubtless the result of the convic
tion that i t would enhance his standing in the colony where he was
encountering difficulty in gaining official recognition. (1)^)
Lang’s brother, George, had gone to Sydney in Seoternber, 1821,
and had obtained a grant of 1,000 acres of land from Governor Mac
quarie. (2) Hdever, as a result of Commissioner Bigge’s Reoort,
Macquarie was replaced, a few months later, by Sir Thomas Brisbane
who had owned a property near Largs, Scotland, and was w ell known
to the Lang family. George approached the new Governor about the v importation of a Presbyterian Minister to ser^e the needs of the col
onists of that persuasion. Brisbane gave his blessing to the proposal
and promised to assist in building a Scots Church in Sydney fo r John
i f he should decide to come to the colony. (3) The result was an
"earnest invitation" to John to settle in the colony as a minister
of the Church of Scotland. (4)
However, even while John was at the university studying Theology,
he had "entertained a strong aversion to the system of patronage
which at that time was almost universal in the Church of Scotland." XT cf. Gilchrist A. "J.D.Lang-Chiefly Autobiographical "Vol.1., p.6 7. 2. ibid, p.22 3. Lang J.D. "Settlement of Scots Church" 1828. 4 . Lang J.D. "Aurora Australis" 1826. 111. He had been licensed, by the Presbytery of Irvine, to preach the
Gospel in June 1820, (1) but he regarded it as "humiliating for a licentiate of the church to be kept waiting for some vacancy at the footstool of one nobleman or another." With these views in mind, Lang determined to "follow the examole of the great apostle to the Gentiles" and strike out a path for himself.
At a very young age then, Lang displayed that unmistakable qual ity of independence which was to be the most distinguishing feature of his personality throughout his long and memorable career in this countryf Whether it was the influence of his brother, George, or his determination to have no superior to guide his hand, Lang left Scotland on October 14, 1822, just two weeks after his ordination, aboard the "Andromeda" for New South Wales where he became the first Presbyterian minister.
During the following 55 years of his residence in this country, Lang, a member of Parliament almost continually from 1843 to 1869, became entangled in most of the controversial issues of the period.
(V These years were the most imoortant in Australia's development in almost all aspects of political and social life. Lang's work in oolitical and social questions was so great that he becomes a bio grapher’s "nightmare". When one considers that Lang published over one hundred pamphlets and books, comprising 13,000 printed pages, be sides his hundreds of lengthy articles in the press, both in Britain and Australia; made nine voyages to Britain; visited America, the Continent and the South Sea Islands; delivered countless lectures 1. A licentiate of the Presbyterian Church corresponds to the position of deacon in the Church of England.) IV. on all sorts of subjects in Sydney or on his many excursions into the interior, it is little wonder that biographers have despaired.
John Dunmore Lang was the most controversial figure of his time, acclaimed by his friends and denounced by his numerous enemies.
His fortunes varied from being the "toast of Victoria" (1) to re ceiving a horsewhipping in Hunter Street or serving prison sentences for libel. Throughout his long career in public life, Lang showed himself to be of overbearing personality - a man who would figjit with no hold barred for what he thought was right. With his pen and his voice he made himself feared by those who opposed him; he attacked Governors or Colonial Secretaries with the same vigour as he flayed the members of the humbler classes if he thought the occasion warranted it.
That he had the mind of a great statesman could perhaps be best illustrated by a very short catalogue of some of the measures which he either initiated or fought for:-
a. Postal Reform. b. The broadening of the franchise. c. Better education. d. Abolition of transportation. e. Triennial Parliaments. (It waa. largely because of Lang’s agitation that N.S.W. was savengentworth Ts proposed "hereditary nobility".) f. Abolition of state aid to religion. g. The separation of Queensland and Victoria. h. Inducing the British Government to take formal possession of New Zealand in 1$40. i. Above all, the immigration of good, selected, moral peoole and the improvement of moral standards.
His great friend, Henry Parkes, said of him, "The colony owes more to him than to any other man. We may look in vain for his equal.... He has always been one of the boldest advocates for the
1. At the banquet celebrating the separation of Victoria for which he was largely responsible. political rights and liberties of the colonists. His advocacy of
these rights has always been consistent. Whoever might swerve, wk
whoever might fail us, we knew we could always depend on Doctor
Lang. Through-out his political career he has had no interest of his own to serve, no motive but the public good. His place in
History is fixed. Future generations will delight to honour his name when probably all our other public men have been forgotten.(1 ) Perhaps some of Parkes’s remarks are exaggerated, but all would
agree that Lang’s monument in Wynyard Square represents a great
Australian. B. LANG’S INTEREST IN EDUCATION.
When Lang arrived in New South Wales in 1823, he was immediate ly impressed by the low moral tone of the colony which had been ad versely influenced by the convict system. (2) Britain had ’’vomited forth” the contents of its gaols and other places of correction into the colony, Lang said, and had ’’rendered a land which yields to none other on the face of the globe for the salubrity of its climate and the serenity of is sky, a land of justly requited vice and self-inflicted misery.” (3) A few months after his arrival he wrote, ’’The country is highly productive, but its pe oole ! 0
generation of vipers! Will they never be warned from the wrath to come? I scorn to be the pensioner of thieves and adulterers.”(4) Indeed he resolved to return to Scotland as soon as he had estab
lished Scots Church. However, Lang soon decided to change coloni
al society rather than leave it ; he waged war against drunkenness,
concubinage and the disreputable ’’convict press”, in pamphlets, 1. Quoted Gilchrist op.cit. p. XI. Vol.l. 2. Lang J.D. ’»History of N.S.W.”. 1834 Edn. Vol.ll, p. 410 3. ibid. p. 402. 4. July lo, 1823. Lang Papers . M.L. Vol. 1 VI.
books, lectures and his own newspaper "The Colonist". Not only did he condemn these social evils but offered solutions to the problem of moral degradation. These social evils, he believed, could be overcome, or at least improved, firstly by the implemen tation of an improved system of immigration whereby only good, moral types could enter the country, and secondly, by the promo tion of education, especially at the secondary and tertiary levels.
He believed, with Melanchthon, that "it is necessary, by our example, to stimulate the young to an admiration and love of learning for its own sake, apart from any profit to be derived from it. The ruin of all else follows the decay of learning - religion, morals, divine and human things alike. The better a man is, the greater his desire for the preservation of learning; since he knows that of all plagues, ignorance is the most pernicious." (1)
In addition to the direct moral benefits to be derived from better education, Lang, naturally enough, wished to establish a college for the training of Australians for the Presbyterian min istry - Australians who would be familiar with the circumstances of the colony and who would therefore carry out their duties more efficiently. He wanted Australian boys to get their higher educa tion in their own country rather than hazard a trio to some part of the British Isles.
Lang himself was highly educated and he brought to New South
Wales the traditions of Scottish education which were to play a
1. \ Land's rf.&.uj" ’S3 £*Uv. Ve&.i ySn , Vll. very important part in the develoornent of our system. His insatiable appetite for travel, together with his keen powers of observation and untiring energy, made him one of the best, if not the best, informed persons in the colony in educational matters. In his dealings with educational problems he was able to draw on his observations in Britain, Europe and America and assess their value for the circumstances of New South Wales. PART 1 .
THE AUSTRALIAN COLLEGE. CHAPTER 1
THE CLERGY AND SCHOOLS CORPORATION, THE CALEDONIAN ACADEMY
AND LANG* S CONNECTION WITH THE SYDNEY COLLEGE
A . The establishment of the Church and School Corporation and Lang's Reaction to It The appointment of the Rev, Thomas Reddall, in 1820, to introduce the so-called “National System“ into the schools and afterwards to “superintend“ the system, had been the expression of the firm conviction of the British Government that education in New South Wales should be on the priniples of the Church of
England, (1) The National System had been originally developed by Dr. Andrew Bell for the mission schools of Madras and was based on the patronage of the Church of England. (2) This view was shared by Commissioner Bigge who recommended that the religious instruction from this system be extended to the schools of New South Wales. (3) This system had been regarded by Lord Bathurst, the Secretary of State for the Colonies, as being the most suitable for New South Wales for implanting in the minds of the children the principles of the Established Church, (4) With such a background then, in 1825 all matters relative to the control, finance and supervision of education in New South Wales passed into the hands of the Church and School Corporation, formed by a Royal Charter which permitted the Church of England full control over matters educational. One seventh of
(1) cf. Fogarty Brother R. “Catholic Education in Australia 1806-1950“ Vol, 1 p, 13. (2) ibid. (3) Bigge J.T. Third Report “Report of the Commission of Enquiry on the State of Agriculture and Trade in N.S.W." 1823, cf, Fogarty p. 13. (4) Bathurst to Macquarie, 13/5/1820. H.R.A. 1. Vol. X p. 304. - 2-
the land of each and every county was to be set aside for the
support of religion and education - this land was to be known
as the "Clergy and School Estate". The land was to be, if at
all possible, "in one contiguous and unbroken tract" and "of
average quality" and value.(1). The lands of the Corporation
could be worked, leased or sold (subject to a few restrictions)
and the proceeds were to support the clergy and to provide^ for
education in New South Wales, thus relieving the government of
the financial burden of these services.(2).
The proceeds from the sale of such lands were divided into
two equal parts - one known as the "Improvement and Building
Account" and the other as the "Clergy and School Account." Two-
sevenths of the latter was reserved for the support of schools
and masters, and the rest for the support of the Clergy of the
Church of England. Many types of schools were to be established
under this system, Infant and Parochial Schools, Grammar Schools,
Collegiate, Orphan Schools, Schools for Aborigines, Evening
Schools for Young Men, MechanicsT Institutions and a school at
"Black Town" for the children of the blacks. (3).
A short time after his return from England (his first visit)
in 1826, Lang was "utterly astounded" (A) to learn of the estab
lishment of the Church and School Corporation to educate the
youth of the colony exclusively on the lines of the Church of
England. He was astounded even further by the allotment of one-
1. "State of Religion and Education in N.S.W." Burton W. (1840) Appendix 11, p.XXlll. "Extract from Instructions under the Royal Sign Manual Relative to the Land to be set apart for the Church and School Estates. 2. For Rules of the Company see Burton, Appendix 1, pp.lll-XXl. 3. ibid. Appendix 1 p.XX 4. Lang J.D. "History of N.S.W." 1852. Ed'n. Vol.ll p.517. - 3 - seventh of the whole colony to the Corporation to cover costs involved and in the meantime "free access to the colonial treasury chest."
To the first Presbyterian minister in the colony, this charter was, rather naturally, an insult to the non-Episcopalian popula tion. He wrote that it could scarcely be believed "that so wanton an insult, as this precious document implied, could have been offer ed to the common sense of the whole community.... or that men could have been found in the nineteenth century to perpetuate so gross an outrage on the best feelings of a numerous body of reputable men. But so it was; and the education of the colony thus appear ed to have passed completely into the hands of the Church and u School Corporation. (1).
In the meantime, during Lang's absence in England in 1325, a society, or body of Trustees "of Civil Officers and Gentlemen had been formed for the erection and endowment of a Free Grammar School; and a piece of ground in extent one acre and a half, very eligibly situated in the town of Sydney, (present site of Sydney Grammar near Hyde Park) having been granted to them by His Excell ency Sir Thomas Brisbane, for the erection of the requisite buil dings, a Head Master (Dr. Halloran) and assistants were forthwith appointed, with liberal salaries for the immediate commencement of the business of education in a house rented by the Trustees." (2).
On October 4, 1825, the school opened with about twenty scholars but closed again at the end of the following year, "the Trustees considering it advisable to commence buildings rather than expend
1. Lang "History of N.S.W." Vol. 11 1852 Ed'n. pp. 517-518. 2. Burton Judge W. op.cit. pp. 132-133. 3 . ib id . -li the ir funds in the payment of salaries.”
Lang said that (1) ’’the coarse of the Free Grammar School was short and inglorious. The masters were speedily dismissed; and the patrons of the institution, who had been at best but a rope of sand, speedily quarrelled with each other, and broke up.”
Thus, he continues, the need for such a school was neglected for four or five years during which time the Archdeacon and the Episco palian clergy had every opportunity to found such an institution
’’with the very crumbs that fell from the Corporation table.” (2).
That ’’twelve or fifteen colonial ministers of religion managing for years together to spend public money to the amount of £20,000 a year, under the pretence of providing religious instruction and general education of so small a colony as New South Wales than was, without providing the colony all the while with a single school in which a boy could be taught the simplest elements of mathematics or the merest rudiments of the Latin tongue.... was so monstrous that it would have been absolutely incredible if it had not actu ally occurred!” (3). Lang suggests that many of those presiding over the Corporation were themselves poorly educated and ’’could not have axed their way through a page of Homer or Virgil to save them from the knout.” Indeed, the bitter Lang went on to suggest, it seemed to be the ambition of those people to prevent the youth of
Australia from rising above their own humble level of education, or perhaps they believed that ’’ignorance is the mother of devotion! ”(4) •
1. ’’History ot N.8.W.”"l852 E d ’n. Vol. 11 p.518. 2. ibid. 3. ibid, p.519 (and cf. ’’The Colonist” 29th January, 183 5») 4. ib id. - 5- Archdeacon Thomas Hobbes Scott (who had been in the service A of Commissioner Biggs, and had taken religious orders on his re turn to England and had been sent back to N.S.W. in 1825 to es tablish the Church and School Corporation, presumably because of his previous experience in the colony) claimed, in articles in the
London "Times” after his return, that the Corporation had not es tablished an academical institution because its efforts had been directed towards educating the children of the poorer classes throughout the territory.(1). However, Lang pointed out that the
Corporation had made no attempt to make provision for the training of teachers and that the money of the Corporation had been used to pay high salaries to unnecessary officers "merely, we presume, to keep up the pomp and circumstance of the system" which was gener - ally conducted in such a way "which precludes the hope of its proving in any way beneficial in forming the character of our colonial youth. (2). He stated further, that during the regime of the Corporation, only one third (1000 out of 3000) of the youth of Sydney were being educated.
Langfs attacks on the Corporation are understandable when we consider his position as head of an unassisted denominational group. Indeed, we shall see later that many of his views were shared by o Governor Burke who was to recommend a new system to replace the
Corporation. However, LangTs dislike for the Church of England was only exceeded by his hatred of the Church of Rome and his fear that Catholicism would be the religion of the majority in Australia.
1. "The Colonist" January 29, 1835. P.l
2. ibid. - 6 -
(Up to 1850, Lang made several attempts (1) to promote emigration schemes because he believed that the Colonial Office was favouring the emigration of poor-type Catholics, especially from Ireland,
However, after the gold rushes, he was able to ease his attempts to introduce Scotch immigrants of good type, to make up for the
Catholics being brought into the colony by such "Agents of the Pope- dom" as Caroline Chisholm, because the influx of gold-seekers fixed the Protestant nature of the population of Australia.)
Indeed, much of his hostility towards the Church of England was caused by his firm belief that BroughtonTs "Puseyism" was al most as undesirable as the Popefs Catholicism. In fact, Lang thought that the greatest evil resulting from the establishment of a virtual religious monopoly was the "saddling of the country with a prominent and powerful Roman Catholic establishment". He ob served that this growth was largely the result of "the jealousy and envy, which were naturally, and I will add, justly, excited among the Roman Catholics of the colony, at the over-grown dimensions and arrogant demeanour of the Colonial Episcopacy during the Government of Governor Darling." (2)
1. See Lang "Narrative of Proceedings" 1850, for his most fruitful efforts 1847-50.
2. Lang J.D. "History of N.S.W." 1852 Ed fn. Vol. 11 p.466. - 7-
• LangTs First Attempt to Establish an Institution for Higher
Education - THE CALEDONIAN ACADEMY. 1826.
In March, 1826, Lang (1) wrote the prospectus for the "Caledon ian Academy" which he hoped to establish in Sydney on the prin ciples of the high schools or academies then in operation in Scotland. Lang published the prospectus in the "Sydney Gazette" (2) in May of the same year, clearly setting out the principles which he followed for the rest of his career as an educationist. "As the ultimate and legitimate object of all education", Lang writes, "is the formation of a moral and religious character,
the system of tuition at the Caledonian Academy will be conduc ted on such principles as may ensure the amelioration of the
heart, as well as the improvement of the understanding. With
this view, its general superintendence will, in the first in stance, be committed to some Licentiate of the Church of Scot
land, of superior acquirements, and of sufficient experience in the business of teaching, whose instructions moreover, will be founded on the principles, and pervaded by the spirit of genu ine Christianity."
The institution was to be established next door to the Scots Church and Lang thought that "a plain, neat, substantial edifice of free stone" would be sufficient for its immediate needs. The funds for its establishment were to be raised by voluntary subscription or by loans of £50 or £100 at % per annum.
1. Vol. * 16 Lang Papers M.L.
2. "Sydney Gazette", May 17, 1826. m -■» M»wmi ■ wn Mnniaii )
K0r+j/UcÂi\ .Jt' <»#s i Ci „ ''***£■
V têUjm^L/érU./'M ,.i>ttiht't^tJ i
^ W U L ? ^Ê^"K,//A*Jiùijiu/TttiA r^ / « . £ -■
-it/.%J$;t X i^L 4h / <5^ Mudufân-Â^ (
h^< ui y / ^ r/t ¿hicttCaK U f é ^ ln ^ a t ^ K ^ 'X *maC k *u {Ôu \ ¡'¿uac/Uf \
%C/kiinu4. f * c JJ£t, luàtc-MlU^Kuf U ij/ ’ftL Jtuf*hù/<<% t^rr y f < D 0 —-/> ^ K V 7
. Ir/«. fc* ^c/»wA> kU^cutcx) i f (au. Ml . / 'r ^ r >1 ■ r fi i*iVi> ***' ihrOi^Jii^’ t/y/r,i'n fri nu-«'
((^luu*Cc
¡LsJL m. ^ /humU* ^ ^ ¡ * ® JO* 'A '* '}'- . A //Jut* Lîi x- i
¿uYtfLj**-, HajiL h^LAaC LMx. £j*ip+iik
-é^trif i l - y A- Ji**j*»jd*Uu*. h fi/ij ™ ^ &• -- f ****** U y i Jf* h*urtju.^L UmA ** êJéàm*LlKi££iipMiU L ' l ,
j £ * U L - U f J u X m~^±~-
! 1 1 j* tlL.J3L U i C j t f a + — A+o*:*'*£SZ>2 i r*fu * * ■»—j
/ i 'Prospectus of Lang's '"Caledonian Academy'" - 8 - However Lang pointed out that members of the public were en couraged to patronise the project only on the understanding "that the money so advanced would be devoted to the organisation £ of an Institution in which the benefit of a liberal education, conducted on the principles of morality and religion, shall be attainable at a moderate expense, by a considerable proportion of the rising commun ity." It was to be clearly understood that the education provided
by the establishment was not to be free, and that subscribers to the
academy would not be given any concession concerning education conduc ted there.
The internal organisation of the institution was to be along the lines of the high schools and colleges in Scotland. Each branch of
education, or each "school" was to be under the guidance of a separate master who would be, as a result, better qualified in his field. More over, such an arrangement, Lang thought, prevented one branch of edu cation being sacrificed for another. (1) Four separate departments were to be established - 1. An English or Elementary School - English, English Grammar, and Elocution. 2. A Writihg or Mercantile School - Writing, Arithmetic, Book-keep ing, Geography, Drawing and the elements of Mathematical Science. 3. A Classical School: - Latin and Greek Languages. The master would
be qualified also to teach French and perhaps German.
4. In a lecture room one of the masters would give, from time to
time, a course of popular lectures to more advanced pupils in the
subjects of Natural Philosophy or General Science.
If such an institution were established, Lang suggested that the
masters be paid a salary not exceeding £100 per annum from the school
1. ibid. 2 %■ibidr - 9- funds^nd be given a free house. The masters, in addition could claim a portion of their pupils1 fees - the percentage to be fixed by the council governing the institution. Lang believed that this system, adopted in all branches of education in Scotland, pro vided a "stimulus to exertion, on the one hand, while the public, on the other, are put in possession of a salutary check to prevent negligence or inactivity". (1). The various "schools" were to be open to the children "of all persons who may choose to comply with the academyfs regulations, without regard to rank in society, wealth, parentage or religious opinions". The Bible was to be read daily in the English and Classical Schools and each day was to commence and close with prayer. The pupils would be taught any Protestant catechism which was re commended by their parents, and "no attempts would be made by the masters to proselytise those of any other communions to the Presby terian Church." In the prospectus presented to the public, Lang considered it worthwhile to explain the origin of the idea of the Caledonian Aca demy, no doubt in an attempt to remove any doubts which the public might have had about LangTs stealing the idea from the Free Grammar School project. He commented that "in justice to the projector of the proposed Academy" the public were requested to observe that Lang did not derive the idea of the institution from any other aca demy which had been erected about that time, but had suggested it "to gentlemen of influence in this country" in 1824, and when he had visited Scotland in that year he had made a tentative arrange ment with a licentiate df the Scottish National Church to take over the Classics Department of the Academy was successfully launched.(2). ’ 1. and 2. Sydney Gazette, May 17, 1826. - 10-
In order to offer the advantages of the academy to the people of the colony at the earliest possible date, Lang intended to open the institution at once, under his own direction, until the teach
ing staff arrived from Scotland. He stated that any profits which made under such an arrangement would be used to reduce the debt of
Scots Church. (1)
However, an examination of the prospectus readily reveals one
of LangTs main objects in establishing such a college - to train missionaries to work in the interior of Australia and in the South
Sea Islands. If the proposed academy gained public support, it was
LangTs intention to co-operate "personally with the permanent teach ers to render it available for affording a Literary, Philosophical
and Theological Education to such natives of the colony as may be found possessed of the requisite talents and dispositions for be
coming missionaries, either in the neighbouring islands of the Great
Pacific, or among the aborigines of the territory. For, while the
Colony is undoubtedly under a strong obligation to communicate relig
ious instruction to the neighbouring Heathen, and especially to the original possessors of its own soil, it is to be hoped that many of
the IMative Youths will rise from time to time to enlighten the moral darkness of the Southern Hemisphere, and to spread the knowledge of
the truth over Tthe multitude of the IslesT. In all such cases,
however, Education afforded in the Caledonian Academy will be affor
ded free from cost to whatever Society the missionary Student may
1. Sydney Gazette, Kay 17, 1326. - 11- belong, or in whatever direction he may choose to go forth on the great errand of Christian Philanthropy.” (1)
A period of two months was to elapse before a notice appeared in the ’’Sydney Gazette” announcing the opening of the ’’Caledonian
Academy” under the direction of Lang and the managers of the Scots
Church, on July 3, in the Prince Street Chapel. The hours of in struction were to be from 9 a.m. to 3 p.m. with one hour for lunch.
The fees were to be as follows -
Latin and Greek (including the elements) - 12 guineas per annum. Writing, Arithmetic and English - 10 guineas per annum. English, English Grammar - 8 guineas per annum.
This prospectus of the first establishment for higher education produced by Lang, indicates several principles which he was to follow in later years. In the first place, his intention was to es tablish an institution with a broad curriculum embracing the Class ics, English and its various branches, the Mercantile subjects and
Science. These various branches of instruction were to be taught by specialist teachers who were Scotsmen and who were licentiates of the Presbyterian Church. The arrangements concerning religious instruction were liberal but were distinctly Protestant, although in actual practice it is difficult to see how Presbyterianism
could fail to be the dominating force here, since everyone connected with the establishment was of that persuasion. Finally, Lang’s dream was the establishment of an institution which would be cap
able of training missionaries for the conversion of the aborigines and South Sea Islanders to Christianity, or, more correctly, Pres byterianism.
1. ’’Sydney Gazette” May 17, 1826. - 12-
The Caledonian Academy opened accordingly on July 3, 1826 and Lang indicated that when the sum of £400 to £500 had been raised, either by subscription or loan, buildings would be commen ced. However, the life of the institution was short-lived. It was soon forced to close down because of insufficient numbers of pupils able to pay the tuition fees mentioned above. This con dition was brought about by a financial crisis which had struck the colony. (1). Lang made attempts to re-open the academy in the gallery of Scots Church in August, 1827, (2) and in November of the same year, but the financial strain of the current depression was too much and the attempts proved abortive.
However, Lang had made his initial move to establish an insti tution along the lines of similar schools and colleges then opera ting in Scotland and, although he became connected with the es tablishment of the Sydney College, we shall see that it was only a matter of time, and the arrival of more favourable conditions, be fore an attempt at the realisation of his dream of an establishment on the lines of the Caledonian Academy would be made.
New South Wales, after the pastoral boom of the early T20’s, was in the grip of a severe depression (3) which lasted until 1829.
The position of higher education during these years was gloomy in deed, (4) but after 1829, partial economic recovery led to further attempts at the establishment of schools for higher education.
1. See Turney C. ’’The Birth of Education in Australia” Thesis.p. 576. 2. ’’Sydney Gazette” 20-8-1827. 3. $t. ButlinTs ’’Foundations of the Australian Monetary System”.p.9 4. See Turney op. cit. p. 576. "THE DARLING INSTITUTION"
Towards the end of 1929, a letter from the Reverend Dr. Adamson, minister of Scots Church, Capetown, enclosing a copy of the prospectus of an academical institution recently founded
there, and which was designated "The South African College".(1)
Lang apparently was very excited about the prospect of reviving interest throughout the colony in the matter of higher education,
for he wasted no time in publishing the South African College Prospectus in the local press. A few years later he wrote:
"With a view, therefore, to recall the attention of the col ony to the subject of education, on which there had then for a long time been a deep and general silence, I procured the republics tion of the South African prospectus in one of the colonial news papers, in which there were also inserted, at the same time, two anonymous papers I had prepared for the purpose, comparing the cir cumstances of the colony of the Cape of Good Hope and New South Wales in a variety of respects and demonstrating the practicability of establishing an academical institution, (comprising a series of elementary and classical, as well as higher schools) for the gen
eral education of youth in the Australian Colony, on a plan some what similar to that of the South African College. These papers produced the desired effect and a strong and general excitement on
the subject of education was the immediate result. " (2).
Soon afterwards Lang read of a proposed meeting of the friends of
the then extinct Free Grammar School to discuss the possibilities of its revival. He decided to visit Archdeacon Broughton, who had
1. Lang J.D. "History of N.S.W." 1834 Ed'n.Vol.ll pp. 340-341. 2. ibid. p. 340.
reply was as cold as an iceberg; ’’The - 4 1 - Broughton informed Lang that he had contemplated the establish involving himself with those interested in the Free Grammar SchoolTs academical institution and on liberal,ffair principles”, rather than recently arrived from England (1) and expressed the desire to join cess of that institution. of the Free Grammar School did not auguri well for any future suc revival (2). Lang believed that the past behaviour of the trustees with the Archdeacon if an attemptwas to be made to establish an Government, but at that time the Archdeacon’sfinalised. plans had not been The Archdeacon preservedinstitution, his andright it was as to ’’visitor” notthe likely that Langwould playfid ’’second allowed to unite with Episcopalians on equal terms, and that future ment of such an institution with the funds being supplied by the that other members of the Presbyterian congregation pointed out to him that would it be extremely unlikely that Presbyterians would be dle” to anyone in a venture of this kind. However Lang tells us (3) Archdeacons could easily be less liberal than their predecessor. the the proposed institution, but it was refused. Concerning Darling’s orial to Governor Darling asking for a grant of land on which to erect Schools and Colleges of Scotland. Lang subsequently addressed a mem Accordingly, it was decided to take stepsof an towards institution, the establishment to be conducted on the principles of the High but such was his excellency’s uniform style when Scots presbyterians refusal, Lang bitterly commented,
t c « A»
2. 2. ibid. 1. J .D. Lang. Lang. of 1. N.S.W.” J ’’History .D. . 1834 E d Voi.11. ’n. p. 340 " U n 3. ibid. Mm Prospectus of Lang's proposed «Darling Institution«1* (Vol.16, Lang Papers* Mitchell Library.) - 15- had anything to ask from the priest-ridden government of their adopted country."(1) However, Lang had gone to a great deal of trouble to draw up a prospectus for the proposed institution which was to be along the lines of those expressed in the prospectus of the South African Col lege which he had received shortly before. Oddly enough, Lang pro posed to call the academy "The Darling Institution" - not because of his great admiration for Governor Darling surely, but perhaps he hoped to flatter the Governor into granting the necessary land. The organisation of the institution was to be as follows: (2) 1. A School Department:- consisting of THREE or more SCHOOLS under the superintendence of a. An English Master who would teach English, English Grammar, and E lo cu tio n . b. A Writing; Master who would teach Writing and Arithmetic. c. A Latin Master. Each teacher was to have a fixed salary of not more than £100 per annum, plus a proportion of the fees of his pupils. Education was not to be free because Lang felt that the payment of fees by the pupils was necessary as a stimulus paymaaxi to the energy of the teacher, and was essential to the "honourable and independent feeling of the parent." (3). The English Master would always have three classes of pupils under his supervision, (a) those just beginning to read, (b) those able to read tolerably and who were learning Writing and Arithmetic, (c) more advanced pupils from the Latin School and the College Depart ment. These pupils would be learning Elocution and these classes
1. ib id . 2. Prospectus in Lang Papers. M.L. Vol. 16 3. ib id . - 16 - would be taught at such times as would suit the other classes of the Institution. The Writing; Master would receive a succession of pupils from the English and Latin Schools who would be instructed according to their different stages of progress in Writing, Arithmetic, Book-keep ing, Geography and Drawing.
The Latin Master would have three classes - First, Second and
Third Year. When the numbers of puoils became too great for one teacher, another was to be appointed "with the same salary and advan tages of the first."
11. THE COLLEGE DEPARTMENT. (On the plan of the South African Col- le ge) . The College Department was to have FIVE Professors, each in charge of a separate department. These departments were to be as follows - a. Languages b. Logic and Belles Lettres. c. Mathematics and Mechanical Philosophy. d. Natural Philosophy. e. Theology and Sacred Literature. (The purpose of this department was to educate and train Missionaries who would later work either within the Colony or among the natives of the South Sea Islands. ) The prospectus made it clear that, before appointment, each master and professor would be required to undertake to "instruct his pupils in the doctrines and duties of protestant Christianity."
To cover the cost of establishing such an institution, it was proposed to issue shares of £20 each, payable in four equal instal ments from January, 1st, 1830. As soon as sufficient funds were raised by this means, three masters for the School Department were to be sent for from England. They were to be given free passages to the Colony and a salary of £200 or £280 per year for the first three years, including £100 from College funds. - 17 -
Thus the School Department was to be established first, and,
as the institution grew, the College Departments would be formed.
Each professor in the latter department was to receive a salary of
not more than £200 per annum from College funds, plus a proportion
of his pupils’ fees.
It is interesting to note, too, that Lang provided for a sys
tem of scholarships in his prospectus for the Darling Institution.
These were to be awarded for the higher branches of education in the
College section of the establishment. They were to be granted
"either as a reward of merit in the School Department or to enable
missionaries in the South Sea Islands or meritorious individuals in
the lower walks of life in this Colony to give their sons a liberal education." Thus the Darling Institution, which never functioned, would have
been very similar to the Caledonian Academy in structure, but would
have had a more elaborate elementary school and greater provision
for the training of missionaries. Lang retained the idea of specia
list teachers, the principle that education should not be free, and
that competent teachers dhould be brought from outside the colony.
He did see, at this time of economic stress, the necessity for giving
the opportunity of gaining a higher education to those meritorious
pupils in financial difficulty.
(C). THE SYDNEY COLLEGE.
Finding it thus impracticable to establish an institution on the
basis of Presbyterianism, and in the absence of any definite plan
on the part of Archdeacon Broughton, Lang decided to throw in his
lot with the friends of the Free Grammar School and become a share- _____ holder to the extent of £ 50.(1) On the issue of religious instruc- It was prooosed at a Public Meeting Jan. 14,1830 that £10,000 should be raised in 2 00 shares of £50 each. "Sydney Gazette" 16/1/1830."Prospedtus of the Sydney College etc." Sydney, 1830. p.4 18 tion, it was decided that "no religious Book be used by authority in the institution except the Bible or Testament without comment”.
Archdeacon Broughton wrote a long letter to Lang expressing his regret that a Presbyterian Minister should have joined with a group favourable to ”a system of religious laxity which appears to me calculated to destroy in the youthful mind all sense of the incomparable importance of revelation and every deep feeling of veneration for its exclusive truth, and this to sap the foundation of morals throughout the entire community”. (1) Broughton stated that had Lang waited until the plan of the Church and Schools
Corporation for the establishment of an institution was ready, he
(Lang) would have seen adequate pro-vision mad e for the advancement of religious interests and truths. (2)
However, in spite of Archdeacon Broughton’s protests against the Godless institution, on January 26, 1830, Mr. Justice Forbes,
Doctor Lang and Sir John Jamison led the procession to the site of the Sydney College where the foundation stone was laid. ”Dr. Lang delivered with much natural fervency and pathos, a rather lengthy invocation for the blessing of Providence on the infant institution”
In February, 1830, a prospectus (written by Lang) for the
"Sydney College" was published setting out the courses of study to be operative at the academy. Lang’s influence is obvious when we compare the courses suggested by the prospectus with those which had been proposed by Lang nearly four years earlier in the prospectus of the "Caledonian Academy”. The course was divided into four strands ______(3 )
(1) Dated January 16, 1830. Vol. 16. Lang Papers. M.L. (2) ibid. (3) "Prospectus of Sydney College, etc.” op. cit. p. 10. (Lang was thanked by the shareholders of the Sydney College for his excellent prospectus. Wentworth Papers, A 758, p. 13. M.L.) - 19- 1. Latin and Greek Languages. 2. English, English Grammar, Elocution and the elements of English Composition. 3. W riting, Arithmetic, Book-keeping, Geography and Drawing. 4. Mathematics and such branches of Natural Philosophy as may be deemed of primary importance. Lang!s idea of specialist teachers was to be employed, each teacher being entirely independent of his fellows and subject only to the committee of management. It was regarded as a necessary quality in a teacher to ufear God and honour the King.” Like Lang*s ar rangements for the Caledonian Academy and for the proposed Darling Institution, the Sydney College was to operate more as a High School than a true College at first, but the Trustees contemplated exten sion of the College section as institution progressed. (1) accord ing to the needs of the Colony. Whilst it was anticipated that the majority of the pupils would come from the town of Sydney, pro vision was to be made for pupils from the "interior” and from "be- yound the seas" to be boarded either with the masters or with other respectable citizens in Sydney. (2). However, in spite of the impressive ceremony and prospectus and the support of some of the most outstanding dignitaries of the Colony, the foundation stone "was allowe d to lie alone like a soli tary egg in a deserted nest for eighteen months thereafter." (3). Nevertheless, during this time Lang had shown the initiative which he never lacked in his anxiety to launch such projects, and he made attempts to get the buildings under way. He secured plans from a Parramatta architect and travelled to the Hunter River in order to 1. "Prospectus of the Sydney College ...." op.cit.p.ll 2. ib id . 3. Lang J.D. "History of N.S.W." 1834 Ed»n. Vol. 11, p. 346. - 20- consult his father and brothe1* (Andrew) concerning the best methods of making arrangements with contractors. Finally, at the sug gestion of Messrs. Simon and Lord (Members of the Committee), LangTs father was invited to attend the May meeting of the general com mittee to give his advice on the subject of buildings, in which field he had had considerable experience. (1). Unfortunately, Lang's father was drowned when the small coastal vessel was swamped during a storm. By this time, Lang was tiring of the committee's inaction and tells us that in June 1830, Dr. Bland had stated that they were the only two persons really interested in the project. (2). At a meeting in June or July of the same year, Lang recommended that masters should be sent for immediately and should be guaranteed "fixed salaries of £100 a year, with a suitable dwelling house and a proportion of the fees". (3) However, the committee refused to act on Lang's recommendation and a Mr. Keith (a lawyer) spoke I savour getting a "first rate" master from England at a salary of from £500 to £600 a year. Several months had elapsed since the re-organisation of the institution and no real progress had been made towards the construction of suitable buildings. This, coupled with the fact that his own plans were not being carried out, led to the withdrawal of Lang from the project. (4). In the history of Lang's social and political work over a 1# For a detailed account of Lang's connection with the Sydney College, see "The Colonist" 21/1/1836; 28/1/1836. 2. 21/1/1836 "The Colonist". 3 . ib id . 4. For serious repercussions s£h on Lang's later work, see p.3H - 21- period of more than half a century, he quarrelled with innumer able people, often people with whom he had once been on the best of terms. He could not bear criticism, nor could he follow for long the lead of others in any project. That Lang was a man of outstanding ability there is no doubt, but his great work was often marred by an overbearing personality, which brought him into con flict with many who may have otherwise been his friends and assis tants.
In the case of his desertion of the Sydney College projedt - after having been so influential in its rejuvenation - there were many factors of significance. In the first place, the shelving of his ideas and the apparent want of zeal on the part of the com mittee members would certainly have influenced him against the pro ject, especially when we consider his domineering personality and that he regarded the early establishment of an academical institu tion as being of first importance to the development, especially the moral development, of thfc colony. This interest was evident in his attempts to found his own institutions and in his interest in joining with Broughton, on certain conditions. However, Lang had aoparently attempted to assert the Presbyterian point of view while he was on the Sydney College Committee. (1)
Archdeacon BroughtonTs criticism of Lang’s being connected with an institution treating religious instruction in such a non committal manner is an interesting one, in the light of Lang’s later detailed views on the place of religion in education. He was later
1. See ’’Sydney Gazette” 31/3/1832. - 22- to criticise one of his own teachers, Henry Carmichael, for his off-handed treatment of religious instruction at the Australian
College. (1) In his long leading articles in "The Colonist", he pointed out "the propriety, the expediency, and the absolute ne cessity of combining fch« xxxxxxocxx religious instruction with the general education of youth. (2).
When Lang saw the entire education system of the Colony virtu ally handed over to the Church of England, he would certainly have felt an added desire to establish an institution on definite Pres byterian lines.
We shall see in the next chapter how Lang claimed that he was ce^ain that assistance from outside the Colony was necessary for the successful launching of an educational establishment of the College type. Certainly these considerations of the motives for Langfs se cession from the Sydnejr College project appear to carry more weight than the idea that, when Langfs father was drowned in an attempt to help the foundation of the institution, the project "was in some way not pleasing to Almighty Godl" Lang was in the habit of hiding behind God when he made decisionAwhich were extremely hard to defend.
(3). Following the advice of Rev. John McGarvie (A) and other mem
bers of his congregation to secede from the Sydney College project,
as well as his own judgment, Lang obtained leave of absence from
Governor Darling and proceeded to England, for the second time,
1. See "Sydney Gazette" 31/3/1832. ^ 2. "The Colonist" 30/A/183 5. 3. Gilchrist A. "J.D.Lang-Chiefly Autobiographical" Vol.l., p.115. A. John McGarvie M.A., brought out by Lang 1825, later teacher at the Australian College and Minister of the second Scots Church, Brickfield Hill, Sydney. - 23 - aboard the "Australia" on August 18, 1830 and arrived at Dover on December 12 of the same year, in the hope of making arrangements, through his friends in London, for the establishment of an academ- ical institution of his own design, (1)*
Such then were LangTs first efforts regarding the cause of higher education in the 1820Ts. He had actually stated one aca demy, only to see it fail mainly because of the effects of an econ omic depression : he had drawn up a prospectus for a second and had been instrumental in founding the Sydney College. He had done much to popularise the cause of higher education in the Colony but had despaired at the inactivity of those who were interested in the establishment of the Sydney College. However, he had succeeded in guiding the thoughts of others on the matter of the organisation of secondary establishments.
Nevertheless, his abrupt secession from the Sydney College and his strong views in opposition to the establishment of the Church and School Corporation caused much resentment, which, we shall see, added considerably to his difficulties in establishing his own insti- tition for higher education.
00000000O00000000
1. Lang J.D. ’»Immigration and the Scotch Mechanics of 1831”. p. \. 24
CHAPTER 11
THE FOUNDATION OF THE AUSTRALIAN COLLEGE
Lang in England. 1850.
When Lang arrived at Dover In December 1830, he found
England in the grip of depression. Harvests had failed in many districts whilst unemployment had resulted in a wave of rick- burning and machine smashing. There was a general stagnation in commerce and thousands of artisans were out of work. (1)
Lang tells us (2) that he could not help contrasting the social conditions which he saw in the mother country with those existing in New South Wales at the time of his departure. Wages in the Colony were higher than those in England and the price of bread and beef in New South Wales was a penny a pound. Indeed it was said in England at the time, "Poor is the diet of the pauper, poor is the diet of the small ratepayer, but poorest is that of the independent labourer”. (3)
In view of the poverty existing in the mother country at the time, Lang saw the opportunity of encouraging "suitable" emigrants to migrate to Eastern Australia, whilst at the same time using them for the benefit of his proposed "academical institution". We have already observed that Lang believed that the moral tone of the
Colony could be raised by the introduction of immigrants of good type who would set an example to the rest of the community. We have noticed too, that Lang had perceived that much of the drunken
(1) Lang J.D. "Immigration and the Scotch Mechanics of 1831". p. 1 (2) Lang "History of N.S.W." 1852 Ed'n. Vol. 1. p. 242. For a description of the conditions of the workers in England at the time, see H. de B. Gibbons "Industry in England" 1910, pp. 413 et seq. In England men averaged 24/- to 26/- per week; women 8/- to 10/- per week, ibid p. 424. (3) Gibbons op. cit. p. 413 1830 was the year of the last peasant revolt in Kent and the fall of the Tory Government midst radical agitation. - 25 - influence of colonial society of the 1B20Ts originated in the dissipation of the mechanic class, many of whom were emancipists. With these considerations in mind, then, Lang determined to take steps to promote the emigration of suitable mechanics, as well as finding the means to establish his college. Indeed, Lang hoped to combine the two schemes and use the mechanics to construct the proposed college buildings, thus at the same time ensuring for them a source of employment after they had arrived in Sydney. By relieving Britain of a large number of unemployed, by assisting the latter to make a more prosperous living in their new homeland, by introducing a useful and highly moral class of artisans into the colony and by using them to help a much-needed institution of high er education in Sydney, Lang believed that he would be doing a great service to all concerned. In adopting such a scheme Lang, no doubt, had at heart the well-being of his fellow countrymen (the Scotch mechanics) and that of his adopted country, and dis played unusual initiative in combining the two schemes into a working plan. In the face of such adverse economic conditions in England, Lang found it extremely difficult to obtain a loan from private sources for the establishment of his college in Sydney. (1). How ever, apparently certain influential persons in England (among them Joseph Hume) (2) advised Lang to ask for government assistance in establishing his academical institution. Lang acted on this advice and interviewed the Secretary of State for the Colonies,
Lord Goderich.
TT '’Sydney Gazette” 5-4-1831. 2. ibid. 31-3-32 Hume was a radical member of the H.O. Commons. - 26 -
Goderich was favourably impressed by Lang-s scheme to estab
lish an institution for higher education in New South Wales -
there was no such institution in operation at the time. Lang wished
m s college to be founded on the same principles as the "Belfast
Academical Institution, combining a series of elementary schools
with a gradually extending provision for the higher branches of Education." (1 ).
In the first instance, Lang proposed to Goderich that a vessel of tons should be chartered to carrv out tn t-ho i 400 carry out to the colony a number Of families of the mechanic class, of a superior moral type, provided «... . loan of « ,0 0 0 for five y , „ , g r , n t , d by
for the establishment of the c o IIp p ^ u liege. The mechanics were to repay their passage money in weekly instalments from their wages. (2)/
Goderich agreed to authorise an advance of £3,500 for the estab-
of a college, provided that the promoters of the undertaking
spent a similar amount for the same purpose. The buildings were to
be erected on part of the Scots Church ground,(3) and the institu
tion was to be capable of expansion. Lang tells us that he knew
better than rely upon the public spirit of the residents of the col
ony to make this offer of government aid become a reality and indica-
determination to dispose of his own private property, if
necessary, to gain an amount equal to that subscribed by the govern- ment. (4)
Concerning the emigration of the Scotch mechanics, Goderich a greed that the sum of £1)500, to be taken from the proposed loan, be advan-
— tQ Lang °n hiS arriVal in Sydney with the Scotch families who f: f» 11 »• 27 would repay their passage money as outlined above. No further advance was to be made by the Government until £1500 was expended by the promoters in the erection of buildings. The remainder of the loan was to be granted in proportion to the amounts expended by the promoters of the institution. It is clear from these arrangements that Lang took a considerable financial risk in this venture which was designed to benefit a country in which Lang had resided for only seven years. After their arrival in a new land, the mechanics would have to set themselves up in living quarters and some time would elapse in f,settling in" before the system could be operated on effective lines. Lang’s great trust in the honesty of his emigrants is obvious, but this is largely explained by the fact that he chose them all personally when he visited Scotland, (1) His scheme from start to finish was a great example of individual initiative and energy. In the course of his correspondence with Goderich, Lang submitted an outline of the method and staff of his proposed "Australian College" as well as his observations on the educational system then in operation in New South Wales. (2) For a start he proposed that the College staff should consist of a principal (himself) and four masters or professors; one for English, one for "mercantile" education, one for Latin and Greek, and one for Mathematics and Natural Philosophy. To take charge of
(1) Lang set out in detail his work In England, including his correspondence with the Colonial Secretary, in a pamphlet entitled "An Account of the Steps Taken in England with a View to the Establishment of an Academical Institution or College in N.S.W., and to Demonstrate the Practicability of effecting an extensive emigration of the Industrial classes from the Mother Country to that Colony". (2) Th^i "Australian College" had been suggested to Lang, whilst London, by Henry Carmichael whom he had originally engaged as Professor of Mental and Moral Philosophy. Lang had at first considered the title, "Scotch College". (Carmichael in "Sydney Monitor" 20/2/1836). But Lang had suggested the title of "Australian Academy" as an alternative to "Caledonian Academy" in 18g6 (Sydney Gazette" May 17, 1826) - 28 - the four departments, Lang selected three masters from Scotland and one who was already in the colony (the Rev. John McGarvie,M.A.).
The three masters to be brought from Scotland were licentiates of the Church of Scotland and possessed high academic qualifications -
"of the literary and other qualifications of these gentle men, the council had received the highest testimonials from the Universities of Edinburgh, Glasgow, and St.An drews and from many respectable clergymen and private gentlemen in Scotland." (1).
The principles which guided Lang in his choice of staff were as follows:- "It was deemed expedient that all masters of the pro posed institution should in the first instance, be Licentiates of the Church of Scotland , to ensure if possible , a high moral char acter to the Institution, as well as that respectable standing, in regard to general acquirements in Literature and Science, which the situation as public instructor, in the present enlightened age, essentially requires. Also the men thus selected would have been trained under, and would consequently be prepared to pursue, that system of liberality and economy toff which is universally acted on in the schools and colleges of Scotland, and which it is of the first importance to introduce into an infant colony." (2)
In this interesting passage are well illustrated a few of
Langfs basic ideas on education. He believed that one of educa tion^ principal functions was to improve the low moral tone of the society which had grown from a convict colony. (This was also an important reason for his Rigorous work in advocating the immigra tion of a better class of person morally.) Secondly he was the staunch advocate of high academic and moral standards in his tea-
1. First report of the Australian College, p.3 (1832) 2. "Account of Steps taken etc." - Lang - p.20 op.cit. - 29 - chers, and finally, he was convinced that Scottish educational
principles and Scottish teachers were the best means to gain the
beneficial academic and moral improvements which he thought so necessary to his adopted country. (1)
Assistance or under-masters were to be appointed for the
elementary classes as soon as the funds and the needs of the col
ony warranted it. Goderich, in granting the loan from the Colonial Treasury, had stipulated that the buildings should be so arranged
that it might be possible to increase the establishment at a later date from what was erected in the first instance. In addition, the buildings were to be capable of housing as large a number of boar ders as possible so that the institution would be of benefit to the whole colony. (2). We shall consider staffing arrangements, and the curriculum in greater detail in the next chapter when we see the college in actual operation.
After he had conceived the dea of introducing Scotch mechan ics to assist in the establishment of his educational institution, Lang addressed a letter to Goderich,(3). suggesting ways and means of sending emigrants to New South Wales at the minimum cost to the
Mother Country. This long letter sums up LangTs views on the Church and School Corporation, and almost certainly had a great bearing on its abolition, especially when we consider what Governor Bourke had to say later on about that system and how closely his obervations resembled Lang’s earlier views. We shall see later, too, that the publication of his correspondence (4) on his return
1. ’’Account of Steps taken etc.” - Lang - o.20 op.cit. 2. ib id. p . 7 3. Dec. 30, 1830. 4. In pamphlet form, op.cit. ’’Account of Steps taken....” - 30-
to the colony had far-reaching consequences as far as the future
of the Australian Collge was concerned.
Lang suggested to Goderich that revenue could be obtained,
for the promotion of emigration to New South Wales, firstly from
the sale of Government land around the Sydney area and secondly
from the sale of land at that time in the hands of the Church and
Schools Corporation which was using it to advance education and
religion in the colony. Obviously, to justify the second source of
revenue, Lang had to prove the uselessness of the Church and Schools
Corporation which was accordingly attacked with that bitterness for which Lang was famous. To Goderich he wrote of the Church and
School Corporation in the following terns:-
MYour Lordship is doubtless aware that that institution (the Corporation) has utterly failed in its intended object, the Corpora tion having actually borrowed from the Colonial Government at the rate of £19,000 to £20,000 per annum. (1) for the support of the episcopal church and schools of the territory, while the mere cost of its management, exclusive of the salaries of clergymen, and schoolmasters, has hitherto been from £1500 to £2000 per year, a sum that is considerably greater than is annually expended fro the man- agment of all the school and church affairs of His Majesty’s king dom of Scotland. But the Church and School Corporation of New South Wales has been productive, My Lord, of still greater evils to the community at large than any arising from the mere expense of its management. It has tended to identify the Episcopal clergy, in the estimation of the whole colony, with secu^lar pursuits; it has given extreme dissatisfaction to many respectable emigrants, who have had to go far into the colonial wilderness with their families in search of land to settle on, while numerous tracts of land of the first quality were lying utterly waste in the most accessible &nd eligible situations in the hands of the Corporation; it has excited a spirit of disaffection towards his Majesty’s Government among the native youth of the colony; and I will even add, My Lord, has sown the seeds of future rebellion. In short, the Church and School Corporation of New South Wales, instead of proving a benefit to either the Government or to the Episcopal church .... has lain as a dead weight on the colony for the last five years - repress ing emigration, discouraging improvement, secularising the Episco-
1. cf. Brother Ronald Fogarty ’’Catholic Education in Australia” vol. 1, p. 15, Table 1. (Lang’s figures substantiated). mmmmmmmrnsirnmmmmmmmmmemmmmimm WWIWWWWfflllUIXIliil»
I " ^ '/ ftf yft ' 7 \ »£- - ^ 3 S ¿) /« |i i ./ ^ ft ^ i/iiii**ii***y ^ fa^ "
- / -r- /ftifVoftA*, /((j it ft ftf- 7 J ( / ^ / f t ¿ ¿ ¿ f // / f t f a /$ __ _ *//ACuQ■ ¿if ? / As**/// /it**— ftaft fr‘/(¿j A /ft fi
\ /f t/ftu f tr c u f tc ft A/if*>t~ttt'\ft / / fci/rtLjeJ faftfanjft > /, f t /< f t -/ / / Do^f* tOcte^LieJ f^Aft >> /ft « , / LIfa./rff** ti ' ft^ ft 1['- a / f t ^ ( Q// f t l ^ U * A A ^ ; - ift. * A/ftt^ / ft/ /• — x> „ tft C3' f v * /. ft 0/ftftltj / ft / — rwiir — ,. ft ft !£, y / ft/**--- i/ftyfftt/ocii / / /d)/ ft/ / " * Aft ' f t H L U t ^ /. / > y '■ •ftiyl^-o^-'^i /Aft 4 \ /[) ft) ' / &VJu i / -v _a — — 'ffttft " ft fa \/S f AaJcU. /^/kP. rffti / /ft \, ’r f fa/fafa^ it fa/- Muf^-ftt ai /// fa „ j /$ V A- ., V f +.------/ f t .. ///fa Htyl /£ — fft*\/'ft « i / / d)ttJtJcij ,, '/ft ft I ft2/ -- ftfctSiet /*& s/t / c3 -. | / / tftuftu ftf ft^' /*ft „ // ft ■. j * / --- 'ft' /ft " / fa f t / fttr/ojy Jeft/ft ti f t ft /,* < / iU. h fait J i*4 ft* >. // fa « / __ _ J/ifivdiftt ft/ hy / ft fa !2t v v/ __ fa U ~ tfaftte U \ / / 0 / /ti/cft. ftftL+yis& j/(sC /<2j ft Aft ft jj c » / _ _ faftli/i ift t> ft s. t, // faj jn, * / — fa7* /ti, s\ ft y J 1 /, fa o i5'i- y / Ay**** /¿*4i sfl V ft fa j C^ c A ft /iftt*-*-'*-u /y ft ^ / t4/u~J4 t, A J/ A few of the books purchased by Lang in England for the Australian College* (Vol*16 Lang Papers, Mitchell Library.) - 31- pal clergy, and thereby lowering the standard of morale and re ligion throughout the territory.” The charges, together with those cited in the previous chap ter (1), were very strong, and most probably, exaggerated, but the fact remained that Lang had put forward his view personally to the Secretary of State for the Colonies, and had published his views on his return to the colony. Even though we shall see his charges denied in a bitter reply from Archdeacon Broughton, and Lang cen sured by Goderich for the publication of his letter, he succeeded in bringing the issue into the open. Governor Bourke was to state later, in his famous despatch of 1833, (2) that the Corporation was the ”subject of very general complaint”, and that the thirty- five parish schools under its care were ”of no great importance or value”. The fact that no secondary (or, of course, tertiary) insti tution had been established before the Kings Schools of 1832 is evidence enough to back LangTs charges of inefficiency against the Corporation, especially when we consider the money expended during the period of its control over matters educational. LIBRARY BOOKS AND SCIENTIFIC APPARATUS. Before Lang left England, he and Carmichael took steps to procure (3) books and scientific equipment for his college. Several hun dreds of volumes in literature, philosophy, and science were accord ingly purchased for the institution, in London, on the most favour able terms and the valuable philosophical and chemical apparatus which had belonged to the celebrated Dr. Ure, of the Andersonian University of Glasgow was also procured, at a very cheap rate, and brought to the colony.” (4) i* See pf> j-6 . 2. Historical Records of Australia Vol. 17, p. 230. 3. The actual number of books amounted to more than 1700 Vols. 4. Report of the Australian College, 1832, p.7. *r*m*m9m 242 The Royal Australian Historical ¡Society. less political thinker and to land him in bankruptcy. A wise and kindly little note sent from Parkes to V ( MRS JOHN DUNMORE LANG.* Lang in 1853 shows the younger man saving the Doctor from the consequences o f a characteristic piece of un- *I)r. Lang married his cousin, Wilhelmina Mackie, on hoard the Stirling Castle off Capetown in 1831. They had ten children. None o f these had any issue, so there are no Lang descendants. The nearest connexions are the descendants of his only sister, Isabella, who married John Muir, and o f his w ife’s sister, Margaret Mackie, who married John Ferguson. The Doctor's brothers, George and Andrew, were both childless, so the name “ Dunmore Lang” has not been perpetuated, except among friends and admirers. . (From Volume 30.) •UMwaBattHteaMH -3 2- Dr. Ure was the au|jtor of a Dictionary of Chemistry, of a System of Geology and other works. The apparatus (purchased by Lang for £160, including freight) included an air pump, ”a superior electrical machine”, a powerful Galvanic battery, extensive series of minerals, chemical glassware, Attwoods machine and models. (1) The acquisition of a collection of academic books and scien tific apparatus would certainly have been of great cultural benefit to a colony in which there was no place worthy of the name of high er education, and in which there was as yet no public library. The ’’Stirling Castle” , a brig of 3 51 tons, left Greenock on June 1, 1831, with 140 passengers including 52 artisans personally selected by Lang, and three masters for his proposed college. The ship sailed via the Cape of Good Hope (where Lang was married), and arrived at Sydney on Thursday, October 13, 1831. (2). THE AUSTRALIAN COLLEGE ESTABLISHED. The official organ of the time, the ’’Sydney Gazette” , enthusi astically welcomed the arrival of the ’’Stirling Castle”. (3) Indeed, it stated that ’’the public will reward so patriotic an enterprise with its warmest applause”, and went on to say that ’’this is really the most important importation the colony ever received, and the boldest effort ever made by an individual to ’’advance Australia”. Another newspaper, ’’The Australian” also greeted the arrival of the ship in favourable terms. (4). In July 1833, after the mechanics had had sufficient time to prove 1. ’’The Colonist” 11-2-36. As a result of financial difficulty on his re turn to N.S.W., Lang did not pay Dr.Ure until the latter brought a law ac tion against him. As a result of the costs (£40) involved in the case, the apparatus cost the College. £200. ibid. 2. See table of arrivals and departures, Gilchrist op.cit.Vol.il. p. 746. 3. ’’Sydney Gazette” 15/10/1831. 4. ’’The Australian” 21/10/31. - 33- their worth, Governor Bourke was able to inform Goderich, "I am not only ready to admit, but have much pleasure in recording the service which Dr.Lang has rendered to the colony, by introducing some very useful and respectable artisans, from whose skill in their several trades and propriety of conduct and behaviour, the colony will be improved in both Arts and Morals." (1) The fact that LangTs hand-picked, moral-living mechanics set an example to many drunken artisans in a colony still strong in its convict character, could not fail to have important reprecussions m the promotion of good citizenship, an important factor in any educational system. Lang, rather humorously, relates how the lower emancipist class of artisans used to remark, as they saw the Scotch mechanics going to work, "There go those bloody emigrants who have come to take the country from us." (2) All matters considered, then, at the time of the arrival of the Stirling ^astie", John Dunmore Lang had every right to feel proud of his achievement. He had been successful in obtaining a Government lodn for his proposed college; he had been successful in his plans to assist many of his fellow-countrymen and at the same time intro duce a suitable class of artisans into colonial society. He was about to see his scheme materialise, whereas the supporters of the Sydney College were still haggling over buildings. Even though Lang had great ambitions concerning the erection of buildings for his college, and had even imported the skilled labour required, his primary concern was the actual business of education. Thus it was that the mechanics started work on the college buildings on October 1. Bourke to Goderich, H.R.A. Series 1. Vol. 17. p. 161. 2. "Immigration and the Scotch Mechanics of 1831". (Lang) p.5. 34 21, 1331 - only seven days after their arrival in Sydney - and the first classes at the Australian College were commenced on November 15 of the same year in hired buildings. (1) The "Sydney Gazette" saw that Lang1 *s2 proposed institution, the Government- supported King's Schools (opened during the year 1832), and the Sydney College would be rivals, "but it will be rivalry to enlarge the sphere and increase the fruitfulness of their exertions' ( 2 ) The site of the Australian College buildings was on the p property adjoining the Scots Church. Lang had arranged, through the trustees of the Church, to transfer some of the land to the Australian College, but found it necessary to have an Act of Council passed, as it involved the transfer of land which had, in the first instance, been granted by the local Government. This transfer was to cause some difficulty and it had not been settled at the time of the Second Report of the College in 1836. (3) Lang purchased a further block of land from Sir John Jamison, when Jamison Street was opened in the early thirties, but he did not actually pay for the land until ten years later, after Jamison had threatened to claim two of the College buildings and give one to each of his two sons-in-law. (4) A general meeting of the friends of the Australian College was not called until December 23, 1831, after about £700 had been spent in the erection of buildings. The fact that a College Council was not formed until the project was well under way, points strongly to wards the conclusion that Lang wanted to keep the control of the project in his own hands in the initial stages. This conclusion is backed up bythe (1) "History of N.S.W." Lang (1834 Ed'n.) Vol. 11, Underwood Buildings, George Street North. (2) "Sydney Gazette". 15/10/1831. [I] ^§ynoS°o?^Aui?ralia" P: 6Lang 1857. -3 5- fact that Lang had disagreements with the Council over the extent of the buildings before he won his way, and they were constructed according to his original plan. (1). The meeting was held at UnderwoodTs buildings, Church H ill, and its purpose was to draw up a constitution for the proposed Australian College. The Colonial Treasurer, Hon. C. Riddell was in the chair. The following are the main points of the constitu t io n (2.) ARTICLE 11:- Education at the Australian College would be avail able for pupils or students of all religious denominations. ARTICLE 111 Capital of at least £3,500 was to be raised in shares o f £25 each, payable by instalments. ARTICLE IV Each shareholder would be a proprietor of the college, and would be entitled to vote at all general meetings of proprietors on the basis of 1 vote per share, but no proprietor could have more than 5 v o te s . ARTICLE V :- The control of college affairs was to be vested in a Council of thirteen, chosen by a general meeting of proprietors. ARTICLE VI :- Made provision for the extension of the college according to the state of funds and the needs of the colony. ARTICLE Vll Stated that each of the masters in charge of the English, Classics, Mathematics and the Mercantile subjects was to have a house capable of accommodating "a few” boarders. The masters were each to have a salary of £100 per year. ARTICLE V lll :- Pointed out that each of the masters would receive, 1. First Report of the Australian College, 1832. p.5 2. Lang ’’History of N.S.W.". 183A. Ed'n. Vol. 1 1 / p. 355. - 36- besides his salary, a fixed part of the few es of the pupils. The rest of the money gained from the payment of students T fees would be used by the Council to pay salaries, debts, and dividends to proprietors. ARTICLE IX :- Concerned the Principal of the College. He was to be appointed from among the four masters by the College Council. The Principal ,Tshould have the general superintendence of the inter nal affairs of the institution, especially in regard to morals and discipline, making provision for the due observance of the rules of the college, and forming the medium of communication between the professors and the Council of which he should be a member by right of office. ARTICLE X :- The Principal and the professors were to form the Senate of the College to regulate all matters concerning education discipline, division of labour, and the supervision of the library and museum. The Principal had the casting vote at all meetings. ARTICLE XI The Senate was to meet once a month, Council once a quarter and proprietors once a year (except in an emergency when urgent meetings could be called.) ARTICLE Xll :- Concerned religious instruction. Each day to be gin and close with an appropriate prayer and that "the Holy Scrip tures be read regularly in English Classes - and that instruction in the general principles and duties of the Christian Religion be afforded at stated times, as for instance, every Saturday at the close of the ordinary business of the week: but iiiat no attempt be made, either directly or indirectly, to proselytise to the tenets of any particular denomination of Christians: and that those pupils or students whose parents or guardians may object to their receiving - 37- religious instruction at all, be allowed at all such stated times to withdraw. ARTICLE XI11 :- Made Lang principal until he had completed arrangements made with the government and his business with the Scotch mechanics and the final section contained a list of the first College Council. The members of the College Council (1) were prom inent citizens among whom were members of the Legislative Council and Government officials. The Council included the Colonial Treas urer (Hon. C.D.Riddell), the Surveryor-General and his Deputy (Sir Thomas Mitchell and Captain Perry), the Hon. Richard Jones, the Hon. Alexander Berry and other well-known figures of Sydney Society. Lang received no salary for his duties as Secretary of the Council and Principal of the College. LANG ATTACKED FROM TWO QUARTERS. A. Violent Criticism from the Supporters of the Sydney College. Very soon after his arrival in October 1331, Lang was approached by Dr. Bland (2) who proposed the amalgamation of the Australian and Sydney Colleges. As a result Lang wrote to the Sydney College com mittee putting forth a suggested method of Amalgamation. However, his proposal was unanimously opposed by the committee because the structure of education would have been exactly the same as that fol lowed at the Australian College. (3) The "Sydney Gazette" considered that amalgamation would not have been beneficial, as it "would have weakened, if not destroyed, the impulse of competition arising out of their separate and independent operations." (4)» In any case, it was w Appendix A. ILBland admitted it in "Sydney Gazette" 23-1-1 S32. I "Sydney Gazette” 21-1-1332 - 38- not likely that Lang would have modified his plans just at a time when he had the means of establishing an institution along lines dictated by himself. About two months afterwards he was violently attacked by the supporters of the Sydney College, which, as we have seen, was not functioning but was being slowly constructed. (The foundations were laid whilst Lang was in England). (1) The Trustees of the Syd- ney College bitterly resented the fact that Lang had obtained an interest-free loan for the establishment of his college, a loan which they considered had been obtained by misrepresentation by Lang in EngLand. The Sydney College shareholders attended a meeting at the Court House in King Street on March 26, 1832, and at this meeting the charges against Lang were discussed, while its real purpose was to ask the Governor for financial assistance (to com plete the Sydney College) on the same lines as had been obtained by Lang. (2). The Trustees of the Sydney College accused Lang of ’’artfully concealing from His Majesty’s Government the existence of the Sydney College altogether” and of obtaining as a result a loan which was ’’probably designed for the Sydney College.” In the second place, Lang was accused by the trustees of having left the Sydney College project after he had failed to have it re-modelled ’’according to his own views in regard to religion”. (3) The trustees also com plained bitterly about the fact that Lang had not informed the committee of the withdrawal of his support from the Sydney College 1. Lang’s ’’History of N.S.W.” , 1852 E d ’n. Vol. 11, p.520. 2. cf. ’’Sydney Gazette” 31/3/1832. 3. ibid. - 39- until after he had sailed to England.. In fact, Lang had left a note, to be delivered to the trustees some time after he had sailed, stating that he was proceeding to England. (1), »for purposes connected with education, and for the endowment of an institution." The implication here, of course, is that Lang did not wish to take any risk of suffering any interference in his pro ject from the supporters of a rival institution. By delaying the information concerning the purpose of his visit to England till after he had sailed, Lang could be fairly certain that the inter ests of the Sydney College would not be put before the Secretary of State for the Colonies while his own plans were under discussion. Perhaps the Secretary of State would have given preference to the supporters of an institution which had already been founded. Further, the trustees of the Sydney College asked that, if Lang had been dissatisfied with the »zeal» shown by those connec ted with the project, why had he not expressed this view at one of the meetings of the Trustees, all but one of which he had attended ? We have seen in the previous chapter that Lang withdrew his support from the Sydney College project because of the »want of union, want of energy and the want of enlightened zeal exhibited by the Committee of Management, (and) he (had) altogether despaired of its successful establishment.» (2). (At least this is the reason offered by Lang.) In his defence against the attack made by the friends of the Sydney College through the »Sydney Gazette», Lang stated that Lord Goderich had told him that the government could not grant assistance to any institution »which avowedly excluded 1. "Sydney Gazette" 31/3/1S32. 2. ib id . 40 religious Instruction1 23' which should he "afforded at stated times to those who were willing to receive it". Hence the Sydney College according to Lang, would not have gained assistance In any case. Goderich, Lang stated, had favoured him with a loan because the Australian College project had been closely linked with a scheme of emigration extremely favourable to the Colony. Lang claimed that it had been his intention to gain PRIVATE loans and not Government assistance when he had left the Colony. It was only because he had failed to gain such loans, owing to the depression in England at the time, that he had approached the Colonial Office at all. (1) On the matter of his secrecy as to his intentions concerning education when leaving the Colony, and his failure to notify the Trustees of the withdrawal of his support from the Sydney College project until after he had sailed, Lang claimed that he feared a refusal of leave-of-absence from Governor Darling had the latter known of his real intentions. (2) However, these excuses were offered while the criticism of the Sydney College supporters was at it3 height and at a time v^ien so much depended upon public support for his own College which was struggling against financial difficulty. A more realistic view was given by Lang, (3) in his own newspaper, "The Colonist", in 1836 when his College was on a much more solid footing - "In seceding from the Sydney College in July 1830, I acted on the belief and conviction that there was no prospect of accom- (1) Lang's reply in the "Sydney Gazette" (which took every opportunity to attack Lang) 5/4/1832. (2) ibid. (3) Quoted Gilchrist A. "J.D. Lang - Chiefly Autobiographical . Vol. 1, p. 137. - 41- plishing the speedy and successful establishment of that institu tion agreeably to the plan agreed on by the shareholders at the pnhi public meeting in December, 1829; and that the Archdeacon, who was understood to be preparing to take the field, would consequently pre-occupy the ground if no effort were made in the meantime in some other quarter. Nothing whatever was done for a whole twelve- month after I left the colony in the erection of a suitable building; nothing, in short, until it was published in the colony that I was on the eve of my return with an extensive library and mechanical apparatus and the promise of a grant of money for the establishment of another institution. Then the long dormant zeal of the Sydney College began to revive. The erection of the Sydney College buil dings was therefore as much owing (indirectly indeed) to my own personal exertions as if I had still been connected with that respec table institution. As to the getting of first-rate masters from England, there has not been a single master of any kind sent for from England down to the present day. After five years of egregi ous trifling, all that the managers of the Sydney College could accomplish for the education of the youth of the colony on the open ing of the institution in 1835, in addition to the erection of their spacious buildings, was to transfer Mr. William Cape, a Sydney schoolmaster (who has never been within the walls of a college him self) to the headmastership of the institution with all his pupils (and he had a large number at the time) in his train.” The best view to take concerning Langfs secession from the Sydney College seems to be that he was tired of the inaction of the trustees, especially their failure to carry out his own suggestions, and decided to branch out and gain support for his own proposed es- - 42 - tablishment whilst he had no opposition. Archdeacon Broughton had told Lang that he proposed to establish schools for higher education (later the KingTs Schools) under the Church and School Corporation’s guidance. Thus it was a matter of importance to i Lang to be able to point to the lack of such an establishement in order to gain the support of the Colonial Office for his own claims. (It is perhaps not insignificant that he could attack the Corporation with more justification if he acted before Brough ton could establish an institution for secondary education.) If Lang did withhold information concerning the Sydney Col lege from Lord Goderich, he could hardly be censured for it, be cause as an academical institution it did not exist, nor did it show any prospect of operating for a considerable length of time. That the Sydney College supporters lacked the necessary drive in organisation is obvious since that college did not open till l£3 5, and consequently the establishment of Lang’s college under such favourable circumstances was a matter for jealousy. However^ accurate these conclusions may be, the important consideration is that the fortunes of the Australian College suf fered because of the adverse publicity (especially as a result of the activities of the ’’Sydney Gazette” and ’’Sydney Monitor”) (1) which resulted from Lang’s quarrel with the friends of the Sydney College. Nevertheless such opposition would not have been so detrimental to Lang’s plans had it not been coupled with that of Archdeacon Broughton and the Church and Schools Corporation. ’’Sydney Monitor”, 22/9/1832, gave him credit for his energy and inter- ;t in promoting education, but remarked, ”His sudden abandonment of the ndney College was as ungenerous as it has proved to be impolitic.” - 43 - B, LANG ATTACKED BY ARCHDEACON BROUGHTON. CENSURED BY GODERICH AND THE LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL. The publication of LangTs letter to Goderich (1) in condem nation of the Church and Schools Corporation on his return to the colony in 1831, ’’gave prodigious offence” to Archdeacon Broughton who addressed a long letter (2) about ’’its alleged misstatements” and offering a defence of the Corporation to Colonel (afterwards Sir Patrick) Lindesay, Acting-Governor of New South Wales, with a view to its immediate transmission to Lord Goderich. The letter was also signed by the Colonial Secretary and the Auditor-General (3) as Commissioners of the Corporation, and was sent to England four days before a copy was given to Lang. He was thus denied the right of reply till four months afterwards when the first opportun ity of writing home presented itself. Lang considered it a grave breach of etiquette on the Archdeacon’s part (4)* (although we have seen that he had previously done exactly the same thing in his dealings with the Trustees of the Sydney College.) The result of the Archdeacon’s complaint was that Lang was censured by Lord Goderich for the publication in Sydney of his letter to the Colonial Secretary. Lang had committed an unauthorised act in publishing his letter to Goderich without the latter’s consent, and Lang believed that it was his unauthorised act in publishing the letter, rather than its contents, that formed the ground of his Lordship’s censure. (5). 1. In pamphlet form ’’Account of Steps Taken” etc. op. cit. 2. Full^accounts of the episode are given in Lang’s Histories (Vol.ll . and in ’’The Scotch Mechanics of 1831” p.8 et seq. 3. 1811-31 Alexander McLeay and William Lithgow, H.R.A. Vol.l5,p.l79 4. ’’Scotch Mechanics of 1831” op. cit.p. 10. 5. ibid p.10 (footnote). - 44- The Archdeacon and his Commissioners concluded th e ir le tte r to Goderich in the following terms - "(Lang) embarked in an undertaking in which he fe lt it imposs ible to succeed, without degrading the Established Church in his Lordship’s estimation; he has preferred charges against the Corpor ation, in that loose style which bespeaks a man resolved at any rate to injure the object of his envy and dislike; with the blind ani mosity of a political partisan rather than with the scrupulous attention to truth and candour, becoming one who claims to bear a reverend and sacred character.” The Commissioners gave an outline of the work of the Corporation and stated that Lang had greatly ex aggerated the p osition as i t actu ally was. In fa c t the Commissioners pointed out that the Corporation had received only 18,500 accres in the County o f Cumberland which contained 470,000 acres. They went on to say that of this 18,500 acres, 4,175 acres were "on the barren sands of Botany Bay" and the most valuable sections had soon been resumed. (1 ). In his own reply, Lang denies that he had "any feeling of hos tility towards the Episcopal Church in this territory and towards any of its ministers" but he s till condemned the Corporation. (2) However the Archdeacon, a nominee member of the Legislative Council, proposed that a vote of censure should be passed on Lang by that body, for his statements in his letter to Goderich relative to the 1 2 Church and Schools Corporation and the Episcopal Church in the colony. The vote was accordingly passed on March 15, 1832 and pub lished in the press to the following effect - 1. A Statement also made by Burton op.cit. p.27. 2. Lang later stated " Whether my letter had any influence on leading to that result (i.e. the Corporation’s dissolution, 1833) I do not know, I hope it had." "History of N.S.W." .1875.EdTn.V o l.11 p.373. - 45- ”Resolved - That His Excellency the Governor be requested to communicate to the Right Honourable The Secretary of State the opinion of this Council, that the charges against the Protes tant Episcopal clergy of the colony, contained in the letter ad dressed by Dr.Lang to Viscount Goderich were unfounded and unwar rantable , and the publication of the same was a highly improper and censurable act.” In a letter dated April 3 , 1832, Goderich stated to Bourke, I cannot easily convey to you my surprise that Dr.Lang should have permitted himself to publish any document of this kind ...... I fe e l that a great injustice has been done by the language employed by Dr.Lang.” (1) Two months later, Goderich told Bourke of Archdeacon Broughton’s alarm at Dr.Langfs agitation for the establishment of the Australian College whilst he was in England - ”Mr. Broughton considers, not only that he has been personally slighted, but that his plan (for the Kings Schools) has suffered great injury from the circumstance of Dr.Lang’s having pre-occupied the ground. I trust that this will not prove to be the case.... my despatch authorising the King’s Schools preceded Dr.Lang’s departure (from England to Australia) by more than two months.” (2) The hostility of the Archdeacon and the subsequent vote of censure in the Legislative Council were of vital importance to the history of the Australian College, and indeed, almost ruined the work which had started so promisingly. We must bear in mind however that it was Lang who brought about the threatening disaster to him self and his project, because of his great lack of tact in publish ing his letter to Goderich. As in most of his projects, both social Ü>. Quoted in Griffiths D.C. ’’Documents on the Establishment of gdiucation 2. Goderich - 46- and political, Lang had succeeded in earning the hostility of many influential people who, perhaps could have assisted rather than opposed him. In this case, as in many others, the simple fact was that Lang could not resist publishing a document which showed him in a favour able light but at the same time condemned those whom he opposed, and regardless of the inevitable - the marshalling of much influential opinion against him. LangTs own words sum up well the importance of the action taken by Archdeacon Broughton and the Legislative Council :- (1) "The opinion of the Legislative Council and the vote of censure to which it led, were no dead letter to me. At the time when the vote was passed and published in all the newspapers of the colony, there were from fifty to a hundred reputable individuals, whom I had carried out from Scotland to the extremity of the earth, looking to me every Saturday evening for the wages of their laboulF, earned in the erection of buildings for the education of the long-negleeted youth of the Australian Colonies, while the weekly supply of funds for the carrying on of so extensive an undertaking depended entirely upon my own personal credit and the favour of the public, both of which the vote of the Legislative Council tended, as it was doubt less intended it should, almost completely to destroy.” The amount expected to be contributed by the public for the es tablishment of the Australian College was £3500, but at the time of the vote of censure it amounted to only £1800. Thus, in order to get the full benefit of the promise of the Colonial Government (i.e. 1. "Emigration and the Scotch Mechanics 1831” op. cit. p.15. Also in the four Editions of his History of N.S.W. - 47- of £3500 provided that the same amount was raised by the promo ters of the proposed institution) Lang still had to get £1700 and he had lost public support for his project because of the hostility of the friends of the Sydney College and the action taken by the Commissioners of the Church and Schools Corporation: Even the College Council, as well as the Shareholders gener ally, was influenced by the vote of censure. ”To be placed under the ban of the colony, to be publicly stigmatised by the highest authority as a setter-forth ’of unfounded and unwarrantable state ments’ (or, in plain English as a downright liar) was but a sorry recommendation for a person so completely identified with the es tablishment and progress of an academical institution as I had the honour to be. Certain of the gentlemen connected with the manage ment of the college became very cool on the subject, and certain of the shareholders invented a variety of excuses to obviate the pay ment of their subscriptions.” (1) The College Council, in the face of the great difficulty ex perienced in gaining an amount similar to the promised loan of the Government, tried to call (2) a halt to the buildings when they were completed to only half the extent of Lang’s original plan. However, Lang said that he, on behalf of the Trustees of the Scots Church, would not sanction the transfer of Scots Church Land to the college if it were not built according to the original proposal approved by Goderich. The embittered Lang even goes as far as claiming that Broughton would have seized the control of the Australian College if Lang could 1. Lang ’’History of N.S.W. 1834 Edn. Vol.ll p.3 2. ibid. - 48- have been moved from the scene - T,In other words, provided I could be got rid of, the Archdeacon would not have been unwilling to place himself at the head of an institution for which I had sacri ficed all my property and risked my very life to establish.” (1) The members of the College Council wished to build two houses instead of the originally-planned four, and so avoid any great financial risk. Thomas Barker (2) later stated that at meetings of the College Council, at which Lang had been present and had acted as Secretary, resolutions were passed that only two houses would be erected. However, Lang ignored Councils decisions and proceeded with the originally-planned four. Many of the College Council then refused to attend meetings and were forced ”to give (Lang) up as a hopeless case”. (3) Lang then, used his position as a Trustee of Scots Church to force the College Council to fall in with his plans concerning College cuildings. Moreover, Langfs difficulties did not end here. The mechanic working on the college buildings could have prosecuted him for breach o f c o n tr a c t and led him to p u b lic d is g ra c e i f he was unable to pay the wages he had promised them. Lang was forced to sell his home overlooking Sydney Harbour for £2250 and other property around Sydney for over £2000, to get himself out of his immediate difficulties. He had discovered that no part of the public funds allotted by Goderich for the carrying on of the undertaking, could be procured for twelve months after the commencement of the buildings. (4). 1. Lang «History of N.S.W. ”. 1834 Edn. Vol. 11 p.3*t 2. Thomas Barker, a member of the original College Council replying to LangT question in the Legislative Assembly investigation, 1862. Quoted Gilchris o p .cit. V ol. ft, p. 141. 3. ibid. 4. cf. p.17. ''Emigration and the Scotch Mechanics, 1831”. - 49- It seems too, that the architect Mr. George Ferguson who had been brought out to the colony by Lang to supervise the mechanics' work had underestimated the cost of the buildings. His original estimate was £2000 for the four buildings and when the Council de cided upon an extra floor for boarders, his estimate rose to £4000. However, the actual cost was more like £12,000. (1) "The Colonist" (11-2-1836) gives estimate at £6,000 but o t f / Z j C Q t > " • Lang later stated it to be £ 1 ,-20€>. (^tatement of Non Political Services " Syd. 1876). By the sacrifice of his own property, Lang was able to see his difficulties through and by 1834, be was able to write, "The Australian College how contains a commodious residence for each of the four headmasters or professors of the institution, with high ly suitable accommodation for not fewer than from 60 to 80 board ers." (2) He was able to fulfil/ his obligations to the Scotch mechanics, who, strangely enough, later constructed much of the KingTs School at Parramatta. (3). Nevertheless, the Government loan for the establishment of the College, and the Land on which the latter was constructed were to involve Lang in court cases in future years. (4). But to Lang the important thing had been accomolished - the establishment of an institution for higher learning and the staff was available to teach the youths of the colony subjects which previously they would have had to go to England to study. 1. "The Colonist" 11-2-1836. 2. Lang "History of N.S..W." p. 381 Vol. 11, 1834 Edition. 3. Sydney Gazette 13-9-44» 4. Finally Lang won his case in 1845 against the Government which tried to recover the loan. - 50 - CHAPTER 111 THE HISTORY OF THE AUSTRALIAN COLLEGE 1832-1841 a. THE FIRST PERIOD 183X-183 5. During the early months of 1832, front page notices appeared in the "Sydney Gazette" advertising the Australian College which had commenced operations in November of the previous year. Therein the Council of the College informed the public of the courses of instruction available and the cost of tuition to pupils of different stages of advancement. Although Lang had visualised four separate departments, it was decided in the infancy of the college to combine the English k and Mercantile departments under one master. The Rev. W. Pinker ton, who had been originally in charge of a separate English Department, was not employed in the college during 1832, and the combined departments were under the care of the Rev. John Anderson. The English and Mercantile Department offered the following courses of instruction (1) - English, English Grammar, Elocution, English Composition, Writing, Arithmetic, Book Keeping and an elementary class was conducted. The Rev. H. Carmichael M.A. conducted the Classical Depart ment, which offered courses in the Latin and Greek Languages, Ancient and Modern History, Chronology and Greek and Roman Anti quities . The Mathematical and Physical Department was under the care of the Rev. John McGarvie M.A., the only resident of the colony to take charge of a department. (2). In his department, Rev. 1. "Sydney Gazette" 31 March, 1832. 2. McGarvie had been brought out to N.S.W. by Lang in 1825 and had been in charge of the Presbyterian congregation at Portland Head on the Hawkesbury River. - 51- McC^arvie gave instruction in Geography (with the use of globes) and ’’practical Mathematics.” (The terrestrial globes were much the same as the ones found in most schools today. However, celes tial globes were widely used in the nineteenth century to illus trate Natural Philosophy lessons concerned with astronomy and navi gation. The manipulation and explanation of these globes were requirements of considerable importance to the teachers of science in the last century. Celestial globes are still used in some High Schools in teaching problems allied with navigation.) The fees for the various courses were set out as follows - (1) a. Elementary Class - £6 per annum. b. English, English Grammar, Writing and Arithmetic - £8 per annum. c. English, Writing, Book-keeping, Geography, Practical Mathema tics - £10. d. Latin and Greek in addition to the above-mentioned courses - £12. The hours of instruction were from 9 a.m. to 3 p.m. but a special French class was conducted by the Rev. Carmichael between the hours of 3 p.m. and A p.m. two afternoons a week for which course £1 per annum was charged. The most surprising part of the advertisement was the refer ence made to evening classes in Natural Philosophy and Chemistry. It was stated that two courses of lectures, ”to be illustrated by experiments - one adapted for the public in general and the other for mechanics” - would be delivered during the winter half of the year by the Rev. John McGarvie. The lectures were to start in April. (2). and the hope was expressed by the College Council that 1. cf. fees for Carmichael’s ’’Normal Institution” established 1935 - £12/12/- per quarter for boarders older than 15 yrs. p.118 ’’Australian Journal of Education” July I960.article by Turney C. 2. Actually these courses were deferred from the first week of April to April 24, because of the proximity of Easter. 52 the valuable specimens and apparatus purchased for the College would render these lectures both useful and interesting to the general public. Two courses of three months each were held, with classes on Tuesday and Friday nights at 7.00 p.m. One course of six months' duration was opened to mechanics on Saturday afternoons. The fee for each course was one guinea. (1) One of the most important contributions of Lang’s Australian College to education in New South «/ales was, without doubt, the provision of instruction for adults generally, and mechanics in particular, in the evening lectures introduced in April, 1832, Since the School of Arts and Mechanics' Institution was not founded until a year later, (2) McGarvie's courses may be justly called the precursors of organised adult education in New South Wales. Even though Lang did not conduct these evening courses at the Australian College himself, they were delivered by one of his teachers at a college founded by him, and assisted by material purchased by him in England, and so John Dunmore Lang was largely responsible for the foundation of adult education in New South Wales. (3) McGarvie's evening lectures of 1832 were received with great enthusiasm according to the Colonial Press of the time. On May 15, the "Sydney Gazette" reported most favourably on McGarvie's sixth lecture in Natural Philosophy and Chemistry. That paper commented, "The subject was 'Electricity'. We were much pleased to observe a numerous and very reputable auditory - an indication (1) "Sydney Gazette" April 3, 1832. (2) Another teacher of Lang's, Henry Carmichael, was closely connected with the launching of the Mechanics' Institute a year later. (3) Carmichael had fgiven lectures to the Mechanics on the "Stirling Castle^ en route from England, 1831. (.See Immigration and the Scotch Mechanics of 1831). 53 that the Reverend gentleman’s exertions, even at this very early stage of his labours, have engendered a taste for scientific knowledge in our community. " One week later the same paper was able to report, "The lecture on Friday last received much and very well-deserved applause" and wrent on to mention the success of the practical experiments used to illustrate the lecture. Much the same view was taken of subsequent lectures throughout the year with praise for McGarvie’s successful and interesting experiments. (1) Two major considerations impress the reader of to-day as he studies the reports of the work done during the evenings of 1832 by the Rev. John McGarvie at the Australian College. In the first place, one cannot but be impressed by the titles of such lectures. In Physics such topics as "Galvanism" or "Magnetism" indicate the scientific interest of the lecturer, as studies in these fields were still in their infancy. Secondly, and more importantly, we are impressed by the fact that considerable audiences were present at the lectures which surely filled a great gap in colonial society at the time. (2) During the years when New South Wales was still a convict colony, and without a public library, when people seeking higher forms of education had to, in most cases, look to England to satisfy their needs, the advent of evening lectures at the Australian College, by men possessing high academic qualifications, was certainly a major step forward for the people cf (1) e.g. "Sydney Gazette" 16/6/1832. See also Report of the Australian College, 1832. p.4. (2) Although pr^vidion had been made for adult education by some private schools from 1810 to 1820. However, the movement waned in the 1820’s and Lang’s teachers were the first University-trained men to carry on evening classes. See Turney C. "Bpifeiah "Birth of Education in Australia" M.E.D. thesis 1960, Sydney University. 54 the Sydney area, and no doubt had a great influence on the foundation of the Mechanics' Institution a year later. (1) After the Australian College had been functioning for about twelve months, the Governor of New South Wales was able to write to Lord Goderich in the following terms - The Kings School f,being directed by the Church and Schools Corporation and reported to be exclusively intended for the members of the established Church, is certainly not popular. The Australian College, in the promotion of which, Doctor Lang, the Presbyterian Minister, has taken so active a part, promises more favourably; it is in fact a combination of schools under separate masters for English, Classics and Mathematics. It has been some time open and has a considerable number of day scholars ..... The Sydney College, which is meant to be a Grammar and Classical School, though like the Australian designated 'College" is in progress; but from failure of funds, some time may elapse before the building can be completed and the school opened". (2) Shortage of Staff. 1852-1854 We have already seen how Lang proposed to establish his College with four Departments, but was forced, in the first instance, to combine the English and Mercantile Departments under the Dev, J. Anderson. The Rev. W. Pinkerton who had taught English for the first xcouple of months, accepted a clerical appointment elsewhere, on the understanding that he would return to Sydney when sufficient (1) The establishment of the Sydney Mechanics' School of Arts was first suggested by Governor Bourke to Henry Carmichael (Lang's Master of‘Classics). Carmichael delivered some of the first lectures in the new institution and gave a long speech on the occasion of the opening of the establishment on April 23, 1833. Much of this speech is quoted in Lang's "History of N.S.W.". ( 1 8 3 ^ E i ’n.) Vol. 11. pp. 391-395. (Full text in M.L.) (2) Bonrke to Goderich 23/ll/l832. H.R.A. vol. 16. 55 numbers warranted the establishment of a separate department for English. (1) A house was rented at £6. per month on Church Hill for the families of Anderson and Carmichael whilst the College buildings were being constructed. (McGarvie was living elssvhere in Sydney). At the close of the first year of the College’s operations, two of the three masters were to leave to carry out clerical duties and Rev. Carmichael was left alone from 1833 till the end of 1834 when Lang returned from another visit to England with two more masters. In November 1832 Rev, John McGarvie left the College to establish the second Presbyterian Church in Sydney, St. Andrew's Church at Brickfield Hill. (2) The Rev. John Anderson, after having been ordained at the first meeting of the Presbytery in November 1832, accepted an invitation to take pastoral charge of the congregation of Scotch Presbyterians at Launceston. (3) Carmichael, from January 1, 1833, supervised both the Classical and Mathematical Departments, and had an assistant master to teach writing, book-keeping, arithmetic, geography and drawing. Carmichael also took over McGarvie's public lectures in Natural Philosophy and Political Economy. (4) The English Department had grown to such an extent that it was no longer practicable to (1) Bourke to Goderich 23/ll/l832. H.R.A. Vol. 16. (2) McGarvie had been broughtout to the Colony by Lang in 1825 when he became minister at Portland Head on the Hawkesbury, and until his death in 1835, McGarvie was the object of much criticism from Lang. McGarvie became editor of the Sydney Morning Herald and this pair of Presbyterian pioneers often clashed through the press. (3) First Report of the Australian College, 1932. p. 2. fe) ibid. - 56- combine it with the other classes. Pinkerton could not be re- called by the end of 1832 and shortly afterwards (1834) he died. Lang himself apparently superintended the English Department with an assistant early in 1833. (2). The ’»under masters” during 1833 were :- Elementary English Classes, Mr. William Kerr, - Writing, Arithmetic, Book keeping and Drawing, M r . H . Gordon.(3) In the face of such difficulties, Lang sailed for England for the third time on the ’’Alice” on July 4, 1833 , in order to get two qualified men to fill the vacancies on the college staff. During his absence, Carmichael had sole charge of instruction at the Australian College with the assistance of his more advanced pupils or of others in the colony. (4). Lang arrived in England in November 1833, and proceeded to Scotland where he engaged Rev. Robert Wylde , M.A. (who had been teaching in a private school in the West of England and who had been a class fellow of Lang’s at the University of Glasgow).(5). and Rev. David Mackenzie M.A. (of the University of Edinburg) as masters for the Australian College. He arranged for a third mas ter, Rev. Thomas Aitken M.A. of the University of St. Andrew’s to follow at a later date. (6). Actually, ^ev. Aitken commenced lectures at the college on July 7, 1837, whilst the other two com menced their duties on January 1, 1835. (7). Mackenzie and Wylde were given free passages on the ’’James” which arrived in Sydney on i. T7T Although the ’’N.S.W. Calendar & Directory”, 1834, noted him as Professor of English, p. 267. 1. 2. Report of the Australian College 1832, p.2. 2 . 3. ’’N.S.W. Calendar & Directory” , 183 4, p. 267. jt. 4. Lang ’’History of N.S.W.” , 1852^ Edn. Vol. 11. p. 535. 5. ’’The Colonist” 15-1-183 5. 6. Vol. 24 Lang Papers p.98. Reminiscences (Printed version). 7. Origin, Condition and Prospects of Australian College, Vol. 16 Lang Papers. - 57- November 17, 1834- Whilst in England, Lang obtained more than 120 volumes from the House of Commons through his radical friend J. Hume. These included a copy of the Journals of the Imperial Parliament of Great Britain with numerous reports of Committees of the House of Commons relative to all the colonies of the Empire. (1). LANG AND CARMICHAEL. Shortly after his return to Sydney, Lang called a meeting of the Board of Management of the college to discuss future arrnagements for the college using the new members of staff. However, Lang tells us that Rev. Carmichael "astounded" all present by requesting £200 to pay his familyfs return passage to England. (2). When Lang had engaged Carmichael in 1830, the agreement be tween the two was as follows:- Carmichael and his sister would re ceive a free passage out; he would be paid £100 per annum from the institution's funds "with such a proportion of the fees as might be determined by the Board of Management"; he would receive a free honie, including a temporary classroom, with accommodation for pupils as boarders. It was also agreed that if the institution should prove a failure or fall short of Carmichael's "reasonable expectations", after the first three years, he should have a free passage home for himself and his family. (3). Carmichael stated that he had expressed disappointment with the college after only one year in the colony and had intimated to Lang that at the end of his three years, he would demand his return fare to England where he would get assistance to establish 1. "The Colonist", 15-1-1835. 2. Lang's Reminiscences Vol. 24, Lang Papers op.cit. p.99 3. Letter Carmichael to Lang, dated January 25, 1831. Lang Papers, Vol. 16. (see p.2, par. 3, of illustration). / # ft»V */y + - * * /**~~t*~*'' t.'¿ r J t v / ^ ^ ^ s r r ^jM./ z£**<*•* z . &*■#&**£ * i £ J v? /f9. J/,*ar+ /*!•••'*, &•'?*’ ¿ r^/VW 2*r $,U i~ * • *'•*“ ' '" '* I >£*•* * A t a * * ? * $ * #u /i. / ^ , w ^ * * r ^ / Z / J t L ^ ¿¿si * %&** <+/• **/— *- / +t'*\ ¿¿A <7 ft /*r* /St* C . r W - - "jP-'“ "/'?? #r.-/ /•—**—S L»i ZU_LL Henry Carmichael accepts an appointment as Classics Master at Lang*s Australian College. In view of Carmichael’s secession from the College three years latert the second last paragraph of his letter is very significant. (See next page.) (Vol.16 Lang Papers, Mitchell Library.) r - 1 £ * '//„¿»& & ~*r/ f*TJT^, x JU*fo i T r ji r * *..>«*' ^ / T O , it»t H- /^<-<*/"» t fjklt ' *'~ • «. ***/“’ *“~\V *^ f/f|Xi»-P f * . /# * fa'?/''*!«£'i7**f*r *■ ,/;"' ■’■ $ T £ . A*. - / / , 3 / W «•-C * * * “ * S* / ‘‘ ~ C lJ: r k • ./Af- / j j ^^P 4 . / * / » * * ^ ' a £ jJ af ay ^ *•—^ * ■ ^ «4>/ ] ■ Jjr : H - y - f c j ' fi'-jrzg~±Zi££' Note that Carmichael had the option, in the event of the appointment of an additional maslj of teaching either Classics or Philosophy. (Second papagraph above.) - 58- his won institution in New South Wales. (1). Thus Lang’s ’’aston ishment” was probably exaggerated when Carmichael expressed his wish to leave at the end of 1834* Lang and the Board of Management refused to pay Carmichael his £200 passage money on the grounds that the college had not failed but indeed was on the verge of great improvement because of the new staffing arrangements. (2) However, Carmichael left the Australian College, taking with him forty-five of his pupils, and established the ’’Normal Institution” near Hyde Park - a strictly non-sectarian institution. (3). Lang immediately suspected that Carmichael had been influenced by Governor Bourke’s attempt to establish the Irish National sys tem of education. Had Bourke been able to establish a National system of education, Lang suggests that Carmichael would have re ceived the secretaryship of the new Board of Education. Carmichael had seen Bourke’s despatch suggesting the idea to the authorities in England, and had been Bourke’s adviser on other occasions on educational matters, (e.g. the establishment of the Mechanics’ School of Arts 1833). Lang claimed that in demanding the £200 passage money, Carmichael had been trying simply ”to feather his own nest a little at other people’s expense.” (4). Lang further pointed out that Carmichael’s disposition ’’would not suffer him to brook an equal” ( a|criticism which is applicable to its author), and had been on indifferent or poor terms with Rev. Anderson and Revl Pinkerton, ’’who was sick and dying next door to 1. Nadel G. ’’Australia’s Colonial Culture.” p. 232. 2. Origin and Condition of the Australian College, 1841. Vol.l6 Lang Papers. 3. For a description of the institution, see Burton op.cit.p.142-146 and Turney "Australian Journal of Education” July I960,pp.111-122. 4. Lang ’’History of N.S.W.”. 1852 Ed’n. Vol. 11, p. 537. 59 him, and he visited him not”. Lang suggests that Carmichael could not bear the thought of working with Mackenzie and Wylde on equal terms. Carmichael, said Lang, had even gone to the extreme of informing Messrs. Mackenzie and Wylde that "the Australian College was ruined and could never be revived”. (1) Ihe departure of Carmichael, probably the most capable educationalist in the colony at the time, was a bitter disappoint ment to Lang who had just returned from England with replacements for MeGarvie and Anderson. Since Carmichael was familiar with colonial conditions and had been in charge of affairs for so long, he would have been able to lead the staff along the paths most suitable to colonial conditions. Lang stated, in his disappoint ment that ”to leave the institution therefore at the time and in the way he did, was simply a piece of heartless ingratitude”. (2) During 1035 and 1836, Lang and Carmichael abused each other through the Press. Lang used his own newspaper ”The Colonist” whilst ”The Sydney Moniter" and "The Australian” supported Carmichael. The latter newspapers for years attacked Lang's College as sectarian and on one occasion Carmichael called Lang ”the pestiferous and sanctimonious backbiter of Botany Bay” and claimed that Lang had involved himself ”in as set of crooked transactions, which have tended seriously to blunt his moral perceptions”. (3) (1) ”The Colonist”, 11/2/1036. Langfs bitterness was well il lustrated when he went on to accuse Carmichael of having handled the science apparatus carelessly. (For Carmichael's reply see "Sydney Monitor”, 20/2/1836) (2) Lang "History of N.S.W." 1852Ed»n. Vol. 11, p. 539. (3) "Reply to certain Calumnies and misrepresentations put forth by Dr. Lang in "The Colonist” Newspaper of ll/2/l836. Extracted from "Sydney Monitors" of February 20 and 24, 1836. - 60- In spite of the abuse which Lang hurled at Carmichael over the years following CarmichaelTs departure (and there were very few people either inside or outside of Parliament who could rival Lang’s gift for invective), there were very real differences between the two in regard to both religion and education. Carmichael’s Presbyterianism was always precarious - he tended to believe that religion was a sub jective thing - a matter of opinion and that the child had the ability to form, and indeed ought to form, his own opinions and judgments. Lang, on the other hand, saw Presbyterianism as a means of overcoming the social evils in a convict colony. Carmichael regarded the Bible as "a mere book of reference’1 2 and when Mackenzie and Wylde arrived, they allegedly found that the children in the college were ignorant of even the simplest of religious matters. (1). Carmichael stated on the matter of these differences, ’’The truth is that my views with relation to the great cause of education were, as they still are, of a less sectarian and con tract kind than his fesai and he therefore all along found it necessary in his communications with me on this important topic, to be more liberal than he had full sanction from his habitudes or heart. This was the main cause of his finding himself at issue with my doings at times when it might not seem advisable to acknowledge his dissent.” (2). Carmichael’s firm belief 1. ’’The Colonist”, 30-4-3 5 and 5-5-1336. 2. ’’Sydney Monitor” 24-2-1S36. - 61- in the great value of the well-qualified teacher and the duty of the Government with regard to education is well illustrated in the following comment :- (1) ’’The daily assiduity of the pedagogue is of far greater value, as measured by its powers to tell on the moral and intellec tual welfare of a country, than the weekly ministrations of the clergyman, however conscientiously these be undertaken and however zealously performed. Therefore it is the obvious duty of the Government if it concern itself in these matters at all, to make a more ample provision for the teacher. Not, therefore, till such provision has been made, not till such an arrangement has been formed, as shall place men of intell ectual culture, beyond the necessity of dependence for sup port, on those who are not duly qualifited to appreciate the work of their exertions, ought such men to be allured to New South Wales under the notion that their labours in the high field of educational duty, will meet with a grateful welcome among the influential members of society, and a ready and liberal appreciation among the general population. Under the present circumstances of the colony, there is ample room and inducement for the labours of inferior men as schoolmasters: and certainly better is it to have inferior labour in this deparment of exertion, than an utter destitution in the means of elementary instruction.” Carmichael’s foundation of the Normal Institution was a sign of the times as far as education in New South Wales was concerned. Bourke’s despatch attempting to establish a national system, the foundation of the Normal Institution and the support the non sectarian movement received from newspapers like ”The Australian” and ’’Sydney Monitor” were indicative of the belief in the minds of many people in the colony that education ought to be a state matter and no longer be conducted by the clergy of the different religious groups. Perhaps, after 1835, Lang regretted having obtained the services of Henry Carmichael, but we have seen how the latter greatly influenced education, both adult and child, 1. Carmichael’s ’’Hints to Emigrants” in the ’’N.S.W. Calendar and Directory” , 1834* - 62- and was an extremely important figure in the history of education in New South Wales, both in theory and practice, (1). 1. For a more detailed study of CarmichaelTs importance as a pioneer of education in N.S.W. see Turney C. ’’Birth of Education in Australia” Vol. 11, Chapter XXXVI. (M.Ed Thesis Sydney University). 63 B. THE ST7COUP rtlRIOD - MACKENZIE, AITKEN and WYLPE. 1835-1841. The period from Carmichael1 23a departure to 1841, when the institution was temporarily closed, was the most successful in the history of the Australian College. During this period, the numbers attending the College were at their highest, and the testimony even of Judge William Burton was extremely favourable to the education given there. (1) Lang had always visualised the Australian College as a place for the training of missionaries to trie aborigines and to the South Sea Islands. However, the necessity for concentrating on the elementary courses, as no satisfactory system of lower education existed In the Colony, and the hope that teachers In this field would be gained as the youths graduated from the Australian College, encouraged Lang to believe, after about 1835, that the College could, as a quasi-university, fulfil its real duties, one of which was the training of Ministers of religion and missionaries. (2) The Rev. David Mackenzie, M.A. had, for the six years previous to his appointment to the Australian College, been engaged In teaching at a private academy for general education at Hythe, England, whilst the Rev. Robert rtylde, M.A. had been "for several years engaged In private tuition in the west of England”. (3) The Rev. Thomas Aitken, M.A. had founded an academy connected with Dalhousie College, ftova Scotia, a few years earlier. Although (1) Burton objected violently to Lang*s accusations against the Church and Schools Corporation. State an of Religion and Education”, op. cit. (2) Lang "History of N.S.W." 1837 Kd*n. Vol. 11. p. 360 or "The Colonist" 11/2/36. (3) "The Colonist" 15/1/1835. 64 he had been approached by Lang In England in 1834, it was not anticipated that any vacancy would occur at the Australian College as Carmichael’s resignation was unforeseen. When the latter event did take place, Lang thought the prospects of the College so poor that he considered it a risk to send for more staff. However, by 1836, the College had progressed so well under Mackenzie and Wylde that this risk no longer existed, allowing the addition of Aitken. (1) Once again Lang had chosen highly educated men with practical teaching experience to carry on the business of education at his College. The fact that Mackenzie and Wylde were both bachelors put doubt into the minds of some people whether they would be capable of conducting satisfactorily the boarding arrangements connected with the school. (2) However, Lang stated that their house was kept by "a reputable free emigrant and his wife, and, as Mr. Mackenzie had a boarding establishment of a similar kind and managed in precisely the same way in England for six years, he was quite au fait at''the management of boarders before he came to the Colony. Indeed, both of the gentlemen pay the utmost attention to the domestic comfort of their pupils. (3) (Five years later criticism of the boarding arrangements at the institution was to cause Lang a great deal of discomfort, and was on-reason for the closing of the College in 1841.) (1) "The Colonist", 15/1/1835. (2) Letter from Lang to Captain John Piper, a trustee of Scots Church, 31/10/1835. Piper Papers Vol. 11, pp. 185-187. (3) ibid. AUSTRALIAN COLLEGE FEES ACCOUNT. JANUARY.1856. (Vol«16 Lang Papers, Mitchell Library.) 65 The College curriculum was organised along much the same lines as Lang had originally planned. Rev. Mackenzie had charge of the Mathematics and Natural Philosophy Department (and English until the arrival of Aitken The Rev. Wylde had under his direction Classics, Logic and Moral Philosophy. As well as these major Departments, the curriculum included, at different times over the next five years, French (taught by Monsieur Devauchelle), Drawing (Mr. Elyard or Evans), (1) and Natural History "in all its branches" (Rev. J. Cowans). Mr. J, Noble was employed teaching writing and arithmetic, presumably on the elementary level from 1836. He had been a parochial schoolmaster in Scotland, had studied at the University of Aberdeen and had been persuaded to come to the Colony by Lang and Mackenzie. (2) When Carmichael left at the end of 1834, he took most of his pupils with him to his Normal Institution (3) leaving only twelve at the Australian College. However, this number increased to 36 at the end of 1835, to 77 by December 1836 (4), to 92 in December 1837 and about the same at the end of 1838. (5) With this improvement in the numbers attending the College, Rev. David Mackenzie noted a corresponding improvement in the character of education at the Australian College when he reported (1) See Lang "History of N.S.W." 1837 Ed'n. Vol.ll, p. 361; Macel- hose J. "Picture of Sydney for 1838-39"p.Ill gives the name Elyard but "The Colonist" 11/2/1836 stated that Drawing was taught by Mr. Evans. The same newspaper declared that the French class was about to start. (2) "The Colonist" 11/2/1836. (3) Carmichael must have taken about 45 pupils with him acc. to the "Colonist" 28/12/1837. (4j| Calculated from Account of College Fees for 1836, Vol. 16 Lang Papers, M.L. (5) "The Colonist ; 28/12/37 and Macelhose op. cit. p. Ill Burton states 116 pupils present in 1838 op, cit. p. 140 - 66 - on the activities of the Institution on the occasions of the d is trib u tio n o f p rizes in December 1835 and December 1837 • (1) He observed that at the beginning of his term at the Australian College wixoaa a large proportion of the pupils for their first and second years had been attending the elementary classes and consequently had been paying the smaller rate of from £6 to £8 per annum. However, by the end of 1837, ’’the average fees for each pupil amounted to £9 from which it follows that a large proportion of the whole number in attendance must now be at tending higher classes.” (2) Out of 92 pupils in attendance , about 40 were attending His tory classes. The courses available in this subject for 1837 were the histories of Greece and Rome. (3) Mackenzie stated that 27 pupils were engaged in studying Mathematics and some of these pupils had ”gone thrice over the first four books of Eu clid ^ Elements.” Lectures on Natural Philosophy and Chemistry were delivered once each week; ”and these lectures appear to have created a taste for their study among the pupils already.” (4) It is interesting to the teacher of today to read of the atti tude adopted by Mackenzie, and la te r the whole s t a ff o f the Australian College, (3) towards the problems connected with the examinations. At the end of each school year in the 1830*3, the Sydney newspapers were f u l l o f notices a d vertisin g the fa c t 1. ’’The Colonist” 24/12/183 5 and 12/12/1837. 2. ib id . 12/12/1837. 3. ib id . 4. ib id . 3. During 183 3 Wylde did not adopt the ’’Ticket System” but he decided to do so in future years. ”The Colonist” 24/ 12/ 1835. - 67- that the schools of the town were about to have annual exam inations. Not only was this fact inserted in the press, but the times and topics for examination, together with an invi tation to the public to attend and witness the procedure. However, ’’The Colonist” had the following remarks to offer about the policy at the Australian College - (1) ’’The claptrap exhibitions of a public examination, Mi?. Mack enzie and his colleagues had been induced entirely to dis card. He had sufficient experience of the inutility of such exhibitions in the mother country, where he had known the progress of a whole school checked for six weeks together previous to the annual examination, and the whole of that comparatively long period occuoied in drilling the pupils to repeat certain lessons by rote, to enable them to make a show before strangers at the public ’’examination” as it was called. But besides such a great loss of time^ such a practice implied, it was objectionable, Mr. Mackenzie very judiciously remarked, in other respects, inasmuch as it was very frequently not the modest, industrious, plodding boy who had uniformly acquitted himself well during the previous session, who carried off the reward of merit at these public examinations, but the boy who, under the influence of strong excitement, could sereup his powers of mind for an occasion al effort before strangers far above the level of his every day performances. By such a system, real merit was often repressed and discouraged, and sheer impudence caressed and rewarded, while the natural sense of justice, which is al ways strongly developed among pupils or students of a well- regulated seminary, is violently outraged, and the youth ful mind necessarily impressed with the baneful idea that it is rather by a species of trickery and outward show than by sterling and substantial merit that success in the great field of life is to be attained.” After the advent of Mackenzie, the ’’Ticket System” was introduced to the Australian College. Under this system, certificates of merit were issued when effort justified it. At the end of the year, these ’’tickets” were counted, and the consistently meritor ious iy pupils were selected on the number of ’’tickets” won. 1. December 12, 1837. - 68- (Mackenzie Ts ideas on the assessment of pupils on the basis of continual work and class assignments would be regarded as "liberal”, in certain quarters, even today, over a century later.) Throughout the year essays were written by the pupils some times suggested by the staff and sometimes chosen by the pupils. Some of these essays were about 40 foolscap pages in length, and in the year 1837, 175 essays were handed in for correction. Mac kenzie observed that some of these essays were up to first year standard in Logic at the University of Edinburgh. The writing of essays was "entirely voluntary" but it was compulsory for each pupil to write a letter for each Monday. Of these Macken zie corrected more than 3000 during 1837* Some topics on which essays were written during the year 1837 were - "A Voyage from Home to this Colony." "On Sheep’.’ "Attractions of Magnetism or Electricity." "Attraction of Gravitation". "Essential Properties of Matter." "On the Statistics of the Town of Sydney." "Manners and Customs of the ancient Jews." Among those pupils receiving prizes, in 1837, were residents of Maitland, Bathurst, Richmond and Sydney, and a lad named John Ross of Java. One of Lang’s principal aims in establishing the Australian College was to offer a good education at a cheap rate to children of the interior of the Colony or from other nearby colonies such as India. (1) 1. Lang J.D. "History of N.S.W.". 1834 E d ’n. Vol. 11 p. 381. - 69- Mackenzie taught Mathematics on four days of the week and gave one lecture on Natural Philosophy. This lecture occupied two hours, excluding the time taken for practical experiments. His course in Natural Philosophy was organised in the following manner:- (1) The first lectures were concerned with the Essential Proper ties of Matter; the next were on the Contingent or Accidental Properties of Matter; on Mechanics; on the Mechanical Powers; on Chemistry; on Electricity; on Magnetism and Galvanism; on Optics; on Pneumatics; on Hydrodynamics and concluded with a few lectures on Astronomy. Although Aitken had originally been engaged to teach Classics, he had supervised the Mercantile Department, which embraced Writ ing and Book-keeping, and also two junior English Classes. (2) All pupils at the college did formal writing some time during each day under Aitken, but for the rest of the time he taught boys aged between seven and eleven years. Lectures had never been delivered (3) by Aitken and Wylde during their connection with the institution. Mackenzie stated that the experiments in Natural Philosophy had been so successful and "had excited so much interest among the more advanced students, that they had actually raised a sub scription from their pocket money for the purchase of additional philosophical apparatus and had got one of their own number to lecture and to exhibit experiments to them once a week.(4). In deed, two years earlier, experimental demonstrations in this sub- 1. V. and P. 1841. Committee on Loans to the Australian College - Mackenzie’s evidence p.12. 2. ibid. Aitken’s evidence p.14. 3. ibid p.12 4. ibid p.14 - 70- je c t had in terested two pupils (George and John Bowman) so much "that they saved their pocket money and purchased as much copper and zinc etc. as was necessary for the construction of a Voltaic Pile; and they managed the matter so well, that...... a medical gentleman in Sydney actually borrowed their juvenile apparatus to communicate a Galvanic shock to one of his patients. (i) Lang noted that the standard of education at the Australian Collegje was getting higher and would continue to do so, he thought, because of an improvement in the standard of elementary education generally throughout the Colony; more time could be devoted to higher education in the college, as the pupils enrol lin g had a background more suited to advanced studies. (2) Rev. David Mackenzie regretted that the parents of colonial youths, "instead of educating their sons for the learned pro fessions, or allowing them to remain at school until they have received a liberal education, send them to the bush with a few flocks of sheep, which is a surer and much shorter way of arriv ing at colonial eminence and independence. This conduct on the part of paraftts has always been, and s till continues to be, a dource of continual annoyance to every zealous teacher in N.S.W." The prosperity, which Mackenzie and Lang expressed through "The C olon ist" at the end o f 1837, continued through 183 8 and 1839, according to Judge William Burton who visited the college in those years. (4). Burton, too, gives us some indication of the type of instruction given at the college during those years. He wrote, 1. ib id . 2. "The C olon ist" 12/12/1837. 3. D.Mackenzie "The Emigrant’s Guide" London 1845, p.41« 4. Burton W.W. "The State of Religion and Education in N.S.W.", London 1840, p.140. - 71 - "The number of Students in the College during the year 1838 was 116; of this number 32 took Latin classes - the first, learning Grammar; the second Macgowan’s "Latin Reading", Part 11 and ValpyTs Delectus; the third were, at the commencement of 1839, reading Livy, and acquiring the elements of Greek, In the Natural Philosophy classes, lectures, illustrated by experiments, are delivered, and subjects prescribed on which the Students write by way of exercise; of these essays (some of which extended to 60 closely written pages) several hundreds were given in during the year, and several were read with much gratification by the writer of these observations, as shewing in many instances, acute ness of observation, and reflection, particularly interesting and useful as indications of the natural bent of the mind of the pupil; each being at liberty, out of a number of subjects proposed, to write upon that which he chose. In the Mathematical class EuclidTs Elements and BlandTs "Geo metrical Problems" were used as textbooks. In the course of the year, about 46 attended the classes for Natural Philosophy and Mathematics. About 70 attended the classes for History and Geography. The books used were the Common School Histories of Greece and Rome (with questions) and Steward’s Geography. Nearly the whole num ber of pupils attended the classes for writing and accounts. Engaged in giving these instructions, there were in the year 1838 and at the commencement of 1839, the Rev. Thomas Aitken M.A., the gentlemen possessing every qualification to give instruction in higher branches, but whose time, from the comparatively low es- timate at which a standard of liberal education has at present been holden by colonial parents, is consumed in a course of elementary instruction. In the Australian College, there may be found about 30 or 40 students who would pursue studies superior to those of a common education, but this number is obviously too small to provide funds, without other assistance than fees received from pupils for the maintenance of teachers devoting their time to the higher branches. Having visited the Australian College at the commencement of 1838 and 1839, the writer of these observations was highly impress ed in favour of the course of instruction pursued at it, so far as it had proceeded: - questions were proposed on all the subjects of instruction and answered with a quickness which proved both the knowledge and care of the teachers and the aptness of the scholars. Quickness and sprightliness were indeed the character istics of the latter; but some evinced also a depth of reflection evidently proceeding from some solid genius. According to one of the fundamental articles of the institution, the business of each day is commenced and closed with prayer, and the Holy Scriptures are read regularly in the English Classes; and instruction in the general principles and duties of the Christian religion is afforded every Saturday at the close of the business of each week." By 1839, £7000 had been expended on the buildings of the Australian College, although they were not quite finished.(1). 1. Macelhose J. "Picture of Sydney" (for 1838-39) p.110. - 72 - These buildings accommodated ffom BO to 100 boarders and, according to Macelhose, f,the institution was able, not only to pay all salaries and other current expenses from its ordinary revenue, and to afford a bounty of Bfo to the shareholders, in a reduced rate of education - but had a considerable balance this year in the hands of the treasurer.(1). The fees for the col lege were the same as in 1832, i.e. (per annum) English and Elementary Class alone - £6. Writing and Arithmetic (with above) - £8. Mathematics - £10 (with above) Latin and Greek (with a l l the others) - £12. Terms for Board. (2) Boys under 9 years - £25 per annum. ,T 9 to 12 years- £30 " " ” over 12 years - £3 5 ,f n Washing - £4 " ,T On the eve of Lang's departure for Englajl, for the fifth time, on church business, in January 1839, the a ffa ir s o f the Aus tralian College gave every indication that the institution was flourishing; the numbers aopeard to be increasing year by 1 year and improvements in elementary education at the time au gured well for the future of higher education at the establish ment. However, when Lang returned to Sydney in March, 1841, a fte r he had toured B rita in and the U .S.A., he found the c o l lege ncompletely ruined." During Lang's long absence, Mackenzie, Aitken and Wylde had invested heavily in cattle and sheep, a business venture, Lang (3 ) assures us, which had reached epidemic proportions at the time. T." ib id .------2. ib id , p . l l l . 3. Lang J.D. "H istory o f N.S.W." 1852 Ed'n. V01. 11, p . 540. - 73 - At first these gentlemen employed sharefarmers to watch their interests, but finally they established stations on the Namoi and Murray rivers and they decided to watch over their invest ments more closely. Lang tells us that the station on the Murray was so far from Sydney ”that it was found preferable to send the supplies for it by sea, by way of Melbourne, Port Phillip, to sending them overland from Sydney; and the Rev. David Mackenzie, M.A ...... was at one time absent three months together, visit ing his stations, while the institution was left to take its chance. ” (1). One of the teachers also purchased land in New Zealand,( ’’like everybody else at the time” ) and became involved in its manage ment as well. ”In short”, Lang comments, ”the institution which was in a highly prosperous condition when I left the colony, had during my absence been transformed, by these clerical drovers, into the Head Station, as it is technically called in New South Wales, for a series of sheep and cattle grazing establishments in the distant interior; teams of bullocks, bringing down wool, hides, and horns, from the remote interior, and taking up supplies of flour, tea and sugar - being regularly seen from time to time, in front of the college buildings.” (2) 1. ibid pp. 541-2. 2. ib id. DR. LANG’S “ AUSTRALIAN COLLEGE,“ JAMIESON STREET, SYDNEY (Prom Cameron J* nA Centenary History of the Presbyterian Church in N.S.W.") -74- GHAPTER IV The Inquiry of the Legislative Council. 1841, and the Temporary Closing o f the C ollege. The scandal which resulted from the activities of the "cleri- cal drovers’/ led to a significant withdrawal of public support fom the Australian College and the loss of most of the boarders. Lang petition ed Governor Gipps fo r Government assistance fo r the payment of his professors1 salaries, to remove the necessity for their participation in pastoral activities. The boarding estab— lishement at the college was discontinued because of the dimin ishing numbers, and shortly afterwards the institution was closed. In his le t t e r to the Governor, Lang proposed to eleva te the in stitution to a college ’’properly so called", and to extend the buildings to include a lecture hall to accommodate 400 people. (2) Lang considered the elevation of the college possible and desirable because of the increasing facilities for elementary education in the colony, and the needless expense involved in getting schoolmas ters and ministers from the mother country when they could be trained at the Australian College if its character was changed to that of a quasi—university. He asked the Government to subsidise the insti tution, granting amounts equal to those subscribed by friends of the college. In addition, he sought from the government a grant from the ireasury of £100 per year for each of his professors, and tue cancellation of the loan of £3,500 which had been sanctioned by Goderich in 1830. (3). 1* I a 2. V. and P. 1841. Report o f the Committee on Loans to the Australian C ollege. 3. See ’’Origin, Condition and Prospects of the Australian College, June 28, 1841. Vol. 16, Lang Papers. M.L. - 75- The result of LangTs requests was the establishment of a Legislative Council Committee to enquire into the condition of the institution and the loans which had already been granted to it by the government. The Committee was interested mainly in the following questions:- (1) a. The reasons for the decline in the number of pupils at tending the college. b. The type of education which would be given if the estab lishment were re-modelled. c. Whether there was a sufficient field for the operation of such a college. d. Whether or not it would be desirable to educate the clergy in the colony rather than import them from England or Scot land. e. Whether Lang had carried out the conditions of the loan granted by Goderich in 1830 for the establishment of the in stitution, and whether he was justified in seeking cancel lation and further pecuniary assistance from the Government. In the evidence put forward at the enquiry many reasons were ad vanced for the diminishing numbers at the institution. Lang suggested that perhaps one reason was the establishment of other boarding institutions throughout the colony, but he went on to say that T,in the opinion of the public generally, as well as of the real frienas of the institution, it arose from a want of confidence in the domestic management of the institution as a boarding establishment, from the want ofrespectable females to 1. ibid - 76- manage it. ,fWhilst he admitted that the masters were men of respectability,,T the fact that they were a ll unmarried men gave reason for general complaint against boarding arrangements at the establishment. (Thus Lang’s views regarding boarding arr angements in 183 5, when Mackenzie and Wylde had taken up th e ir positions, were proved wrong and the doubts of some people con nected with the institution at that time were justified. (1) In 1841 Mackenzie had only 9 or 10 boarders in his house but he saw other factors contributing to the falling numbershe pointed out that many of the Presbyterian ministers, who had been brought into the colony by Lang, had set themselves up as tea chers and were conducting boarding establishments of their own. (2) For example, such academies had been established at Maitland, Patrickfs Plains and Port Macquarie, and pupils from the Austral ian College took the opportunity of attending the nearest in stitution. In the second place, Mackenzie thought that squabbles within the Presbyterian Church in the colony (3) had caused ”a certain degree of prejudice’1 23 against the institution. He added, however, that the professors had avoided being mixed up in the disputes. These views were shared by Thomas Aitken in his evidence, but he added that a serious outbreak of s c a rle t fe v e r had caused anxiety among the parents and had probably accounted for the loss 1. Supra vide pLetter to Sir John Piper 3l/lO/l835. 2. V. and P. 1841. Report of the Committee on Loans to the Australian College, p.ll. 3. Lang denied the. -right of the Church of Scotland’s right to claim juris diction over colonial presbyteries, and in December 1837, Lang formed the MSynod of N.S.W.” without appeal to any other court in the colony or in Scotland. His enemy, John McGarvie, was Moderator of the Presbytery of N.S.W. For an account of the disturbances which followed Lang’s action see Gilchrist, op.cit. vol.l. p.310 et sea. - 77- of about 20 boarders. (1) No doubt the coming economic slump had been partly responsible for the decline in numbers from about 90 at the beginning of 1840 to about 60 in the middle of 1841, and Aitken, who had 9 boarders in 1841, indicated that many of the newly-established academies had lower charges. (2) When asked if there was a field for the operation of a college "in the proper sense of the word", where youths might be prepared for the ministry and other learned professions, Mackenzie replied that in the colony there were a "considerable number of aspirants to the learned professions" and also "several young men" who, al though not intending to follow the learned professions, desired to acquire "the education of gentlemen." (3) These young men would attend lectures at the Australian College if it were properly es tablished. He thought, too, that if the institution were to as sume a higher character, the majority of the pupils would be the sons of inhabitants of Sydney, and if courses were made available at suitable hours, many workers in public offices and other busi ness houses would attend. (4). Mackenzie realised that, for a year or two, the number of pup ils in the higher classes would be small, but he was of the opin ion that there was "a taste" among the colonial youth for study ing the higher branches of education, and that the number would soon increase. He favoured the total removal of the elementary branches from the curriculum of the college, and admitted that, 1. V. and P. 1841. Report of Committee on Loans to the Australian College. p.14. 2. ibid. 3. ibid p.12. 4. ibid. - 73- up to 1841 "it itfas nothing more than a high school, or a sem inary of a superior description." (1) Aitken was of the opinion that the most suitable place for an institution of the proposed type was in Sydney. He believed that the Scottish practice of having academical institutions in big towns had advantages over the English custom of having them in country areas. (2) Mackenzie was certain that it would be of great benefit to the colony if members of its clergy were trained locally. They would be familiar with the customs, manners and circumstances of the colony, and thus would be more efficient in carrying out the needs of their congregations. When asked whether he con sidered it desirable to import clergy from England in order "to keep up English feelings and princioles”, Mackenzie stated that he saw no objection to it, as long as the clergymen were of good character, but he observed that "m those from home come out with ideas of a fine glebe and a splendid manse, and they find only a bark hut and perhaps no glebe.” Aitken believed jTt desirable to keep up English "principles and feelings" by getting clergy from the mother country, but he thought that some institution should exist in the colony to give parents an opportunity to have their sons trained more easily as ministers of religion if they so desired. (3). Mackenzie thought that if the reconstituted college made no provision for boarders and its pupils gained board with respec table residents of Sydney, an extra £ 1 0 0 per annum would be re- 1. ibid p.ll 2. ibid, p.14. 3. ibid. p .15. - 79- quired by each of the professors to make up for their losses in boarding fees. This sum, he thought, could be gained by let ting the houses attached to the Australian College. For each of these a rent of £250 a year "could cettainly be gained,T, he thought. Aitken, however, did not favour the removal of the boar ding arrangements, as it would deprive many pupils from country areas of the opportunity of the privileges offered by the establish ment. He said that the utility of the institution could best be promoted by the payment of salaries.to the professors from the Government Treasury. This would remove the necessity for the pro fessor^ taking all pupils, regardless of their educational stan dards, in order to make up their incomes. The curriculum which both Lang and Mackenzie favoured for the proposed establishment was much the same as Lang had suggested, in 1829, for the College Department of his "Darling Institution." (1) It was to include separate departments for (a) Logic, Metaphysics and Rhetoric: (b) English and Classical Literature, including Ro man and Grecian Antiquities: (c) Natural Philosophy and Mathematics and (d) Theology. The number of pupils attending the college during the time of Mackenzie, Wylde and Aitken, and a summary of the courses taken, were furnished in the following table which was placed before the Committee of the Legislative Council. (2). 1. Supra vide p ,l(o 2. V. and P., 18A1, op.cit., p.10. - 80 - Return of the Number o f Puoils Attending the Australian College. Year T o ta l E n g lish Com m ercial Mathematics Classics Number C la sse s C la sse s & Natural Phil. 1832 — — — — — 1833 — — — — 1834 4 5 7 — — — - 183 5 30 50 48 12 9 1836 84 84 83 28 15 1837 112 112 111 37 36 1838 116 116 114 38 39 1839 78 78 77 28 26 1840 69 69 69 21 22 There were no figures available for CarmichaelTs period, 1832-34 except that about 48 attended during 1834. As the committee went on to consider the financial affairs of the college, it became obvious that the business of the Australian College had become hopelessly entangled with that of the Scots Church. In actual fact, it was shown that Lang himself, rather than the Trustees, controlled both institutions. The Australian College was made up of four houses, although these formed one continuous building. Two-thirds of one house and one-third of another were built on Scots Church land , whilst the remainder was on land purchas% from Sir John Jamison. (1) The latter had made out the deed to Lang, and not to the College Council, after a great deal of argument. In the first place, Lang had assured Sir John that the land would be used for the public good - to make possible the construction of an academical institution. (2) James Norton, the solicitor handling the transac tion, had been reluctant to draw up a conveyance in favour of Lang and thought that the land ought to have been conveyed to the Trus tees of the Scots Church. (3). However, Lang had explained that 1. Evidence of M.Lewis, Colonial Architect, 14/7/1841. ibid. p.17. 2. Evidence of Sir John Jamison, ibid. p ..20. 3. Evidence of James Norton, ibid. p.21. -Bi- one of the Trustees (Mr. McVitie) was dead, another (Cap tain Piper) was absent from Sydney and was not taking any active part in the trust, and that the remaining Trustee (Mr. Ramsay) had agreed to the conveyance being made out to Lang. Lang and Ramsay had told Norton that the college was in debt to Lang to a very great extent, because of the money laid out by him in the building of the houses, and that to en able him to repay himself, and also to raise the amount due to Sir John Jamison (about £450), Lang would be compelled to mort gage the land. This could not be done if the land were not conveyed to Lang personally. Norton had been told by Lang that he would be willing, if he obtained the loan, to convey all the land to the Trustees of Scots Church. (1) Lang had involved himself in a series of transactions which were very doubtful, legally. (2) The interest-free loan of £3,500, paid to Lang himself, had been sanctioned by Goderich on condition that it was to be repaid in five years, and the buildings were to be erected on Scots Church land (i.e. on land which had been granted by the Government.) (3) LancJ had avoided both of these conditions - the loan remained unpaid and most of the college had been built on land officially owned by Lang him self. In addition, Lang had used part of the buildings for activities of his own. From 1835 bo 1840 one of the houses had been used as an office for his newspaper "The Colonist", whilst he and his family had subsequently occupied the premises as living quarters. Lang had justified the latter action by saying that it would nullify the interest on the money he had invested 1. ibid. 2. Evidence of C.D.Riddle, originally Chairman of the College Council. ibid. p.20. 3. ibid.Appendix to Report. Letter dated 31/1/1831. - 82- in the institution. (1) By using the buildings for his own purposes, Lang had broken his agreement with both Jamison and Goderich. It was also very doubtful, legally, whether Lang had the right to mortgage any of the buildings (as he did) on his own b e h a lf. (2). The evidence of the two witnesses connected with the College Council (Dr. Wallace and C.D.Riddle) demonstrated why most of the shareholders had withdrawn their support from the institution. In the first place, many of the shareholders had shown apathy to wards the activities of the college as sonn as the original en thusiasm for the project had subsided. (3) Secondly, Lang had consistently overruled the Council on matters concerning expendi ture on b u ild in g s. (4). He was able to do this because he him self controlled both the original loan and the land. Thirdly, the support of many shareholders had been lost when Lang appropriated a portion of the college buildings to purposes "foreign to the objects of the institution." (5) Finally, many in the colony had regretted that the college had not fulfilled its functions, in higher education, as had been outlined in the prospectus. (6). In its report, the Committee of Inquiry stated that the agree ment between Goderich and Lang had been "departed from", and that the tenure of land, on which the buildings had been erected, and 1.ibid.pp.17-18. Evidence of Dr.F. fallace - a shareholder. 2. ibid, p.21 \ 3. ib id . 4* Evidence of C.D.Riddle, p.21, ibid. Also "the Australian" 14-1^- 5. Evidence of Dr. Wallace, pp.17-18. 1841. 6. ibid. p.18. 83 the affairs in general of the institution, were "in a very un satisfactory and complicated state", It found further, that the object for which the College had been originally established "has hitherto been very imperfectly carried out, it partaking more of the character of an Elementary School than that of a College, where the higher branches of education are taught; and even the number of scholars having very sensibly diminished during the last two yeaB In view of these circumstances the Committee members were "not prepared to recommend either that the debt of £3,500 should be re mitted, or that any further pecuniary advances should be made from the Colonial Treasury; and that they would with great deference submit whether it may not be right that measures should be resorted to, on the part of the Executive Government, as Trustees of the Public, and holding a direct pecuniary intersjit in the Australian College, to secure to that institution legal possession of the land and buildings to which it may be equitably entitled. (1) Thus the Report of the Committee of the Legislative Council turned Lang's appeal to the Government for assistance in re modelling the institution, into a direct threat to its very existence!. Indeed, the Government lost no time in instituting an action against the College Council for the recovery of the £3,500 which had been loaned by the Government in 1831, (2) Lang said that it was the work of Sir George Gipps, "on the suggestion of certain personal enemies of my own, and certainly fo r nskno other purpose than that of ruining me". (3) In the meantime, the college had been closed (4) but Lang had experienced considerable difficulty In discharging his "droving (1) V. and P. - Report of the Committee, 17/8/1841 p, 5. (2) See letters from Colonial Secretary (Thomson) to Lang Vol. 16 Lang Papers, Ivl.L* (3) Lang "History of N.S.W." 1852 gd'n. Vol. 11 - 541. (4) ibid - 84- professors” , because ’’these igentlemen had claims upon the buil dings, which they held in occupation as their private residen ces, and which were consequently rendered useless for any pur poses.” (1) Finally, Lang had to pay them a total sum of £400 ”as a bonus for leaving the institution altogether, after they had fairly ruined it.” (2) Lang pointed out, with some satisfaction, that the ’’clerical drovers”, who had brought the college to the verge of ruin through their ’’suicidal mismanagement”, did not escape the ruin which overtook most pastoral speculators in the depression of the early 1840»s. (3). The Rev. Thomas Aitken later went to East Maitland , where he carried on the ’’Maitland Academy” , in place of Rev. John McGreg or. Aitken commenced operations there on January 16,1843. (4). David Mackenzie returned to England where, in 1845, he published a book, ’’The Emigrant’s Guide”, which described social conditions in New South Wales. The clearest financial statement about the affairs of the Aus tralian College at the time was furnished by the Trustees of Scots Church. (Lang lost no time in re-forming the Trust). The state ment was as follows :- Expenditure on the Australian College up to September, 1841. 1. By the Government by mortgage £3,500 2. By Shareholders £1,850 3. From surolus fundsarising from fees £240 4. By Dr. Lang £4,477-18-0 TOTAL: £10.067-18-0 The Trustees noted that the sum contributed by Lang was ex- T~. ibid. 3". ibid, p. 545 . ibid. 2 4. See Aitken»s advertisement in S.M.H. 4/1/1843. •Letter from Thomas Aitken releasing Lang from all claims he (Aitken) had on the Australian College, '".•a bonus for leaving the Institution altogether, after they had fairly ruined it9m said Lang. (From Vol.16 Lang Papers, Mitchell Library.) -ex clusive of expenses involved in two voyages to England, in 183o and 1833, for the establishment of the college, as well as losses sustained in the sale of his valuable property. The report was signed by George Bowman, James Cadell and Thomas Brown. (1) With the action of the government threatening, and with the withdrawal of public support from the institution, Lang visited Port Phillip in November I84I, with the intention of mustering support for the proposed re-modelled institution. He address^ a letter, through the local press (2) to the Presbyterian colonists of Port Phillip. He admitted that up to 1841, the Australian Col lege had been in the nature of a High School, but he stated that it could then be transformed into a proper college, nand afford ing an academical education equivalent to the four year course of the Scotch Universities.” He stressed the lack of facilities in the colony for the training of Presbyterian ministers, adding that the Synod of Australia had agreed to receive for the minis try, on an equal footing with those from Scottish Universities, candidates who had been educated at the Australian College. He asked the Presbyterians of Port Phillip to form ,?The Port Phillip Education Society” which would pledge itself to contribute £200 annually, for four years, for the partial endowment of the re quisite four professorships. It was stated that the contributions of the Society would be temporary, because Lang had hopes that in the near future "our Colonial Government will be completely re volutionised, and the administration of our affairs as British Colonists entrusted to men over whose proceedings we shall have some control, and who will also have some sympathy for honest men 1. Vol.16 Lang Papers. M.L. 2. "?or^ PV\iUi‘y> c^v\(A If'AeAbcOv* A A kj t* - 86 - on the one hand, and for Christian Education and the wants of a Christian community on the other." (1) Lang did not miss the opportunity of attacking the action of the Legislative Council, stating that the majority of its members had never "enjoyed the benefit of a College Education themselves" and were "but very feebly impressed with a sense of its paramount im portance to others." The Reverend Doctor did not fail to mention "the narrow-minded and illiberal jealousy highto entertained towards Presbyterians and Presbyterianism by the more prominent and influen tial members of the Episcopal Church in the Colony of New South Wales1 23. However, LangTs efforts in Port Phillip were of no avail, and disappointed, he returned to Sydney where, after "compensating" his professors, and mortgaging the buildings, he rented the latter to a Mrs. Atkinson who opened a Ladies’ Seminary in the premises in Oc tober or November 1842. (2). It was pointed out in the advertisement for that institution that the young ladies of the various classes of the Seminary would be admitted, "without additional fee, to a course of lectures to be delivered by Dr.Lang in the Lecture Room of the Australian College." (3) At this stage the lecture hall had not been completed, but Lang continued the structure, even though the college faced disaster. His action was indicative of his faith in the ultimate success of the institution, when conditions were more favourable. The legal battle between the Government and Lang dragged on until 1843, when the matter appeared to have been settled in Lang’s favour. 1. "Port Phillio Patriot and Melbourne Advertise*1’ 18/11/1841. 2. S.M.H. 3/1/1843. 3. ibid. - 87 - The affairs of the Australian College and Scots Church seem to have been so entangled that the Government could do nothing to gain possession o f the former without damaging the la tte r . Lang finally won the day by filin g a counter action on the part of the Elders of Scots Church. (1) Up to the time of the filing/ this counter action, Lang’s whole defence had centred on his avowal that Goderich, and other members of the Colonial Office, had never intended the loan of 1831 to be repaid. He stated that, while he was in England in 1837, S ir George Grey (then Under secretary of State for the Colonies) had assured him that the Colonial O ffic e would cancel the debt i f requested to do so. (2) Since Lang had considered it "utterly inconceivable that the Local Government would ever act as they a ctu a lly did in the mat ter", he had not bothered with any formal cancellation. Even though Lang hailed his successful action as a great v ic tory over "Sir George Gipps and his myrmidons in their own courts of law", (3) he was concerned about the matter for many years. As late as 1867 he wrote to his friend Parkes asking for assis tance in getting the loan of 1831 cancelled, on the grounds that "the Government had received much more than an equ ivalent fo r the advance in services rendered to the Colony in the way of both immigration and education." (4) Finally Lang was assured that the Government "did not intend to take any steps in the matter." Thus his p osition depended upon the good -w ill of the Government rather than upon any sound legal basis. (3) Lang "History of N.S.W.". 1852 Edn.Vol.il, p. 544. ib id . ibid. 1875 Edn. V ol.ll, p. 378. See Rusden G. "History of Australia" V ol.ll, p.158. (Of course Rusden is notfiously anti-Lang.) ib id . pp. 158-159. * - 88- ”The Australian” newspaper took the opportunity, following the adverse report of the Council Committee, to revive its crit icism of Lang’s desertion of the Sydney College ten years earlier, and to damage Lang’s own efforts to re-establish his own institu tion. It stated bitterly : (1) ’’When the creation of that institution was contemplated, who so friendly to it as Dr. Lang? Who was it that bestowed his bles sing upon the project, and wished it in the most solemn manner, success and prosperity ? Who but the man who just afterwards goes to England, persuades the Minister, who was necessarily ignorant of the exact state of the case, to grant a liberal sum of money for the building of ’an Australian College’ and instead of joining heart and hand with the friends of the Sydney College^ who devotes this very money to the building of a rival institution of his own? Who knows not that Lord Goderich was thoroughly deceived in this matter ? Who is not aware that his Lordship intended this very grant for the Sydney College only, and not for Dr.Lang’s own estab lishment ?” ’’The Australian’s” violent attack concluded by observing that ’’the conduct of Dr.Lang was characterised by unworthy scheming, a paltry management, blameable in a layman, criminal in a clergyman, and monstrous in one who possesses the first ecclesiastical office in the sister Protestant Church of Scotland in this Colony.” The prospects of the Australian College in 1842, then, were very black. A great deal of public support had been alienated; the Government was hostile; the masters had gone and the buildings rented; the press was antagonistic and a depression was settling on the colony. In the face of such adverse circumstances, most men, surely, would have abandoned the project. However, Lang was not like most men and was determined to continue his efforts to re store the institution in spite of the almost insuperable odds against him, although it is significant to note that the other two major establishments for higher education, the Kings School and the Sydney College, had also fallen upon difficu lt years, mainly because of deoression and the epidemic of scarlet fever. (2) L. ’’The Australian” 1L/9/18A1. 2. See Turney, M.Ed.Thesis, op.cit. p.587 and p.618. -89- CHAPTER V . The History of the Australian College 1841-1854. Revival and Failure. Even though there are no records of the Australian College from 1841 to LangTs departure for England on July 1, I846, it can be establisehd that the institution was re-opened in College Street in 1843 and 1844. The "Sydney Morning Herald" reported the distribution of prizes to meritorious pupils of the institution, on December 21, 1843. The establishment was divided into two departments - a "College Department" and a "School Department", the latter being conducted by Mr. Robert Horniman who took classes in Greek, Latin, Mathemat ics, English and History. Strangely enough, the main prizewinner from the College Department (which was under the guidance of Mr. Francis Edmond) was a Mr. James Melville, a student of Divinity. This student had won distinction by writing "an outline of An cient Universal History", consisting of eight essays and comprising 326 pages. Lang was attempting, in the face of adversity, to put into practice his cherished dream of training members for the na tive Presbyterian Ministry at his college. However, apparently the power of the current depression was too strong (1) and the college was closed once more. In July and September of 1844, advertisements appeared in the "Sydney Morning Herald" drawing the attention of the public to the "English, Classical and Mathematical School" being conducted by Lang in College Street. It was stated the the First Master of the institution was Robert Horniman who was assisted by Angus McKay.(2) 1. Many of the students at the Sydney College were in arrears 2. Ml^H?hl3/7/l8u"V/;/ig£Ming °f 1843 • See S-M’H- 5/1/18«. - 90 - The plan of instruction at the institution embraced ’’the usual elementary branches, with the Classics, Mathematics and French’1 23. Particular attention was paid to the study of English Grammar and Composition and to the study of ’’the best authors in the English language” . Since book-keeping was ”of the utmost im portance in the mercantile community” it was systematically taught. It was announced that Mr. Horniman was prepared to make provision for evening classes for advanced pupils, and that Lang (the Principal), would receive as boarders any pupils of the interior. The class fees (per quarter) were :- Pupils under 9 years - £1.10.0 ” from 9 to 12 - £2. 0.0 ” over 12 years - £ 2 .1 0 .0 However, as Gipps remarked in his Report of 1844, ’’The Austral ian College continues in disrepute, and has almost ceased to exist.” (1) The fact that Lang had been elected to the first partly-elective Legislative Council (2) in June, 1843, almost certainly took much of his attention from education, and the college was conducted spasmodically, and on a limited scale, from I 846. It was open in College Street in 1849, and it was attended by Lang’s own son, George, who was seventeen years of age at the tim e. (3) After his court case against the Government had been settled in his favour (temporarily anyway), Lang sailed for England (on the ’’Triad”) for the sixth time, in 1846. One of his ob je c t s in undertaking the voyage was ” to obtain the r e q u is ite 1. H.R.A. Vo 1. XX111, p. 328~ 2. As a member for Port Phillip. 3. See Lang Papers, Sydney University Archives, Box 1. 91 means of reviving (The Australian College), and placing it once more on its original basis”. (1) Among the emigrants brought out on the ships hired by Lang for the purpose, were more than twenty students who were to complete their preliminary studies for the ministry at the Australian College which they had promised to help re-establish. (2) These men were housed in Lang1s own dwelling and carried on religious work in the suburbs whilst at the same time attending the re-established Australian College. (3) The Lecture Hall of the Australian College had been put into a state of repair by Lang, and the College re-opened in Jamison Street in April, 1850 under the following masters, who had been brought out by Lang on the "Clifton”: (4) 1. The Rev. William Ridley, B.A. (University of London) Classical Department 2. The Rev. Matthias Goethe - Mathematics, Natural Philosophy, and Modern Languages. 3. The Rev. Barzillai Quaife - Mental Philosophy, etc. also Divinity Master. The candidates forthe ministry, who had previously been in various states of progress, formed the nucleus of the newly-opened establishment and were "successively distributed over the territory \ o) When the modern reader looks through some of the lectures delivered at the Australian College in the early 1850’s, he cannot but be impressed by the high standards apparent in them, especially in the Departments of Natural Philosophy. (6) Rev. Barzillai Quaife had been the only Congregationalist Minister in New Zealand in 1840, but after suffering at the hands of the natives, he arrived in Sydney in 1844. Lang paid Quaife T O Lang "History of N.S.W.” 1852 Ed’n. Vol/11. p.544 (2) Memorial to Dr. Lang from 21 Young Men on Board the "Clifton", Vol. 16, Lang Papers. M.L. 3) See Gilchrist op. cit. Vol. 11. p. 462 4) Lang "History of N.S.W." 1852 Ed’n. Vol. 11, p. 544 To^be found in Box 1 Lang Papers, Sydney University Archives. typical assignment set by Rev Barzillai Quaife, Professor of Mental Philosophy,1850* The exercise is in the handwriting of Lang’s son, George, who would have been eighteen at the time. Many such exercises are to be found in Box 1, Lang Papers, Sydney University Archives, 92 to preach in Scots Church on occasions, and this arrangement led to Quaife’s virtual excommunication by the Congregationalist community. He joined Lang's breakaway Synod of New South Wales, and accepted a post at the Australian College in 1850. He claimed that he delivered over 200 lectures on Philosophy and Theology in 15 months at that establishment. (1) Quaife was the first colonial Philosopher and published several works on the subject. (2) Even though the institution continued until 1854, it did not attain that exalted status of which Lang had dreamed. In 1852 the establishment had to be reduced because of the low numbers in attendance as a result of the general excitement which accompanied the gold discoveries. The withdrawal of pupils for this reason resulted in a severs financial crisis for the colley (3) Nevertheless, Lang was quite certain that the institution was assured of an important position in Colonial higher education, "because it would, in all probability, take its place as one of the affiliated Colleges under the Colonial University recently formed. (4) He thought that it would attain this position "as soon as some of the present dead weight can be removed, through popular influence, from our Colonial Government and Legislature . (5) Why the Australian College Failed Perhaps the most important reason for the failure of the Australian College originated in the character of its lounder. It was often said during his lifetime, even by his fellow clergymen, that the gift for administration was not among Lang's many talents. Fæ was often absent from the institution for very length^periods, either overseas or on his many journeys into the country areas of 7T) C.F. Nadel G. "Australia's Colonial Culture", p. 219. (2) Some are in the Mitchell Library. (3) Lang J. "History of N.S.W." 1852 Ed’n. Vol. 11, p. 544. (4) ibid. p. 545 (5) ibid - 93 - New South Wales and other States, leaving the in s titu tio n ’ s busi ness to run itself. To a man who could not tolerate advice or interference from others, the College Council was of no use at all. The administration of the College was in Lang’s hands and if he was not available to attend to its needs, no one else would dare to interfere. Moreover, he had entangled himself in many other pro jects and, after 1843, was one of the outstanding parliamentary figures of his time. As a result, he was te able to spend less and less time on the affairs of his institution. Lang, everyone knew, aws- an uncompromising Presbyterian and, a l though the prospectus of the college stated that no attempt would be made to proselytise to the tenets of any particular denomination, the college was branded as being exclusively Presbyterian. (1). The institution was conducted mainly by ministers of that persuasion and this surely added weight to this conviction. However, the institu tion could not even claim the sons of many Presbyterians in the colony because Lang had alienated himself from the vast m ajority of his brethren and was excommunicated in 1842. (2) His v io le n t quar r e ls with the other three groups o f Presbyterians would certa in ly have had an adverse effect on his college enrolment. The scandal associated with the administration of the college Of during the exploits of ’’the cleric! drovers” had resulted in tlæe withdrawal of a great deal of public support, and the illumination of Lang’s doubtful business transactions and obvious disregard for the College Council, at the Legislative Council inquiry of 1841 did nothing to recapture it. 1. e.g. By Burton op. cit.p. 139, Carmichael in ’’Calumnies, etc.” op.cit. ’’The Australian” 16/12/1831. 2. See Part 11, Chapter 2. -9 4- His final attempt to re-establish the college on a firm footing, in 1850, started promisingly enough but was hard hit by the gener al excitement caused by the gold rushes of the following year when the numbers fell away rapidly, When Lang asserted that the college was finally closed, in 1854, ,fin consequence of certain educational measures of much greater promise enacted by the Legislature of the colony’1, his statement was ironical. He implies that he is re ferring to the Affiliated Colleges Act, but of more direct impor tance to the future of the Australian College was the Act establish ing the Sydney Grammar School, (1) the opposition of which the a Austrian College could not hope to stand. When Lang saw the proposal to establish a University in Sydney, he also saw the opportunity to elevate his institution to the status of a university college where Presbyterian ministers could be trained. In a letter to his congregation on November 24, 1853, Lang wrote, "My great object for the last twenty-three years, and one for which I have sacrificed my personal property to an extent un precedented in this colony, was to found a college for the training of young men for the ministry." (2) However, a few months after these words were written, the Australian College finally closed its doors. In a later chapter, we shall see how Lang fougftjr a bitter battle to have the Australian College established as a Presbyterian Col lege affiliated with the Sydney University, which he wanted con stituted along very different lines from what was actually estab lished. When he failed in this, he then made one last desperate lT Introduced 23/11/1854, Received Royal Assent 2/12/1854» "The Private Acts of N.S.W. 1832-186 2" Govt.Printer,Sydney, 1863 . 2. Tait T. "John Dunmore Lang", 1923, ^ -94 a. attempt to have the Australian College incorporated,as a preparatory school, with St Andrew's College. Even though the readers of the history of the Australian College may not approve of Lang's methods of establishing and maintaining his institution, it is inevitable that they will feel a great deal of sympathy for a man who struggled against difficulties of all kinds (many of his own making) to put on a sound basis an institution which he regarded as being essential to the moral and educational welfare of his adopted country. On three sepatate occasions (1834, 1840 and 1850) Lang thought that success was within his grasp, only to see his hopes crumble and disappointment ensue. PART 11, LANG AND THE ATTEMPTS TO ESTABLISH A NATIONAL SYSTEM OF EDUCATION MADE BY GOVERNORS BOURKE AND GIPPS. -95- PART 11. Lang and the Attempts to Establish a National System of Education made by Governors Bourke and Gipps CHAPTER 1. BourkeTs Proposals Midst general excitement throughout England, in December, 1830, Lord GreyTs Whig Ministry succeeded WellingtonTs Tory Government. The new Secretary of State for the Colonies, Lord Goderich, re called Governor Ralph Darling from New South Wale s and replaced him with Sir Richard Bourke who arrived in Sydney in December,, 1831. Lord GoderichTs attitude towards education in the colonies had been expressed in a letter he had written to the Governor of Upper Canada: "His Majesty directs me to instruct you to forward to the very utmost extent of your lawful authority and influence, every scheme for the extension of education amongst the youths of the province.... all minor distinctions should be merged in a general union for this important end." (1) This attitude had been re flected in GoderichTs loan of £3,500 to Lang for educational pur poses, and this more liberal, national view regarding education was to be manifested during the governorship of Sir Richard Bourke. We have already noted the hostiltiy of the non-Episcopalian population against the establishment of the Church and Schools Corporation in 1825. In fact Lang had been instrumental in the abandonment of that system (or at least he hoped he had) by pro testing vigorously in London to Goderich himself. However, it must 1. Quoted in the "Sydney Herald", 15/5/1834. - 96- be emphasised that the opposition of Lang, the Catholics and the other groups was prompted by the fact that education had fallen into the hands of one religious denomination. It was not the result of any preference for a national system of ed ucation, and there was little to indicate that public opinion in New South Wales desired to take the matter of education away from the churches. The other religious denominations ob jected to the prospect of the Anglican monopoly, teaching the doctrines of the Church of England and the system of education being supervised by Anglican chaplains. (1) However, although the Church and Schools Corporation Charter had been suspended in 1829, it was not revoked until 1833. Bourke pointed out to the Colonial Secretary, Stanley, that he considered the complaints against the magnitude of the grants to the Church of England ’’well founded”, and he thought the dissolution of the Corporation gave the opportunity ’’for placing upon an equitable footing the support which the princi pal Christian Churches in the Colony...... claim from the public p u rs e .” (2) Before this however, as the new Whig Chief Secretary for Ireland, E.G.Stanley had proposed, in 1831, a scheme for Irish National Education based upon the principle of united secular, but partial separate religious instruction. General religi ous instruction, consisting of selected readings from the Scrip tures, was given to all, but in addition, each group received instruction from its own pastor. (3) 1. cf. Fogarty, op.cit. Vol. 1, p.16. 2. H.R.A. Vol. 17, p.230. 3. cf. Fogarty, op.cit. p .27 - 97- Bourke thought that the ’’Stanley System” or ’’Irish System” of education would be well suited to the circumstances of a colony lik e New South Wales, which was r e lig io u s ly heterogeneous. (1) He believed that such a system which included Christians of a ll creeds, and under which ’’approved e x tra c ts ” from the Scriptures would be read to all, but religious instruction would be reserved for the visiting clergy one day a week, would be suited to the conditions of New South Wales, and would gain the support of local public opinion. Under such a system the Government would estab lis h schools where i t was deemed necessary and, i f lo c a l masters of suitable training could not be obtained, he favoured their importation from England. After arrival, they would be paid a liberal salary of £100 to £150 per annum. Bourke opposed con tinued Government support fo r the 35 elementary schools estab lished by the Church and Schools Corporation because he considered these institutions ”of no great importance or value” and he sug gested that the Church of England should maintain them at its own expense, if they were to continue. Bourke !s plan was approved in the main by the new Colonial Secretary, Lord Glenelg, provided that opportunities were afforded for the religious instruction of the different denominations by their several pastors.(2). Nevertheless Glenelg was not prepared to endorse the gradual withdrawal of aid from the religious denom inations. The Colonial Secretary stated, ’’There may be persons who may entertain such objections to the general plan as must practically exclude them from any participation in its benefits, and who may yet be unable to supply a proper education from th e ir 1. Bourke to Glenelg 30/9/1833. H.R.A. V ol. 18, p.231 2. Glenelg to Bourke, 30/1/183 5. H.R.A. Vol. XV111. p. 202. - 98- own funds exclusively.n(1). He considered it a grave injustice to deprive such people of an education afforded to others, ^nd and recommended that Government assistance should be made to re ligious groups dissatisfied with the national system on the lines of that in operation in Ireland. Glenelg saw that, in the event of the establishment of the Irish National System of Education in New South Wales, a Board, consisting of members of the main religious denominations, would have to be established to agree on ’’such extracts from the author ised version of the Scriptures to be used in the schools as they shall deem best adapted for the instruction of youth”. Although Lord Glenelg expressed his own preference for the British and Foreign System of education, he left the matter largely in the hands of Governor Bourke and the Legislative Council. As a result of successive changes in the ministry in Britain, GlenelgTs reply did not reach Bourke until early in 1836, but on its receipt, the Governor publicly announced his desire and inten tion that a General System of education, corresponding to the Irish National System, should be established in the Colony. (2), although the Irish System had been discussed through the press long before this. (3). 1. ibid, p.206. 2. Lang J.D. ’’History of N.S.W. 1852 Edn. Vol. 11. p. 512. , Bourke tabled this dispatch and Glenelg’s reply in Legislative Counci]. 2nd June, 1836. 3. e.g. in ’’The Colonist” during first few months of 183 5* -99- CHAPTEH 2. Lang and Protestant Opposition Governor Bourke rs announcement was received with much dis satisfaction and was met with the opposition of most of the pro- testant population of the colony. This opposition was supported by Archdeacon Broughton who had returned to Sydney with the title of First Bishop of Australia on the day when Bourke made his re commendations public. Broughton had defended (1) the Church and Schools Corporation before the Colonial Secretary, Glenelg, and other members of the Whig cabinet, but to no avail. The Bishop objected violently to the removal of the control of education from the hand of the Church, and he regarded the provisions for religious instruction under the Irish National System as being totally inadequate. (2) On one of the very few occasions in his career, Lang found himself in agreement with Bishop Broughton on the issue of the proposed introduction of Bourke’s national system adapted from Stanley’s system in Ireland. Lang’s attitude towards a national system of education is something of a paradox for, later on, as we shall see, he was a champion of the Lowe Report and a lieuten ant of Henry Parkes in his successful agitation for non-sectarian education. However, in the 1830’s no one, with the possible ex ception of Bishop Broughton himself, was more active in the con demnation of Bourke’s "Godless system”. It is mainly through 1. See Smith and Spaull, "History of Education in N,S.W." p.5&. 2. cf. Fogarty, op.cit. p.29. - 100- his writings on this subject that we get a fairly clear picture of Lang's philosophy of education expressed in the pages of his newspaper "The Colonist", which was established partly to con- demn Bourke rs proposed system. Lang's Concept of Education and his View of the Government ig Duty in this Respect. We have already observed Lang’s preference for the Scottish pattern in secondary education and his bias in this direction was also applied to the elementary field. The only portion of the British Empire which could boast of a National system of education, Lang stated (1), was Scotland. There every parish had its school, which was partly supported by a land U tax and partly by the fees of pupils. In these schools, which were "almost uniformly" taught by men of superior education, in struction in the common branches of human knowledge - in reading, writing and arithmetic - was procurable on the lowest possible terms by all classes of Scottish society; "the happy result of - : which is the general diffusion of education among all classes of the Scottish people to a degree altogether unparalleled in England and Ireland." (2) Lang himself had been educated at a parish school in Scotland at the rate of 5/- per quarter, but that amount included Latin and Greek in addition to English, Writ ing and Arithmetic, which were taught for 2/6 a quarter. Lang saw this educational system as the main factor leading to the "high" intellectual and moral character of the Scottish nation." Dr.Lang emphasised the fact that the education of the Scottish !• "The Colonist” , 12/2/103 5. " ------2- b ^ & d e ï f ôp?cft.e!?12U.l0n °f Scottish educati°* is also advanced - 101 - people was religious education. ”It is an education in the course of which the Scottish child is taught from his earliest years that Manrs chief end is to glorify God and to enjoy Him forever - that the only rule to direct us how we may fu lfil this high end of our being is contained in the Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments - and, that these Scriptures principally teach what man is to believe concerning God and what duty God requires of Man.” (1) In accordance with these principles, the Holy Scriptures, without note or comment were put into the hands o f every S co ttish c h ild , ” almost from the very commencement of his education.11 (2) Lang objected to the Catholic viewpoint of Father McEncroe who, Lang thought, objected to the issuing of the Bible to children because r,some things in it are hard to understand.” (3) Lang gave credit (4) to Bourke whose intentions were good, for Lang believed that ”it is the first duty of the legislature of any country, as well as of its press, to devise ways and means of promoting the intellectual, the moral and the spiritual welfare of its general population.” (5) Indeed, Lang believed that the Government had the righto insist on children being educated, for ”ignorance is one of the most enormous of those evils against which it is the duty of the Governmen^to protect the State”. (6) However BourkeTs proposed Irish National System, to Lang, was' ( 7 ) ”latitudinarian in its tendency and oppressive'in its practice” , 1. ib id . 2. ib id . 3. ib id . 4. ib id , June 2, 1836. 3. ”The Colonist” 5/5/1836. 6. ”The Colonist” 5/5/1836. 7. ib id . - 102 - and, although it was a Whig measure, he was forced, on this occasion, to unite with the Tories in opposing it, Neverthe less, the Tories in Britain opposed the system because they wanted a national system of their own which Lang thought would be equally repugnant to the Christian liberties of the people. Lang’s object was to have a system established "as would secure the exercise of religious liberty to all”. He realised that Archdeacon Broughton had gone to England, after the dissolution of the Church and Schools Corporation, to try to establish a national system managed by the Church of England but had failed in his attempt, much to the satisfaction of Lang. However, the proposed establishment of the Irish system was just as bad, Lang thought. (1) In his long front-page articles in ”The Colonist” , (which was printed at the Australian College), during the years 1835 s and 1836, Lang attacked the prooosed Irish system from various angles, although they all centered upon the difficulties asso ciated with religious compromise. We have already noted that Lang was always a violent anti-Catholic and this policy was shown clearly in his agitation against Bourke rs proposals. He regarded the proposed establishment of the Irish system in New South Wales at this time as "a direct infringement of the Bill of Rights and the British Constitution.” (2) The Bill of Rights, he said, had been designed to ensure the enjoyment of civil and religious liberty of the whole Protestant population of Great Britain. Counter to this principle, Lang saw in the 1. cf. ”The Colonist” 2/6/1835. 2. ibid. - 103 - proposed Irish National system, an attempt by the Government "to force Popery upon the nation, to infuse it stealthily into the Protestant Institutions of this country, and to effect such an amalgamation of the Protestants and Roman Catholics as would lead to a general compromise of the principles of the former and to the ultimate triumph of the latter." (1) Lang admitted that this Catholic plot had been the intention of Lords Melbourne, Russell and Glenelg and was the result of ignorance rather than intention, as they had a sincere regard for the im provement of the intellectual capabilities of all classes. (2) Lang believed any system of education attemoting to comprehend both Catholics and Protestants was Utopian and doomed to inevi table failure, as well as proving subversive of the liberty of religious instruction which was secured to every British sub ject under the Bill of Rights. Was it consistent with Whig prin ciples, Lang asked, that Protestants should be content to re ceive from the Government such a system of religious education for their children as would prove satisfactory to Roman Cathol ics ? In fact "that Protestants should allow chapter after chap ter of the Holy Scriptures to be torn out of their school books until the Roman Catholic clergy cry hold ?" (3) To Lang the word "Irish" was like a red rag to a bull and its association with ITCatholic" no doubt led Lang to oppose the system in the I830!s. (4). He later admitted (5) that he had not examined the system proposed by Bourke in any detail and those Protes- 1. "The Colonist" 2/6/1835. 2. ibid. 3. ibid. 4. In 1841 he wrote a bitter pamphlet entitled "The Question of Questions*! “ or"Is this Colony to be transformed into a Province of the Popedom ?" attacking the immigration of Irish Catholics. 5. "History of N.S.W.". 1852 Edn. Vol.ll, p. 512. - 1 0 4 - tants in opposition at the time were under a similar delusion and regarded a system about which they knew very little as anti- Christian and infidel. The Bourke proposal favouring the introduction of the Irish National System was supported, strangely enough, by the Catholic h ierarchy (1), and Lang stated bluntly, nWe do not like the Irish National System any better because of its being lauded by the Irish Roman Catholic priests.” (2) Catholic support for the sys tem made Lang all the more certain that the prooosal was suited to the Catholic plot to convert the colony into a ’’Province of the Popedom” . Lang saw the inevitability of teachers giving offence to some of the pupils in the explanation of such terms as ’’Virgin Mary”. Such a system of education would be dangerous to both Catholics and Protestants. Land’s Philosophy of Education. Lang believed, in the 1830’s, in ’’the propriety, the expedi ency and the absolute necessity of combining religious instruc tion with the general education of youth” (3) . Religious in struction could not be ’’disjoined” from general education. Lang stated (4) ”It is the design of education to fit men for fillin g their places and discharging their respective duties in society, with credit to themselves and with advantage to the community; education itself is merely the course of training through which this most important end is sought to be attained” . Of what consequence, Lang asked, would it be to society that a man could read Latin and Greek if he had not learned ”to abhor 1. cf. Fogarty, op.cit. Vol.l, p.30. 2. ’’The C o lo n is t” , June 2, 1836. 3. "The Colonist” 30/ 4/183 5. 4. ibid. 29/1/183 5. ^ ^ ^ ^ iMli,ii^ ir,^n«ifi«iirr irtW l^ r ' iiltri^ T irmift" '‘l'l''‘ ■«"...... *•******«•' i MK RUM \\<\) IU)l Rkl . in tin Milt lull I limn \ "We don't like the Irish National System any better because of its being lauded by the Irish Roman Catholic priests.,n (Lang in ’"The Colonist’*’ 2-6-1836). - 105- the language of flattery and deceit, of slander and lies ?n If moral education is not present, he thought, the:' term "useful” must be withdrawn, and on the contrary, it is "dangerous both to the individual and society as it may "hang the former and ruin the latter", through the influence of its direct teaching or indirect example. "In sh ort", Lang wrote (1 ), "knowledge unaccompanied with virtuous principle is like a sword in the hand of a madman. It may be used for the benefit, but the chances are ten to one that it w ill be used to the serious injury, not only of him who wields it, but of society at large." If we believe in a hereafter, Lang suggests, and that our career in it w ill be influenced by our behaviour on earth, "education w ill appear nothing less than the training up of an intelligent being for immortality, and its objects w ill appear commensurate with the duration of eternity." (2) Thus religious and moral instruction were essential, in LangTs conception of education, to equip the individual for the proper dis charge of his duties in this world and prepare him for the next. Lang was certa in , at this tim e, that the word o f God is the best and only way to achieve these ends and "the new-fangled notions of those who pretend to teach morality without the scriptures are an insult to the common sense of a Christian community." (3) cf He was cefctiLn that if education were not directd towards a high US etui • moral training and eternity, instead of producing a sueful and reputable member of society, "it w ill in all probability go to form an unprincipled and accomplished villa in ." (4) 1. ib id . 2. ib id . 3. ib id . 4. "The C olon ist" 5/2/1835. - 106- The Nature of the Colony and Education Lang’s philosophy was particularly applicable, he believed, to the social and moral circumstances of the colony* He realised that the ministers of religion did not have sufficient time to give religious instruction to all the children of the colony. This all-important part of their training could not be left to the parents of the lower classes in a colony which had a convict background. However, Lang believed that even though ”a large por tion of the individuals that form these classes have been accus tomed all their lives long to lie and swear, to drink and steal, there are comparatively few, if any, even of the lowest classes of all in our demoralised community, that like to see their chil dren fo llo w in g th e ir own vicious, example in such practices as these.” (1) In fact, Lang was certain that such parents desired earnestly to have their children’s minds imbued with right prin- i ciples and trained up to practise the duties of morality and re lig io n . Indeed Lang saw this tendency as one o f the hopeful c ir cumstances looking to the improvement o f a depraved community.(2 ) Lang detected a tendency among the youths of the colony ”to blustering and rather offensive affectations of liberty and in dependence , somewhat sim ilar to the usual demonstrations of the same feeling among lower class Americans.” (3) He thought that this feeling did not originate from a due sense of the rights or from a consciousness of the character of a freeman ”but solely from a preposterous comparison of their own unmanacled condition with the chains and fetters of the convict or enslaved portion of the 1. ib id . 2. ib id . 3. ’’History of N.S.W.”. 1834 Edn. Vol. ll, p. 386. - 107 - population. (1) The”low moral tone" of society was of fir^st importance to Lang whose social work was largely directed at the amelioration o f immoral p ra ctices. In education, he saw a great opportunity to raise the tone of a society influenced by the convict system, and his philosophy logically included religious instruction in the curriculum as a means to this end. Carmichael and Religious Instruction. if the Catholic support for Bourke’s proposal had concerned Lang, he was ju s t as alarmed by Henry CarmichaelTs acquiescence in the scheme. We have seen (2) how Carmichael had left the Austral- ian College and had established, at the begining of 183 5, his Normal Institution which was nto enable the pupil, at as early a period as possible, to undertake the task of educating himself; and thus becoming - on religious topics as well as others - the framer of his own opinions.” The Bible was always present as ”a book of reference and voluntary perusal” (3) , but there was to be no ’’inculcation of any given set of religious opinions, as a matter of faith”. (4) As the term ’’normal” implied, another aim of Carmichael’s estab lishment was to train teachers. The method used was the monitorial system and it seemed that Carmichael was training teachers to put into operation the Iris h National System suggested to the Colonial O ffice by Bourke in 1833. have already observed, that Carmichael was in close contact with Bourke on educational matters, and he certainly knew of the Governor’s famous despatch to Stanley. (5) 1* ib id . 2. See p.'S’S 3. Burton W. op.cit.p.143 and Lang ’’History of N.S.W.” 1837 Edn.Vol.il 4. ^or a fu ll discussion of the Normal Institution, aee T urne y C. The s is op.cit.op. 639-650'. V ol.ll 5. See ib id . p. 644 V o l. ll - 108- Lang was, in all probability, not very wide of the mark when he accused Carmichael of having every intention of taking the lead in the introduction of BourkeTs system. (1). Even the textbooks employed in the Normal Institution were those "which had been compiled under the auspices of the Commissioners of National Educa tion in Ireland." (2) through his numerous leading articles in "The Colonist", Lang violently attacked what he called "the Car- michaelites, or the book of reference people" who had apparently played into the hands of the Catholic population by supporting a system of education designed for Catholic Ireland. Lang believed that the Carmichaelites, or "supposed liberals" were attempting to blind the public with their "ostentatious show" of liberality in saying that they would teach "religious knowledge" but without "religious opinion". (3) These supposed liberals, Lang asserted, were treating religion with the indifference of some scientific experiment - let the children pick between good and evil; let them select one of the "bibles" for themselves. Such an attitude, Lang was certain, wouL^d lead to the belief, in the minds of the children, that religious persuasion was of no real consequence to their welfare. In Lang’s view, the school should carry on the duty of the child’s parents - leading him on the cor rect path and not allowing him to choose for himself, because he would surely copy the vice manifested in his environment. (4) As well as seeing a system of education to please all as being Utopian, Lang thought that uniformity in this matter was also un necessary. Indeed he considered uniformity in education no more 1. Lang: "History of N.S.W.". 1852 Edn. p. 537. 2. Macelhose, op.cit. p.114 3. "The Colonist", Thursday, 5/2/1835 4. ib id . - 109 - necessary than uniformity in dress. It would be the act of a ’’tyrannical government” to insist on the same educational system for all (1)# In Ireland, Lang admitted, the Stanley system was desirable, because the vast majority were Catholics on the verge of Civil War, and some of the influence of the Romish priests on the restive population would be curbed. Indeed, he went on, in Ireland where ’’no t one farthing had been allowed from the coffers of that lordly Episcopacy which had en grossed the national treasures and overspread the land with moral desolation”, perhaps the Stanley system would be a boon. In New South Wales, however, where less than one third of the population was Catholic, many of them convicts, there was no fear of insurrection, and so, Lang believed, no need for such a system. Such a system would not have been tolerated in England or Scotland, so why was it suggested for New South Wales, Lang argued: apparent ly to please the Catholics, led by Vicar-General Ullathorne, Rev. McEncroe and Mr. Therry. (2) The attitude of these three prominent Catholic leaders on this issue was, Lang considered, perhaps in dicative of the fact that the Catholic church was not as united as some people believed, and he published in ’’The Colonist” Arch bishop Christopher’s (3) condemnation of similar ideas in Rous seau’s ’’Emile”. The ’’Carmichaelites” , the Colonial Government, the Catholics and the Press (A) strongly favoured the establishment of the Irish National System, and, according to Lang, ’’the slightest sug- 1. ibid. 2. ibid. 3. Catholic Archbishop of Paris. ’’The Colonist” 5-2-183 5. 4* See Turney C. op.cit. p. 647 Vol.ll for press support of Carmichael’s Normal Institution. - 110 - gestion of a desire to have the scriptures of the authorised version, without note or comment, used in the public schools was instantly put down with the hue and cry of "sectarianism” and "intolerance” . " (1) Lang claim^s (2) that the following "jeu d ’esprit", which appeared in "The Colonist" in 1835»/id more than any other argu ments to settle in the public mind the question of the introduc tion of the Irish system: "There were guests of every rank and station, Of every possible creed and nation; Mahometan, Christian, pagan and Jew; But the only dish was an Irish stew. In the midst of a speech extolling it, the head of the "Normal Institution" paused: "But it seems he had bolted full more than enough, Even of that super-excellent stuff, For he stopp’d, turn’d pale and began to sp...; So here ends course first of the Irish stew." (3) Lang boasted that "The Colonist" (4) prevented the Legislative Council from establishing the proposed system during 1835 (5) and by the time the Council met for the next session, Glenelg’s reply, dated 30/11/1835, had arrived, authorising the establishment of the Irish System, but, in addition, making provision for those denominational groups who preferred the establishment of their own schools. From the time that Governor Bourke laid Glenelg’s reply on the table of the Council on June 2, 1836, events moved with surprising rapidity. It was published in the press within a week or two. (6) 1. Lang: History of N.S.W. 1837 Edn. Vol. 11 p.38^ 2. ibid. 3. ibid. See Gilchrist op.cit. Vol.l. p. 207. ibid. 5. Bourke had given a strong indication of his feelings on the matter when he submitted his estimates to the Council on June 24,1835. See Smith and Spaull op.cit.p.59. 6. In "The Colonist", June 16, 1836. -Ill- On June 22 Bishop -Broughton wrote a petition asking to be heard in the Council to give his views against the proposed grant of money from the public treasury to establish Schools on the national system. This petition was refused. (1)Three days later a petition from Protestants requested a committee of the Council to hear the representatives of the different denominations on the issue. Another petition from Bishop -Broughton sought the non-adoption of the scheme. However, £3,000 was voted by the Council for the establish ment of the system. (Ayes 8, Hoes 4.) On June 29th, the Governor introduced a Bill for the appropriation of money for education but two more petitions (containing a total of 1380 signatures) were received. However, the Bill was read a second time a few days later. (2) Lang saw in the swift action of the government an attempt to pre vent the expression of public opinion on the subject (3) and in this Lang was supported by Bishop Broughton, who had returned only ten days before. They considered the Councils action out of all accor dance with GlenelgTs reply which advised a system suitable to the wish of the general public. (4) ”The Colonist” pointed out that it was a mistake to consider Broughton the main influence behind agita tion against the scheme. It claimed that every Protestant minister in Sydney had expressed hostilvtiy and had visited Broughton who had % V been in complete agreement with their views. The implication is, of course, that most of the credit for the agitation belonged to ,TThe Colonist” and thus Lang; indeed, since Broughton had left the colony 1. "The Colonist” on 11-8-1836. 2. ibid. 3. ibid. k. Broughton^ views were expressed at a meeting of the Committee of Protes tants ,3-8-1836. 3000 copies were printed and circulated free to the public The title of the pamphlet is ”A Speech Delivered at the Committee of Prot estants on tfed. Aug. 23, 1836, by the Bishop of Australia." - 112- on March 1st, 1834 (1) and did not return till mid-1836, we must admit the major part played by ’’The Colonist” (whether for good or bad) in opposing, during 1835 and 1836, Bourke’s proposals which were brought to almost nothing by hostile public opinion. It is not part of our story to give the details of subsequent events which re sulted in the defeat of Bourke’s proposals, for, in the meantime Lang had departed for England, for the fifth time, in July 1836, in the midst of the turmoil. However, it is worthy of note that Broughton agreed with Lang that no compromise between Catholic and Protestant was possible. He cited (2) the evidence given before a Committee on Education in Britain in 1816 when the question of ’’approved versions” of the scriptures for religious instruction came up and a Catholic witness (Dr. William Poynder) had declared that he could never sanc tion reading (even without comment) from any other than the Catholic version. Lang’s Suggestion. Since Lang opposed BourkeTs scheme so violently, mainly through ’’The Colonist” (although he gave several lengthy speeches at public meetings), we may well ask at this point what he had to offer as a substitute. Lang started from his basic belief that ”it is a funda mental principle of public justice that every parent has the undoub ted right to train up his child in the religion he professes.... No % Government on earth has a right to interfere between him and the re ligious education of his child.” (3) The state then should assist people of every denomination to educate their children according to their faith - Catholics and Protestants alike. (4)» 1. Smith and Spaull. op.cit. p. 57. 2. See ’’The Colonist” 18-8-1836. 3. ’’The Colonist" 5-5-1836. 4. ibid. - 113 - To effect this proposal, he recommended the establishment of a Board comprised of representatives of the Episcopalian, Catholic, Presbyterian and Dissenting Churches, to which all applications for the endowment of schools in any particular locality or by any partic ular communion should be submitted. (1) From the funds voted for educational purposes by the Government, this Board, in an annual report, would fix the proportion "as might appear commensurate with the wants of each community or portioned to claims and services of each particular communion" (2) . Lang pre dicted that the checks which would thus be established together with nthe honourable and amicable rivalry” which would be created would do "tenfold” more for education in the colony than the Irish National System would ever be likely to accomplish. (3). Lang and the Australian School Society In the meantime, while Bourke was awaiting a reply from the Colonial Office, Lang had supported a movement in Sydney to form,on the lines of the British and Foreign School Society, an establish ment to”educate the offspring of the lower classes in the colony” ,and a public meeting, for the purpose of establishing an "Australian a School Society" was held in the Pulteney Hotel on February 2, 183 5- The aim of the society was the "training up of numerous youths who would otherwise be neglected and probably ruined for life, to useful knowledge and to habits of economy, industry and virtue as well as in imbuing their minds with the salutary truths of our holy religion”. (5) (4). Lang said these youths were "perishing for lack of knowledge". 1. "The Colonist" 30-4-183 5. 2. ib id. 3. ibid. 2- 6-1836. 4. "The Colonist" 5-2-1835* "Holy" here means Protestant. 5. ibid. 28-5-183 5. - 114 - The idea of forming an Australian branch of the society had been brought forward by a Quaker member of the British Society, James Blackhouse, who had visited the colony and had distributed literature advertising the society. (1) Dissenting and Nonconformist groups supported the idea of the establishment of a New South Wales branch of the society and Lang and Wylde were members of the first committee. (2) Lang had identified himself with the scheme because he said he was aware of the success of the Society in Great Britain and else where, and he thought that there was considerable scope for such a scheme in New South Wales. However, more importantly, Lang saw in the attempt to form a society in the colony a counter to BourkeTs proposal "which would entirely exclude religious instruction."(3) He had observed that in America Christianity, the religion of over 90 per cent of the population, was both protected and respected, but in New South Wales "individuals were endeavouring to impose upon us a system of general education which declared "that Christianity was not the religion of the land, that it was not to be treated with any more favour than Mahommedanism, Hindooism or Buddhism, and that the business of education was not to be conducted on the supposi tion or understanding of its being either true or divine." " (4). Lang claimed that the British and Foreign System had often been branded "sectarian" but he was certain that this suggestion was false - just as false as any suggestion that a system of education to comprehend all communions would succeed. 1. Cf. Binns H.B. "A Century of Education, 1808-1908 p.lll 2. "Report of the Provisional Committee, and Rules and Regulations of the Australian School Society" Stokes and Steohens, Sydney, 1835» 3. "The Colonist" 3-2-183 5. 4. ibid. - 115- The schools of the Australian Society would provide the pupils with "a sound Scriptural education” tending "to destroy Sectarian differences by inducing an appeal to the only infallible standard of religious truth.”(1) I'hese schools would "admit the children of all persons o f ‘all religious denominations, who agree in regard ing the Holy Scriptures as the standard of faith and morals(2)", and who believed that "no catechism or peculiar religious tenets shall be taught in the schools." (3) Naturally these ideas, and consequently the establishment of schools founded on them, were opposed by Catholic Vicar-General, Ullathorne, who could not countenance religious instruction based upon the Bible without note or comment. (4) The fact that Ullathorne and the Anglicans (5) opposed the scheme suggested by the Society, and the Catholics had supported Bourke ’s proposals, almost certainly made Lang all the more suspicious of the latter and a strong sup porter of the former. Lang’s connection with and agitation for the extension of all branches of education in the colony indicated his desire to improve colonial society in this regard, but at this stage he was anxious to keep Catholic and Protestant education sep arated but favoured Government support for both. In May 1835, the Australian School Society rented buildings in Pitt Street (6) as a school-house and residence for the master, Mr. Peter Robertson, a Scot (7), and Lang had brought back from England a box of books and equipment obtained from the London Society, for "Report of the Provisional Commitee etc." op.cit. p.5 ibid, p.9 ibid, p.12 "The Colonist" 12-3-1835. "Sydney Gazette" 7-2-1835. "The Colonist" 28-5-183 5. Turney C. M.Ed. thesis, op.cit. p.487. Vol.ll - 116 - the establishment of the Australian SocietyTs schools. (1) Those parents who could afford it paid three pence a week in fees and had to undertake not to keep children at h£ne without leave and to make sure that children attending had ’’clean hands and faces, hair combed and cut short.” (2) Two schools were opened by the society - one for boys and one for girls - but both had ceased to operate by 1842. (3). The aim of ’’The Colonist” newspaper had been ”to lay open the wounds and bruises and putrifying sores, with which the body politic of this Colony &as hitherto been most unhappily covered from the crown of the head to the sole of the foot, with a view to suggest a fitting remedy for our moral and political diseases, and to effect a speedy cure. (4). At the time of his sailing for England on the ’’Abel Gower” on July 28, 1836, Lang was confident (3) that his ar ticles in ’’The Colonist” had secured ’’the future enjoyment of that entire religious liberty which every religious community has a right to claim in the matter of education, and defending the Roman Catholics, as well as the Protestants,of all communions in the colony, from the anti-Christian and Utopian schemes of certain wrong-headed, latitudinarian universalists”. However, we shall see how this unpredictable pioneer was to change completely his policy regarding the Irish/National System as a result of his fourth voyage. 17 ’’The Colonist” 28 - 5-183 5 * 2. ibid. 3. For a detailed account of the Australian Society, see Turney op.cit.p.482v 492 Vol.ll. 4. ’’The Colonist” 3-12-183 5. 5. ibid. 19-5-1836 - 1 1 7 - Nevertheless during the crucial years of 1835 and 1836, Lang had been perhaps the most violent antagonist of the Irish System, and feeling in this direction had increased, as Protestants more and more identified the ill-chosen word ,TIrish,T with "Catholic11. Even the "Sydney Gazette" had attacked Bourke (1) and Carmichael (2) for trying to ram the system down the throats of Colonial Protestants. Lang had done more than his share to destroy Bourke’s liberal system, by encouraging and developing misinformed religious bigotry. 1. October 29, 1836. 2. November 17, 1836. -118- CHAPTER 111. THE LOWE COMMITTEE. LANG FAVOURS A NATIONAL SYSTEM When Lang visited Dublin in 1837, he took the opportunity of seeing the Secretary of the National Board of Education, the Rev. Dr. Carlyle, with whom he had been previously acquainted. (1) After he had examined the general character of the system and its books, the result was a complete 11 change of opinion nas to the pro priety of the course (he) had taken on the question of general edu cation in New South Wales. (2). Lang realised that, because of the large Catholic population of New South Wales, it was “hopeless" to organise the schools of the colony on an exclusively Protestant basis. After his visit to Dublin he was certain that the Irish Nation al System did succeed in establishing schools on the basis of common Christianity and he now considered this system to be the best one for the general advantage in a colony with such a heterogeneous popula tion. It had been demonstrated that there was no hope of combining even the Protestants of the colony in support of the system of the Brit ish and Foreign School Society. The Church of England had opposed the scheme as violently as the Catholics had, and Lang was of the opinion that Bishop Broughton and his clergy would have "no dealing in the matter of education, with mere Protestant Samaritans." (3) Lang had supported the Australian School Society partly because he saw in it a method of gaining the support of Protestants, united on the matter of religious education, and partly because he had been under a misapprehension concerning the Irish National System which he had mistakenly regarded as "anti-Christian“ and "infidel". (A) "See next page for footnotes. 119 Finally, Lang had opposed the Irish National System before 1837 because he had not experienced the "inefficiency and extravagance of the Denominational System" (1) which had been established in 1836. This was the "half-and-half” principle of giving Government assistance equal to the amount of private contributions, for the formation and support of schools. Lang objected to the Denominational System because of its "prodigious expense upon the Colony in proportion to the amount of benefit secured for the community". (2) The expensive and difficult operation of the Denominational System was caused by two main factors, Lang thought - (a) the dispersion of the population of New South Wales and (b) the population was broken into so many different denominations. These factors were absent in the mother country, where large sections of the community belonged to the one communion. (3) Lang criticised some members of the Legislative Council (like Mr. Darvall) whofollowed the policy of "never mind the expense", and he pointed out that these members were generally nominated to the Council and consequently not as conscious of their position of trustees of public money as Lang and the other elected members. (4) Another of Lang*s important objections to the Denomination System was "the comparatively low character, in point of intellectual attainments, of mental independence and personal comfort to which, in most instances, it reduces that most important class of the community - the school masters". (5) Lang saw that the teachers, under this From previous page From this page (l) cf.Lang J.D."History of (1) ibid. (5) ibid N.S.W.rr a mr n" 513 ( 2) "Sydn Morn. Her." Oct.7, (2) ibid (3 ibid 1844 p.512 - 120- system, were subservient to the clergy of the denomination to which they belonged. The important question had become not whether they were likely to become good and efficient teachers, but whether they were likely "to subserve the particular object of the denomina tion they belong to, in the locality in which they are established." (1) He considered that there was nothing more detrimental to educa tion than a system depressing the whole class of schoolmasters, but he thought a general system of education would infallibly raise the standing of masters generally, becau^ of their more independent position, and these teachers could then raise the standard of those who came under their influence. He objected also the the proselytising character of the denomina tional System. The Church of England claimed the majority of mem bers of colonial society,and Lang saw that it could add to its num bers by setting up schools in most districts. Members of other com munions with not sufficient numbers to establish schools for them selves would be forced to send their children to those conducted by the Church of England. Lang did not blame the various religious denominations for trying to extend their influence; indeed he ad mitted that the Presbyterian Church was trying to do this as well. However he did object to the expenditure of public money to prosely tise for any communion. He argued that if a church was extending its influence, a great deal was being done to overcome vice and convert the heathen to Christianity, but he did not agree that pub lic money should be used to advance the cause of any one religion.(2). 1. ibid. 2. S.M.H. 7/10/1844. - 121 - In fact, if all denominations professed to accept members of any religious group, as they did, Lang argued that there was no proper denominational system at all ! For example, if a Presby terian school was getting government assistance on the "half-and- h a lf" p r in c ip le , but accepted members of a l l denominations and undertook not to interfere with the religious principles of anyone in the school, then the word "denominational” did not properly aoply to that institution. In other words, LancJ claimed, the sup porters of the denominational system wanted to prevent the govern ment from introducing a system which, to a large extent, already existed ! (1) The difference, however, lay in the nature of the population distribution. In Lang’s own electorate (the Port Phillip District) the people had not petitioned against the proposed introduction of the general system of education, because under the denominational system they received for education only £400 although they contributed £00,000 to the general revenue. Where the population was heterogeneous and widespread, the denomina tions would be reluctant to set up schools, whereas the government would be able to serve the needs of all. The very existence of so much agitation for the revision of the denominational system, and the establishment of a committee of investigation, constituted a prima facie case against the system, Lang argued. (2) Although members of the Lowe Committee had been accused of possessing attitudes ”of indifference towards the moral and religious welfare of their fellowmen” , Lang claimed that the committee had been influenced by a "high and reverential re- 1. ib id . 2. ib id . - 122- gard for our common Christianity, and a sincere desire to deal out impartial justice to every section of the community.” (1) In answer to those who claimed that the state had no right to interfere in educational matters at all, Lang pointed to the high correlation between lack of education and criminal tendencies. He quoted the ’’B ritis h Almanac f o r 1842” which gave fig u r e s to in d i cate that criminals in England and Wales over a number of years had been educationally ignorant. The vital statistics were:- (2) Unable to read or write Read and w rite im p erfectly - Read and w rite w e ll Having had instruction at a l l su p erior to mere read ing and writing 0,1/3$ or 1 in 300. He pointed out that for fifty years New South Wales had been a con vict colony and that 70$ of the convicts were illiterate whilst only 6°/o of them were scholars. He was quite certain that lack of education led to the formation of crime in the minds of the illi terates, and observed that in 1844, only six out of forty-eight in the Woolloomooloo gaol were literate. (3) If the state did not provide the machinery for education, Lang saw that, in all probability, ’’the vice and crime that are the natural result of ignorance w ill be entailed on the community, with all the vast expenditure of police and gaols and judicial estab lishments, under which this unfortunate 'Colony at present groans.” (4) Indeed, Lang asked, can a state justly punish criminals who know no better? Is a state justified in punishing people who have never IT i b i d . 2. ibid. 9/9/1844.Contains Lang’s speech at a public meeting held by the friends of the national system at the Sch.of Arts,7/9/1844- 3. ib id . 4. S.M.H. October 7, 1844. - 123- been given the chance to receive some measure of education and the moral and religious training which it implied? (1) The extension of the franchise was always one of LangTs main concerns; he believed that all should have the right to vote (2) but this right would not be properly exercised if illiteracy remained Even the lowest class should be fitted for the due exercise of the franchise be means of education, to secure the political institu tions, the civil and religious liberties of the Australian people. (3) Lang asserted that it was the right of the State to educate the peoole, to avoid crime and its consequences, and to make provision for the due exercise of the rights of citizenship. Lang saw that the denominational system had resulted in "a mere scramble" by the different denominations for the largest share from the public funds. The result was that education "became a mere matter of clerical patronage, and a means of reducing the public instructors of youth to a condition oi abject servility under the clergy of the different denominations." (4)* i° illus trate the abuses of the system, Lang stated that in some places, several schools were established where the gross number oi pupils was scarcely sufficient for one, ''and in one village there were three of the^se petty schools and three scarecrows of teachers, where one good one would have performed the duty with perfect ease .,T (5) • 1. ibid. . 2. See "Freedom and Independence for the Golden Lands of Australia written by Lang in 1852. cf. o.33. Also S.M.H. 7/10/1844* 3. S.M.H. 7/10/1844. 4. Lang "History of N.S.W.". 1852. E d ’n. Vol. 11, p. 514. 5. S.M.H. Supplement. 9/9/1844. - 124- Lang once more took the opportunity o f attacking the Church of England and Bishop Broughton who, he considered, had been most instrumental in opposing a general system of Protestant educa tion when he had condemned the efforts of the Australian School Society. Lang stated that Broughton had adopted a policy very different from that of his counterparts in the U.S.A. and South Africa where the Church of England had supported schemes based on the ideas of the British Foreign School Society. (1). Indeed Broughton had been mainly responsible for changing the Protestant view from one supporting Protestant education to a crusade against the introduction of any general system whatsoever. (2). Lang asked the public to consider the Church of England’s mo tives for such a policy. "Was it a sincere desire to lead the young along the golden path of v ir tu e ?” Lang asked. His own reply was in the negative, and he suggested that Broughton’s mo tive was the promotion of his own "selfish and sectarian views” . Lang asserted that the Church o f England had never made any s e r i ous attempt to educatjje its youth over the previous 300 years when it had every opportunity to do so. He claimed that no church since apostolic times had enjoyed such vast wealth and influence as the Church o f England, but he knew o f no church during th is period which had done so little^ for the education of its members. (3). Lang admitted that he s till favoured the British and For eign School S o c ie ty ’ s system over the Iris h National System, but he was convinced, after hearing the evidence presented to the Lowe Committee, that he had adopted the best course in supporting 1. S.M.H. 7/10/1844. 2. ib id . Supplement. 9/9/1844« 3. ib id . 7/16/1844« - 125- the Irish system. (1). He said that if Roman Catholics were as few in New South Wales as they were in Scotland, he would have supported a separate system for Catholic education, but in New South Wales a quarter to a third of the total population was Catholic, but widely scattered over a vast area, making it necess ary for the establishment of a general system. (2). In any case, Lang concluded, the Church of England had adopted the same atti tude as the Church of Rome in opposing the general system recom mended by the committee of 1844, and he was pleased with the thought that, if the committee’s proposed Board came into opera tion, it could not be "prostituted" by any one religious group as it was to be representative of all. (3). It had been up to the government to find a system of education which would make the best use of the limited funds, taking into account the wide extent of the colony and the scattered nature of its population. Failing a general system which would be to the advantage of all, Lang re commended that no funds at all should be given by the government for educational purposes in a partial system. (4). Lang and the Lowe Committee of 1844« In August, 1843, the Council under the new constitution met. (jr\ Before this date, the governor had the power to control education because he was assisted by a nominee Council which was more or less obliged to follow his direction. However, under the new consti- 1. ibid. 9/9/1844. 2. ibid. 3. S.M.H. 9/9/1844. (Supplement). 4. ibid. 126 tution of 1843, the Governor was assisted by a Council partly elected and partly nominated. The new Council consisted of 36 members - 24 elected by the people and 13 nominated by the Governor. (1) Although the Governor might reserve the question of Royal Assent to any enactment of the Council, he could not prevent the latter*s legislation if it were supported by a majority. Very soon after\ he was elected by the people of Port Phillip to represent them on the Council, Lang made a move towards the introduction of a general system of education.(2) It was Dr. Lang who jbrought the Council*s attention to the matter of general education, after he had visited Dublin, and after he had introduced into the Colony fourteen Scottish schoolteachers who had been trained at the Glasgow Normal Seminary. He had secured from the Home Government a grant of £60. passage money for each of these teachers and had obtained them through the co-operation of David Stow, the Secretary of the Glasgow Educational Society. (3) On September 28, 1843, Lang gave notice of motion to the Legislative Council that when the estimates for education were taken into consideration, he proposed moving: (4) 1, "That it is the duty of the Government to make suitable and adequate provision for the general education of the people. 2. That the educational system at present in operation in this Colony, in the form of denominational schools, supported in part from the Public Treasury, is totally inadequate to meet the wants of the Colony - uncertain in its application - inefficient in its char (1) Smith and Spaull. op. cit. p. 78. (2) S.M.H. 29/9/1843. (3) H.R.A. Vol. XIX Stow*s letter to the Secretary of State, (4) Votesand*Proceedings of Legislative Council, Sept. 28 ______and Oct. 12. 1845.______- 127 - acter - and likely to entail a heavy and intolerable burden on the community. 3. That it is therefore expedient and necessary that such a system, in so far as the existing denominational schools receive assistance from the State, should cease and that all schools to be sup- ported from the Public Treasury should henceforth be established on one comprehensive model, and be placed under the immediate supervis ion of the Government. 4. That in all schools to be supported by the State, the Holy Scriptures, in the authorised version, shall be read daily, but with out note or comment; and that the business of each day shall be commenced and concluded wibh the reading of a form of prayer, to be agreed on beforehand by a committee of this Council, but that no creed or catechism of any description shall be allowed. 3. That the children of Roman Catholic parents, who may be unwil ling that their offspring should be taught to read the Holy Scrip- tures in the authorised version, and the children who may be unwilling that their offspring should be taught to read the Christian Scriptures, shall on no account be required to read the authorised version or the New Testament respectively.” Lang’s resolutions also recommended the establishment of a ’’model or training school” for the training of teachers of high schools in the cities and of ’’academical institutions or colleges.” The ’’Sydney Morning Herald” anticioated the opposition of the churches when it recorded the view that ’’the Doctor did not have a hope of having them carried”, (l) 1. S.M.H. September 29, 1&43 Leader of the movement towards a national system of education in 1844* (From Smith and Spaull,’"History of Education in New South Wales’"*) \ V Silt (JlCOIttiK (JllM'S. * . $ Governor of New South Wales (1838-46) who was supported by Lang in bis attempt to establish a national system of education in 1844* (Engraving from "Picturesque Atlas of Australasia " Ed.A.Garran# 1886*) - 128- The Editor’s prediction was so?i proved correct as petitions were drawn up and presented to the Legislative Council by Anglican Min isters and their congregations from many parts of the colony. (1). As a result of this action organised by Bishop Broughton, Lang with drew his resolutions before they came under the Council’s consider ation. The ’’Sydney Morning Herald” stated that the resolutions had been withdrawn because ”of the late period of the session and the general wish o f the members.” (1 ). After Lang had made the in itia l step towards the establishment ber of a system of general education in his resolutions of Septem/1843 , the work in this direction was carried on by Robert Lowe , a nominee member of the Legislative Council, and a barrister. On June 21, 1844 Lowe moved successfully for the ’’appointment of a select com mittee to inquire into and report upon the state of education of youth upon a basis suited to the wants and wishes of the community-.” Lowe had been a b rillian t scholar at Oxford and had been the bitter opponent of Newman and the Tractarians. He believed in what he called ’’irreligious education” , being unable, as he said, to see anything but evil in blending theology and mathematics. (3). The Committee established by the Council comprised Lowe (chair man) , Charles Cowper, Richard Windeyer, Deas Thomson - members of the Church of England; J.H.Plunkett (Attorney-General) and Roger Therry (Catholics); Sir Thomas Mitchell, Dr. Nicholson and Dr. Lang (Presbyterians); and Joseph Robinson, a member of the Society of Friends. (4). 1. S.M.H. October 11, 1843. 2. V. and P. June 21, 1844. 3. See Turney, M.Ed. Thesis, o p .c it. p. 515» V o i.11. 4. V. and P. 21/6/1844. - 129- During the fo llo w in g two months, the committee examined twen ty-one witnesses selected because of their authority on the sub ject of education and the shades of religious opinion they repre sented. (1 ). Each witness was in d ivid u a lly examined by the com mittee which asked a series of formal questions followed by informal interrogation. The following eleven questions made up the basic l i s t - (2) ”1. What is your opinion of the state of education among the humbler classes o f the colony? 2. Do you recommend a general system of education or one carried on by each denomination seoarately; or do you think that these two systems could be in any way advantageously combined? 3. Will you state the grounds in support of the system you prefer? 4. How would you propose, in a general system of education, to provide for the religious instruction of the public? 5. To what branches o f education do you think the system adopted should extend? 6. Ought the education of children to be optional to the parents? 7. Can you suggest any means by which the children of shepherds and farmhands, dispersed over the interior, may be brought under instruction ? 8. In whose hands ought the management and superintendence of education to be placed ? 9. Would you recommend a system o f mutual education on what is called the Bell and Lancaster System, or would you recommend in preference any other school ? 10. Ought the funds expended by the Government fo r purposes o f education, to be advanced in proportion to lo c a l contribution, to population, or on what other p rin cip le? 11. What measure would you recommend fo r obtaining the services of competent school masters ?” 1. V. and P. Vol.ll, 1844» Report p.l. 2. "The Morning C hronicle", July 10, 1844. Turney, o p .c it .p .517. 130 Whilst it would be outside of the limits of this thesis to attempt any detailed account of the activities of the Lowe Committee, (1) attention must be given to the questions asked by Lang as one of its most active members. Prom the nature of his questions addressed to witnesses, we can detect those principles of education in which he was particularly interested, and which throughout his long career he espoused. He was particularly interested in the reaction of the witnesses to the following questions which he regarded as being crucial in the operation of a successful educational system. In examining these questions, the reader detects two main influences at work: (a) The Scottish Educational System, and (b) The necessity of keeping in sight the conditions (moral, social, and political) within the Colony at the time. 1. Should the Bible (without note or comment) be used in the schools as the foundation of morality and religion? 2. Should the mercantile subjects be included in the curriculum because of the nature of the Colony? 3. If a Government Board were set up, should a separate Board, consisting of members of the different denominational groups, be established to act as a check on the Government body and on each other? 4. In order to guarantee suitable attainments of teachers, should a training college or part of a university be established? Is the knowledge of the Latin tongue a desirable qualification in teachers? 5. As an inducement to parents to send their children to school, should the elective franchise be made dependent upon a certain % (1) For an excellent account and analysis of the work of the Lowe Committee, see Turney C, op. cit. pp. 516-529. - 131- amotmt of education ? His interest in high qualifications for teachers and the use of the Bible without note or comment were ideas which he expounded throughout his life and were features of the Scottish system at the time. (1) Question 3 indicates his fear of Anglican and Catho lic domination of the system, but suggests that he desired the churches to take an active role in the proposed system. Lang had made u n iv ersa l su ffra ge one o f his main p o in ts o f p o lic y b efore his election for Port Phillio, but he thought that people should be educated in order to make the best of their power through the ballot box. (2) LangTs great interest in public affairs gener ally is illustrated by the fact that he was a member of no less than nine of the twenty-three select committees appointed by the Legislative Council during the sessions of 1844. (3) His continued interest in the establishment of a University in Sydney is mani fested in question four. As evidence of the advanced nature of current Scottish educa- er tional thought, the obs/vations of Peter Steel - one of the teachers brought out to the colony by Lang in 1837 - are extreme ly relevant. (A) Turney describes the evidence of Steel as being "the most progressive, enlightened and comprehensive” of all the evidence given before the committee, providing "testimon^y in it self of the excellent type of teacher turned out by the Scottish normal school; of how such teachers were deeply imbued with the current educational thought of Scotland; and of how they endeav- The Presbyterian Assembly in Scotland would not license a teacher who knew no Latin. Nadel op.cit. p. 214. S.M.H. 7/10/1844. cf. Gilchrist op.cit., p.358. Vol.l. S te e l was tra in ed at Stow rs Normal Academy at Glasgow. Turney o p .c i t . p . 519. - 132- oured to apply these principles in their schools.” (1) Steel, at the time of the committee’s inquiry, was in charge of a school in Sydney for 200 young children aged between 2\ and 12 years. He was "decidedly in favour" of a general system of education, especially in the interior, but unlike many other wit nesses he did not support the Bell monitorial system. (2). Educa tion under this system, he claimed, made too much of the memory and was reduced ”to a mere mechanical exercise". He observed that "the improvements introduced upon the Bell and Lancaster system by Mr. Sheriff Wood, of Edinburgh, and Mr. Stow of Glasgow, and constituting what is called the Intellectual or Training Sys tem, render education more an affair of the understanding, and the benefit for the child is correspondingly great." However, perhaps even more interesting were Steel’s observations on the question of teacher training. He was already doing something in this direction in his own school, where he had "several intelli gent boys" being trained for the teaching profession. One of these boys was fifteen years of age and was being paid a "very liberal sal ary" by Steel who believed that such training should continue un til the youths had reached the age of 18 or 20 when they would be capable of taking control of schools. Realising that Steel had considerable knowledge and experience concerning teacher training, the committee questioned him at length on the subject. Turney describes Steel’s observations on the mat ter of teacher training in Scotland as being "quite monumental".(3). 1. ibid. 2. V. and P. 1844, Vol.ll, pp. 519-324 for Steel’s evidence. 3. Op.cit. Vol.ll, p. 521. - 133 - Steel said, "There is a very ancient proverb which appears to be acted upon in this part of Her MajestyTs dominions, "that when a man is fit for nothing else, he is fit for being a schoolmaster." But whether teaching is regarded as a trade or as a profession, it is just as necessary to serve an apprecticeshio as to any other trade or pro fession, and perhaps more so. The knowledge or requirements necess ary for a well-qualified schoolmaster may be obtained wherever other persons requiring a liberal education obtain that education - and this colony is now in a sufficiently advanced state to need institu tions necessary for training up young men for the learned profess ions as well as for the respectable walks of society generally. Young men attending to qualify themselves for the office of school master, under whatever system the Government might think it advis able to establish, could obtain the requisite amount of acquirements in such institutions, along with students of the other professions, and in precisely the same way. Regarding the technique of teaching, ...... no person can learn the profession of a schoolmaster anywhere but in a school, and by being engaged for a limited time in a sub ordinate capacity as a monitor, or assistant, in that school. VVe attended lectures and pursued our own general studies elsewhere; but we served our apprecticeship to the business of teaching in the., school. In this school, I was a full fifteen months; in Mr. An drew^ Orthoepy School, also in Edinburgh, I was 9 months; and in Mr. StowTs training school in Glasgow, I was 3 months, and only pre vented from serving a longer period by the sailing of the "Portland" for Sydney. By the latest annual report of Mr. Stow’s training school, I find that every student is compelled to remain at least 6 months under penalty of having his certificate withheld. I would recommend that a model sch ool - a sch o o l in which as many as five hundred children could be educated under a competent headmaster, with monitors - should be established in Sydney. These monitors would each become the master of a government school some where else in his turn; and during the period of their aoprentice- ship, which I would limit to about six months at least, they might be acquiring elsewhere the amount of literary and other requirements which the General Board should think proper to fix for all school masters . (1) . The evidence of Steel bears witness to the high quality of the teachers imported into the colony by Lang. Men of the calibre of Steel, Carmichael and Mackenzie were extremely valuable acquisitions to the colony, and influenced the course of education both in theory and practice. Lang himself was familiar with the systems in opera- T7"'T.“ an'a“ F;— Tol.IT,"' I'g'tF."p'6V' -13 4- tion in the United Kingdom, Europe .and America, and i t is ex tremely doubtful whether any other person in the colony could rival him in his experience in this regard. He had taken the trouble to investigate the Irish National System at first hand, and had been involved in several movements to foster education in the colony; he had established a college for higher education and had imported more than a dozen teachers of high quilifications into the colony. During the sessions of the Council of 1844, he spoke on education on nineteen occasions, often at great length.(1) With such a record then, it is little wonder that Robert Lowe (who had resigned his seat in the Council) asked Lang to move the adoption of his report. This Lang gladly did, in a speech last ing for three hours. (2) THE RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE COMMITTEE. Very briefly, the committee recommended that a general system should be established in the colony, and that a ll Government aid should be reserved to those schools run in accordance with the Government plan. A fte r a d etailed consideration o f the two general systems of education then in vogue - the British and Foreign System and the S tan leyTs Iris h National System - the committee recommended the latter, as the only plan sufficiently comprehensive to include both Protestants and Catholics. A central administra tive board was to be established, as well as an efficient inspec torial system, and the foundation of a Normal School for the train ing of teachers. Finally, the committee expressed the view "that if it is intended that education should be valued, it must not be 1. G ilc h ris t o p .c it. V o l.l. p. 353. 2. ib id . p. 359. -13 5- gratuitous, at least to those who can pay for it.,T After the report had been printed at the beginning of September 1844, education became the most controversial topic of the day public meetings were held, petitions were drawn up, lengthy press articles appeared and party feeling ran high. Bishops Broughton and Polding opposed the introduction of the general system, on the grounds that religion could not be separated from education in the manner indicatd by the system. (1) However, in spite of this violent opposition, the Council adop ted the report, in principle, by a majority of one, (13 to 12). W.C.Wentworth had moved an amendment to the effect that the children should be allowed to be absent for one day each week (excluding Sunday) for the purpose of receiving religious instruction else where , and that a school should have an enrolment of at least 50 before receVing Government aid. In the face of such violent opposition outside of the Council,(2) and the bare majority within it, Governor Gipps could not sanction the adoption of the system recommended by the Lowe Committee. In his message to the Legislative Council, in November (3) he stated, "Whilst I declare my entire adherence to the opinions which I have thus repeatedly expressed, I feel bound also to acknowledge that I cannot but continue to entertain doubts, whether the time be yet arrived, at which an attempt to introduce a better system is likely to be successful." He noted that "increasing religious differences" were " in no way diminished" and that "without the co-operation of the ministers of religion, it seems to me scarcely possible to estab- 1. V.and P.Oct. 1 1 ,1844, Vol.ll. 2. See S.M.H. October 14, 1844. 3. ibid. V o l . 1 p. 283. - 136- lish any system of education, wit hi a prospect of its being exten sively useful.” He concluded by pointing out that the 42nd clause of the Constitutional Act required District Councils to carry in to effect all changes in Public Schools, but that these councils were not yet in a fit condition to do this. Thus, in spite of the fact that the Council voted £2000 to wards the establishment of schools on the principle of general education (1), the Lowe Report was shelved. The opposition organ ised mainly by the Anglicans and Catholics outside of the Council had been too strong for Lang and the other supporters of a gener_ al system of education during the first sessions of the newly- constituted Council. When the two Boards were established in 1848 to govern the affairs of the general and denominational sys tems, Lang was in England fostering emigration schemes. Having been absent from the colony from 1847 to 1850, Lang took no part in the establishment of the Dual System. 1. V. and P. 1844, Vol.l, 10/10/1844. PART 1 1 1 . THE SYDNEY UNIVERSITY AND ST.ANDREW’S COLLEGE. -137- PART 111, The Sydney University and St-. Andrew’s College. CHAPTER 1. The Foundation of Sydney University. The first official mention of the establishment of a University in the colony was made in 1823 by Earl Bathurst when he instructed Governor Brisbane to reserve land for educational purposes. The Colonial Secretary wrote, "The extent of the School Reserves must be calculated not merely with reference to the institution of Primary Schools of a simple nature, but of schools of a higher order, and ultimately of the Establishment of the nature of an University.13’ 2 (1) During the following year Thomas Hobbes Scott recommended that one tenth of the land in the colony should be used for the support of churches and schools. (2). Indeed, we have seen how one seventh of the land of New South Wales passed into the hands of the Anglican Church and Schools Corporation which was to supervise education in the colony. Provision had been made in the Charter rules for the establishment of a "Collegiate11. (3). Scott thought that, until a colonial university was formed, students should be given the oppor tunity of attending Oxford or Cambridge by the foundatinn of scholar ships to those establishments. (4). Since Oxford and Cambridge were the only universities in England in 1824, the university envisaged by Scott and Earl Bathurst would 1. H.R.A., 1. Vol. XI, p. 140. See Vol. XXXV11. J.R.A.H.S. Article by J.M.Ward, "The Foundation of Sydney University", p/ 295* 2. Ward op.cit. p. 296. 3. Burton Q. op.cit. Appendix 1, p. XX. p?5,$7f‘L* nSome Early Educational Problems", J.R.A.H.S.Vol.XVll. -13 8- certainly have been one ’’founded on a system of residential col leges providing general studies in the humanities and not concerned with training for the professions.” (1). However we have noticed that, in founding his Australian College, Lang had been of the firm opinion that it would develop into a university. He had been esoecially interested in the training of candidates for the ministry, and the Principal of Edinburgh Univer sity had hailed the experiment as ’’the incipient germ of a future Australian University”. (2). The Australian College of 1831 had been founded on ’’the liberal and economical principles of the Schools and Colleges of Scotland” (3) and was to provide ’’youth of a more advanced study, similar advantages to those afforded in M a t h e m a t ical, Philosophical and Natural History classes of the Universi ties of Scotland.” (4) It is imoortant to observe here that the four Universities oi Scotland, while possibly inferior to Oxford and Cambridge in the Classics, ’’were well ahead of them in Philosophy, Medicine and Natural Science. This was particularly true of the University of Edinburgh, to which came more students from the British Colonies than to all the other British Universities taken together.” (5) The curriculum adopted by Lang for the Austraw lian College intro duced the Scottish idea of a broader, professional course for a university; the general arts courses would serve as a foundation © r for studies in Divinity, Medicine, Science, Law and Teaching Train ing. (6) In 1841, when Lang had attempted to elevate his college 1. Ward J.M. op. cit. p~. 29¿. . 2. Lang J.D. ’’Account of Steps taken.... ” op. cit. p.19 3. H.R.A., 1, Vol. XVI, p. 23. 4 Lang J.D. ’’History of N.S.W.”. 1834 Edn. Vol.11, p. 382. . C . J.Saunders , ’’Scottish Democracy 1815-1840. The Social and Intellectu 5. al Background.” Edinburgh 1950. See Nadel op.cit. p.211. 6 . See V. and P. 1841-Reoort of Committee on Loans to Australian College. Evidence of Mackenzie, p.12. - 139- to the status of a quasi-University, his main object had been the training, in the colony, of men for the learned professions. (1) When the Lowe Committee of 1814 was examining witnesses con cerning the possibility of establishing a National System of Educa tion, Lang was persistent, in his questions to witnesses, in press ing the idea o f the e stablishment o f a U n iversity or Normal In s t i tution for training teachers. The Scottish principle of training teachers as professional men had also been pressed in 1841 in the evidence of Peter Steel, and by David Mackenzie before the Council Committee three years e a r lie r . Although the Lowe Committee r e commended the establishment of a "collegiate institution" to pro vide "for the instruction of the learned professions", Bishop Broughton had stated that he would "not be able to find half a dozen pupils in the colony able to enter upon a proper university course." (2) Up to the time of Lang’s departure for England, on July 1, 1846, he had done much to push forward his views on the necessity for establishing a university in the colony, even though it was obvious that he wished his own college to play an important role in its constitution. In spite of the fact that all educational matters had been clouded over by the religious storms in the 1830’s and 1840’s, there had developed a sentiment in favour of tertiary education by the mid-1840’s. The colony was growing rapidly and arrangements for the training of professional men were proving inadequate. Through out 1849, Mr. Dickinson, a member of the Legislative Council repre- 1. See Part 1, Chapter IV. 2. V. and P. 1844, V o l . l l , p. 555. - 140- senting Lang’s old electorate of Port Phillip, agitated for, and obtained, a Committee on the medical profession. (1) Admission to this profession was then controlled by a Medical Board which ex perienced considerable difficulty in fixing standards. (2) The legal profession’s standards were fixed by the Supreme Court which, since the Charter of Justice, had regulated the admission of bar risters and solicitors: ’’but there was much dissatisfaction with the system under which aspirants to the legal profession obtained their knowledge.” (3). The need for tertiary education was particularly felt by the churches. In the 1840’s Australian-born clergymen were being ordained; in 1846 St.James’ Grammar School became St. James’ College, and two years later it was suggested that the establishmen should become of university standard. (4)• We have already noticed how Lang and Mackenzie had stressed, in 1841, the advantages of having the colonial ministry trained locally. (5) J* While Lang was absent in England, Dr. H .G.Douglass, a prominent physician, gained the support of his friend, W.C.Wentworth, in seeking the foundation of a Sydney University. (6). The proprie tors of the defunct Sydney College (7) bad petitioned in 1849 that the Legislative Council should adopt ’’measures to convert the in stitution into a University.” (8) T~. Ward J.M. op.cit. p. 297. 2. ibid. 3 . ib id. 4. ibid. 5. See Part 1,Chap.IV. 6. F. L.S.Me rewether ’’Reminiscences of the University of Sydney”, p.l 7. It had closed in I848. 8. Barff H.E.”A Short Historical Account of the Univ. of Sydney”.(Sydney 1902), p.3. - 141- When the p e titio n was placed before the Council, Wentworth moved, on September 6, 1849, that "a Select Committee be appointed to en quire into the matters contained in the petition of the proprietors of the Sydney College, and report upon the best means of institu ting an University for the oromotion of literature and science, to be endowed at the public expense.'1 2 With the exception of the part dealing with the p etition (l), the motion was accepted, so that the Committee was really given the authority to enquire into the need for a University in Sydney. (2) Wentworth saw that the e stablishment of a colon ial u n iversity was necessary for the training of men for the professions and removing some of the stigma attached to a convict colony. He realised too that resoonsible government would be achieved in the near future, and in his great speeches in the Legislative Council on September 6 and October 4, 1849, he saw that the foundation of a University would assist in the training of peoole for political responsibility. The Committee contained some of the ablest men o f the L e g is la tive Council:- W.C.Wentworth, Deas Thomson, Robert Lowe, Charles Cowper, Charles Nicholson, J.H.Plunkett, Robert Nichols and James Macarthur. They took only fift e e n days to produce th e ir report, on September 21, recommending the foundation of a u n iversity "upon a liberal and comprehensive basis, accessible to all classes and to all collegiate and academical institutes which shall seek its a ffil ia tio n ". The Committee took pains to point out that c o lo n is ts ' sons sent to Oxford and Cambridge "in most cases" succumbed to the moral dangers involved. The Committee's B ill was presented for the first time on October 2, 1849. 1. Deleted because Wentworth was a signatory to the p e titio n . 2. B arff o p .c it. p.3 e t seq. * #The tender mercies of the wicked are cruelty*f and so are those of Wentworth and Co!" - 142 - In his famous speech of October 4th of the same year, Wentworth moved the second reading of a B ill to incorporate and endow a uni v e r s ity in Sydney. (1) In his speech he recommended the exclusion of clergymen from the teaching staff and management of the univer s ity . In view of the sectarian bitterness which had been manifes ted in educational matters during the previous two decades, Went worth was anxious to remove the possibility of its intrusion into the a ffa ir s of the proposed university. However there is very l i t t le doubt that his remarks were aimed at his old r iv a l, Dr. Lang, who had not yet returned to the colony. Although Wentworth believed that the e stablishment o f a secular university was in the best interests of religion, he envisaged a system of affiliated colleges under the control of the central body. The arrangement was to be similar to Lord BroughamTs University of London wh ch had been established in 1828. Wentworth stated that "scholastic establishments, endowed and supported for the purpose of enforcing and maintaining peculiar religious views, can a ffili ate to this institution. I trust and believe that the results of this clause w ill be the erection of these establishments in every part of the colony.... The standard of education in the colony w ill be regulated by the university." Although the second reading was agreed to unanimously, the clauses relating to membership of the Senate, and the exclusion of clergymen were modified in Committee and the B ill was then intro duced into the 1850 session. I t was at th is point in the develooment o f the Sydney U niversity 1. S.M.H. Oct. 5, 1849. This speech was printed separately in 1896 by C .Potter, G ovt.P rin ter, Sydney. In c o lle c tio n in M.L. entitled "Charter and Statutes, University and Prince Alfred H o s p ita l". - 143- that Dr.Lang returned to the colony. Even though his enemies governing the "Sydney Morning Herald” recognised Lang ”to be fully Mr. Wentworth’s equal” in "eloquence, shrewdness and energy,” it considered his election, as a member for Sydney, in July 1850, as a "national calamity.” (1) It did not take Lang long to publish two pamphlets on the sub ject, bitterly attacking the university system proposed by Went worth. (2). Lang justified the publication of such documents by stating that he had made it his business to investigate the history, condition and prospects of academical institutions of all descriotions in Great Britain, America and on the Continent, and had himself "laboured and sacrificed perhaps more than any other inhabitant of the colony” for the establishment of such an insti tution in Sydney. (3). Lang was unstinting in his praise for Wentworth and his asso ciates in introducing legislation for the establishment of a uni versity in Sydney, but he could not resist attacking his old ene my, Wentworth, whom he accused of pushing the legislation for his own personal interests. No doubt the proposal of Wentworth at tempting to exclude members of the clergy from the affairs of the university goaded Lang to a considerable extent. With the vehem ence which made Lang feared by many of his enemies, he stated that the measure exhibited two bad qualitites "that have so character ised many of the other measures of its talented author, viz., T7 July 24 and 26, 1Ô50. 2. "University Bill" (20 pages) I85O. "University Act" - a single broadsheet, Oct. 1850. 3. "University Bill" cf. p.3 - 1 U - legislation for individual and class interests, or, in other words, the establishment of a virtual monopoly in favour of certain parties on the one hand, and a sovereign contempt for public opinion on the other." (1) Lang accused Wentworth of looking after his own pecuniary interests concerning the purchase of the old Sydney College. Went worth and the proprietors of that institution, according to Lang, had sunk from £S,000 to £10,000 into the project, and, with its fa il ure, were faced with great financial loss. Lang saw the sale of the Sydney College buildings as a means used by the proprietors to recoup their losses. In short, Dr.Lang concluded, "it is pretty evident that the University Act bears the impress of the same mint as the famous Lottery scheme, and the equally abortive attemot to acquire % a principality in New Zealand for a few blankets and a few gigs of tobacco." (2) In his examination of the system proposed by the University Act, Lang approved of the establishment of a university to confer degrees on all qualified persons "in whatever Colleges or Educational Insti tutions (approved by that body) they may have been educated, and to whatever religious denomination they may respectively belong." (3) He also approved the adoption of the model of the Royal Charter for the Incorooration of the University of London - a model which he considered well adapted to the heterogeneous character of New South Wales. But he strongly opposed the proposal to combine with the University a collegiate establishment which he considered would be "to the prejudice of every other educational establishment of a simi lar kind either at present in existence or hereafter to be formed in _ iiynj_versj_tÿ Act” Lang J.D. 2. ibid. That LangTs allegations were purely personal and in bad taste is proved by the fact that he later advocated the purchase of 3. J>?l°oLLh? t ^ V niVerSity- - "diversity Bill o.9. -H 5- the colony, in direct oooosition to the precept so wisely estab lished by His MajestyTs Late Government in the case of London University.” (1) Lang asserted that the U niversity of London had been e stablished by Lord Brougham and his liberal friends partly to give the oppor tu n ity to those barred from Oxford and Cambridge because of the re ligious tests adopted by those universities, and partly to provide a means of education in branches not catered for in the two older universities. He pointed out that, by 1850, there were thirty col leges spread throughout the United Kingdom, all under the patronage of London University, and all authorised to educate candidates for degrees at that University. It was claimed by Lang that the idea had been borrowed from Napoleon Bonaparte who had founded one Uni versity with the power of conferring degrees and had superintendence of all colleges in France and her colonies. While touring the United States of America in 1840, Lang had been impressed by the u n iversity system which had been adopted there. (2) He had observed that the Americans recognised the wisdom of making regular state provision for academies and colleges, as well as for general education in the elementary schools. He noticed that the Pennsylvanian Legislature, for examole, had established a fixed state &£ allowance from the treasury for a ll educational in stitutions having a certain fixed establishment of masters, a cer tain number of students, and comprising a certain curriculum for study. Lang thought that this scheme had given a great impulse to education and had revived many struggling institutions, besides pro viding a powerful stimulus to bring them up to the Government stan dard. The Pennsylvanian Government, according to Lang, made no in- 1. "U n iversity B i l l ” Lang. J.D. p.L 2. See Lang J.D. "History of N.S.W.”. 1852 Edn, V ol.ll p.544 et seq. - I n quiry as to the religious nature of the establishments, recognis ing their claim to Government aid so long as the above provisions were fulfilled. In Lang’s view then, the Sydney University should have been re lieved of all educational duties (which would be left to the affili ated colleges) and take on the character of a supervising body con cerned with prescribing the curricula and maintaining standards. Lang saw that if the University were more closely connected with one one college than another, jealousy among colleges would be the in evitable result. (1) However, if the University Senate were simply to prescribe the course of study for candidates for degrees in the approved affiliated colleges, and to prohibit the use of religious tests, so that the secular education afforded in the colleges may be ooen to all, Lang thought that a rivalry "of the most salutary kind” would be the result, "and the educational system would be beneficial to the public in the highest degree " (2) He thought that the pro fessors of the affiliated colleges should be paid "moderate salaries" from the funds alloted to the University by the Government. Since about half of the students studying Arts in the Universi ties of Europe and the U.S.A. entered the ministry, Lang thought that colleges would soon be formed by the Church of England and the Catholic Church to add to the already existing Australian College.(3) These colleges - each embracing the Faculty of Arts - would be like the colleges of Oxford and Cambridge - the University being their common superior. Even though the University would prescribe the courses to be pursued in Arts, it would, of course, have nothing to do with the additional theological studies which would be carried on 1. "University Bill" Lang J.D. p.4 2. ibid, p.9 3. "University Act" J.D. Lang. - 147- in each college. In addition to the affiliated colleges established by the chur ches, Lang believed that separate colleges should be founded for Law, Medicine and the Physical Sciences, with one or more profess orships for each. For example, he suggested that, in the College for Physical Sciences, Chairs might be established for Botany, Zo ology, Mineralogy, Geology, Agriculture and Agricultural Chemistry. (1) Two years later (2) he was able to state that the discovery of gold and of other valuable minerals was calculated to give an im pulse to the study of the Physical Sciences - Mineralogy, Geology, etc. - and if classes for these sciences had been opened immediately by the University Board, ”a large number of colonial youth, with many adults from all parts of the colony, would gladly have attended them, in the hope of being able to turn the information they might thus acquire to their own personal account.” As a practical suggestion Lang agreed that the Sydney College buildings should be purchased by the University, and should retain the name ’’Sydney College” , for the Faculties of Law, Medicine, and Physical Sciences. This site, Lang thought, was particularly sui table for these studies because of its proximity to the Law Courts, the Hospital, the Museum and the Botanical Gardens. The students in Arts would attend one of the denominational colleges, but the Sydney students would have the opportunity of attending the Sydney College for lectures in other professional branches. Lang believed that attendance certificates shouldbe required by the University Senate and that the judges of the Supreme Court could improve the standard of those in the legal profession by demanding certificates 1. ’’University B ill” p.9 2. ’’H istory o f N.S.W .” 1852 Edn. , V o l . l l , p. 549» - 148- of attendance at the Law classes from applicants for admission to the bar. (1). To carry out his proposals, Lang saw the necessity for dividing the University Bill into two distinct parts - one to incorporate a University on the model of London’s, and the other to constitute the Sydney College for the Faculties of Law, Medicine and the Phy sical Sciences. The Faculty of Arts, comprising the various bran ches of the Languages, Mathematics and Philosophy, would be left to the separate Colleges for each of the great ecclesiastical di visions of the colonial population. He considered that, although Colleges for Arts and Theology could be established throughout the colony, Sydney was the only place suitable for a scheme catering for studies in Medicine, Law and Science. He saw that youth from all over the territory would be attracted to this centre which would perhaps ’’merit the character of ’the City of Learning’ for the Southern Hemisphere. (2) If the institution were separated from the Colleges, as Lang suggested, he recommended that the University be called ’’Univer sity of New South Wales”, rather than the '’University of Sydney” (3). He feared that, if the University were left associated with a particular College, the inevitable result would be the estab - lishment, by rival groups, of other Universities with the power of conferring degrees e.g. the University of Newcastle, Bathurst or Goulburn. This could result in cut-throat competition, Lang believed, with each University ’’virtually bidding against the others by conferring degrees on the lowest possible terms, as has been notoriously the case in certain countries - thereby lowering the value of academical honours, as well as the standard of Liter ature and Science generally." (4) ______1. "University Bill” p .10.(Some of Lang’s own attendance certificates from the University of Glasgow are in the Sydney University Archives. Lang Papers 2. "University Bill”, o.ll ®oX 3. ibid. Lang moved a motion to this effect in the Legis.Council but it ,r^T£>L defeated. S.M.H. 9/9/1854. ^ v \ k \i ^ \ l \ o f • (>. , - 149 - Thus Lang supported the establishment of one University with the power of conferring degrees, but as many Colleges subject to that body, as may be required throughout the colony. If Went worth’s proposals were not changed along these lines, Lang anti cipated the condemnation of the Sydney University by powerful de nominational groups like the Church of England or the Catholic Church who would tell their students for the ministry, ’’You shall not attend the classes of that University, as we have no confidence in its management,” (1) and then establish their own Universities. However, Lang thought that if his proposals were acted upon, Bish ops Broughton and Polding would establish Colleges for the Arts and Theology Faculties which would be under the patronage of the University to be established in Sydney. Lang was very vigorous in his condemnation of those who con sidered that the colony was not yet ready for the establishment of a University. He reiterated his statements made before the Lowe Committee of 1844 when he had stressed the necessity for such an establishment for teacher training, as well as educating Australi ans for the learned professions. In 1850 he stated, ”It is only by insisting on a higher standard of qualifications on the part of colonial teachers generally, that the standard of education through out the colony can be elevated to the proper level. ”(2) He opposed on three counts the suggestion of some of these crit ics that Australian youths should gain their University education in England. - (a) It was expensive and beyond the means of most colonists, (b) the changes in climate involved in the trip endan gered the health of the students, and (c) it jeopardized the morals 1. ’’University Bill” p.13. 2. ibid. - 150 - of young men, who, when left alone in a strange country, often contracted "habits of extravagance and dissipation there, becom ing insolvent, and having their cases formally blazoned in ’The Times’ newspaper, to the discredit of the colony, before the whole people of England.’’ (1) The idea that public money should be spent only on elementary education for the humbler clasees, and that University education should be reserved for the richer classes, was violently attacked by Lang. He said that this was the idea put into practice at Oxford and Cambridge but not in the Universities of Scotland, Europe and America where a University education was within the reach ’’even of industrious mechanics and small farmers.” (2) Dr. Lang was always the staunch fighter for the rights of the ’’under dog” , and his many battles for the interests of the lower class es were often criticised by Wentworth who accused him of courting their support for purely political reasons. Lang claimed it the right of every individual, no matter to what class he belonged, ”to elevate himself to the highest position in the land.” (3) Lang suggested (4) that some people would think his advocacy of such a plan was inconsistent with his support of a national system of education for the elementary schools. However, he de clared that this was not the case as was clearly demonstrated in the United States. There lower education was conducted under a national system, but the 95 Colleges in existence at the time of his visit in 1840, were all controlled by the various religious denominations. The reasons for the adoption of a denominational 1. ’’University Bill”, p. 14 2. ibid. p.■ 15 3. ibid. p.,16 4 . ibid. P-, 18. - 151- system of higher education in the United States, Lang pointed out, were (a) at least half of the students in the Colleges were candi dates fo r the ministry and (b) the Affl^fican people would send their sons only to Colleges controlled by the religious denomina tions, presumably because of the moral dangers involved in send ing adolescents in large numbers to institutions not directly con nected with the churches. (1). With the exception of religious training,the courses of instruction in all of these Colleges were the same, and education at such institutions was free. (2). Thus Lang believed in a similar system to that in operation in the United States - a National system of primary and secondary educa tion but University education under the guidance of the Churches. 4 " However, he though that before university education could operate at a ll, the Government would have to set up and support Grammar schools throughout the colony. (3) He believed that the University Board should manage and control such establishments as was the custom in France. I f such schools were set up along these lines, Lang was of the opinion that the sons of the humbler classes would be able to gain the superior education to which he thought they were entitled. To the Legislative Council, Lang recommended that a Government grant of £700 a year be granted, for three years, to any College having an establishment of four professors of approved qualifica tions, and affording a certain fixed curriculum of education. At the end of this probationary period, the grant would be reduced to £500 a year i f the number of students was less than f i f t y , or aug mented to £1,000 (which was to have been the maximum) i f it ex- 1. S.M.H. 12/9/1850. 2. ibid. 3. "University B ill11, p.20. - 152- ceeded one hundred. (1) However, his recommendations were in vain. Lang complained that he had received no opportunity of having the Bill amended - it had been ’’dragged through Committee % the very evening it had passed the second reading, with as much indecent haste as when a drunkard is dragged to the watch-house by two rough-handed constables who have found hirr^brawling in the streets.” However, he was confident that, when the £10 franchise came into operation, the ’’dead weight*, the drivelling incapacity and the downright Flunkeyism1* of the Council would be thrown over board, and the money would be spent ’’agreeably to the expressed intentions and desires of the people.” (2) We notice then, that both the framers of the University Act and Dr. Lang had an elaborate system of affiliated colleges in mind when contemolating the establishment of the University, although Lang objected to having a College directly connected with the Uni versity which he thought should be purely an examining body and have no more connection with one College than another. However, the first professors at the University had different ideas. Shortly after the arrival of the first Principal and Professor of Classics, Rev. John Woolley, he and his two colleagues, Pell (Mathematics) and Smith (Chemistry and Experimental Philosophy) suggested to the Senate that professors should be professors of the University, that the University itself should instruct students, and that Col leges should be connected with the different denominational groups but should send students to the University for lectures. They thought that the Colleges should concern themselves more with tu torial work than with actual teaching. (3). The Senate agreed to IT "History of N.S.Wi". Lang j IdT 1852 Ednlvol-ll, p. 547. 2. "University Act." 3. See Ward J.M. op.cit. p.305. - 153- these proposals in 1852, and the University took on its present character as the central teaching and examining institution aug mented by Colleges connected with the various denominations. Lang had seen the ooportunity which the proposed University, supposedly to be established along the lines of the University of London, offered to his recently-revived Australian College. He saw the chance to get the state aid which he had sought with disastrous results in 1841, but in 1852 the much lower place of the affiliated Colleges had been fixed by the newly-arrived first professors. Langfs motives, disappointment, and inevitable bitterness were ex pressed very clearly in the following words - (1) "It was surely not too much to expect that, with such an ex tensive and efficient machinery in actual operation, especially after a struggle of twenty years, during which I had expended a considerable colonial fortune of my own - it was surely not too much to expect that when the Legislature was about to found a Colonial University, professedly on the model of the Univer sity of London, the Institution with which I had been so long identified, should be admitted as one of the Suffragan Colleges of that University, and should receive in that capacity, a small portion of the amole funds placed at the disposal of the Senate for the promotion of academical education. But the three ru ling influences at Macquarie Street - the Wentworth influence, the Government or toady influence, and the Macarthur or pure Merino influence, had determined otherwise." Lang went on to point out that any of the £5,000 per year granted to the University by the Government not used for professors’ salaries or passage money was to be "hoarded uo" for buildings and "no part of it was on any account to be given to the only men in the colony who were actually engaged in academical education! ’The tender mercies of the wicked are cruelty’, and so are those of Wentworth and Co.!" 1. "University Act" 1850. - 154- Thus at the time of his departure fo r England, for the seventh time, in February 1852, the status of the Australian College remained that of a secondary school and a ll of Lang’s efforts to have it incorporated as part of the University’s Faculty of Arts had failed. He had to content himself with attacking the incompetency of the Government and the University Board in the new edition of his ’’History of New South Wales” . His suggested system of Colleges, he stated, would certainly come into effect ’’when our Colonial Legislature is relieved of some of its present useless lumber, and somewhat popularised.” (1) He thought the action of the Government, preventing the formation of such Colleges and refusing them aid from the treasury, was ’’monstrous” , as was the inaction of the members of the University Board wh-0, he said, were doing nothing but allowing their money to accumulate for the erection of buildings. 1. ’’History of N.S.W.” . 1852 Edn. , Vol. 11. p. 547. - ST ANDREW1S COLLEGE, SYDNEY UNIVERSITY - 155- PART 111. CHAPTER 2. ST. ANDREW'S COLLEGE. Lang returned to the colony in November 1853, and in August of the following year he was elected to the Legislative Council representing the County of Stanley, Moreton Bay. (1) In its report to the Legislative Council (2) the University Senate had pointed out that the Sydney College buildings, which had been purchased for £4500, could not,Tbe regarded as suitable to the ultimate wants of the University, either with reference to the accommodation which they afford or the extent of area upon which they stand. ,T It was further stated that since nthe erec tion of affiliated Colleges in connection with and subordinate to the University, has ever formed a prominent part of its design,” 130 acres had been acquired for this purpose at Grose farm. The important place of religious training had been recognised by the Senate in November 1853, when i t had passed a Bye-Law making i t compulsory for a candidate to produce ”a certificate of competent religious attainment” from either the Principal of an affiliated College or some other responsible person approved by the Senate. (3) To carry into effect the wishes of the University Senate, the Leg islative Council passed "an Act to Provide for the Establishment and Endowment of Colleges within the University of Sydney (4) ,T. The Act made provision for the payment of £500 per annum from the public funds to each Principal of an affiliated College. It also granted an amount, uo to £20,000 equal to the subscription of the “i r * t ______t r -i /■> t. n r rorn senate oi oyaney university. 2/5/1854. C.and P. fs o o r t. - 156- public, providing the promoters raised at least £10,000 which sum had to be spent on buildings suggested by the Senate, within five years. After the Australian College had finally closed down in 1854, Lang directed the rest of his exertions in the educational field towards establishing a Presbyterian College affiliated with the University and becoming its first Principal. His attemots in this direction were to involve him in many violent clashes with his own colleagues of the Church and end once more in great person al disappointment. During the same year of the passing of the Affiliated Colleges B ill, Lang’s hopes for the establishment of a Presbyterian College with the University were boosted when his brother-in-law John Hunter Baillie left the whôle of his property (£10,000 in value) for the endowment of two Professorships in a Presbyterian College to be established in Sydney. One was to be fo r English Language and Literature while the other was to endow a Chair in Oriental and Polynesian Languages. (1) Lang had aroused B aillie’s interest in the latter field by publishing a book on the subject in 1834» (2). The establishment of a Presbyterian College at this particular time was made extremely difficu lt, if not imoossible by internal dissension within the colonial Presbyterian Church. There were no less than four branches of the Presbyterian Church in operation at the time Represented by the following groups:- 1. Synod of Australia (largest in number) 2. Synod of Eastern A u stralia (Free Church; second la rg e st) 3. Synod of Hew South Wales. (Lang and eight congregations) 4. United Presbyterians. (A single congregation at Balmain under Rev. Adam Thomson.) 1. T,St. Andrew’s etc. J.D.Lang, 1872, p.7 2. ’’Origin of the Polynesians" (263 pages) - 157 - Lang had formed the Synod of New South Wales in 183 8, (1) after he had disagreed with many of his colleagues over the mat ter of Government supoort to churches. This question was not set tle d u n til 1862 when, much to LangTs s a tis fa c tio n , the New South Wales Parliament passed an Act of Disestablishment. However, in 18^2, Lang had been v ir tu a lly excommunicated by both his lo c a l Presbyterian opponents in the Presbytery of New South Wales and in Scotland by the Presbytery of Irvin e where he had been ordained (2); the Synod of Sydney had declared th at he was no longer en titled to be called ’’Reverend” and any baptisms and marriages per formed by him were invalid. (3). In 1862 Lang fin a lly defeated the Scottish decision to excommunicate him and was rein stated . Even though the prospects fo r church unity were brigh ter a fte r Lang’ s victory and the New South Wales Parliament's Act of Disestablish ment in 1862, there were many old sores which were to continue to rankle many of the leading Presbyterian Churchmen, especially Dr.Lang. With such a background o f disunion within the Presbyterian Church, i t is l i t t l e wonder that Lang’ s e a r lie r work, u n til Union in 1865, proved abortive, and even after that date was marked by many violent clashes with his fellow-clergy. The f i r s t step was taken when the Synod of A u stralia met in August 1857 ’’with a view to effecting union with the Established Church of Scotland in erecting a Presbyterian College with the 1. L etter to Gipps b/b/1838. (Enel, to Gipps’ Despatch No.85,June 12,1838) 2. He was finally reinstated after a successful appeal through the Scottish Courts in 1862. See ’’History of N.S.W.” . ’75 Edn.Vol.il, pp.4L5-447. 3. Letter from Clerk of Synod of Sydney,Rev.Fullerton, pub. in S.M.H. For Lang’s struggle with his own church, see Gilchrist op.cit.p.329 e t seq. - 153- University of Sydney." (1) The Reverend J. Cameron moved that the Synod of Eastern Australia should be equally represented on a Committee for the formation of such an institution with the Synod of Australia. He moved also that no Minister then in the Austral ian Colonies be apoointed first Principal. The first provision omitted Langfs Synod of New South Wales and the second was certainly aimed at Lang himself. The long struggle between Lang’s group and the other sections of Presbyterian had be gun. Hostilities started in earnest in the early months of 185$ when both Lang’s group in the Synod of New South Wales and the other three Groups combined held separate public meetings to discuss the character of the proposed College and ways and means to establish it, The first of these meetings was held by three groups other than the Synod of New South Wales on April 5, with the Governor, Sir William Denison in the Chair, (2). Lang claimed that the Governor ’’had somehow taken umbrage at myself for something I had either said or written and meanly took advantage of his position on this occasion to gratify his spleen", for when Lang attempted to move an Amendment, Denison refused to receive it, stating that it would be "converting the meeting into a debating society." (3). Lang objected to the "hole-and-corner" meetings which had been held by the three groups before the meeting to establish a plan for the new College. Their proposal to establish a Theological Faculty as soon as the College was established was opposed by Lang who thought it an impossibility in view of the divided state of the church. Lan^ did not spare Reverend John Tait and Reverend James Fullerton, 1. "The Presbyterian College Question" W.McIntyre. Sydney 1 8 5 7 , IV. 2. "The Dead Fly in the Apothecary’s Ointment"', Lang, p.23. 3 . ib id , - 159- who he thought were making a "desperate effort to get me ex cluded from all connection with the future College." (1) He wrote of Tait - "a person of very meagre intellect; his want of real ability being comoensated by pomposity and affectation." Fuller ton did not escape Lang’s wrath any more lightly - "one of the four Ulster men, who I must say were all remarkably inferior speci mens of clerical humanity, and no credit to the Synod that sent them to Australia." (2) As well as illustrating Lang’s remarkable capacity for libellous remarks in bad taste, these extracts are typical of the fight connected with the establishment of St. Andrew’s ^almost'Jeictendd^n^up to the time of Lang’s death. Dr. Lang was not one to take quietly such a stgüh at a public meeting even from a Governor, and he decided to hold meetings among his own friends to put forward his views on how the College should be constituted and established. The first of these was held at Scots Church on April 12, 1S5# with Mr. John Richardson in the Chair. (3) At this meeting, Dr.Lang moved the following resolu tions which were carried by those present: (1) "The object and design of a Presbyterian College in connec tion with the University of Sydney, is simply to provide a suitable domicile, and the requisite moral superintendence, for the youth of the Presbyterian Communion from all parts of the Colony, while attending classes of the Sydney University." (2) "The establishment of a Theological Faculty, for the train ing up of candidates for the Ministry in the Presbyterian Church, although highly desirable in itself, and to be looked forward to as an important appendage pf the preposed College, is, therefore by no means necessary to its existence, as part and parcel of the University system, and would obviously be impracticable at present in the divided condition of the Presbyterian Church." 1. ibid, p.ll and p.22. (They had been instrumental in Lang’s deposition). 2. "The Dead Fly etc." op.cit. p.ll 3. See Lang Papers, Vel.l6 M.L. "Minutes pf Prpceedings of the Pub lic Meeting and Provisional Committee for the establishment of a Presbyterian College in connection with the University of Sydney", supplemented by newscuttings. - 160 - (3) As the Affiliated Colleges Act of 1854 provided £ 10,000 from the public treasury, provided that a similar amount was raised by the prom oters, Lang moved that care must be taken in raising money ”to ensure and perpetuate a thoroughly popular char acter for the Institution, and thereby prevent its becoming a mere aristocratic concern, uncared for and unsupported by the great body of the Presbyterian people. To get the full benefit of a popular institution like those in Scotland, Lang resolved that three-quar ters or at le a s t t h r e e -fif t h s o f the whole amount ” should be raised in comparatively small sums by the middle and industrious classes of the Presbyterian communion throughout the territory: who will thus take a deep interest in the institution which they have themselves contributed to establish, and to which they w ill look forward as the means of raising not a few of their offspring to the highest olaces in the land.” (4) Every su b scrib er o f £5 should be deemed a p ro p rie to r and entitled to vote at all proprietors’ meetings. Subscribers of £10 would have two v otes: £20 three v o te s : £50 four votes and £100 fiv e votes and no more. (5) One fifth of the amount to be paid by each subscriber would be paid at once, the remainder to be paid in equal instalments at the end of each of the first four years. (6) A Provisional Committee should be established, consisting o f one M in ister, a meinber o f Parliam ent, and one other layman on behalf of each section of the Presbyterian Church. (That is to say the Council would consist of a total of 12 members - 4 m in isters and 8 laym en.) The adjourned meeting was continued one week later in the Scots - 161- Church where Lang moved another resolution (1) that "as a ll students in the future Presbyterian College must attend the classes of the University of Sydney, while no student can be admitted into the University who has not attained his 15th or 16th year and undergone a previous tra in ih g in C lassics and Maths, it is indisoensably necessary for the very existence of a Presbyterian College that a Presbyterian Academy should be established for the training of students for the College and University.” He then moved the re-establishment of the Austral ian College for this purpose. Since he had failed to have this school incorporated into the actual machinery of the University, best the next^plan was to use it as a preparatory school for Presby terians . At a P rovision al Committee Meeting on May 12, 1858 (2), LangTs group (Thomas Barker, Sir John Robertson, John Black, N.D. Sten- house, Andrew and Dr. Lang) issued a statement of objection to the resolutions which had been passed at a meeting of the rival group on May 5th. As well as objecting to the establishment of a T h eological Faculty by any one section of the Church, Lang’ s Committee were opposed to the fix in g o f £10 as the low est amount to qualify a proprietor or shareholder of the College, Lang stated that this provision would exclude that very class - the industri ous working class - which it was of the utmost importance to con ciliate and attract. (We have seen this principle in his third resolu tion at the meeting o f 12th A p ril. Even though Lang always had the interests of the lower classes genuinely at heart, it is 1. ’’Presbyterian College - Adjourned Public Meeting” 19/4/1858. V ol. 16 Lang Papers M.L. 2. Vol. 6 Lang Papers M.L. ’’Statement of Objections etc.” 12/5/1858 - 162- not unfair to say that he also realised their value at the Bal lot box and, by enfranchising them in this case, Lang probably honed to consolidate his election as first Principal which was his greatest ambition in the last 20 years of his lif e . / Finally, Lang opposed the name ,!St. Andrew’ s” which he thought indicated an exclusive connection with the Established Church of Scotland and as a result was distasteful to some members of the Church. For years he fought for the title ’’Presbyterian College.” Growing alarmed at the a c tivities of the riva l group under the patronage of the Governor who had shown his h o s tility towards him in public, Lang petitioned Parliament (of which he was not then a member) in May or June, 185$, for a Select Committee to enquire in to and report upon the proceedings of the rival groups relative to the proposed Presbyterian College. (1) A Committee of the Legis lative Assembly was appointed on July 13, 185$ and issued to re port soon afterwards. (2) The Committee found that Lang’ s complaint concerning the exclu sion of the Synod of New South Wales was ju stified . It stated that ministers of the Synod of Australia, the Synod Eastern Australia, snot the only minister of the United Presbyterian Church and Minis ters of the Congregational Denomination were invited to co-operate in the preliminary arrangements for the meeting of April 5th to establish a Presbyterian College. However, ministers of the Synod of New South Wales had been ex cluded and Dr.Lang had actually been prevented from taking part in the proceedings. The Committee recommended that the Legislature TI ’’The Dead Fly etc” op.cit^ p. 24. 2. ’’Reoort of Select Committee of Legislative Assembly appointed July 13, 1858. Lang Papers Vol.16 M.L. - 163- refuse to pass any Act for the Incorporation of a Presbyterian College until all groups were represented. In e ffe c t then, the Committee set aside a ll previous attempts to establish a College, and Lang had won a crushing victory over his more numerous antagonists, and commented with satisfaction, ’’the impudent proceeding of the hole-and-corner clique was forth with squashed.” (1) From 1859 to 1866 Lang occupied himself in drawing up B ills to incorporate a Presbyterian College. (2) Among those from whom he asked advice was Professor Woolley who agreed with Lang that the establishment should be designated ’’Presbyterian College” rather "St. Andrew’s” . (3). Woolley agreed too with Lang’ s idea that no Principal should occupy the Chair of Theology but that position should be reserved fo r a person acceptable to a ll groups of the Church. The elected Principal would not necessarily fall into this category. However, Woolley regretted the use in Lang’s pro posed Bill of the words ’’systematic religious instruction” apply ing to a ll students in the College. He thought that these words suggested a course of theology rather than the true meaning of training up in Christian morality which he regarded the real duty of the Principal as "Pater familias". The words could be applied only to graduates training for the ministry. (A) W oolley’ s deter mination to keep dangerous sectarian issu^ s out of University life is seen here once more, and Lang agreed with this principle but nevertheless i t aopeared in the fin a l Act of 1857. 1. "The Dead Flytr e tc ."o o .c it. p.24. 2. Several of these are to be found in d ifferen t forms in Lang Papers V ol.l6 M.L. 3. J. Woolley to Lang 21/12/1859. Lang Papers Vol. 16 M.L. 4. ib id . - 164- Squabbles between the two Presbyterian grouos over the name of the College, and its constitution, added to the fact that Lang was not recognised as a Presbyterian minister at all, by the other grouos made agreement virtu ally impossible until Lang’s reinstatement and Parliament’s Act of Disestablishment in 1862. The proposed formation of a College connected with the University was one factor looking towards Unity in the Presbyterian Church. Groups desired the formation of such a college but could see its accomplishment only after unity had been achieved. Finally union was accomplished in 1865 by an Act of Parliament incorporating the body and settling the questions of property involved. (1) However, Lang had been elected as a member o f the Legislative Assembly for West Sydney in 1859, and was determined to use his position to push through a B ill incorporating a Presbyterian Col lege in connection with the University. After Lang had returned from his ninth v is it to England he submitted, in 1862, the draft of a B ill to the Legislative Assembly, which appointed a Select Committee, of which Lang was Chairman, to consider it. (2) The Committee examined many witnesses, including Reverend Dr. Woolley (3), Professor Smith and N.D.Stenhouse, a University Sena tor. Lang had tried to combine with the proposed College a pre paratory school (Australian College) but Dr. Woolley’s evidence had satisfied the Committee that the combination would not be prac9 ticable under the existing constitution of the University. (4) 1. Lang '»History of N.S.W.” . 1875 Edn. V o l.ll, p. 451. 2. ”St. Andrew’s or the Presbyterian College etc.” J.D.Lang, Sydney,1872. 3. V. and P .’s . Legislative Assembly, ibid, p.4 p.4 4. ,?6t. Andrew’s etc.” op±cit. p.4 - 165- Professor Smith and N.D. Stenhouse (a member of Lang’s provisional committee) satisfied the Committee that a Presbyterian who sub scribed £1 would be just as likely to give an intelligent vote as a more fortunate subscriber of £100. (1) However, by the end of the 1862 session, the Bill had only reached the second reading, and during the subsequent session, when Mr. Dalgleish was Chairman of the Select Committee on the Bill, it had been read for the second time and had passed the com mittee of the whole House when the Ministry was thrown out and Parliament dissolved. (2) In his speech to his constituents of West Sydney, in January 1865, Lang stated that it would be the last time that he would stand for Parliament, as he believed that the Presbyterian College Bill would soon be passed and he would ”be entrusted with the carrying out of the measure as Princioal of the College.” (3) Lang stated(4) that he had intended to submit the amended Bill to Parliament in the 1865 sessions, but since the union of the Presbyterian Churches was then impending, he held back until after the meeting of the General Assembly. However, Lang was astounded to see a group, led by Rev. John McGibbon, move that the General Assembly should not proceed with the consideration of the Presby terian College Bill because (a) the University was in a state of transition, the question as to whether degrees should be granted in certain cases without attendance at the University lectures being undecided, and (b) it was necessary to decide beforehand what Professorships s^hould be established in the proposed College. 1. V. and P. ’s. 1862. 2. ”St. Andrew’s etc.” op.cit. p.4 3. ”St. Andrew’s etc.” op.cit. p.4 4. ”The Presbyterian College - to Presbyterians of the Colony”, 23/7/1866. Vol. 16, Lang Papers, M.L. - 166 - Finally the Assembly carried a motion for the appointment of a Committee to take the whole subject into consideration, and to report to a future meeting of the Assembly. (1) Thus, much to LangTs distress, the General Assembly shelved the whole matter. Lang proclaimed both reasons offered by McGibbon "frivolous and fu tile in the extreme" (2) and stated that, in shelving the question for an indefinite period, the Assembly was postponing a matter of lif e and death to the Presbyterian Church in Australia - the training of local youth for the ministry. He affirmed that he had introduced the Bill into Parliament, in the first instance, as a representative of the people whose interests were far more deeoly involved than those of a few churchmen." A ll that the Assembly had a right to do, he wrote, was to ensure that its rights and interests, as an ecclesiastical body should be protected, and this had actually been done. The needs of Presbyterianism and the colony were to be considered above any petty differences which some members of the church could put forward to hold up the foun dation of the college. He asserted that he would present the Bill for Parliaments approval before the next meeting of the Assembly. Accordingly Lang introduced his 1862 B ill to the Legislative Assembly, to be subject to whatever amendments the Presbyterian General Assembly migjit wish to make. As Lang's B ill was under con sideration by Parliament when the General Assembly of 1866 met, immediate action was taken by that body in the matter, and an Amen ded B ill was prepared and presented to the B ill's Select Committee of which Lang was Chairman.(3) 1. "St. Andrew's e tc ." oo.cit. p«4. 2. "The Presbyterian College etc." op.cit. 23/7/1866. 3. "St. Andrew's etc." op.cit. p.5 - 167 - However, this arrangement did not conform with the rules of Parliament, for no previous notice had been given in Parliament of the General Assembly’s Amended Bill, as the standing orders required. Thus the Select Committee could not discuss the Assem bly’s Bill as such, but Lang ’’exolained the matter privately to the members to satisfy them individually that the changes proposed in the original measure were the result of a general agreement on the part of all parties concerned.” (1) On Cowper’s motion the points of difference were passed by the Committee as a series of amendments to Lang’s original Bill; the Assembly’s Amended Bill was not mentioned as such. The Legislative Assembly passed the Bill during 1366, but action in the Legislative Council was de layed until the 1867 session. (2) It is fairly clear that, in 1866, Lang took advantage of a legal technicality and used his own position in Parliament to push the Assembly’s proposals into the background and urge his own Bill. However, the Assembly took steps to block Lang’s Bill when Rev. McGibbon sent a petition to the Legislative Council accusing Lang of malpractice. (3). McGibbon stated that the General Assembly had drawn up a draft Bill without reference to Lang’s Bill before Parliament. He claimed that Lang was trying to avoid the opinions of the majority of Presbyterians by trying to push his Bill through Parliament before the General Assembly met. Indeed, McGibbon claimed tha^Lang had promised to introduce the Assembly’s Bill and had been paid the £25 necessary for the introduction of a private measure, but had spent TT ib id. 2. ib id . p . 6 3. Petition to the Legislative Council 13/12/1866. Voi. 16. Lang Papers. M.L. - 168- the Churchrs money and had substituted his own B ill. Lang had placed the AssemblyTs main suggestions as mere amendments to his own B ill - amendments which could e a s ily have been thrown out in Committee. Finally, McGibbon pointed out that Lang, as Chairman oj. the S elect Committee had fa ile d to c a ll anyone representing the Church Committee to verify the B ill, which was essentially LangTs own. The proposed amendments to LangTs B ill, to get it back into line with the draft of the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church were sent to the L e g is la tiv e Council. They were - a. ihe whole patronage of the College should be transferred from the College Council to the Assembly of the Presby terian Church. b. The name "St. AndrewTs" should be substituted for "Pres byterian College." ihe Assembly's views on the title of the college were expressed in a letter from Rev. Adam Thomson, the firs t Moderator of the United Church, to Lang in December 1866. (1) The t i t l e "Presbyterian Col lege", ihomson thought, "flaunted" the denominational character of the college in it s very t i t l e . He remarked that the other two c o l leges had avoided this unnecessary implication in their choice of name s . Lang answered McGibbons ' p e titio n by w ritin g to the L e g is la tiv e Council opposing the amendments. (2) Adding to his previous sugges tion that the name "St. Andrew's" was distasteful to any Presbyter ians, Lang said that the Church o f England had an establishment of the same name and the college would be regarded by the uninformed as a mere appendage to it. He claimed that the name "St. Andrew's" had been adopted by an "accidental majority" in the Assembly after many ixxR«t±txHMXt®xthsxL®gxxìxtxvsxS©3mKiìxì3^12^ì8iè6xxX0±xxiisxxL2HXxRaxsrj o* December 7,1866. V o i.16. Lang Papers. M.L. MxL. ^• 16/7/1867. Voi. 16. Lang Papers. M.L. - 169- country ministers had returned to their homes. He opposed the sub ordination of the College Council to the General Assembly, in matters concerning the government of the college, on the following grounds - (a) i t was not done in the other two established Colleges (b) it would lead to a conflict of jurisdictions, (c) the Council would be virtually unnecessary, (d) such was not the custom in simi lar institutions in Scotland. There is little doubt that Lang used his influence with his sister-in-law, M ri. Hunter Baillie , to get her to write a petition requesting Parliament not to sanction the name "St. Andrew’s" because, she stated, this title was against the wishes of her late husband whose valuable bequest might be imper illed if such a title were to be sanctioned." (1) The Legislative Council made two amendments to the B ill - one designating the institution "St. Andrew’s College" and the other changing the sum entitling subscribers to vote from £1 to £5. (2). These amendments were rejected by the Assembly, and after a jo in t s ittin g of the two Houses, the B ill was passed reserving the t i t l e "St. Andrew’s" but granting a £1 vote. The Act of Incorporation received Royal Assent on December 12, 1867* The constitution of St. Andrew’s College invested the government of the college in a Principal and 12 Councillors, of whom no more than four, in addition to the Principal, could be ministers. The Councillors were to be elected by subscribers on the following basis: £1-1 vote; £10 - 2 votes; £25 - 3 votes; £50 or more - 4 votes. The Principal was to be elected by the Council, and all tutors and professors were to be appointed and removed by the Principal and the Council. In cases of doctrinal error among staff members, the de- 1. Lang to Ueas Thomson Vol.16 Lang Papers. M.L. 2. Lang to Editor of "The Empire" 1867, Vol. 16. Lang Papers. - 170 - cision rested with the Presbytery of Sydney, subject to appeal to the General Assembly. The Moderator was to be Visitor to see that the rules of establishment were carried out. (1) The Uni- versity Senate granted seven acres of land fronting Missend^n Road as a site for the College. (2) Lang had worked for ten years to establish a college affilia ted with the Sydney University. Even since the establishment of his Caledonian Academy in 1826, Lang had dreamed of an estab lishment for the training of Presbyterian Ministers. He had hoped that the Australian College would serve this purpose, but we have seen the many difficulties which that institution encountered during its chequered career of over twenty years. With the passing of the Bill to incorporate St. AndrewTs College, Lang’s dream was fulfilled. He had used his position in Parliament to bring the college to reality, and had experienced much difficulty on the way,because as usual he was not the man to take directions from others, least of all, members of his own Church. He had stated that he was prepared to give up his position in Parliament to be come Principal of St. Andrew’s, and to Lang this was no mean sacri fice. His right to this position was, in his own mind, undoubted and his failure to become Principal disappointed and embittered him more than any other happening in his long and stormy career. A public meeting was held on April 29, 1^68, (3) a subscription list was opened and imputations appointed to canvass for funds throughout the colony. In a long and bitter pamphlet, Lang tells how the "Free Church conspirators” were careful to reserve all the 1. "Appeal to Presbyteriansof N.S.W. on behalf of St. Andrew’s,Sydney". Vol. 16. Lang Papers. M.L. 2. Sydney University Registrar to Lang 10/7/1071. Vol.16. Lang Papers.M.L. 3 . Cameron J. Centenary History of the Presbyterian Church in N.S.W." Sydney, 1905. p.152. - 171- populous areas for themselves, ensuring a majority of votes for Council and thus the position of Principal. (1) The truth seems to be that Lang had ruined himself in the eyes of his brethren clergy because of his political manoeuvring in the passing of the College Bill. (2) On November 7, 1870, the election of the College Council took place, and, although Lang was elected as one of the clergy mem bers, the vast majority of the Council were in the opposing camps. After several nominations for the position of Principal over the next two years, it was clear that Dr. Steel (Free Church) and his supporters did not wish Lang to hold that office. Lang went as far as petitioning the Legislative Assembly to with hold the grant of money from the Council because it had been un fairly formed. (3)* However, the Rev. Adam Thomson defeated Lang for the position of Principal by six votes to two on September 24th, 1872. Lang had written to the Colonial Secretary complaining about the illegality of the coming election (4) and received conflic ting replies from the Attorney-General. He appealed to the Su preme Court on June 27, 1873, and actually lodged an appeal (which he later withdrew) to the Privy Council. Although Lang lost a lot of supporters when he aopealed to the Court to have the election declared void, (5) his friends held meetings resolving sympathy 1. "St. AndrewTs etc." op.cit. p.8 et seq. Lang himself went to Tasmania, Victoria and S.W. New South Wales. 2. See hostile letters from Revs. Geikie, Johnson and others. Vol.16. Lang Papers. M.L. 3. Petition to Legislative Assembly 1872. Vol. 16. Lang Papers. M.L. 4. ibid. 17/6/1872. 5. William Barker to Lang 15/3/1873. ibid. - 172 - with Lang for the poor treatment he had received. (1) In the words of one of his Free Church antagonists, Rev. James Cameron, ”He availed himself of every opportunity to belittle and disparage, in a very unbecoming spirit, those who did not support his candidature.” (1) The attitude of those elected in the first Council towards Lang, Cameron states, was not unfriendly, but they could not "with good conscience” support him. ,TWe had before us the fact that the college he had himself brought into existence had collapsed, and we knew very well that a capacity for adminis- i)7 tration was not among the great talents which he possessed. ^'lore- over Lang was over seventy years old, and according to Cameron, the infirmities of old age were apparent. No doubt the aopointment of the impetuous, fiery Lang to such a position would have been extremely dangerous: a free lance, ego ist, and fighter was far better off in a position which had no higher authority. But when we look back on his long career of un tiring and valuable work for education, we cannot help regretting that he did not attain the position for which he had hoped so much. Perhaps Dr. Gilchrist was right when he made this remark on the occasion of the death of his great colleague of Scots Church - ”We cannot help feeling as we now look back upon the event after a lapse of some years, that the blow was as unwise as it was un kind; for it neither benefited the college nor promoted the peace of the Church, while it left a sting in an aged man’s heart with which he went sorrowing to the grave. (2). 1. e.g. on 18/8/1873, ibid. 2. Cameron op.cit. p. 155 3. Dr. Archibald Gilchrist - ”In Memoriam” 1873. Gilchrist A. op.cit. Vol. 11, p. 697. - ns CONCLUSION» John Dunmore Lang, one of the greatest friends of education in New South Wales in the nineteenth century, saw the value of education in building a nation free from the low moral tone associated with its early convict connections. He concerned himself with educational matters almost from the time of his arrival,in 1823, till his death in 1878, and surely one of Lang's greatest achievements in these formative years in the field of education was the use he made of the press, public addresses and Parliament to keep educational problems constantly under public notice. In dealing with these problems he was able to draw upon the wealth of knowledge he had gained from his observations in other lands. His insatiable appetite for travel made him the best informed man on educational matters in New South Wales, To add to this knowledge, he possessed initiative and driving power unequalled in this country in his lifetime; he would not hesitate to hazard a journey to England to place his case before the Secretary of State for the Colonies and to procure capable men, Lang was a dynamic person - the champion of the lower class majority - whose pamphlets and press articles generally ran into thousands of copies and were widely read by all classes of the community. Throughout his long career in the public life of his adopted country, Lang took every opportunity to thrust before the men in public office, and the people generally.^what he regarded as being the guiding principles of education, including ideas which have become guiding lights in our present system. The high place of the teacher in society and the great responsibility of the people guiding education to introduce and train teachers of high moral and intellectual standards to fit the youth in their care for a later moral and useful a15& noL-gZ life, were principles which Lang held dear. He believed that education was not the privilege of the rich but was the right of every individual in a colony fast growing to nationhood from the moral degradation of a convict settlement. He knew that government assistance was necessary if higher education was to extend to members of the lower classes who, this democrat -| 1 h - believed, had every right to improve themselves intellectually in order to gain the highest positions in the land. Dr Lang’s early experiments in higher education, culminating in the establishment of his Australian College and embracing these general principles, have seldom been given their due high place in the history of education in this state. The Australian College was the first attempt at establishing a university in the colony; Lang had hoped that, when elementary education had improved, the institution would be able to fulfil this higher role. The highly educated men introduced into the colony to conduct the courses at his college were, in themselves, valuable acquisitions to colonial society. Men like Henry Carmichael and David Mackenzie were destined to influence greatly the course of educational theory and practice in New South Wales. The evening lectures of John McGarvie and Carmichael resulted in ^ movement for Mechanics1Institutions and Schools oi Arts* and were thus the precursors of adult education.In addition, the extensive science equipment, purchased from Dr Ure, and the library of educational books were doubtless valuable cultural assets in a community without a public library. Even though, for the many reasons we have seen, the Australian College proved a failure in the sense that it ceased to exist after about 20 years of unsettled operation, it did not fail in that it gave to New South Wales education the influence of Scotland, at that time one of the leading countries of the world in educational matters. Thehigh Scottish standards of teacher training, the idea of teacher specialisation and the appreciation of moral and intellectual effort were reflected in New South Wales by Lang and the men he brought out as teachers. The education in the Australian College of over five hundred boys was no mean achienement in a colony where secondary education was a matter of private initiative and comparatively expensive. Because of his violent anti-Catholic bias, Lang in the 1830's did «HKh probably more than any other man to bring Governor Bourke's proposals to introduce the Irish National System into disrepute. However after visiting Ireland he found - Ili) ■ that the word "Irish" did not always mean "Catholic", and he threw his full weight into the struggle for the introduction of a national system in the time of Governor Gipps. As an important member of the Lowe Committee he was especially interested in pressing the idea of establishing a university or a normal institution for the proper training of teachers. The Sydney University,which was finally established# by Wentworth in 1850,was in no small measure the result of Lang’s previous campaigns in this direction. However its character proved to be very different from what Lang tho tight it ought to have been. He wanted the university to be purely an examining and supervising body like the University of London, with provision for a large number of affiliated colleges throughout the colony for the teaching of Arts. This system, he thought, would protect standards, avoid rivalry and give wider opportunity to people living in country areas. With the problems associated with the foundation of other universities to-day, perhaps Lang was right. However we must remember that his motives were not entirely unselfish (they seldom were) because the Australian College would have fitted neatly into his proposed pattern. Regardless of what may be thought of his actions and motives connected with the foundation of St Andrew's College, Lang's work in this regard was tireless. He used his peculiar position as clergyman and parliamentarian to establish a Presbyterian College affiliated with the university, eben though the enterprise ended in great disappointment to himself and dissention within his church. Lang's greatness as a promoter of education, and indeed as a statesman, was greatly reduced by the limitations which his own personality imposed upon him. Witn Lang '"it was either heaven or hell, the one for his friends, the other for his foes, whether ecclesiastical or political and each place was about equally populated."(l)His work in educational matters was marred by his insistance that he was always right, and his overbearing personality would seldom allow him to follow the lead of (fathers. His intolerance of opposition brought him 1.Professor R.G.McIntyre op.cit.,p.9 June 25, 1864.] Lilliputian—Dk. W—ST. Gullitoh —D u. L—NO. GULLIVER AT TI1E ANTIPODES. “ They were all acquainted with the Travels of Gull iter, and they were also awaro that he had been something of a traveller, as well as the famous Captain Gulliver. It had been his fortune to be placed upon a country inhabited by some very little men.”—Dr. Lang'» Speech at the Lreibyterian Meeting. ——— LANG ¡Egg FIGHTER. ______The "very little man” being held up by Lang is the Editor of the"Sydney Morning Herald",Rev John Vest, who had just sued Lang for libel and had obtained £100 damages.Lang had promised never to sue others for libel,but two years later he broke this promise and won £350 from the "Sydney Morning Herald." (See Gilchrist Vol.11,p.666.) into conflict with many who could have been of great help in furthering the ideas of a man who was often far ahead of his contemporaries. As a result he was often left alone in enterprises which would have progressed more smoothly had he been able to entrust administrative affairs to others more capable and having more time to devote to such matters. Finally, perhaps we could conclude, with Sir Henry Parkes,(l) that although John Dunmore Lang was an imperfect character, he was among the first rank of the friends of education during the formative years of the nineteenth century. His vitriolic pen, his booming voice, and his untiring energy combined to introduce those Scottish principles which were to play such an important role in moulding the future of Australian education. ************* i. At a public meeting, in 1882, to consider a memorial to Dr Lang. Quoted Gilchrist op.cit.,Vol.ll, p.740. - n ' t - BIBLIOGRAPHY. l.Primary Sources. A«, The Lang Papers in the Mitchell Library. Volume 1# - Miscellaneous Manuscripts Volume 2. - Letters from Dr Lang 1831-78. Volume 6. -Letters to Dr Lang 1820-54. Volume 7« -Letters to Dr Lang 1855-78. Volume 16»-Education Correspondence 1823-78. Volume 24*-Reminiscences of Dr Lang ...... Volume 27.- Petitions etc...... B. The Lang Papers in the Sydney University Archives. (These were the property of the Reverend Prank Hanlin.) Boxes 1-5. C. "Prospectuses and Leaflets Collected by J.D.Lang". (Mitchell Library)• D. Newscuttings Collected by the Mitchell Library. (Vols 12 & 135) E. "The Private Acts of New South Wales" 1832-1862.. (Government Printer, Sydney, 1863. M.L.) F. Historical Records of Australia. Series 1. Vols. X, XI, XVI, XVII, XV111, XIX, XX111. G. Newspapers. ’’The Australian" 1830, 1831, 1841. "The Colonist" 1835-1840. "The Morning Chronicle" July 10, 1844. "The Port Phillip Patriot and the Melbourne Advertiser"Nov.,1841. "The Sydney Gazfctte" 1826-1844. "The Sydney Herald" 1834. "The Sydney Morning Herald" 1843-54« "The Sydney Monitor" 1832, 1836. -ns- H• Votes and Proceedings of the Legislative Council. 1841, 1843, 1844. Legislative Assembly - 1862-65. I. Papers of Sir John Piper -(Mitchell Library) ,. Vol.2 J. Parkes Correspondence - (Mitchell Library) Vol.20. (Contains a poem, ’"John Dunmore Lang” by Henry Kendall•) BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS WRITTEN BY LANG, a. "An Account of Steps Taken in England with a View to the Establishment of an Academical Institution or College in New South Vales, and to Demonstrate the Practicability of Effecting an Extensive Emigration of the Industrious Classes form the Mother Country to that Colony,” (Stephens and Stkes, Sydney,1831.) 27 pages. b. ’"The Dead Fly in the Apothecary*s Ointment"(George Gallie, Glasgow, 1861.) 38 pages. C. "Emigration", (E.S.Hall, Sydney 1833) 18 pages. d. "Free Church Morality", (Sydney,1876) 45 pages. e. "Freedom and Independence for the Golden Lands of Australia", (Longman and Green, London, 1852.) 339 pages. f. "An Historical and Statistical Account of New South Wales’", 2 Volumes. 1854 Edition - Cochrane and McCrone, London*. 1837 Edition - A.J.Valpy, London. 1852 Edition - Longmans, London. 1875 Edition - Low and Searle, London. (1,014 pages). g . "Immigration and the Scotch Mechanics of 1831".-(Gibbs, Shallard and Co., Sydbey,1877•) 27 pages. -nq- h. '"St Andrew*s or the Presbyterian College; And How It has Fallen into its Present Anomalous and Discreditable Position^ (City Printing Office , Sydney, 1872«) 31 pages.. i. "Statement of Non-Political Services Rendered to the Government and People of New South Wales».'" (Gibbs, Shallard and Co., Sydney,1876.) 15 pages*. j. "Synod of Australia" (Sydney, 1857) 21 pages. k. '"Three Lectures on the Impolicy and Injustice of Religious Establishments".(Robert Barr, Sydney, 1856.) 76 Pages. 1 • "To the Scottish and other Presbyterians and to the Pttbjiic Generally, in Sydney, and throughout the Colony". (4 page broadsheet, Sydney, 1873*) m . "The Question of Questions!Or Is This Colony to be Transformed into a Province of the Popedom?" (J.Tegg and Co.,Sydney 1841«) 61 pages. n. "University Act1"^-single page broadsheet published on October 11,1850.. o. "University Bill'" (Sydney,, 1850.) 20 pages. OTHER CONTEMPORARY PUBLICATIONS. a. Bigge J.T. -Third Report. '"Report of the Commission of Inquiry on the State of Agriculture and Trade in New South Wales." 1823- b. Burton W.W. '"State of Religion and Education in New South Wales." (Cross, Simpkin and Marshall, London, 1840.) c. Carmichael H. "Introductory Discourse delivered at the Opening of the Sydney Mechanics* School of Arts. (N.S.W. Magazine", Vol.l, Parts 2-4,1833« - l ^ C - d. Carmichael H. '"Reply to Certain Calumnies and Misrepresentat ions put forth by Dr Lang in »The Colonist* newspaper of llth February,1836. Extracted from the Sydney Monitors* of 2Oth and 24th February, 1856U e. Macelhose J. "Picture of Sydney'" (for 1838 and 1839). (Macelhose, Sydney, 1838,1839.) f. McIntyre Rev.W. "The Presbyterian College Question™. (Pamphlet, Sydney, 1857.)(John Sherriff). g. Mackenzie Rev David. "The Emigrant's Guide'", London,1845. h. "Prospectus of the Sydney College", Mansfield, Sydney,1830. i. Raymond J. (Ed.) "N.S.W. Calendar and Directory", (Sydney, 1834. j. "Report of the Australian College".(First and Second Reports, 1832 and 1836 M.L.) 2. SECONDARY SOURCES. Barff H .E. "A Short Historical Account of the University of Sydney!' (Sydney, 1902.) Binns H.B. "A Century of Education 1808-1908".(London.Dent.1908.) Butlin S.J. "Foundations of the Australian Monetary System". 1788-185111.. (Melbourne University Press, 1953) Cameron Rev. J. ’"A Centenary History of the Presbyterian Church in New South Wales." (Angus and Robertson, Sydney, 1905.) - \%\- 5. Clark C.M.H. »Select Documents in Australian History«” Vol.l, 1788-1850•(Angus and Robertson, Sydney- 1950.) 6. Vol.ll ibid. f 1851-1900.(Angus and Robertson, 1955*) 7. Corrigan Brother U. ’»Catholic Education in New South Wales.’" x (Angus and Robertson, Sydney, 1930.) 8. Fogarty Brother R. »Catholic Education in Australia 1806- 1950».(Melbourne, I960. 2 Vols.) 9. Gibbons H.de B. ’»Industry in England'". (London, 1913)* 10. Gilchrist A. »John Dunmore Lang - Chiefly Autobiographical'»» (Melbourne, Jedgarm publications,1951. 2 Vols.. limited duplicated edition.) 11. Greenwood G.(Ed.) »Australia - A Social and Political History.»(Angus and Robertson, Sydney, 1955.) 12. Griffiths D.C. '»Documents on the Establishment of Education IN New South Wales»3!789-1880." (A.C.E.R. Melbourne 1957.) 13. McIntyre R.G. '»Centenary of John Dunmore Lang’?. (Pamphlet, John Andrew and Co.,Sydney, 1923.) 14. Merewether F.L.S. '"Reminiscences of the University of Sydney'? (Published for private distribution in Essex, England, 1898.) 15. Nadel G. '"Australia's Colonial Culture’? (Cheshire, Melbourne, 1957.) 16. Palmer Vance " National Portraits"(Angus and Robertson, Sydney, 1941. pp.62-72.) - isx- 17.Rusden G.W. "History of Australia”» (3Vols., Chapman and Hall, London,1883•) 18.Saunders C.J. "Scottish Democracy 1813-40.The Social and Intellectual Background”•(Edinburgh,1930.) 19* Smith S.H. and Spaull G.T. "History of Education in New South Wales". Phillip and Sons, Sydney,1923# 20. Tait T. ’"John Dunmore Lang - A Fighter for the Right".. Angus and Robertson, Sydney, 1923. 3. Unpublished Theses.. 1.ChiId A.C. '"John Dunmore Lang - Some Aspects of His Work and Character.'" Mitchell Library. (M.A. Thesis- Sydney University.) 2. Turney Cliff - "The Birth of Education in Australia". (2 Vols. M.ED Thesis, Sydney University, I960.) N ~1------■ ------•»------1- - ____T ------^ . -- ___J J J 4. Magazines and Journals. 1. "The Australian Journal of Education" Vol.4, No.2, July,I960. ( p p . m - 122 - article on Henry Carmichael by Cliff Turney.) 2. "The Centennial Magazine"- Vo1.1, No.7« February,1889• "John Dunmore Lang-A Recollection" by David Blair. 3 • '"Journal of the Royal Australian Historical Society • ’" a. Volume XVII. F.L.Wood "Some Early Educational Problems’”» p.387 et seq*. b. Volume XXII. (Part 11) A.C.Child ’"Studies in the Life and Work of John Dunmore Lang". 1936. c. Volume XXX.Rev. Frank Hanlin '"Sidelights on Dr John Dunmore Lang’". 1944, Part IV. d. Volume XXXV1.V.Goodin ’’Public Education in New South Wales before 1848." 4 articles, Parts 1-1V. e. Volume XXXV11«J.M.Ward, ’’The Foundation of Sydney University p.295 et seq* ♦ *4 ************