Per. Mineral. (2006), 75, 2-3, 205-216 http://go.to/permin

An International Journal of O PERIODICO di MINERALOGIA MINERALOGY, CRYSTALLOGRAPHY, GEOCHEMISTRY, established in 1930 ORE DEPOSITS, PETROLOGY, VOLCANOLOGY and applied topics on Environment, Archaeometry and Cultural Heritage

The stones of the Svevian castle of Rocca Imperiale (, southern ): characterization and provenance

Domenico Miriello1* and Gino Mirocle Crisci1

1 Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra, Università degli Studi della Calabria, Ponte P. Bucci cubo 15B – 87036 Arcavacata di (CS), Italy

Abstract. — The Svevian Castle of Rocca Key Words: siliciclastic outcrops, quarries, marly Imperiale (north-eastern Calabria, southern Italy) limestones, calcareous marls, marls, arkoses, was built between 1220 A.D. and 1225 A.D. by the quartz arenites, biocalcarenites, raw materials. Emperor Federico II of Svevia. This paper addresses the geochemical and petrographical characterisation of the stones used for its construction. The research Introduction evidenced that most of the Castle stony materials (marly limestones, calcareous marls, marls, arkoses and quartz arenites), were carved from siliciclastic The Svevian Castle of Rocca Imperiale (Fig. outcrops nearby Rocca Imperiale. Stones from outer 1), placed near the border between the Calabria e areas are more rare (biocalcarenites). These stones Basilicata regions (Southern Italy), is by far one of probably come from the nearby Puglia region and the most important Calabrian monuments, due to were mainly used for decoration. its geographical position, dimension and history. The building, ordered by the Emperor Federico II of Svevia, was constructed between 1220 and Riassunto. — Il castello di Rocca Imperiale 1225 (Fiore, 1989). The architect Nicolò De Cicala (Calabria nord-orientale, Italia meridionale) è (Fiore, 1989) probably indicated the exact place stato costruito tra il 1220 e il 1225 dall’Imperatore where it was built. In fact, for strategic reasons, the Federico II di Svevia. Il presente lavoro riguarda la Castle foundations were made on a 200 m high hill. caratterizzazione geochimica e petrografica delle During many centuries the Castle underwent many pietre utilizzate per la sua costruzione. Lo studio ha messo in evidenza che la maggior parte dei materiali architectonic changes due to the many military lapidei (calcari marnosi, marne calcaree, marne, sieges its structure had to face. We can remind arkose e quarzo areniti) del castello provengono dai the attack by “Carlo lo Zoppo” in 1296 during terreni flyschoidi di Rocca Imperiale. Più rare sono le the Aragon’s domination and the many attacks by pietre di origine non locale (biocalcareniti), utilizzate the Turkish in the course of the XVI century. The prevalentemente con finalità decorative e la cui Svevian owned the Castle up to 1266; after that, it provenienza è da ricondurre, con molta probabilità, went under the Angevin domination which lasted alla vicina Puglia. about 170 years. Successively, the Castle was dominated by the Aragons up to 1503. From that day the castle was sold and bought back for several * Corresponding author, E-mail: [email protected]; times and at the present it is patrimony of the local [email protected] municipality. 206 D. Miriello and G. Mirocle Crisci

Fig. 1 – Rocca Imperiale Svevian Castle: a) North view; b) Castle front door.

At present, there are neither archaeometric been sampled. Thus, 20 samples from the castle published studies about the castle nor detailed inside rooms were taken. They were labelled by an studies aiming to clarify the composition and identification mark “Rri”, followed by a sampling the provenance of the materials used for its progressive number. It wasn’t difficult to take the construction; for this reason, this work – which samples out of the walls since many of them have derives from a previous study carried on all tumbled down. To find out the areas where the the castle stony natural and artificial materials raw material were taken by the ancient builders, (Miriello, 2005) – is oriented to shed a light on many reconnaissance have been made on a 20 km2 composition and provenance of the stony material area and 18 samples representative of the different used for its construction. typologies, macroscopically similar to those of the castle, have been taken. Such samples were labelled by the identification mark “Cav”. Sampling and geology Figure 2 shows both the location of the outcrops out of which stony materials were taken and the The construction of the castle has been facilitated identification marks of the diverse samples. by the availability of stony material in the Rocca Imperiale territory is mostly characterised neighbourhood. The fields around Rocca Imperiale by siliciclastic rocks, which belong to the “Unità are often disseminated with piles of stones, even Sicilidi” (Ogniben, 1969). These terrains were large sized ones, which peasants have patiently involved in overlapping processes during the piled up in order to reclaim the ground and make late phases of the Calabrian arc construction it easy to be worked on by their agricultural tools. and generated some tectonic overthrusts. One of The siliciclastics outcrops in most of the study these geologic units known as “Rocca Imperiale area are characterized by diverse types of rocks, in overthrust”, forms the geological framework of the shape of blocks potentially fitting for building the studied area. The “Rocca Imperiale overthrust” purposes. is covered by Plio-Pleistocene sedimentary rocks All the rock types in the castle walls, which were (Ghezzi, 1973). The sequence (Fig. 2) comprises distinguished for macroscopic characteristics, have a shale and siliciclastic calcareous unit made up The stones of the Svevian castle of Rocca Imperiale (Calabria, southern Italy): ... 207

Fig. 2 – Geo-lithologic sketch map of the studied area with the sample sites.

of clays, shales, limestones (varying from marly Molybdenum and Rhodium tubes), following the limestones to marl), arkoses, quartz-arenites, with method for correcting matrix effects proposed by intercalations of calcarenitic layers. Pliocene Franzini et al. (1972, 1975). deposits (grey-blue clays and stratified yellowy The CaCO3 content of all the stony materials was sand) unconformably overlie the shale and measured by a “De Astis Calcimeter”; calcimetry siliciclastic calcareous unit. Pleistocene deposits has been used for classifying the carbonatic rocks transgressively overlie all previously described (Correns, 1968). rock types. They are made up of incoherent The acquisition of the thin section images with conglomerate, mixed to coarse-grained sand. polarised light was obtained by using a flatbed Gravels and Holocene sands occur along the Canna scanner equipped with an appropriate acquisition and Armi drainage basins. tool (Miriello & Crisci, 2006).

Methods Results and discussion

All the samples were petrographically Crisci et al. (2003) and De Francesco et al. (2003) characterized. The concentration of the major have shown that the petrographic study often allows

(SiO2, TiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3, MnO, MgO, CaO, Na2O, the resolution of many provenance problems at a K2O, P2O5) and trace elements (Cr, V, Nb, Ni, Zr, Y, first analysis. These observations, combined with Sr, Ba, Rb, La, Ce, Co) were determined by using the information obtained from chemical analysis a “Philips PW 1480” spectrometer (Scandium/ (Tab. 1) and by the calcimetry (Tab. 2), supplied a 208 D. Miriello and G. Mirocle Crisci ) of the stone samples taken from Rocca Imperiale (Rri) castle and from ) of the stone samples taken ppm from geological outcrops (Cav). outcrops geological from ) and trace elements ( ) and trace wt % XRF anhydrous analyses of major ( XRF anhydrous 7131148341111309 1 0 1 – Table SamplesSiO2 Rri 1TiO2 Rri 2Al2O3Fe2O3 Rri 3 61.57MnO Rri 4 14.06 0.72MgO 8.01CaO Rri 5 7.84 33.80 1.40 0.14 64917271724412139201220781632221927119 Na2O Rri 6 32.18 0.14K2O 3.77 2.71 0.08 3.23P2O5 35.90 Rri 7 0.39 7.56 8.57 4.52 0.20 10.01L.O.I. 1.70 1.98 Rri 8 13.15 84.04 0.52Cr 1.46 2.06 0.08 7.26 Rri 9 0.07 1.90 0.12 53.05V 78 6.23 0.75 Rri 10 0.79 0.14 0.10Nb1400310211210670040200 8.40 46.54 5.35 0.01 2.29 176143211184483314318141011360 0.05 Rri 11 1.20Ni 0.24 40.93 54.64 58.28 17 1.88 0.36 Rri 12 0.15Zr 0.17 1.23 0.00 2.93 31.58 83.49 Rri 13 45.97 0.11Y 1.20 0.20 0.11 Rri 14 0.05 3.19 29.50Sr 81.30 10.61 0.02 28 3.46 Rri 15 0.03Ba 9.58 0.17 32.96 85.58 64.79 0.66 0.42 1.99 Rri 16 0.00Rb 4.31 0.11 41.94 21.97 48.04 28 34 Rri 17La 2.91 0.62 0.11 131 0.67 3.54 0.08 Rri 18 40.23 41.06 19.12Ce 7.38 0.10 Rri 19 1.75 1.17Co18311146353101238175073423 0.13 42.18 81.96 12.85 0.17 16 18 273 1.80 2.61 Rri 20 51 2.92 355 0.20 15.75 17.47 27.97 9.08 0.28 0.34Samples 1.78 2.19 0.20 812 71 2.55 27.03 24.06 17 26 0.51 5.81 72 5.39 1.46 0.50 21 41SiO2 15.85 0.05 1238 1.58 12.44 38.65 73.36 0.04 1 Cav 66 0.14TiO2 25 17.47 8.11 1.45 0.13 26 14.53 0.11 79.89 52 0.20 2 Cav 121 2.29 3.72Al2O3 0.00 53 442 27.18 12.38 0.37 24.29 1 62.72Fe2O3 3 Cav 1.99 0.31 42 0.17 2.17 7.90 1.54 22 15.12 0.02MnO 34 22 38.15 89.98 926 5 Cav 7.33 42 0.40 57 1.12MgO 2.75 1.16 0.31 4.03 6 10 Cav 0.57 40.27 81.88 1.60 3.23 0.01 1465 47CaO 3.87 0.73 24 12 7 0.83 Cav 49 19 33.17 79.85 0.58 0.68Na2O 0.08 46 2.65 0.10 86 1437 2.29 0.69 0.04 57.19 0.47 8 Cav K2O 4.03 42.22 86.93 0.30 57 0.97 1 1.59 0.14 0.16 4.28 4.65 1144P2O5 20 9 Cav 23.85 0.15 1.73 3.37 25 48 103 0.00 42.23 69.33 41 0.59 10 Cav 6.64 0.30 1.14 18.36 11 Cav L.O.I. 0.83 0.32 0.08 3.79 40.35 0.54 69.87 454 2.40 3.57 47 0.4 12 11 Cav 4.1 0.08 0.47 28 3.88 92.72 20 Cav 0.12 20 28 83Cr 112 0.48 40.96 0.26 0.53 0.35 0.08 2.67 21 Cav 0.17 1 0.08 53.8 3.44 2.78 0.21V 54 5.83 42.33 0.10 712 23 Cav 0.49 38.27 83 1.58 14 0.14 24 Cav 0.64Nb 3.1 301 70.35 41 0.07 14.5 65.75 121419122259171112323202118195027 29 30 0.57 81 25 Cav 1362 1.60 0.05 4.22 36.41 0.01Ni 0.1 0.52 26 42 Cav 12.64 78.13 0.31 42 58.67 0.39 27 Cav Zr 0.58 4.88 0.3 33.57 81 13 0.05 1.92 0.38 53 0.18 274 28 0.09 0.09 60.58Y 51 32 2.4 4.41 58 5.18 224 37.43 0.09 0.05 2.38 0.45Sr 57 0.08 60.76 0.32 0.00 61.85 0.17 0.67 382 40.05 27 6.68 5.94Ba 78 118 1 65 23 58.38 18 0.05 0.54 0.1 92Rb 7 1.86 2.8 0.00 69.9 0.06 1.01 7.76 63 86 2.44 1.08 691La 114 126 60.2 33 20 73 19 34.42 0.62Ce 10.19 4.87 13 1.1 1.23 19 0.2 0.12 0.79 61 16 38.42 615Co168191823185519112019181818317 2.1 38.46 16 147 56 612 12.31 38.92 0.07 284 76 0.79 18 0.52 0.14 3.4 14 29 60.5 196 0.1 37 33 16.05 10.59 27 0.86 646 17 593 31 0.14 0.14 84 43 94 198 0.14 16.72 8.06 3 0.9 67 6.04 132 36 2.96 61 58 629 1 73 22 16.39 19 0.12 601 0.25 26.34 91 0 0.09 127 6.32 22 0.74 7 5.99 36 47 88 3.37 16.81 10.62 15 766 56 2.67 12 0.27 0.03 604 39 38 0.08 19 62 6.15 20 16.88 0.76 37 4 5.14 138 80 5.6 26 6.95 26 24 2.94 24 1035 1.17 860 0.09 12 7.51 6.49 40 0.84 51 129 4.39 43 23 27 28 5.06 7.21 0 167 1259 93 3.76 10 1.96 15.31 26 150 220 0.08 31 6.83 12 0.76 175 4.73 4 32 5.19 6.91 85 0.09 139 38 1225 28 25 1 19 0.07 3.9 1.3 92 47.77 70 56 5.49 2.5 35 0.2 3 437 44 6.25 0.15 112 11 756 1.13 65 3.19 49 80 29 7.52 13 4.71 5.73 1.5 23 0.74 1 20 6.87 0.12 551 48 26 53 0.18 68 74 121 1 29.75 3.8 53 1.66 0.13 16 69 21 2.5 19 17 33 45 90 139 70 20 45 8.35 4.58 65 724 20 0.14 0.3 13 1.45 68 30 22 19 117 1 34 46 56 0.12 3.95 237 1 1.16 22 64 63 2 119 95 22 0.36 1.34 21 378 55 1 89 75 18 66 1 134 0.14 144 21 292 4 196 80 26 7 27 5 118 59 140 1179 1 407 12 28 1 129 40 51 17 486 41 42 507 14 12 134 637 27 106 477 60 68 27 38 1088 124 11 766 23 55 58 20 658 80 583 12 23 54 62 29 315 133 12 595 27 54 89 29 4 26 54 60 38 10 54 52 24 117 53 47 64 35 The stones of the Svevian castle of Rocca Imperiale (Calabria, southern Italy): ... 209

Table 2 – Content of CaCO3 (wt %) in the castle stones (Rri) and in geological outcrops stones (Cav) determined by calcimetry.

Samples Rri 1 Rri 2 Rri 3 Rri 4 Rri 5 Rri 6 Rri 7 Rri 8 Rri 9 Rri 10 Rri 11 Rri 12 Rri 13 Rri 14 Rri 15 Rri 16 Rri 17 Rri 18 Rri 19 Rri 20

CaCO3 13.9 85.4 74.2 70.3 75.4 78.4 79.4 83.4 33.2 51.9 72.5 28.8 49.5 78.4 80.4 82.3 85.1 87.2 76.4 87.2

Samples Cav 1 Cav 2 Cav 3 Cav 5 Cav 6 Cav 7 Cav 8 Cav 9 Cav 10 Cav 11 Cav 12 Cav 20 Cav 21 Cav 23 Cav 24 Cav 25 Cav 26 Cav 27

CaCO3 68.6 74.4 78.4 85.0 82.4 8.9 80.4 83.3 1.0 62.7 20.6 3.0 6.9 6.9 6.0 4.9 68.3 10.9

complete characterisation of the stones sampled in crystals either macroscopically or in thin section the castle and near the outcrops. Such stones are (Fig. 4). Most of the marls have a very fine grain described in the following sections. size which is not resolvable on the microscope, but in some samples very small quartz crystals, dispersed in a micritic matrix, can be recognised. Stones of the castle Biocalcarenites are scarcely used in the castle walls; in fact, they are mainly adopted to embellish Most of the stones in the castle walls show the rooms’ entry doors and the towers. These rocks a rather different macroscopic aspect (Fig. 3); range in colour from white-pink to light-brown. however, dark grey coloured blocks which confer Coarse-grained biocalcarenite are characterised to the structure a homogeneous aspect on the by a low cohesion; the fossils of the framework whole, prevail. are visible to the naked eye and have an average The castle rocks can be subdivided into eight size of 2 mm (Fig. 3). In thin section there are distinct types (Correns, 1968; Folk, 1968): marly several fossil fragments, while quartz, orthoclase, limestone (Rri 2, Rri 17, Rri 20), calcareous marl plagioclase and biotite are more rare. The sparitic (Rri 3, Rri 4, Rri 5, Rri 11, Rri 14, Rri 15, Rri 16, Rri matrix is nearly totally interested by dissolution 19), marl (Rri 10), coarse-grained biocalcarenite due to diagenesis. Dissolution pores range in (Rri 8, Rri 18), fine-grained biocalcarenite (Rri size from 0.3 to 0.4 mm (Fig. 4). Fine-grained 6), very fine-grained biocalcarenite (Rri 7), arkose biocalcarenite shows a straw–yellow macroscopic (Rri 9, Rri 12, Rri 13), quartz arenite (Rri 1). colour (Fig. 3). Cohesion is rather low; in fact, it Marly limestones have high cohesion, and is possible to break the sample by hands. In thin macroscopically show a homogeneous brown-grey section (Fig. 4) its framework appears to be totally colour (Fig. 3). They show a homogeneous aspect built up of bioclasts with dimensions varying from and are represented by micritic calcite (Fig. 4), and about 0.2 to 1 mm: the sparitic matrix evidences sometimes microsparite. The pores have irregular dissolution processes with clear irregular shaped shape, ranging in size between 0.03 mm and 0.1 pores (0.1< Ø <0.6 mm). mm. The very fine-grained biocalcarenite has a white- Calcareous marls are the most spread rock pink macroscopic colour (Fig. 3) and shows an types in the castle walls. Their macroscopic aspect average cohesion; sometimes the sample appears is very variable (Fig. 3), especially in colour. In dusty to touch, which is a sign of possible active fact, white-pink, grey-dark or even brown-reddish deterioration processes; thin section analysis calcareous marls can be observed. In thin section, evidenced a framework made up of micro- crystals are not resolvable; rare round pores foraminifer skeletons (Fig. 4) with an average size (0.2<Ø<0.6 mm) filled with microcrystalline of 0.3 mm. In the sparitic matrix, rare subcircular- calcite can be observed. The texture on the whole shaped dissolution pores are visible. is micritic, rarely cryptocrystalline and lacking in The arkose sampled within the castle show a pores. greyish macroscopic colour (Fig. 3). In thin section The marls, prevalently light-grey in colour (Fig. they appear prevalently made up of microcrystalline 3), show a typical conchoidal fracture and are quartz fragments, muscovite, plagioclase, biotite, often crossed by fractures filled with visible calcite chlorite and rare opaque minerals; the framework 210 D. Miriello and G. Mirocle Crisci

Fig. 3 – Macroscopic representative stones of the castle. grains are cemented by micrite covering a surface Stones of the local outcrops included between about 12 and 30% of the whole section. The clasts average size are 0.12 mm. The sampled outcrops around Rocca Imperiale Porosity is low. are indicated in Fig. 2. The identified rock types The quartz arenite is the less diffuse rock can be divided into calcareous marls (Cav 1, Cav type in the castle. It appears macroscopically 2, Cav 3, Cav 5, Cav 6, Cav 9, Cav 26), marls (Cav homogeneous and shows a dark-brown colour 11) and quartz arenites (Cav 7, Cav 21), which (Fig. 3); in thin section, this rock type exhibits a have the same petrographic and macroscopic framework prevalently made of sub-angular quartz peculiarities described in the previous section. In monocrystalline grains. Biotite, muscovite and rare such outcrops there are also calcarenites (Cav 8), orthoclase and plagioclase crystals are observed. quartz-feldspatic sandstones (Cav 20, Cav 23, Cav The micas in some sandstone samples appear 24, Cav 25, Cav 27), lithic graywackes (Cav 12) e partially isoriented. The clasts have an average cherts (Cav 10), unused in the castle construction size of 0.23 mm. The pores are scarce; they are but potentially utilizable as building material. In prevalently irregularly shaped and their size is fig. 5 some representative samples of the studied between 0.03 and 0.5 mm. rocks are shown. The stones of the Svevian castle of Rocca Imperiale (Calabria, southern Italy): ... 211

Fig. 4 – Photos acquired through flatbed scanner in transmitted polarized light; representative stones of the castle: a) Rri 2, marly limestone; b) Rri 19, calcareous marl; c) Rri 10, marl; d) Rri 8, coarse-grained biocalcarenite; e) Rri 6, fine-grained biocalcarenite; f) Rri 7, very fine-grained biocalcarenite; g) Rri12, arkose; h) Rri 1, quartz arenite.

The calcarenites macroscopically show a (Fig. 5e). The framework grains range in size homogeneous brown-greyish colour and have from 0.1 to 2 mm and are sub-angular. The matrix a very high cohesion. In thin section they have takes up less than 15% of the whole thin section. a framework made up of micro-foraminifer The identified framework minerals are quartz, fragments, quartz and altered plagioclase (Fig. orthoclase, plagioclase, muscovite, biotite and 5c); average sizes are 0.2 mm. The matrix is chlorite; carbonate fragments are rare. Porosity is mainly represented by micrite. The pores are very low. prevalently irregularly shaped (0.03< Ø <0.6 The lithic graywackes macroscopically show mm). a homogeneous brown-greyish colour and have The quartz-feldspatic sandstones high cohesion. In thin section the grains forming macroscopically show a dark-brown colour. They the framework have an average size of 1 mm appear homogeneous and of elevated cohesion. In (Fig. 5f) and are angular. There are many quartz thin section, a framework made of diverse plutonic fragments and the matrix takes up about 15-20% and metamorphic rock fragments is observed of the thin section. Identified minerals are quartz, 212 D. Miriello and G. Mirocle Crisci

Fig. 5 – Photos acquired through flatbed scanner in transmitted polarized light; representative stones of the local outcrops: a) Cav 3, calcareous marl; b) Cav 11, marl; c) Cav 8, calcarenite; d) Cav 21, quartz arenite; e) Cav 20, quartz-feldspatic sandstone; f) Cav 12, lithic graywacke; g) Cav 10, chert.

plagioclase, biotite, muscovite and chlorite. Pores Provenance of the stones are prevalently irregular shaped (0.03< Ø <1 Marls, calcareous marls, and quartz arenites, mm). forming most of the stones by which the castle The cherts, macroscopically show a brown- was made, have probably a local provenance. Such reddish colour and have a typical conchoidal stones exhibit a remarkable geochemical similarity, fracture. In thin section (Fig. 5g) rounded structures showing the same petrographical characteristics (radiolarites), plunged within an extremely as the ones sampled nearby the local outcrops. homogeneous reddish matrix, are observed. Moreover, it is clearly visible how the diverse Fractures which are partially filled with quartz, compositional fields perfectly overlap one another and rarely with calcite, are visible. (Fig. 6). The stones of the Svevian castle of Rocca Imperiale (Calabria, southern Italy): ... 213

Fig. 6 – Geochemical comparison among calcareous marls, marls and quartz arenites of the castle with calcareous marls, marls and quartz arenites of the local outcrops.

Marly limestone and sandstones were also connected to the presence of the carbonatic sampled on the castle. Even though such stones binder dissolution processes, clearly observed were not recognised in the nearby local outcrops in thin section (Fig. 8). We may thus affirm during the sampling, they have been reported in that the castle biocalcarenites do not have a the area by Ghezzi (1973), within the shale and local provenance; in fact, this rock type does siliciclastic calcareous-arenaceous unit; thus, a not outcrop in the Rocca Imperiale area. Taking possible local provenance for them is plausible. into account the geographical proximity with the Different considerations can be done for Puglia region and the remarkable compositional biocalcarenites; indeed, comparing the major similarities with the calcarenites in this region element chemical composition of the castle (D’Alessandro & Iannone, 1983; D’Alessandro biocalcarenites with that one of calcarenites with et al., 1979, 2004; Rodolico, 1995; Andriani & microfossils sampled nearby Rocca Imperiale Walsh, 2002), a provenance of this rock type from (Fig. 7a), it appears evident how the castle the Puglia region can be regarded as reasonable. samples (Rri 6, Rri 7, Rri 8 e Rri 18) are, on the whole, homogeneous, while the sample Cav 8 shows a content in CaO which is relatively Acknowledgments lower than the others. Furthermore, in Fig. 7b an anomaly for the barium separates very well We thank E. Le Pera, F. Scarciglia, M.P. Bernasconi the sample Cav 8 from the others. In fig. 7b it and W. Spataro, for useful suggestions and interesting is visible that the pattern Rri 18 shows a rather discussions. We wish to express our thankfulness the low strontium content, which is not to be related Superintendence to the Cultural and Environmental to an original non-homogeneity with respect to Patrimony of Calabria Region and the Local samples Rri 6, Rri 7 and Rri 8. Conversely, it is Council of Rocca Imperiale for their kind and useful rather due to the intense sample deterioration, cooperation. 214 D. Miriello and G. Mirocle Crisci

Fig. 7 – Geochemical comparison between the biocalcarenites of the castle (Rri) and the calcarenites of the local outcrop (Cav). a) Trend of the major elements; b) Trend of trace elements.

Fig. 8 – Microphotography of the coarse-grained biocalcarenite (sample Rri 18). The stones of the Svevian castle of Rocca Imperiale (Calabria, southern Italy): ... 215

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