DOCSLIB.ORG

Improving Students' Learning with Effective Learning Techniques

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Improving Students' Learning with Effective Learning Techniques Psychological Science in the Public Interest Improving Students’ Learning With 14(1) 4 –58 © The Author(s) 2013 Reprints and permission: Effective Learning Techniques: Promising sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav DOI: 10.1177/1529100612453266 Directions From Cognitive and http://pspi.sagepub.com Educational Psychology John Dunlosky1, Katherine A. Rawson1, Elizabeth J. Marsh2, Mitchell J. Nathan3, and Daniel T. Willingham4 1Department of Psychology, Kent State University; 2Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Duke University; 3Department of Educational Psychology, Department of Curriculum & Instruction, and Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin–Madison; and 4Department of Psychology, University of Virginia Summary Many students are being left behind by an educational system that some people believe is in crisis. Improving educational outcomes will require efforts on many fronts, but a central premise of this monograph is that one part of a solution involves helping students to better regulate their learning through the use of effective learning techniques. Fortunately, cognitive and educational psychologists have been developing and evaluating easy-to-use learning techniques that could help students achieve their learning goals. In this monograph, we discuss 10 learning techniques in detail and offer recommendations about their relative utility. We selected techniques that were expected to be relatively easy to use and hence could be adopted by many students. Also, some techniques (e.g., highlighting and rereading) were selected because students report relying heavily on them, which makes it especially important to examine how well they work. The techniques include elaborative interrogation, self-explanation, summarization, highlighting (or underlining), the keyword mnemonic, imagery use for text learning, rereading, practice testing, distributed practice, and interleaved practice. To offer recommendations about the relative utility of these techniques, we evaluated whether their benefits generalize across four categories of variables: learning conditions, student characteristics, materials, and criterion tasks. Learning conditions include aspects of the learning environment in which the technique is implemented, such as whether a student studies alone or with a group. Student characteristics include variables such as age, ability, and level of prior knowledge. Materials vary from simple concepts to mathematical problems to complicated science texts. Criterion tasks include different outcome measures that are relevant to student achievement, such as those tapping memory, problem solving, and comprehension. We attempted to provide thorough reviews for each technique, so this monograph is rather lengthy. However, we also wrote the monograph in a modular fashion, so it is easy to use. In particular, each review is divided into the following sections: 1. General description of the technique and why it should work 2. How general are the effects of this technique? 2a. Learning conditions 2b. Student characteristics 2c. Materials 2d. Criterion tasks 3. Effects in representative educational contexts 4. Issues for implementation 5. Overall assessment Corresponding Author: John Dunlosky, Psychology, Kent State University, Kent, OH 44242 E-mail: [email protected] Improving Student Achievement 5 The review for each technique can be read independently of the others, and particular variables of interest can be easily compared across techniques. To foreshadow our final recommendations, the techniques vary widely with respect to their generalizability and promise for improving student learning. Practice testing and distributed practice received high utility assessments because they benefit learners of different ages and abilities and have been shown to boost students’ performance across many criterion tasks and even in educational contexts. Elaborative interrogation, self-explanation, and interleaved practice received moderate utility assessments. The benefits of these techniques do generalize across some variables, yet despite their promise, they fell short of a high utility assessment because the evidence for their efficacy is limited. For instance, elaborative interrogation and self- explanation have not been adequately evaluated in educational contexts, and the benefits of interleaving have just begun to be systematically explored, so the ultimate effectiveness of these techniques is currently unknown. Nevertheless, the techniques that received moderate-utility ratings show enough promise for us to recommend their use in appropriate situations, which we describe in detail within the review of each technique. Five techniques received a low utility assessment: summarization, highlighting, the keyword mnemonic, imagery use for text learning, and rereading. These techniques were rated as low utility for numerous reasons. Summarization and imagery use for text learning have been shown to help some students on some criterion tasks, yet the conditions under which these techniques produce benefits are limited, and much research is still needed to fully explore their overall effectiveness. The keyword mnemonic is difficult to implement in some contexts, and it appears to benefit students for a limited number of materials and for short retention intervals. Most students report rereading and highlighting, yet these techniques do not consistently boost students’ performance, so other techniques should be used in their place (e.g., practice testing instead of rereading). Our hope is that this monograph will foster improvements in student learning, not only by showcasing which learning techniques are likely to have the most generalizable effects but also by encouraging researchers to continue investigating the most promising techniques. Accordingly, in our closing remarks, we discuss some issues for how these techniques could be implemented by teachers and students, and we highlight directions for future research. Introduction techniques (e.g., self-testing, distributed practice) because an initial survey of the literature indicated that they could improve If simple techniques were available that teachers and students student success across a wide range of conditions. Other tech- could use to improve student learning and achievement, would niques (e.g., rereading and highlighting) were included you be surprised if teachers were not being told about these because students report using them frequently. Moreover, stu- techniques and if many students were not using them? What if dents are responsible for regulating an increasing amount of students were instead adopting ineffective learning techniques their learning as they progress from elementary grades through that undermined their achievement, or at least did not improve middle school and high school to college. Lifelong learners it? Shouldn’t they stop using these techniques and begin using also need to continue regulating their own learning, whether ones that are effective? Psychologists have been developing it takes place in the context of postgraduate education, the and evaluating the efficacy of techniques for study and instruc- workplace, the development of new hobbies, or recreational tion for more than 100 years. Nevertheless, some effective activities. techniques are underutilized—many teachers do not learn Thus, we limited our choices to techniques that could be about them, and hence many students do not use them, despite implemented by students without assistance (e.g., without evidence suggesting that the techniques could benefit student requiring advanced technologies or extensive materials that achievement with little added effort. Also, some learning tech- would have to be prepared by a teacher). Some training may niques that are popular and often used by students are rela- be required for students to learn how to use a technique with tively ineffective. One potential reason for the disconnect fidelity, but in principle, students should be able to use the between research on the efficacy of learning techniques and techniques without supervision. We also chose techniques for their use in educational practice is that because so many tech- which a sufficient amount of empirical evidence was available niques are available, it would be challenging for educators to to support at least a preliminary assessment of potential effi- sift through the relevant research to decide which ones show cacy. Of course, we could not review all the techniques that promise of efficacy and could feasibly be implemented by stu- meet these criteria, given the in-depth nature of our reviews, dents (Pressley, Goodchild, Fleet, Zajchowski, & Evans, and these criteria excluded some techniques that show much 1989). promise, such as techniques that are driven by advanced Toward meeting this challenge, we explored the efficacy of technologies. 10 learning techniques (listed in Table 1) that students could Because teachers are most likely to learn about these tech- use to improve their success across a wide variety of content niques in educational psychology classes, we examined domains.1 The learning techniques we consider here were cho- how some educational-psychology textbooks covered them sen on the basis of the following criteria. We chose some (Ormrod, 2008; Santrock, 2008; Slavin, 2009; Snowman, 6 Dunlosky et al. Table 1. Learning Techniques Technique Description 1. Elaborative interrogation Generating an explanation for why an explicitly stated fact or concept is true 2. Self-explanation
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Unit 7 Psychology of Adult Learning and Motivation
    UNIT 7 PSYCHOLOGY OF ADULT LEARNING AND MOTIVATION - - - - - - - - - - - - Structure 7.0 Introduction 7.1 Objectives 7.2 Definitions of Certain Terms Used 7.2.1 Psychology 7.2.2 Educational Psychology 7.2.3 Adult Psychology 7.3 Nature of Psychology/Teaching-Learning 7.3.1 Nature of Teaching 7.3.2 Nature of Learning 7.3.3 Nature of Adult Learning 7.4 Scope of Psychology of Learning 7.5 Relevance of Psychology to Adult Learning 7.6 Theories of Learning and their Relevance to Adult Learning 7.6.1 Learning by Associat~on 7.6.2 Learning by Conditioning 7.6.3 Learning by Doing (Trial and Error) 7.6.4 Learn~ngby Insight 7.7 Motivation for Adult Learning 7.7.1 Concept of Motivation 7.7.2 Functions of Motivation 7.7.3 Types of Motivation 7.8 Theories of Motivation 7.8.1 Psycho-Analytic Theory 7.8.2 Maslow's Theory of Self-Actualisation 7.8.3 Psychological Theory of Motivation 7.8.4 Achievement-Motivation Theory 7.9 Approaches to Motivation of Adult Learners 7.10 LetUsSumUp 7.1 1 Answers to Check Your Progress 7.1 2 References 7.0 INTRODUCTION Dear student, in the previous unit, i.e. Unit 6 under Block 2, we could understand the trends in philosophical foundations of adult education in which we have studied the philosophies of Jean Piaget (1896- 1980), John Deway (1 859- 1952) Antonio Gramsci (189 1- 1937) and Paulo Freire (I92 1 - 1997). We have also discussed the philosophies of Indian thinkers viz., M.K.Gandhi and Rabindranath Tagore and their contributions to adult education.
    [Show full text]
  • 4-Pager Six Strategies for Effective Learning
    Six Strategies for Effective Learning Document prepared by Yana Weinstein, PhD University of Massachusetts Lowell The Learning Scientists: http://www.learningscientists.org Resources on the 6 strategies: http://www.learningscientists.org/downloadable-materials/ Cognitive psychologists have made significant advances in applying cognitive processes to education in the past few decade (Dunlosky, Rawson, Marsh, Nathan, & Willingham, 2013; Weinstein, Madan, & Smith, in press; Smith, Madan, & Weinstein, in press). From this work, specific recommendations can be made for students to maximize their learning efficiency. Specifically, six key learning strategies from cognitive research can be applied to education: spaced practice, interleaving, elaborative interrogation, concrete examples, dual coding, and retrieval practice. However, a recent report (Pomerance, Greenberg, & Walsh, 2016) found that few teacher-training textbooks cover these principles; current study-skills courses also lack coverage of these important learning strategies. Students are therefore missing out on mastering techniques they could use on their own to learn effectively. We recently synthesized these 6 strategies in a new framework that involves the following three stages: planning (spaced practice and interleaving); reinforcement (retrieval practice); and development of understanding (elaboration, concrete examples, and dual coding; Smith & Weinstein, in press). What follows is a heavily abridged version of: Weinstein, Y., Madan, C. R., & Smith, M. A. (in press). Teaching the science of learning. Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications. Planning Spaced Practice The benefits of spaced (or distributed) practice to learning is arguably one of the strongest contributions that cognitive psychology has made to education (Kang, 2016). The effect is simple: repetitions spaced out over time will lead to greater retention of information in the long run than the same number of repetitions close together in time (known as massing).
    [Show full text]
  • An Introduction to Learning Todd M
    An Introduction to Learning Todd M. Gureckis ([email protected]) http://smash.psych.nyu.edu/ Fridays 12:30pm-2:30pm, Rm 469 Overview: Learning is a critical component of adaptive behavior in animals and humans. This course will expose students to key concepts, theories, and experimental paradigms for studying human learning. The goal is to provide an integrative view of the area that crosses both classic approaches (e.g., classical conditioning, instrumental learning) as well as modern issues (e.g., cognitive neuroscience of learning, language learning, social learning, computational approaches). Special attention will be given to exploring what is known about the neural substrates of learning and memory, as well as computational and mathematical theories. In addition, the class is oriented toward a understanding of the evolution of ideas about learning in the field. Students will leave the course as sophisticated consumers of learning research and be able to apply learning concepts directly to their own research. This course fulfills part of the introductory “core” cognition requirements for the NYU psychology program. As such there will be a series of exams throughout the semester that assess mastery of the key concepts. Grading: Active class participation (15%) and homeworks and assignments based on readings (15%), two exams (each worth 35%). Course Website: Bookmark and check back often for announcements and links to the readings: http://smash.psych.nyu.edu/courses/fall10/learning Textbook: Learning and Memory: From Brain to Behavior by Gluck, Mercado, and Myers (should be available at the NYU Bookstore). The Gluck text is geared at a slightly introductory level but provides a useful “frame” within which to structure our dialog this semester.
    [Show full text]
  • A Test of the Effects of Overlearning and Skill Retention Interval on Maintenance of Infrequently Used Complex Skills
    Skill retention: A test of the effects of overlearning and skill retention interval on maintenance of infrequently used complex skills A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy In Experimental and Applied Psychology University of Regina By Gregory Paul Krätzig Regina, Saskatchewan April 2016 Copyright 2016: G.K. Krätzig UNIVERSITY OF REGINA FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES AND RESEARCH SUPERVISORY AND EXAMINING COMMITTEE Gregory Paul Kratzig, candidate for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Experimental and Applied Psychology, has presented a thesis titled, Skill retention: A test of the effects of overlearning and skill retention interval on maintenance of infrequently used complex skills, in an oral examination held on December 21, 2015. The following committee members have found the thesis acceptable in form and content, and that the candidate demonstrated satisfactory knowledge of the subject material. External Examiner: *Dr. Bryan Vila, Washington State University Supervisor: Dr. Katherine Arbuthnott, Department of Psychology Committee Member: ***Dr. Richard MacLennan, Department of Psychology Committee Member: Dr. Tom Phenix, Department of Psychology Committee Member: **Dr. Craig Chamberlin, Faculty of Kinesiology and Health Studies Chair of Defense: Dr. Randal Rogers, Faculty of Graduate Studies & Research *Via Skype **Via Teleconference **Not present at defense Abstract While researchers have suggested that overlearning increases the likelihood of skill retention, there is little consensus or evidence as to how much overlearning is required, and how such overlearning interacts with distributed practice schedules. Additionally, most research has measured skill retention based on relatively short re-testing intervals of 56 days or less; however, little is known about whether overlearning can mitigate skill degradation when the retention interval is 6 or 12 months in duration.
    [Show full text]
  • Auditory Feedback Blocks Memory Benefits of Cueing During Sleep
    ARTICLE Received 26 Feb 2015 | Accepted 25 Sep 2015 | Published 28 Oct 2015 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms9729 OPEN Auditory feedback blocks memory benefits of cueing during sleep Thomas Schreiner1,2, Mick Lehmann1,3 & Bjo¨rn Rasch1,2,4 It is now widely accepted that re-exposure to memory cues during sleep reactivates memories and can improve later recall. However, the underlying mechanisms are still unknown. As reactivation during wakefulness renders memories sensitive to updating, it remains an intriguing question whether reactivated memories during sleep also become susceptible to incorporating further information after the cue. Here we show that the memory benefits of cueing Dutch vocabulary during sleep are in fact completely blocked when memory cues are directly followed by either correct or conflicting auditory feedback, or a pure tone. In addition, immediate (but not delayed) auditory stimulation abolishes the characteristic increases in oscillatory theta and spindle activity typically associated with successful reactivation during sleep as revealed by high-density electroencephalography. We conclude that plastic processes associated with theta and spindle oscillations occurring during a sensitive period immediately after the cue are necessary for stabilizing reactivated memory traces during sleep. 1 Department of Psychology, University of Zurich, 8050 Zurich, Switzerland. 2 Department of Psychology, University of Fribourg, 1701 Fribourg, Switzerland. 3 Psychiatric University Hospital Zurich, Clinic of Affective Disorders and General Psychiatry, 8032 Zurich, Switzerland. 4 Zurich Center for Interdisciplinary Sleep Research (ZiS), 8091 Zurich, Switzerland. Correspondence and requests for materials should be addressed to B.R. (email: [email protected]). NATURE COMMUNICATIONS | 6:8729 | DOI: 10.1038/ncomms9729 | www.nature.com/naturecommunications 1 & 2015 Macmillan Publishers Limited.
    [Show full text]
  • Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning
    Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning Norbert M. Seel (Ed.) Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning With 312 Figures and 68 Tables Editor Prof. Dr. Norbert M. Seel Faculty of Economics and Behavioral Sciences Department of Education University of Freiburg 79085 Freiburg Germany ISBN 978-1-4419-1427-9 e-ISBN 978-1-4419-1428-6 DOI 10.1007/ 978-1-4419-1428-6 ISBN Bundle 978-1-4419-5503-6 Springer New York Dordrecht Heidelberg London Library of Congress Control Number: 2011934763 © Springer ScienceþBusiness Media, LLC 2012 All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without the written permission of the publisher (Springer ScienceþBusiness Media, LLC, 233 Spring Street, New York, NY 10013, USA), except for brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis. Use in connection with any form of information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed is forbidden. The use in this publication of trade names, trademarks, service marks, and similar terms, even if they are not identified as such, is not to be taken as an expression of opinion as to whether or not they are subject to proprietary rights. Printed on acid-free paper Springer is part of Springer ScienceþBusiness Media (www.springer.com) Preface Learning is existential, and so its study must be complex and interdisciplinary. Over the past centuries, researchers from different fields have posited many theories to explain how humans and animals learn and behave, i.e., how they acquire, organize, and deploy knowledge and skills.
    [Show full text]
  • Enhancing Exam Prep with Customized Digital Flashcards
    Enhancing Exam Prep with Customized Digital Flashcards Susan L. Murray Julie Phelps Hanan Altabbakh Missouri University of Science and Technology American University of Kuwait Abstract Flashcards are traditionally constructed with pa- Wissman, Rawson, and Pyc (2012) showed that It is common for college classes to contain basic per index cards; questions are written or typed on one students have limited knowledge of the benefit of us- information that must be mastered before learning side of an index card, and the solution is on the other. ing flashcards in their learning process. The study re- more difficult concepts or applications. Many students Digital flashcards can simulate this design. They can be vealed that 83% of students reported using flashcards struggle with learning facts, terms, or fundamental viewed at different speeds for better-spaced repetition to learn vocabulary, while 29% used them for key con- concepts; in some situations, students are even un- application. Showing the next card at the proper timing cepts. The study finds that students would significantly sure about what they should study. Flashcards are a ensure the appropriate lags between sessions or within benefit from flashcards if they extend their application well-established educational aid for learning basic the cards themselves (Pham, Chen, Nguyen, & Hwang, to a broader variety of learning objectives. The same information. Software programs are available that can 2016). There are other advantages for students using study also revealed that few instructors recommend generate flashcards electronically. This paper details an digital flashcards. They are easy to share or post online. using flashcards as a learning strategy in their courses.
    [Show full text]
  • Cognitive Psychology
    COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY PSYCH 126 Acknowledgements College of the Canyons would like to extend appreciation to the following people and organizations for allowing this textbook to be created: California Community Colleges Chancellor’s Office Chancellor Diane Van Hook Santa Clarita Community College District College of the Canyons Distance Learning Office In providing content for this textbook, the following professionals were invaluable: Mehgan Andrade, who was the major contributor and compiler of this work and Neil Walker, without whose help the book could not have been completed. Special Thank You to Trudi Radtke for editing, formatting, readability, and aesthetics. The contents of this textbook were developed under the Title V grant from the Department of Education (Award #P031S140092). However, those contents do not necessarily represent the policy of the Department of Education, and you should not assume endorsement by the Federal Government. Unless otherwise noted, the content in this textbook is licensed under CC BY 4.0 Table of Contents Psychology .................................................................................................................................................... 1 126 ................................................................................................................................................................ 1 Chapter 1 - History of Cognitive Psychology ............................................................................................. 7 Definition of Cognitive Psychology
    [Show full text]
  • Andragogy in One Community College
    Loyola University Chicago Loyola eCommons Dissertations Theses and Dissertations 2014 Andragogy in One Community College: A Study of Students' Attitudes and Perceptions Toward Reading and Writing Following the Completion of a Concurrent Acquisition One-Semester Developmental English Course Michele Murphy Froehlich Loyola University Chicago Follow this and additional works at: https://ecommons.luc.edu/luc_diss Part of the Curriculum and Instruction Commons Recommended Citation Froehlich, Michele Murphy, "Andragogy in One Community College: A Study of Students' Attitudes and Perceptions Toward Reading and Writing Following the Completion of a Concurrent Acquisition One- Semester Developmental English Course" (2014). Dissertations. 1084. https://ecommons.luc.edu/luc_diss/1084 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Theses and Dissertations at Loyola eCommons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Loyola eCommons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works 3.0 License. Copyright © 2014 Michele Murphy Froehlich LOYOLA UNIVERSITY CHICAGO ANDRAGOGY IN ONE COMMUNITY COLLEGE: A STUDY OF STUDENTS’ ATTITUDES AND PERCEPTIONS TOWARD READING AND WRITING FOLLOWING THE COMPLETION OF A CONCURRENT ACQUISITION ONE-SEMESTER DEVELOPMENTAL ENGLISH COURSE A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION IN CANDIDACY FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF EDUCATION PROGRAM IN CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTION BY MICHELE MURPHY FROEHLICH CHICAGO, ILLINOIS DECEMBER 2014 Copyright by Michele Murphy Froehlich, 2014 All rights reserved. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to humbly thank the Lord, my God and the Blessed Virgin Mary for my family, all the wonderful people with whom I have crossed paths, and all the blessings extended to me throughout my lifetime – especially for enabling me to complete this lifelong dream.
    [Show full text]
  • Retrieval Practice: Which Factors Should Educators Pay Attention
    ARTIGO DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/2175-35392020220284 Elocid - e220284 PRÁTICA DE LEMBRAR: A QUAIS FATORES OS EDUCADORES DEVEM SE ATENTAR? Roberta Ekuni 1 ; Sabine Pompeia 2 RESUMO A prática de lembrar (retrieval practice) ou efeito da testagem (testing-effect) é uma estratégia de estudo que envolve tentar lembrar informações às quais fomos anteriormente expostos. Embora essa prática aumente o tempo de retenção de informações comparada às formas tradicionais de estudar, dentre várias outras vantagens com ampla evidência científica, essa estratégia não costuma ser a mais usada entre alunos. Educadores devem, assim, auxiliar estudantes a utilizarem essa estratégia em seu cotidiano. Com o intuito de otimizar sua aplicabilidade, o presente artigo discute quais fatores interferem nessa prática, incluindo: a importância de feedback, a forma com que a prática de lembrar é realizada e o formato de resposta dos alunos, o número de repetições de tentativas de recordar informações e o intervalo entre essas repetições. A apropriação do conhecimento sobre esses fatores influencia positivamente a implantação da técnica em sala de aula, promovendo assim uma educação baseada em evidências. Palavras-chave: processos cognitivos; aprendizagem; memória. Retrieval practice: which factors should educators pay attention to? ABSTRACT The retrieval practice or testing - effect, is a study technique that involves trying to remember information to which we were previously exposed. Although this practice increases the long term-retention of information compared to traditional study techniques, among several other advantages with ample scientific evidence, this strategy is not usually the most used among students. Educators should help students to use this technique in their daily lives.
    [Show full text]
  • Estimation of Nearshore Wave Transmission for Submerged Breakwaters Using a Data-Driven Predictive Model
    Estimation of nearshore wave transmission for submerged breakwaters using a data-driven predictive model Amir Sharif Ahmadian a*, Richard R. Simons b a Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Khajeh Nasir Building, b Hormozgan University, Minab Road, Bandar Abbas, Iran Professor, Department of Civil, Environmental and Geomatic Engineering, Chadwick Building, UCL, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, UK Abstract The functional design of submerged breakwaters is still developing, particularly with respect to modelling of the nearshore wave field behind the structure. This paper describes a method for predicting the wave transmission coefficients behind submerged breakwaters using machine learning algorithms. An artificial neural network using the radial-basis function approach has been designed and trained using laboratory experimental data expressed in terms of non-dimensional parameters. A wave transmission coefficient calculator is presented, based on the proposed radial-basis function model. Predictions obtained by the radial-basis function model were verified by experimental measurements for a two dimensional breakwater. Comparisons reveal good agreement with the experimental results and encouraging performance from the proposed model. Applying the proposed neural network model for predictions, guidance is given to appropriately calculate wave transmission coefficient behind two dimensional submerged breakwaters. It is concluded that the proposed predictive model offers potential as a design tool to predict wave transmission coefficients behind submerged breakwaters. A step-by-step procedure for practical applications is outlined in a user-friendly form with the intention of providing a simplified tool for preliminary design purposes. Results demonstrate the model's potential to be extended to three dimensional, rough, permeable structures. Keywords: Submerged breakwater; Nearshore wave transmission; Numerical modeling; Artificial neural network; Radial-basis function; Predictive model.
    [Show full text]
  • Aviation Psychology and Human Factors, Second Edition
    Aviation Psychology and Human Factors Second Edition Aviation Psychology and Human Factors Second Edition Monica Martinussen and David R. Hunter CRC Press Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2018 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S. Government works Printed on acid-free paper International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4987-5752-2 (Hardback) 978-1-3151-5297-4 (Master eBook) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher can- not assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint. Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers. For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copy- right.com (http://www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.
    [Show full text]