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Water Insecurity and Sanitation in Asia

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WATER INSECURITY AND SANITATION IN ASIA Edited by Naoyuki Yoshino, Eduardo Araral, and KE Seetha Ram ASIAN DEVELOPMENT BANK INSTITUTE PANTONE 281C WATER INSECURITY AND SANITATION IN ASIA Edited by Naoyuki Yoshino, Eduardo Araral, and KE Seetha Ram © 2019 Asian Development Bank Institute All rights reserved. First printed in 2019. ISBN 978–4–89974–113–8 (Print) ISBN 978–4–89974–114-5 (PDF) The views in this publication do not necessarily reflect the views and policies of the Asian Development Bank Institute (ADBI), its Advisory Council, ADB’s Board or Governors, or the governments of ADB members. ADBI does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this publication and accepts no responsibility for any consequence of their use. ADBI uses proper ADB member names and abbreviations throughout and any variation or inaccuracy, including in citations and references, should be read as referring to the correct name. By making any designation of or reference to a particular territory or geographic area, or by using the term “recognize,” “country,” or other geographical names in this publication, ADBI does not intend to make any judgments as to the legal or other status of any territory or area. Users are restricted from reselling, redistributing, or creating derivative works without the express, written consent of ADBI. The Asian Development Bank recognizes “China” as the People’s Republic of China, "Korea" as the Republic of Korea, and "Vietnam" as Viet Nam. Note: In this publication, “$” refers to US dollars. Asian Development Bank Institute Kasumigaseki Building 8F 3–2–5, Kasumigaseki, Chiyoda–ku Tokyo 100–6008, Japan www.adbi.org Contents Tables, Figures, and Boxes v Endorsement x Acknowledgments xi List of Contributors xii PART I: Introduction 1 1 Overview of Water Insecurity and Sanitation in Asia 3 Eduardo Araral, Naoyuki Yoshino, and KE Seetha Ram 2 Literature Review Evaluating New Approaches to Resolving the Sanitation Challenge in Developing Asia 14 Vedanti Kelkar and KE Seetha Ram 3 Encouraging Private Financing for the Supply of Water through Spillover Tax Revenues 32 Naoyuki Yoshino, Masaki Nakahigashi, Umid Abidhadjaev, and Kai Xu PART II: International Case Studies 45 4 Quantifying the Economic Spillover Effect for Citywide Fecal Sludge Management Programs 47 David Robbins, KE Seetha Ram, and Nuobu Renzhi 5 Socioeconomic Spillovers Resulting from the Functioning of Sewage Treatment Plants in Jaipur, India: A Case Study of the Delawas Plant 68 Monika Sogani and Anil Dutt Vyas 6 Baseline Study on the Drinking Water Quality, Sanitation, and Hygiene Status of Selected Schools in Varanasi, India and the Consequent Impact on Gender Parity 92 Meenu Gautam, Abha Maurya, and Madhoolika Agrawal 7 Water Supply and Sanitation: PPP “Good Practices” from India 128 Tamanna M. Shah 8 Distributional Equity in the Urban Public Water Supply in Kathmandu, Nepal 155 Aditi Raina, Bhim Suwal, and Yogendra Gurung iii iv Contents 9 A Spatial Panel Modeling of Water and Sanitation Insecurity and Policy Implications in South Asia: Evidence from Bangladesh 199 M. Mizanur Rahman Sarker and Hidetoshi Yamashita 10 Water Policy and Institutions in the Republic of Korea 221 Namsoo Lee 11 Sanitation and Sewerage Management in Malaysia 246 Dorai Narayana 12 Institutional Mechanisms for Sustainable Sanitation: Lessons from Japan for Other Asian Countries 257 Kazushi Hashimoto PART III: Policy Perspectives 281 13 Understanding Behavior Change for Ending Open Defecation in Rural India: A Review of India’s Sanitation Policy Efforts 283 Ankur Gautam 14 Assessing the Double Injustice of Climate Change and Urbanization on Water Security in Peri-urban Areas: Creating Citizen-Centric Scenarios 301 Arvind Lakshmisha, Priyanka Agarwal, and Manasi Nikam 15 The Water Conundrum in India: An Institutional Perspective 324 Piyush Tiwari 16 Water Security Assessments in Central Asia: Research and Policy Implications 358 Stefanos Xenarios, Jenniver Sehring, Aliya Assubayeva, Dietrich Schmidt-Vogt, Iskandar Abdullaev, and Eduardo Araral PART IV: Conclusion 379 17 Policy and the Role of the Asia-Pacific Water Forum and International Institutions Focused on the Sustainable Development Goals 381 Ravi Narayanan 18 Conclusions and the Way Forward 385 Eduardo Araral, Naoyuki Yoshino, and KE Seetha Ram Index 387 Tables, Figures, and Boxes Tables 2.1 Comparative Sanitation Coverage and GDP per Capita of Japan, the Republic of Korea, and Thailand 16 2.2 Malaysia’s Sanitary Growth Profile 17 2.3 Progress of GDP to Sanitation Coverage 17 3.1 Economic Effect of Infrastructure Investment in the Case of Japan 34 3.2 Infrastructure Investment Needs by Region, 2016–2030 35 3.3 Infrastructure Investment Needed in Asia and the Pacific by Type, 2016–2030 35 3.4 Changes in Tax Revenues in Three Cities along the STAR Highway in Manila 38 4.1 Impact Variable and Ranking Criteria 55 4.2 Subparameters for the Property Valuation Impact 56 4.3 Correlation Variable Ranking and Valuation 57 4.4 Number of Businesses in Dumaguete City by Type, 2010–2017 59 4.5 Linkage Variable Ranking and Valuation 60 4.6 Number of Gastrointestinal Cases per Year in Dumaguete City, 2005–2017 61 4.7 Spillover Values and Net Present Value of Fecal Sludge Management Project in Dumaguete City 63 4.8 Data Input Values of Maynilad Water Project 7 65 4.9 Number of Persons Served by Project 7 66 4.10 Savings of Maynilad Water Project 7 66 5.1 Functional Sewage Treatment Plants in Jaipur 72 5.2 Raw Sewage Characteristics at the Delawas Treatment Plant 85 5.3 Final Effluent Quantity at the Delawas Treatment Plant 85 6.1 Total Number of Teaching/Nonteaching Staff, and Girls’ and Boys’ Enrollment in Government (G) and Private (P) Schools 105 6.2 Total Number of Drinking Water Points, Number of Toilets, and Available Sanitary Facilities for Teaching/ Nonteaching Staff, Girls, and Boys in Government (G) and Private (P) Schools 109 6.3 Correlation Coefficient between Total Strength, Teaching/ Nonteaching Staff, Girls’ and Boys’ Enrollment in School, and Total Number of Accessible Toilets 114 v vi Tables, Figures, and Boxes 6.4 Quantity of Water Required for Different Purposes in Schools 119 A6.1 Survey of Perceptions from Teachers and Students of the School with Respect to Sanitation Status and Their Suggestions 127 7.1 Central Government Institutional Structure 131 7.2 Infrastructure Projects across Sectors, 2016–2017 133 7.3 Number of Leakages and Contamination Spots 136 7.4 BWSSB—Water Supply Overview 138 8.1 Factors Mediating Access to Government Piped Water Connection 165 8.2 Factors Affecting Quantity of Water Obtained by Households in the Dry Season 167 8.3 Factors Affecting Perceived Quality (Health Risk) of Water from the Piped Water Network in Both the Dry and Rainy Season 169 A8.1 Description of the Variables Used in the Regression Analysis 187 A8.2 Distribution of Other Control Variables Used 189 A8.3 Probit Regression Results of Whether Households Use Water from Government Water Connections 190 A8.4 Comparison of Coefficients of Heckman Selection Model and OLS results 191 A8.5 Marginal Effects Results of the Probit Regression for Factors Mediating Access to Government Piped Water Connection 193 A8.6a OLS Regression Results for Factors Affecting Quantity of Water Obtained by Households in the Dry Season from the Government Piped Water Connection 194 A8.6b OLS Regression Results for Factors Affecting Quantity of Water Obtained by Households in the Rainy Season from the Government Piped Water Connection 195 A8.7 Marginal Effects of the Ordered Probit Regression Results for Factors Affecting Perceived Quality (Health Risk) of Water from the Piped Water Network in both the Dry and Rainy Season 197 9.1 Regression Results with Contiguity Weight Matrices for the Use of Insecure Water 209 9.2 Regression Results with Inverse Distance Weight Matrices for the Use of Insecure Water 211 9.3 Regression Results with Contiguity Weight Matrices for the Use of Insecure Sanitation 212 9.4 Regression Results with Inverse Distance Matrices for the Insecure Sanitation 214 Tables, Figures, and Boxes vii 9.5 Regression Results of Spatial Panel Random Effect Estimate by Using Contiguity Weights for the Use of Insecure Water Source 215 9.6 Regression Results of Spatial Panel Fixed Effect Estimate by Using Contiguity Weights for the Use of Insecure Sanitation 216 10.1 Water-related Organizations, Before Restructure 229 10.2 Public Institutes Associated with Water Management 230 10.3 Water-related Laws 231 10.4 Water Services 235 10.5 Water-related Revenue Sources at the National Level 237 10.6 Water-related Revenue Sources at Local Level 238 10.7 Water-related Revenue Sources for the Ministry of Environment 238 10.8 Water-related Revenue Sources for K-water 239 10.9 Financial Portion for Water Facility Construction 240 10.10 Nonrevenue Water Comparison, 2015 and 2016, Cha-ri Water Supply Area, Seosan 244 12.1 Frequency of Desludging in Jakarta, Indonesia 263 12.2 Numbers of Certified Technicians Engaged in the Management of the Decentralized Wastewater Treatment System in Japan 274 13.1 Key Milestones in Rural Sanitation in India 289 15.1 River Basin Water Availability and Demand 327 15.2 Indian Water Utilities, Performance Indicators 332 16.1 Assessment Framework and Main Keywords 364 16.2 Classification of Countries Represented, Origin of Authors, and Organization Types 369 16.3 Logit Regression Results on Country, Author Origin, and Organization Type 370 Figures 3.1 Spillover Effect of Water Supply 36 3.2 User Charges and Spillover
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