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Identifying Leakage to Groundwater from Lake Rerewhakaaitu Using Isotopic and Water Quality Data

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Identifying Leakage to Groundwater from Lake Rerewhakaaitu Using Isotopic and Water Quality Data Journal of Hydrology (NZ) 47 (2): 85-106 2008 © New Zealand Hydrological Society (2008) Identifying leakage to groundwater from Lake Rerewhakaaitu using isotopic and water quality data Robert R. Reeves1, Uwe Morgenstern2, Christopher J. Daughney2, Michael K. Stewart3 and Dougall Gordon4 1 GNS Science, Wairakei Research Centre, Private Bag 2000, Taupo 3352, New Zealand. Corresponding author: R. [email protected] 2 GNS Science, Avalon, P O Box 30368, Lower Hutt 5040, New Zealand 3 Aquifer Dynamics Ltd, 20B Willoughby St, Lower Hutt 4 Environment Bay of Plenty, PO Box 364, Whakatane 3158, New Zealand Abstract Introduction Stable isotopes (18O, 2H), water dating, and The quality and quantity of recharge to a major anion and cation water chemistry groundwater system can affect the sustainable of springs, groundwater bores, a stream use of groundwater resources, particularly and a lake have been used to identify areas where groundwater is used for domestic or of discharge from Lake Rerewhakaaitu. public water supplies, because public health Groundwater aquifers and spring discharges can be affected by contamination. Thus, to the north and west of Lake Rerewhakaaitu identification and safe management of the are found to contain up to 79% lake water. source of groundwater recharge is essential Hierarchical cluster analysis is used to for protection of groundwater resources. group sites into three clusters based on Natural sources of groundwater recharge to the major anion/cation water chemistry. the groundwater aquifers include streams, Defining meaningful hierarchical clusters was rivers, lakes and rainfall. difficult due to the similarity of the chemical Groundwater is used extensively in New compositions between sites. The three Zealand for agricultural, horticultural, clusters defined in this study do not clearly domestic and public water supplies. White identify the sites containing lake water. (2001) estimates up to 26% of the New However, the hierarchical cluster analyses can Zealand population depend totally on be used to infer sites that are likely to contain groundwater for drinking, and a further 24% proportions of lake water in the groundwater, are partially dependent on groundwater as a and therefore provides a method to identify source of water. sites that may contain lake water. Identifying the source of the water to a The groundwater and spring discharges to groundwater system commonly requires the the north and west of Lake Rerewhakaaitu use of chemical or isotopic tracers (Quast et flow into a different surface water catchment, al., 2006), usually, in conjunction with other thus providing a hydrological link between techniques such as water chemistry and/or two different surface water catchments. This physical hydrology. Chemical and isotopic has implications for catchment management tracers are particularly useful in areas where in the greater Rerewhakaaitu area. hydrological information important to 85 interpreting the data, such as bore geology, the nutrient cycle in the Rotorua Lakes area. is missing. This will assist EBOP to form new policies Water chemistry, combined with the and develop remediation programmes where naturally occurring stable isotopes oxygen­18 necessary. and deuterium, have been used successfully Nutrient levels, nutrient inputs, nutrient to distinguish between rainfall, local transport mechanisms, nutrient transport groundwater and lake water as the source of times, lake processes, and effects of land water in geothermal systems (e.g., Stewart, use are key scientific aspects that need to 1978; Darling et al., 1996; Ojiambo et al., be better understood to solve the issues. To 2001) and groundwater systems (e.g., Stewart date, much scientific work in the Rotorua and Morgenstern, 2001; Ojiambo et al., Lakes area has focused on Lakes Rotorua and 2001; Chowdhury, 2004; Kristmannsdóttir Rotoiti (e.g., Lakes Water Quality Society and Ármannsson, 2004). Inc, 2003; Hamilton, 2003; Morgenstern Determining the mean residence time of and Gordon, 2006), in line with the priorities groundwater can significantly enhance the set by EBOP. The work reported in this paper understanding of a groundwater system. The may assist EBOP develop policies in the Lake mean residence time can be taken as the average Rerewhakaaitu area, where understanding of travel time for land­use effects to be observed the groundwater system is more limited. and groundwater recharge times, and can be The objective of this study was to identify used to determine the percent age fractions whether lake water is a source of recharge to of recharge water to a groundwater aquifer. the major aquifers around Lake Rerewhakaaitu Tritium and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are and, if it is occurring, what the flow paths two tracers that have been used extensively are. The study was carried out near Lake in New Zealand to understand groundwater Rerewhakaaitu using a combination of water systems (e.g., Taylor, 1994; Stewart et al., chemistry, stable isotopes and water dating 1999; Morgenstern and Gordon, 2006; techniques. Morgenstern et al., 2004; Morgenstern and Stewart, 2004; Morgenstern, 2005). Lake Rerewhakaaitu is one of twelve lakes Setting in the Rotorua area (the ‘Rotorua lakes’) Lake Rerewhakaaitu is situated approximately monitored regularly by Environment Bay 26 km southeast of Rotorua, New Zealand of Plenty (EBOP). Regular cyanobacterial and covers an area of approximately 630 ha. blooms in Lakes Rotorua and Rotoiti since The surface water catchment is approximately 1997 have heightened public concerns 5300 ha in area, with elevations ranging from about the declining water quality of these 435 m above sea level (asl) at the lake to two lakes, and possibly in the other nine approximately 1100 m asl on Mt Tarawera Rotorua Lakes (Lakes Water Quality Society, in the north of the catchment (Fig. 1). The 2001). Nutrient inputs (nitrogen and elevation of the top of the surface water phosphorus), their effects on the lakes, and catchment to the east, south and west of how the lakes can be managed to maintain Lake Rerewhakaaitu is between 420 m and or improve their current water quality are 530 m asl. The surface water catchment is issues requiring study. In response to the mainly to the south of the lake, with narrow public concern, EBOP has been coordinating catchment areas to the north, east and west. research programmes involving iwi, regional Mean rainfall is about 1600 mm per year. government, local government and scientific Volcanic processes in the last 22 ka have organizations to improve understanding of moulded the landscape, resulting in the 86 formation of many of the lakes found in the McIntosh et al. (2001) estimate 77% of the region. Mt Tarawera is made up of several catchment is pasture, 15% exotic forest, 6% Okataina rhyolitic domes ranging in age indigenous forest/scrub and 2% ‘other’. Of from 0.7 ka to 21 ka. Three recent (<11 ka) the 77% pasture, 70% is used for dairy cows deposits around Lake Rerewhakaaitu are and 7% for sheep/cattle. Dairying and use of attributed to eruptions from Mt Tarawera fertilizers has intensified between 1990 and (Nairn, 2002): Waiohau pyroclastics (11 ka); 2000, with relatively high application rates Kaharoa pyroclastics (0.7 ka); and mud and (>300 kg/ha/year) of nitrogen­based fertilizers ejecta from the 1886 eruption. The thickness (McIntosh et al., 2001). of the Waiohau pyroclastic deposit is in excess Lake Rerewhakaaitu is shallow, having a of 30 m, while the thickness of the Kaharoa mean depth of 6.3 m and a maximum depth pyroclastic deposit is between 10 and 30 m of 15 m. The lake receives water from rainfall, thick in the area around Lake Rerewhakaaitu streams and shallow groundwater systems (White et al., 2003). The thickness of ejecta (White et al., 2003). The lake is described from the 1886 eruption is too small to be as a mesotrophic lake in average condition mapped except near vent zones and the shores (Scholes and Bloxham, 2005). Mean total of Lake Rotomahana (Nairn, 2002). nitrogen and mean total phosphorus (as P) Lake Rerewhakaaitu is formed in an old are 0.38 g m–3 and 0.008 g m–3 respectively deep narrow valley cut into the Rangitaiki for the period 1991–2001. No net trend Ignimbrite (White et al., 2003). The valley is observed in the total nitrogen and total is thought to have drained a large catchment phosphorus data over this period. However, to the south of the current lake, northwards an increase in nitrogen and phosphorus to the Tarawera River. Infilling and damming occurred between 1995 and 1997. McIntosh of the valley probably occurred during the et al. (2001) suggest that this increase could 11 ka eruption of Mt Tarawera (Waiohau be due to an increased lake level mobilizing pyroclastics) and probably caused a small nutrients in the sediment of the lake margin. lake to form. The lake reached its present form with further damming from the 0.7 ka Mt Tarawera eruption (Kaharoa pyroclastics). The Rangitaiki Ignimbrite is considered to be the base unit in this study and is described by Nairn (2002) as a moderately welded, dark grey, crystal­rich tuff. The unit includes coarse tuffs, pumice breccias and air fall deposits. It is the oldest unit (0.34 Ma) mapped in the Rerewhakaaitu area. The unit outcrops to the east and in the steeply­incised valleys to the west of Lake Rerewhakaaitu. Land use in the catchment is dominantly dairy farming. Figure 1 – Map of the Lake Rerewhakaaitu area. 87 Mangakino Stream and Awaroa Stream east side of the lake (White et al., 2003). A are the only two streams that flow into Lake small groundwater flow from the Rangitaiki Rerewhakaaitu. Both streams flow into a Ignimbrite aquifer could be entering Lake wetland at the southern end of the lake, Rerewhakaaitu from the northeast. An and both streams have a shallow groundwater assessment of groundwater flow directions aquifer as their source.
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