Tøihoro Nukurøngi

Management practices for marginal zones of wetlands and lakes

NIWA Client Report: DOC8021 7 October2000 Taihoro Nukurangi

Management practices for marginal zones of wetlands andlakes

Paul D. Champion V/illiam B. Shaw*

Preparedfor

Conservation Sciences Section

Department of Conversation

Information contained within lhis report should nol be used without lhe prior consenl of the client

NIWA Client Report: DOC80217 October 2000

National Institute of Water & Atmospheric Research Ltd PO Box 1l-115, Hamilton New Zealand Tel: 07 8567026 Fax: 07 856 0l5l

+Wildlife Consultants Ltd, 14 Foster Road, RD 4, Rotorua [email protected] New Zealand CoNTENTS

ABSTRACT

I. INTRODUCTION

2, CLASSIFICATION OF LAKES AND WETLANDS 2 2.1 Lakes 2 2.2 Wetlands 4 2.3 Discussion 5

3. FACTORS GOVERNING WETLANDS AND LAKE MARGINS 6 3.1 Processes in marginal zones of lakes and wetlands 8 3.1.1 Hydrolory 9 3.1.2 Erosion/deposition 9 3.1.3 Carbon cycling 9 3.1.4 Nutrient and toxin buffering and cycling 10 3.2 Biotic characteristics of the marginal zones of lakes and wetlands 1.2 3.2.1 Vegetation t2 3.2.2 Fauna 13 3.3 Human activities T4 l5 3 .3 . 1 Drainage and regulation of water level and flow 3.3.2 Changes in erosion/depositio t6 3.3.3 Changes in nutrient status l6 3.3.4 Increased incidence of fire t7 3.3.5 Grazing t7 3.3.6 Weeds 19 3.3.6 Animal pests 19

4. THE MANAGEMENT OF TI{E MARGINAL ZONES OF LAKES AND WETLANDS 20 4.1 Managementexamples 2l 4.1.1 Hydrologicalmanagement 2l 4.1.2 Management of erosion and nuffients 22 4.1.3 Weed prevention and control 23

5. NEW ZEALAND INITIATTVES IN WETLA}{D AND LAKE MARGIN MANAGEMENT 24 5.1 Landca¡e/ì.llWAResearchProgramme 24 5.2 Biodiversþ Stratery 24 5.3 Ministry for the Environment 24 5.6 QEII Covenants 25 5.1 Conservation Act Covenants 25 5.8 Fish and Game 25 5.9 Forestry practices 25 5.10 Register of wetland restoration projects 26 5.11 WERI 26 5.12 UNEP/GRID Project 26

6. Survey Of Current Wetland And Lake Marginal Management In New Zealand26 6.1 InformationTransfer 27 6.2 Landowners 27 6.3 Wetland restoration in cities 27 6.4 Trusts 28 6.5 Regional Councils and Unitary Authorities 28 6.6 District Councils 29 6.7 Department of Conservation 29 6.8 Fish and Game New Zealand 30 6.9 Multi-partycollaboration 30 6.10 Numbers of agencies and other parties 3t 6.11 Voluntaryprotection 31 6.12 General comments 3l

7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 32

8. REFERENCES 33

APPENDD( 1: Organisms dependent on riparian zones of lakes and/or wetlands 46

APPENDIX 2: Regional Councils, unitary authorities, territorial authorities, Department of Conservation and Fish & Game regions 58

Approved for release by :

Dr J D Cooke

Fonøßing chcclced

Ø'3.'\".'" ' """ AnSTRACT

This report presents a review of local and international literature and additional information to provide a basis for the development of guidelines for the management of the marginal zones of wetlands and lakes. This report was originally presented to DOC in July 1998. The contents have since been modified but not updated to include more recent information.

This report reviews the requirement for functional classification of the main wetland/lake types in New Zealand, identification of factors that determine the structure and the ecosystem functions performed by these marginal zones, the biota contained within them and their requirements, the impacts of human activities, and potential management approaches and objectives related to the preservation and/or enhancement of these areas. It also presents a summary of current work undertaken by local government (regional and territorial authorities), Department of Conservation and Fish and Game New Zealand, and policy relating to this, throughout New Zealand.

The main management issues identified are changes in hydrolory and the impacts of this on biogeochemisûry and wetland vegetation, runoff of excessive levels of nutrients, the effects of grazing and vegetation clearance, and the invasion of exotic plants and animals.

The following management decision framework is suggested for any proposal based on an ecosystem-based assessment; review historic condition, identiff problem(s), produce an operational strategy, cha¡acterise the risks of this shategy, if risks are acceptable undertake management actions, monitor for changes, and refine management if necessary.

A total of 110 agencies, including DOC conservancies and Fish and Game Regions are involved in the management of wetland and lake marginal zones in New Zealand. There is no co-ordinated approach to this management; but it is evident that there is considerable momentum in terms of both policy generation and physical works.

Many initiatives involve multiple parties, often including private/lvfaori landowners and several management agencies. Often a lead management agency, such as a Regional Council, Ois prepared to fund much or all of the works required.

This report should help to clarifr the level of information required to understand the dynamics of marginal zones of lakes and wetlands, and allow the integration of this with existing 'field -based' expertise in their management. Inter-agency forums were identified by many of those interviewed as the best means for technolory transfer. zones ofwetlands and lakes

1. INTRODUCTION

NIWA was approached by the Department of Conservation to contribute towards the development of guidelines for the management of the marginal zones of wetlands and lakes to complement the joint NIWA/DoC publications (two volumes) "Managing Riparian Zones: A contribution to protecting New Zealand's rivers and streams" (Collier et al. 1995). As an initial step, this document presents a review of local and international literature and additional information to provide a basis for the development of management guidelines. This report was originally presented to DOC in Juty 1998. The contents have since been modified but not updated to include more recent information.

This report reviews the classification of New Znaland wetlands and lakes, the factors that affect their function, processes and biota that occur within the marginal zone, impacts of human activities, and management approaches and objectives related to the preservation and/or enhancement of these areas. It also presents a summary of current work undertaken by local government (regional and territorial authorities), Department of Conservation and Fish and Game New Zealand, and policy relating to this, throughout New Zealand.

The marginalzone of lakes and wetlands, also known as the land/water ecotone, is recognised as containing high conservation values. It is also an area under many threats, often occurring adjacent to land modified by human activities. Land and water uses on either side of this margin have major effects on its functions (e.g. Holland 1993, Burbridge 1994). In the past, the ad hoc trial and error approach to wetland/lake edge management has often led to ineffective remedial action (e.g. National Research Council l992,Denny 1993, Gopal 1994a)'

Wetland and lake margins are complex, dynamic systems. Management of such areas requires an understanding of their ecology, hydrology, geomorphology and soils, and the interactions of these. This information can then be related to the threat posed by any human activity, or other stressors, and assist in the management of the system (Weller 1978, Johnson & Brooke 1989, Risser 1990, Mallory et al. 1995, Lemly teeT).

There are several steps required to describe and understand wetlands, lakes and their margins, in order to ensure their effective management:

o classifrcation of lake and wetland types to allow the diversity of wetland systems to be divided into a series of groups with similar management requirements (e.g' Bridgham etal.1996) ry' Management practiccs for marginal zones of wetlands and lakes

¡ identification and characterisation of the environment¿l factors that drive these systems (forcing factors)

identification and characterisation ofthe processes and biota that occur in them

evaluation of the effects of human activities (threats to conservation values, vulnerabitity to threa! priorities for management) and review of previous attempts to mitigate these effects.

CLASSIF'ICATION OF' LA.KES AND WETLANDS

There are a wide variety of lake and wetland types within New Zealand, each with its own protection requirements. Classification of these different types is the first step (with inventory of these Epes) in their effrcient management. Different classification approaches a¡e discussed below.

2.1 Lakes

The classification of lakes is generally based on aspects of their limnology (Hutchinson 1957, Wetzel 1975), including geomorphology, physics and chemistry. New Zealand lakes have generally been classified according to their geomorphic origins (Irwin 1975, Lowe &. Green 1987), or physicochemical and biotic characteristics (Vant 1987, Burns 1998).

Lowe & Green (1987) distinguish ten lake types:

o Tectonic basins e.g. Lakes Hatuma, Poukawa

o Volcanic e.g. Lakes Taupo, Rotorua" Omapere

Glacial e.g. Lakes Wanak4 Brunner, kettleholes, tarns

Landslides e.g. Lakes Waikaremoan4 Tutira, Kaniere

o Phfogenic (peat) e.g. Lake Henrietta (near Waikaremoana), Kaipo Lagoon

Riverine e.g. Lakes Maratoto, Whangape, oxbow lakes

Wind-blown dune e.g. I¿kes Humuhumu, Ototo4 Wiritoa

o Barrier-bar e.g. Lakes Rotongaio, Ellesmere

- Management practices for marginal zones of wetlands and lakes

. Karst e.g. Lakes Koroh4 Disappear

o Man-made e.g. Lakes Karapiro, Benmore, Dunstan.

A alternative classification based on thermal shatifrcation (Ward & þle 1997) defines four types:

¡ Shallow lakes, usually unstratified

¡ Intermittently stratified(polymictic)

. Deepermoderate-sized stratified

c Larga,deep,stratified

Burns (1998) has defined seven trophic levels ranging from ultra-microtrophic to hypertrophic based on concentrations of chlorophyll a (indicative of phytoplankton), total nitrogen and phosphorus and Secchi depth (clarity). Lower nufient status is generally associated with larger stratified lakes and eutrophic to hypertrophic st¿tus with shallow lakes.

The distinction of these types by the above authors only partially relates to the range of processes that affect the characteristics of these water bodies. Vant (1987) distinguished six lake types based on chemical, physical and biological characteristics:

o Large, deep and clear with sparse phytoplankton and macrophytes, well oxygenated, oligotrophic e.g. Lakes Taupo, Wanaka

¡ Shallow and turbid with either abundant phytoplankton, or inorganic suspended solids, sparse macrophytes, wind-mixed, bottom waters well oxygenated, eutrophic, or hypertrophic e.g. Lakes Ngaroto, Waahi

o Phytoplankton-dominated, with bottom waters oxygen-depleted during summer, macrophyte presence dependent on bathymetry, eutrophic, e.g. Lakes Rotorua, Hayes, Tutira

o Macroph¡edominated, with clarity and bathymetry to support extensive macrophyte beds, bottom waters may be orygen-depleted during summer' e.g. Lakes Whangape, Omapere zones ofwetlands and lakes

o Small with brown-stained water, with or without abundant phyoplankton, or macrophytes, bottom waters may be oxygendepleted during summer, dystrophic, e.g. Lakes Maratoto, Hochstetter

o Reservoirs with variable clarþ, abundance of phytoplankton and bottom water oxygen depletion, macroph¡es usually a narrow littoral fringe, e.g. Lakes Karapiro, Benmore, Dunstan.

Marginal areas around lakes can be regarded as wetlands occupying the eulittoral zone; areas that are occasionally flooded (Hutchinson 1967). These areas are often extensive and often play an important role in the functioning of the deeper, openwater areas oflakes, as discussed later.

2.2 Wetlands

Wetlands have predominantly been classified in New Zealand according to their hydrology, geomorphology, chemical and biological influences (collectively referred to as hydroclass) with the terms:

o estuarine (tidally influenced)

r geothermal

¡ karst (usually associated with limestone/marble geology)

¡ lacustrine (associated with lake)

¡ riverine (associated with flowing water)

o palustrine (all other wetlands).

Further divisions a¡e based on:

o substrate (mineralised or peat)

hydrolory (including water source, depth, fluctuation, movement, flow regime and periodicity)

nutrient status

vegetation type. r-ry{ Management practices for marginal zones of wetlands and lakes 5

Examples of classification systems proposed for New Z,ealand include Thompson (1983), Collier (1995a) and UNEP/GRID (1998). Emphasis on each of the biotic and abiotic influences varies between these hierarchical classifications. In the UNEP/GRID approach, palustrine wetlands were divided into three types:

Bog rain-fed, low nutrien! acidic peat substrate

Fen rain- and groundwater-fed, low to medium nutrient, peat substrate

Swamp rain-, groundwater- and/or runoff-fed, medium to high nutrient fed, peat or mineral substrate

Further divisions of each t¡rpe are based on vegetation structure and composition based on Atkinson (1985). Examples of wetlands classified by this system are:

o kahikatea forest swamp

. Carex gaudichaudiana sedgeland fen

. Sporodanrftzs rushland bog

lnternational approaches to wetland vegetation classification are reviewed Finlayson & van der Valk (1995). In addition to the hydroclass approach, there are:

. geomorphological classifications based on landform, e.g. Semeniuk & Semeniuk (lees)

o phytosociological classification based on the dominant plant species, species associations and interactions within vegetation types, as proposed by Braun- Blanquet (1932),e.g. Wheeler (1980), Klosowski (1993). This approach was used by Robertson et al. (1991) to classiff a wetland to forest sequence within New Z,ealand.

2.3 I)iscussion

The goal of a classification system is fundament¿l to ttre type of system used. In addition to the approaches summarised above, classifications can also be based on economic, or human use considerations. For the role of conservation management the most useful classification is a functional one, based on the biotic and abiotic processes defining those a¡eas. Of the classifications discussed in the previous sections the Vant (1987) and UNEP/GRID (1998) approaches appear to be the most suitable. Once key processes and forcing factors have been identified for these marginal types (see the zones ofwetlands and lakes

following sections), then secondary classifications based on conservation considerations can be achieved.

3. FACTORS GOVERNING WETLAI\TDS AND LAKE MARGINS

The major factor governing the composition of wetlands and lake margins is hydrology. This is dependent onr

. local climate, which influences the amount and temporal pattern of rainfall and evapotranspiration

o the landform in which the wetland is situated e.g. depressional (basin), riverine (floodplain), or fringe (estuarine, or lake edge) wetlands

o the topography of the site

¡ substratepermeability

(Salo 1 990, I-emly 1997)

Va¡iables include:

¡ water source

o fluctuations in water or water table depth

o periodicþ and duration offlood events (hydroperiod)

o velocity of flow

o sediment and nutrient load

o salinity

(Holland et al. 1990, National Research Council 1992,Gopal1994b).

The composition of water entering a wetland/lake margin affects its biogeochemical and physical properties. For example, flooding by stream water, discharge of groundwater and infiltation of rainfall will all have different impacts on wetland plant Management practiccs for marginal zones of wetlands and lakes

species composition of these. E¿ch contribute differently to the specific ionic composition of a wetland site and its dominant biogeochemical processes (Wassen & Grootjans 1996, Goslee et al. 1997) e.g.levels of iron and sulphate will affect the redox potential (a measure of the oxygen debt) of waterlogged wetland soils.

Basin systems are often reliant on groundwater and precipitation with no surface inflow, or outflow. These areas are commonly nutrient-poor. Examples include the tarns of upland Canterbury (Johnson 1994) and the dune lakes of Northland (Tanner et al. 1986).

When plant production exceeds decomposition and water input exceeds evapotranspiration, build up of peat occurs (Friedman & DeWitt 1978, Shearer 1997). This can reach a stage where the vegetation growing on the peat surface is hydrologically isolated from groundwater and is thus dependent only on rainwater for nutrient and water supply (ombrogenous bogs), producing nutrient poor, acid conditions. The restiad bogs of the Lower Waikato and Hauraki Plains are examples of ombrotrophic wetlands (Champion 1997, Clarkson 1997).

Where vegetation growing on the peat surface is still influenced by groundwater (geogenous fens, Bridgham et al. 1996) a higher nutrient status, less acid wetland results (Johnson & Brooke 1989). The South Taupo wetland, adjacent to Turangi, is an example of a groundwater-fed fen.

Floodplain wetlands are usually isolated from the river or stream channel by levees, often occurring in depressions formed by old river channels. These wetlands receive rainwater, and groundwater draining from surrounding uplands, but are predominantly influenced by periodic flood events, when waters enter the wetland from the river channel. Flooding period depends on the amplitude of the flood in relation to the size and topography of the floodplain, and the permeability of the substrate. Thus the hydrolory of these floodplains is described as pulsed (Junk et al. 1989), and these flood pulses temporarily extend the littoral zone to the floodplain, preventing stagnation of backwaters, depositing silt and nutrients and maintaining a dynamic, often nutrient-rich wetland environment. Floodplain wetlands are relatively common throughout lowland New Zealand, e.g. the lower Waikato Basin (Champion 1997), although most areas have now been drained to provide agricultural land, and flow regulated by damming, channelisation and flood protection schemes'

Fringe wetlands occur on the margins of lakes and estua¡ies etc. Zonation of vegetation in these wetlands is dependent on fluctuation in water level, wave action (erosion or deposition), nutrient status of the water, groundwater influences, shoreline gradient and sediment characteristics (Johnson L972a & b, Mark 1972, de Winton & Champion 1993, Coops & van der Velde 1996). Salinity is an additional factor influencing the zonation of salt marshes. The relatively narrow nature of these fringe Management practices for marginal zones of wetlands and lakes

wetlands makes them vulnerable to human influences including drainage, agricultural encroachment and land reclamation.

Changes in water regime from flood to drought, and cycles of erosion and deposition of sediment maintain a highly dynamic system at the land/water boundary, as reviewed by Howard-Williams (1991). The vegetation occupying these areas often provides them with structural stability, as described' in the following sections. Howard-Williams (1991) discussed the importance of 'resetting' agents - catastrophic events such as storms and intense floods. These events intemrpt the succession of species and vegetation towards the dominance of the most efficient utilisers of resources (nutrients, light and water) and space, allowing more stress- or disturbance- tolerant species to recolonise the affected areas (see Section 1.5.1). In the most stable of wetland types, the nutrient-poor ombrogenous bogs, fire is often the most important resetting agent (Clarkson 1997). Fire clears tall vegetation and releases nutrients from burnt peal which allows initial colonisation of these areas by fast-growing species reliant on higher nutrient levels (annuals or short-lived perennials). Once the initial increase in nutrients is lost through leaching etc., low-growing species which a¡e tolerant of poor nutrient levels are able to colonise. These communities are gradually competitively replaced by taller plants which only establish many years after the fire event (Clarkson 1997).

The land/water boundaries of lakes and wetlanils are also affected by land u." *iiin their catchmen! with this often becoming the dominant management issue when indigenous vegetation is cleared and replaced by agriculture/silviculture/urbanisation. Other human-mediated forcing factors include grazing by introduced mammals, and invasion of these areas by exotic plants and animals. Human influences are discussed in Section 1.6.

3.1 Processes ín marginal zones of lakes and wetlands

The land/water ecotone has a major influence on the surrounding areas affecting:

. hydrolory

. erosion/deposition

. carbon and nutrient cycling

. removal of sedimen! nuûients and toxins

(Holland et al. 1990, Petts 1990, Howa¡d-Williams 1991, National Resea¡ch Council 1992, Burbridge 1994, Gopal 1994b, Lemly 1997). Management practiccs for marginal zones of wetlands and lakes

3.1.1 Hydrology

Hydrology is the primary forcing factor in the creation and maintenance of wetlands, but these areas also have several important mediating effects on the hydrolory of surrounding areas (Carter 1986, National Research Council 1992). These include:

. floodplains forming conveyances for downstream water transport

. flood storage followed by slow release to downstream areas, thus reducing and desynchronising fl ood events

o groundwater recharge and discharge

o baseflow generation during drought conditions.

3.1.2 Erosion/deposition

Floodplain and fringe wetlands are sites of sediment deposition. The flow of sediment-bearing water, either from the water body (river or lake) or surface flow from surrounding upland is reduced by wetland vegetation, and suspended sediments are deposited (Boto & Patrick 1978).

Marginal vegetation around lakes and estuaries can also provide stability against wave erosion (Garbisch & Garbisch 1994). In this case maintenance of vegetation with strong rhizome/root systems reduced upper bank erosion in tidal marshes. Species such as Spartina spp. and willows (,Salu spp.) have been intoduced to many countries, including New Zealand, to provide shoreline stability, although this aim has not always been achieved, and both plants have spread to become weeds in this counûy (Section 3.3.5).

Dieter (1990) showed that marginal emergent beds of vegetation negated wind- induced resuspension of sediments in shallow ponds with up to a I km wind fetch.

3.1.3 Carbon cycling

Land/water boundaries are important sites for accumulation of organic matter. This can be derived from:

o within the area by litter fall from the plants growing there (autochthonous) Management practices for marginal zones of wetlands and lakes

. outside the area due to deposition of material from surrounding areas (allochthonous).

Allochthonous sources to the marginal zone include:

associated open water areas (e.g. deposition of dead plankton, or submerged macrophytes, Piecrynska 1990)

o floodwaters (e.g. deposition of organic-rich silt, Boto & Patrick 1978)

o wind-blown material (e.g. leaf litter)

o soluble humic compounds (dissolved organic carbon) from upsheam catchment sources.

The biomass of plants growing in this transition zone are often much higher than on the land, or in the water on either side of this area. Some of the highest rates of primary production are recorded from this zone (Mitsch & Gosselink 1993, Gopal 1994b) with large amounts of litter resulting. This zone also supports high numbers and diversþ of microbes (Aragno & Ulehlova 1997), and detritus-based carbon cycling is very important (Mitsch & Gosselink 1993). This is especially true in areas with alternate wet and dry cycles, which allow breakdown of much of the deposited carbon (Howard-Williams 1991, de Haan et al. 1993).

The breakdown and release of this large pool of accumulated ca¡bon in the marginal zones of lakes is of extreme importance to the receiving waterbody, providing a stable supply of dissolved organic material. In many lake systems this detritus-based energy source is greater than from planktonic-produced carbon (Wetzel 1995). Large woody debris and leaf litter are also important for the creation of habitat (Lan et al' 1995, Mallory et al. 1995, Guyette 1995, France et al. 1996)'

Peat deposition occurs where there is a net accumulation of biomass. This represents a significant potential source of nutients (nihogen and phosphorus) as well as carbon (Friedman & DeWitt 1978, Burbridge 1994). These nutrients are not normally available to vegetation growing on peat.

3.1.4 Nutrient and toxin buffering and cycling

The marginal zones of wetlands and lakes may function like the riparian zones of rivers and streams (Collier et al. 1995), providing a buffer to contaminants including nutrients. Removal of nitrate from surface waters has been increased by more than 90% by marginal vegetation (Cooper 1990, Gilliam 1994, Puckett et al. 1996), with Management practic€s for marginal zones of wetlands and lakes I I

similar removal of phosphates tied with deposition of sediments (Holland et al. 1990). The potential benefits of control of nutrient inputs throughout the watershed have been shown by Williamson et al. (1996). Exclusion of grazing and riparian management of the tributaries around Lake Rotorua was estimated to be suffrcient to reduce nutrient input to the lake enough to decrease chlorophyll a levels in the lake by 5 mg/L. This equates to a significant improvement in water qualþ.

Nutrients are also removed by the growth of wetland plants and incorporation into food webs, with subsequent release dependent on decomposition processes (Mitsch & Gosselink 1993, Gopal 1994b, Wetzel 1995). Toxic compounds like pesticides and heavy metals may also be removed by these buffer zones (Holland et al. 1990, Aragno & Ulehlova 1997).

As the productivþ of mostNew Zealand lakes is limited by nifrogen (Vant 1987), the buffering of these water bodies from excess inputs of this nutrient is important. The removal of nitrogen by nitrification-denitrification requires both anaerobic and aerobic conditions and a supply of carbon, with ttre eventual transformation of organic and inorganic forms of nitrogen to atmospheric nitrogen, by microbial activity (Risser 1990). These conditions are provided by the waterlogged soils, oxygenation by plant roots and high levels of accumulated dehitus in wetlands (Mitsch and Gosselink 1993).

The functioning of the buffer strip is dependent on the source of nutrient. If flow to the water body is by surface flow then nutrients are likely to be intercepted, whereas subsurface flow through aquifers may bypass any wetland processing (Geier et al. 1994, Burt 1996). Nitrogen transported in surface, or subsurface flow is often in the form of nitrate (Howard-Williams 1991). However, Lusby et al. (1998) showed ammonia was the dominant form of nitrogen entering a marginal wetland at Lake Okarek4 due to anaerobic conditions in the aquifer. The vegetation removed 95Yo of this nutrien! mostly by incorporation into plant material and subsequent denitrification at the leaf litter/water interface. Hamill (1995) also found ammonia was the principle form of nitrogen entering the peat lake, Lake Serpentine, in the Waikato.

Animals, especially birds can provide an important source of nutrients to these riparian zones (Bildstein et al.1992). Riparian forests can athact nesting colonies of fish-feeding birds such as shags (Phalacrocracidae) and herons (Ardeidae), and these may import nuhients to those sites, through faeces and mortalities. Bildstein et al' (Igg2)measured the input of nutrients from a colony of white ibis (Eudocimus albus), on an estuary and found up to 50% of toøl phosphorus and I5Yo of nitrogen entered the water body from this source. Management practices for marginal zones of wetlands and lakes t2

In the case of nutrient-poor lakes, the surrounding vegetation may be an important source of nutrients as well as dissolved carbon (see Section 1.4.3). France et al. (1996) reported a decrease of total phosphorus from2.9 to 0.3 g/m of lake shore after clearance of marginal forest, this decrease predominantly related to a decrease in large woody debris input.

3.2 Biotic characteristics of the marginal zones of lakes and wetlands

The biota of transition zones between land and wetland a¡e characteristically diverse (Lachavanne & Juge 1997), due to the dynamic and highly heterogeneous nature of these areas. To inhabit this zone the biota must either be:

o tolerant of the dynamic conditions, or

. mobile (Weller 1978).

Many plant species are confined to these areas, tolerant of periods of waterlogging (and anaerobic sediments) by various structural and physiological adaptations (Armstrong 1982, Crawford 1982). Many animals utilise these areas temporarily, e.g. native fish tike eels feeding in flooded areas (Howard-Williams 1991), or grazing animals feeding during periods of drought. Permanent residents of these areas must have adaptations allowing the tolerance of both anaerobic and drought conditions e.g. mudfish (Neochanna spp.) which can air-breath and aestivate during drought conditions.

An account of riparian-dependent animals and plants in New Zealand is provided by Collier (1995b). A preliminary list of species dependent on the margins of lakes and wetlands is shown in Appendix l.

3.2.1 Vegetation

As described in Section 2, mnation of vegetation in marginal areas is considered to be predominantly dependent on the flooding regime (Coops & van der Velde 1996). However, Nilsson & Keddy (1988) found only 44%o of the variation in vegetation patterns in the marginal zone of a reservoir were explained solely by hydroperiod and the previous year's vegetation. The survival and continuance of each species over time is also related to their abilþ to produce and disperse seed and/or other propagules, and establishment to maturity under those conditions. Conditions needed for the completion of each stage of the life cycle often differ (Coops &,van der Velde r996). Management practices for marginal zones of wetlands and lakes

Three main factors - stress, disturbance and competition (Grime 1977) determine vegetation patterns.

Stress factors a¡e those that limit biomass development and include oxygen status of the substrate and low nutrient availability. Stress tolerators are slow-growing, usually perennial, with a low reproductive output (Keddy 1983, Wilson & Keddy 1986, Boutin & Keddy 1993, de Winton & Champion 1993)'

Disturbance factors are those that remove biomass including wave and wind damage (e.g. wind throw and scouring), grazing and fire. Disturbance tolerators may be fast- growing annuals, or perennials with protected growing points (e.g. pasture-type grasses).

Where neither stress nor disturbance factors are great the most efficient utilisers of resources (nuüients, light and water) become competitively dominant (Gaudet & Keddy 1995). Successful species are normally fast-growing, tall and dense perennials and, in the case of wetland/lake margins, they often form almost pure monocultures.

Biodiversþ in such low stress and disturbance areas is often low, as is also the case in low nutrienl acidic, ombrotrophic wetlands (high stress), or heavily grazed lake edges (high disturbance). However, most marginal wetlands have moderate stress aìd disturbance levels, with a combination of many determining factors resulting in much higher biodiversity than surrounding areas (Lachavanne & Juge 1997).

3.2.2 Fauna

The lanüwater ecotone provides very important habitat for a wide variety of animals. These areas provide cover, food and/or breeding sites for those species, each ofthese being dependent on the physiochemical and hydrological processes that drive these systems.

Many invertebrates have life-cycles involving both terrestrial and aquatic phases (Collier et al. 1995, Giudicelli & Boumaud 1997). The role of the land/water ecotone in these life-cycles has been poorly studied, both in New Zealand and internationally, as have the temporal fluctuations of both tenestrial and aquatic invertebrate numbers and diversity with changing flood cycles. Heterogeneþ of habitat provided in this zone is likely to support a very diverse invertebrate fauna (Giudicelli & Bournaud reeT).

The marginal znne of lakes is very important to many fish. Schiemer et al. (1995) note that this area often has the highest food availability (both autochthonous and allochthonous) is important for various developmental stages, and the type of available Management practices for marginal zones of wetlands and lakes 14

marginal habitat can determine the population structure of fish in a water body. Collins et al. (1995) found that margins were utilised up to ten times more frequently by small fish than other areas in oligotrophic lakes, as a source of terrestrial and wave- disturbed benthic food, and for predator avoidance.

Many native species including most of the genus Galaxr'as, depend on tenestrial food sourc,es, and marginal zones as spawning sites and a nursery for juveniles (Howard- Williams 1991, Champion 1997). Mudfish are obligate wetland species, avoiding many aquatic predators by their tolerance to periods of drought (Barrier & Hicks 1994).

Many bird species utilise these marginal areas (see Appendix 1). Various duck and other game bird species shelter, feed and nest there at different times of the year (Bisset 1976, Potts 1977, Williams 1981, Fordham 1983). The endangered Australasian bittern (Botaurus poiciloptilus) is similarly dependent on these marginal areas (Ogle & Cheyne 1981).

Other birds appear to be obligate residents of land/water ecotones. The crakes and rails of the genera Porzana and Rallus are dependent on the marginal zones of wetlands and lakes for much of their life cycle (Ogle & Cheyne 1981, Sayre and Rundle 1984, Johnson & Dinsmore 1986). Fernbird (Bowdleria ptmctata) most commonly occur in these transition a¡eas where there is a mixture of tall and low vegetation (Champion 1997).

The size and internal variability and/or connectivity of habitat are of extreme importance for the maintenance of sustainable populations of many bird and fish species. For example, the Australasian bittern requires an average home range size of 40 ha and many native fish (including eels (Anguilla spp.) and species of Galaxias) require access to the sea to allow completion of life cycles (Champion 1997)'

3.3 Human activities

Human activities deleteriously affecting wetlands, lakes and their margins include:

. changes in hydrology (drainage, water level, flow regulation, catchment development resulting in more highly pulsed flood flows)

o changes in erosion/deposition patterns

. runoffof excessive levels of nutrients and toxic compounds

o increased incidence of fire nal zones of wetla¡rds and lakes

o introduction of mammalian grazers and vegetation clearance

o introduction of invasive exotic plants and animals

(National Research Council 1992, Ostendorp et ql.1995, Champion 1997)'

3.3.1 Drainage and regulation of water level and flow

Changes in the water and land environment due to human activities have not only resulted in enormous loss of wetlands, but the biological diversity and ecological integritiy of those remaining ones are threatened. Efforts made to protect some of the more valuable sites, in ignorance of their precise requirements, have often led to ineffective remedial action (National Research Council 1992, Denny 1993, Gopal 1994a).

Drainage of wetlands can lead to the loss of wetland vegetation or, in the case of swamp forests where ffees are long-lived, the structural components of the vegetation remain but a¡e not sustainable in the long term (Champion 1988), with eventual succession to terrestrial vegetation.

Alterations of drainage within the catchment of a wetland or lake can also i-pì"t these areas, reducing habitat, structural and species richness, and regeneration opportunities (Roberts & Ludwig 1991). For example, upstream changes in drainage resulted in the more rapid drainage of waters towards the Wash area of eastern England, causing longer ponding of water in the receiving wetlands, with a consequent reduction in the diversþ of vegetation communities (Burgess et al. 1990).

In the case of peatlands, drainage not only affects the vegetation, but also the substrate. Drying of peat leads to ineversible shrinkage and decomposition, as often happens when this land is converted to agriculture (Mcleay et al. 1992, WPMAG 1996). The drainage of peat around the margins of any remnant wetland or lake can also cause shrinkage and peat breakdown up to 100 m into the wetland (Shearer 1997).

Regulation of water levels in lakes can also have major impacts on the marginal vegetation. Changes in water depth and fluctuation produce changes in disturbance patterns through wave and flood actions, but also different oxygen status, and rates of carbon and nutrient processing in sediments. These changes alter the levels of stress and disturbance experienced, and can lead to changes in the composition of the vegetation. For example, Coops & van der Velde (1996) report a change from diverse Schoenoplectgs-, Scirpl¿s- and Phragmitesdominated marginal vegetation to Typha as a result of reduction in water level fluctuation. This was related in part to the change in conditions provided for seedling establishment. Similarly, Newman et al. (1996) Management practices for marginal ænes of wetlands and lakes

attribute the displacement of Cladium- and Eleocharis-dominated vegetation by Typho in the Everglades (Florida, USA) to maintenance of longer hydroperiods, while traditionally this was thought to be related to nutrient enrichment.

Mark & Johnson (1972) and Mark et al. (1977) report impacts of water level fluctuations o-n_tþe marginalvegetation of Lakes Manapouri and Te Anau.

Maintenance of water level fluctuations is seen as important for the maintenance of diverse marginal turf communities in Lake Whangape (Champion et al. 1996), while extreme fluctuations in water level can lead to loss of marginal vegetation (Hellsten et al. 1996).

3.3.2 Changes in erosion/deposition

As a consequence of water level and flow regulation, patterns of erosion and deposition alter. Channelisation of rivers and construction of stop banks resfict flood events to flood plains and the inputs of nutrient-rich silt. Thus this human induced change removes the 're-setting' agent (Howard-Williams 1991) and also decreases nutrient input to floodplain wetlands, drastically changing their dynamics.

Increased erosion results from larger fluctuations in water level (Knutson et al. 1981, Garbisch & Garbisch 1994, Hellsten et al. 1996), with the opposite occurring where levels are stabilised. In either case changes to marginal vegetation result, often with a decrease in diversþ or total loss ofvegetation.

3.3.3 Changes in nutrient status

The marginal zones of wetlands and lakes are recognised as important buffers to the passage of nutrients from surrounding terrestrial systems to these areas (Section 1.3.4). Increased nutrient input resulting from erosion of devegetated areas or use of fertilisers could influence the structure of the marginal vegetation. For example, Levine et al. (1998) fertilised salt marsh vegetation and found this changed the pattern of vegetation, with low marsh (closer to the estuary) species potentially displacing all other salt marsh species. Thus nutrient levels as well as water levels may determine zoning of fringe wetlands.

Flooding of peatlands by nutrient-rich waters increases nutrient levels both directly and also through decomposition of peat and release of the nutrients stored in previously unavailable forms (Koerselman & Verhoeven 1995). Waters with high levels of sulphate release phosphorus from iron complexes, with resulting production of sulphides. Thus there are both external and internal causes of eutrophication. ær zones ofwetlands and lakes

3.3.4 Increased incidence of fire

Fire is an important natural factor in many wetlands, especially in peat bogs where fire incidence and intensity may determine the vegetation composition (Clarkson 1997). Natural sources of fires would include lightning süikes and volcanic activity. Human- mediated activity such as drainage of peatland, construction of roads and railways close to wetlands/lake margins, introduction of flammable alien vegetation e.g. pampas (Cortaderia selloana), and the practice of burning-off stubble in adjacent cropping areas would all lead to increased incidence of fires. This in combination with the fragmentation of many wetlands has increased the theat posed by fire to the biota, with the potential loss of important species such as fernbird and the restiad Sporodanthus trøversii, or where hot fires cause peat destruction, this may result in the loss of the entire bog system'

3.3.5 Grazing

The impact of grazing, especially by cattle (Bos taurus), is generally regarded as deleterious to wetlands, lakes and their margins (Auckland Regional Authority 1983, Moore et al. 1984, Davis 1985, Buxton 1991). Tanner (1992) reviewed the effects of cattle grazing on lake marginal vegetation. He noted the following impacts:

o direct consumption of vegetation (dependent on palatability and accessibilþ)

o trampling (damage to sensitive underground organs e'g. rhizomes)

o pugging (soil compaction may lead to decreased passage of water and leaching of nutrients)

o erosion (through removal of vegetation)

increased nutrients (direct through urine and faeces and indirect through erosion of catchment, removal of buffer vegetation)

o bacterialcontamination

o weed invasion (opening of invasion sites and spread of seed source on pelt, in hooves, or through faeces)

Thus grazing can affect structure, diversþ, productivity, succession and nutrient dynamics of vegetation and its associated fauna. Decreased vegetation cover usually decreases the abundance of fauna (Hoffinan & Stanley 1978, Whyte & Cain 1981, zones ofwetlands and lakes

Kauffrnan & Varra 1983, Linz et al. 1996) through loss of feeding and nesting sites and increased predator access (Kirsch 1969, Skovlin 1984).

In nutrient-poor peat bogs cattle tracks form channels for surface flow as peat is displaced by trampling (Maturin 1939). As channels dry out there is increased degradation. There are major nutrient additions through urine and faeces and also decomposition of animals that get bogged and die (Maturin 1989).

Not all grazing is detrimental to wetland areas (Bakker 1985, Middleton 1990, Tanner 1992) when removal of t¿ll single species swa¡ds can provide habitat for diverse lower-growing vegetation. Prior to human colonisation of New Zealand, there was a diverse avifauna adapted to grazing wetlands, e.g. some species of moa, flightless goose (Cnemiornis calcitrans), New Zealand swan (Cygnus sumnerensis), giant coot (Fulica chathamensls) and Finsch's duck (Euryanas finschi). Some vegetation types, like the highly diverse low turf communities around South Island montane tarns are analogous to the 'marsupial lawns of Tasmania' (Wardle 1989). Continuance of these communities is dependent on gtazing, in the case of New Zealand by replacement grazers (Atkinson 1988), including waterfowl (native and introduced), rabbits (Oryctotagus cuniculus) and sheep (Ovis aries) (Glenny et al. 1987).

Grazing is a disturbance agent causing removal of biomass (see Section 3.2'1) and may increase biodiversþ in areas of low natural disturbance. Desirability of grazing is dependent on several factors: o the level of disturbance (species, age, stocking rate of grazers, and level of existing disturbance factors) o the levels of stress, e.g. water depth (Brock & Casanovalggl, Blanch & Brock 1994, Brewer et al. 1997), or nutrient levels (Batolome 1984) r palatability of dominant species (Pacala & Crawley 1992)

Grazing is not desirable in high stress habitats, where dominant species are unpalatable, or where endangered species are highly palatable. It can be desirable in low stress and natural disturbance habitats where dominant species, especially introduced weeds are palatable, where rare species are less palatable, where ungtazed vegetation can accumulate litter and become an undesirable fire hazatd', and/or where damage through other impacts e'g' trampling are minimal.

Timing of grazing is often very importan! with more benefits accrued where areas are temporarily retired to allow the reproductive cycles of flora and fauna to occur undisturbed (Hoftnan & Stanley 1978, Whyte & Cain 1981, Verkaa¡ 1987). Managcment practices for marginal zones of wetlands and lakes 19

3.3.6 Weeds

Wetland vegetation is often adapted to moderate to high levels of stress and disturbance as discussed in Section 3.2.1. This has led to the hypothesis that assemblages adapted to habitats with high levels of endogenous disturbance may be less prone to exotic invasion (Mclntyre et al. 1988). This is often the case overseas although notable exceptions include the invasion of paperbark (Melaleuca quinquenervlø) in to the wetlands of Florida and purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) over much of North America. In both cases these species have excluded native vegetation from large areas.

In New Zealand, willows (especially grey willow (Salix cinerea) and crack willow (S. fragilis)), alder (Alnus glutinosa), large sward-forming grasses including Glyceria møeima, Paspalum distichum and Phalaris arundinacea, and sprawling herbs like Alternanthera philoxeroides, Apium nodiflorum and Myriophyllum aquaticum are important introduced weeds of moderate- to high-fertilþ wetlands (West 1993, Champion 1997). Exotic plants do not appear to readily invade low-fertility wetlands, with the possible exceptions of grey willow (5. cinerea), royal fem (Osmtmda regalis) and blueberry (Vaccinium spp.). Drier margins of wetlands and lakes are also commonly invaded by scrub weeds like blackberry (Rubus fruticosus), hawthorn (Crataegus monogna) and in the driest areas pampas and gorse (Uex europaeus). Many of these species directly threaten endangered plants and the biota that these support (Williams & Timmins 1990, Owen 1997), both by direct competition, and changes to the habiøt (e.g. increased fire risk, changes to nitrogen status by nitrogen fixing).

In some situations these introduced plants may have beneficial roles which include:

o providing nutrien! sediment and toxin buffers (see Section 3.1.4), and

o providing nurse crops to successional indigenous species.

3.3.6 Animal pests

In addition to cattle and sheep, other browsing mammals and birds that have been introduced to and naturalised in New Zea\and, may damage wetland vegetation. Species include rabbits, hares (Lepus europaezs), pigs (Sas scrofa), goats (Capra hirca), several species of deer and introduced waterfowl e.g. Canada geese (Branta canadensis maxima), and the seed feeding mice (Mus domesticus) andrats (Rattus spp.). Management practices for marginal zones of wetlands and lakes

Predatory mammals such as mustelids (Mustela spp.) (fenets (M. ftto\, stoats (M erminea) and weasels (M. nivalß)'). rats (ship (R rattus) and Norway (R norvegicus)), possums (Trichosurus vulpecula), feral cats (Felis cattus) and hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus) all have an impact on wetland fauna and are responsible for the rarity or absence of many bird, amphibian and invertebrate species in some areas (Ogle & Cheyne 1981).

4. THE MANAGEMENT OF THE MA.RGINAL ZONES OF LAKES AND WETLANDS

Understanding the processes and requirements of the land/water ecotone is the key to the management of these dynamic and diverse zones. Lemly (1997) suggests the following management decision framework based on ecosystem-based assessment:

o review historic condition

o identiû problem(s)

o produce an operational strategy

¡ characterise the risks ofthis strategy

o if risks are acceptable undertake management actions

. monitor for changes, refine management if necessary.

The National Resea¡ch Council (1992) rate restoration/management opportunities in the USA according to wetland type as follows:

o coastaUestuarine - most experience and greatest success in these a¡eas due to ease of determining tidal cycles and the relatively simple nature of these communities (few species)

¡ stream/riverine - few attempts made, complicated by changes in hydrolory (dams, drainage, channelisation, dredging, bank stabilisation and development of surrounding catchment)

o depressional (e.g. kars! dune, tarns etc.) - achievable if able to remove drainage and isolate effects of agriculture zones ofwetlands and lakes

. wetland complexes - depending on their state of modification, large complexes may be easy to manage through internal control of water movement and blocking of drainage ditches.

Weller (197S) states that although much current wetland management is poorly founded in theory, in some cases the erection of a perimeter fence may be all that is required to protect an area.

4.t Management examples

The problems that result when management actions are carried out without an understanding of the processes involved are well illustrated by Gopal (1994a). In this case water level management of a swamp resulted in ponding of water and eutrophication leading to replacement of many vegetation types by Typha angustata. Exclusion of grazing animals led to an increase in Paspalum distichum, which further reduced vegetation diversþ. Banning of firewood collection from surrounding swamp forest increased the incidence of fires threatening the wetland and surrounding areas.

4.1.1 Ilydrological management

An example of research-based management is reported by Gilman (1994) in the Cors Erddreiniog fen in Wales. This fen is situated in an intensively farmed area where wetlands only remain due to economic constraints on agricultural development, or for waterfowl protection. Long-term lowering of water levels as a result of drainage of surrounding land causes remaining wetlands to deteriorate. Only active water management can stop the slow degradation, but this must not unduly affect surrounding land. Hydrological investigations were instigated to measure precipitation input, storage, evaporation, groundwater outflow and stream flow, runoff and spring discharge. The conservation aim was to manage certain plant communities not well represented elsewhere in the region. Series of weirs were installed in ditches within the reserve to increase water retention. This could not be achieved with one large weir due to variations in relief across the site and problems with adjacent owners. Raising the water level was undertaken to prevent the invasion of open fen with the grass Molinia caerulea, which cannot tolerate submersion.

In South Florida" a programme of rewatering a I02 ha bottomland swamp forest dominated by swamp cypress (Tæcodium distichwn) along with the control of the introduced weedy Brazilian pepper Eee (Schinus terebrinthifolius), had led to significant improvements in the functioning of this system in only three years (Weller 1995). Water was pumped into the area from historical sources, which had been diverted from the site in the past. Pumping was based on seasonal cycles observed in Management practices for marginal zones of wetlands and lakes 22

unmodified areas and ceased during periods of rainfall. Within three years there was significant groundwater recharge, an increase in humidity and the hydroperiod increased from 48 to 144 hours in the lowest areas without impacting areas outside the reserve. Taxodium regeneration was noted along with the re-establishment of 37 new indigenous plants and a similar increase in fauna. These species had been historically recorded from the area, but were eliminated by drainage.

To prevent peat shrinkage effects on lake marginal vegetation in the Waikato Region WPMAG (1996) suggest the following management actions:

¡ limit drainage and stock numbers within at least 20 m of any reserve

o attempt to hydraulically isolate the reserve using stop banks and water level controls

. reduce peat decomposition in pasture by constructing shallow, grassed 'v' shaped drains, level paddocks, adequately fertilise and lime to maintain good pasture cover and do not exceed pasture carrying capacity.

Thompson and Greenwood (1998) recommend:

a marginal strip of at teast 50 m to protect peat lakes from the hydraulic effects of surrounding agricultural land

o the diversion of drains to provide diffuse flow through the margin and

o planting of indigenous vegetation around these margins to prevent invasion of scrub weeds.

Initial planting of Lake Ngaroto has already commenced (see Appendix 2)'

4.1.2 Management of erosion and nutrients

Control of estuarine and lake edge erosion has been successfully mitigated by the establishment of marginal vegetation in a number of these areas e.g. Knutson et al. (1981), Benner et al. (1982), Garbisch & Garbisch (1994), Hellsten etal. 1996.

The control of non-point source nutrient entry into wetlands or streams through interception by marginal vegetation is described in Section 3.1.4. Improvement of nutrient interception was achieved by Mander et al. (1996) with the addition of a 20 m periodically grazsd grass strip, outside of a 3l m ship of wetland margin. Removal of

-_ zonos ofwetlands and lakes

nitrogen improved from 67 to960/o and phosphorus from 8l to97% with the inclusion ofthe grass strip.

4.1.3 Weed prevention and control

Many weed problems can be averted by preventing problem species from entering the system, or by proactive control of newly established plants which are known to be a problem in wetlands elsewhere. Many wetland species are poorly dispersed, dependent on water movement for their spread, by deliberate spread by humans, or contamination of drainage machinery and subsequent spread to new sites. This offers a means to prevent the establishment of those species. However the invasion of wind- dispersed species e.g. grey willow, and bird-dispersed species e.g. hawthorn cannot be managed in this way. Marginal a¡eas a¡e most likely to be invaded due to the higher disturbance regime.

A surveillance programme timed to prevent the production of any sexual propagules can detect the recent incursion of any new adventive species to a wetland/lake margin, therefore allowing eradication. An inventory of problem weed species present in adjacent areas, and the risk of spread to the site can be factored into the surveillance progtamme, allowing prediction of likely weed incursion and appropriate timing for inspection (e.g. September, when grey willows are flowering).

Unfortunately, one or more problem weeds already invade most minerotrophic wetlands and lake fringes, and management of weeds rather than prevention is required.

Control of the problem grass weeds Glyceria møima and Paspalum distichum by cattle grazing \¡/as shown to decrease the areas occupied by those species, promoting other vegetation types (Thomas et al. 1981, Burgess et al. 1990, Middleton et al. 1991). The adventive grass Alopecuris geniculatus has dominated a grazing exclosure on one of the Twin Tarns, near l-ake Coleridge, whereas the adjacent sheep-grazed tarn maintains a much higher plant species diversþ (Glenny et al. 1987).

Management of weeds in wetlands by herbicides has rarely been attempted in New Znaland, and there are few references documenting selective control of weeds in wetlands overseas. Gabor et al. (1995) reported the successful control of purple loosestrife using the amine salt of triclopyr. Adult plants of purple loosestife were killed by triclopyr when applied at 12.0 kdhq but grasses @oaceae) were undamaged by this herbicide. Sedges (Cyperaceae) were damaged by this application, but recovered to pre-trial densities by the next year. Nelson et al. (1996) reported similar results, with increases in monocotyledonous species including grasses, Typhø and Sparganium l0 weeks after application. Management practices for marginal zones of wetlands and lakes

Promising selective control has been obtained on purple loosestrife using triclopyr/picloram, which has killed adult purple loosestrife with little damage to marginal grasses (Manawatu-Wanganui Regional Council 1998). A successful example of selective control of grasses would be the use of haloxyfop to eliminate the estuarine grass Spartina alterniflora from Ohiwa Harbour, Bay of Plenty, without damage to mangroves (Avicennia marina) in the area (Shaw & Gosling 1997).

A preliminary ex-situ ftial investigating the selective control of weeds in wetlands using a range of herbicides including haloxyfop, clethodim, clopyralid and triclopyr, indicate that good contol of target grass weeds can be achieved with no conspicuous damage to most native species apart from the grasses. Target broadleaf weed species were also controlled without damage to many native grasses, sedges, rushes and some broadleaf species (Champion 1998).

¡¡.EW ZEÄLAND IMTIATIVES IN WETLAND AND LAIG MARGIN MANAGEMENT

There are some national initiatives in place or underway which are relevant to this review.

5.1 Landcare/llTWA Research Programme

A joint Landcare/l.llWA research programme investigating the hydrolory of wetlands beginning in July 1998 has been funded by the Foundation for Research, Science and Technolory (FRST). The main hypothesis investigated in this programme is 'that the primary effects of flooding on plants is mediated through effects on availability of oxygen i.e. biogeochemical processes'. Investigations involve both field-and laboratory-based studies.

5.2 Biodiversity Strategy

An inter-agency team convened by DOC and MfE is producing a New Zealand Biodiversþ Strategy. The draft stratery contains provisions relating to the protection and management of wetland margins.

5.3 MinistrA for the Environment

The Minisûy for the Environment has two projects underway to review examples of good practice, and to produce best practice guidelines - contacts are Eric þle, Ruth Barry and Kirsty Woods. An internal report compiled by MfE (Baverstock 1998) includes a summary of significant issues, policy approaches, and specific initiatives by I zones ofwetlands and lakes

region, and a summary of information gaps and research requirements identified by regional councils. This document also includes a summary of guidelines and best management practices related to riparian management. This includes a list of publishers of relevant material (reports, brochures, leaflets and videos), their titles, and a brief description of their contents.

5.4 Forest Heritage Fund

This has been expanded recently to include purchase and protection of wetlands.

5.5 Nga Whenua Rahui

Some significant wetland margins have been protected under Nga Whenua Rahui; e'g. much of the margins of Lake Rotoehu.

5.6 QEII Covenants

QEII covenants have been used widely to protect privately owned wetlands and their margins. Some covenants have involved management agreements with. several parties, such as landowners and Fish and Game.

5.7 Conseryation Act Covenants

Conservation Act covenants have been applied to some privately-owned wetlands.

5.8 Fish and Game

Fish and Game New Zealand sell 'habitat stamps' to raise revenue for habit¿t restoration. This project started in 1993 and c. $250 000 has now been allocated for wetland management nationally. Refer to Section 6.8.

5.9 Forestry practices

There is a New 7æala¡d Forest Code of Practice that sets out recommended forestry riparian management practice. Most forestry companies and many management agencies use the Code. Management practiccs for marginal zones of wetlands and lakes

5.10 Register of wetland restoration proiects

A register has been compiled for Australia and New Zealand (de Jong 1997). It includes an incomplete but useful list of New Tnalandprojects.

5.11 WERI

The WERI (Wetlands of Ecological and Representative Importance) database was established by the Biological Resources Centre (DSIR) in the 1980's. The data is of variable quality and is now somewhat dated, unless updated in the PNAP (Protected Natural Areas Programme) or SSBI (Sites of Special Biological Interest) surveys.

5.12 UNEP/GRID Project

Initiated by MfE, the aim of this project is to develop a nationally consistent approach to wetland monitoring. The first stage is focused on wetland extenÇ developing a standard hiera¡chical wetland classification system, evaluation of the use of satellite remote sensing data" and a framework for iwi partnerships in wetland management.

It is intended for application to selected wetlands; e.g. Te Henga, Orums Road, Puhinui Creek (Auckland); Whangamarino (Waikato); Te Waihora (Lake Ellesmere); Glenmore Tarns and other South Island wetlands.

6. SIJRVEY OF CT]RRENT WETLAND AND LAKE MARGINAL MÄNAGEMENT IN NEW ZEALA¡ID

Stafffrom regional councils, unitary authorities, dishict and city councils, Department of Conservation and Fish and Game New Zealand were cont¿cted for input into this survey.

People were contacted by telephone and asked a series ofquestions about their project brief. The phone conversations varied in length from a few minutes to over 30 minutes. The questions asked can be summarised along the following lines:

¡ Does your agency have any relevant policy or rules relating to the topic?

. Is your agency involved in any 'hands on' management of the margins of freshwater wetlands, lakes, or estua¡ine margins?

o If so, does any of this work include working with communþ groups? Management practiccs for marginal zones of wetlands and lakes 27

The responses from each of these organisations is presented in Appendix 2.

The main issues raised by this exercise are reported in the following sections.

6.t Information Transfer

The management of the margins of freshwater wetlands and estuaries is a topical subject. Most agency staff contacted were very interested in the project and were happy to talk about their experience to date and to provide relevant written information. Many were very interested to know what others were doing, and requested that any report from this project be circulated widely. Some expressed scepticism of 'national guidelines' or national 'best management practice' as applied to wetland margins due to the variety of natural, political and funding environments involved.

Suggestions were made that forums are needed for information fransfer. Some regional forums are already operating (e.g. Waikato and Auckland Regions; also a smaller grouping in the Bay of Plenty). Others also identified a need for these forums (e.g. Fish and Game, Central South Island).

Because of the wide range of experiences in different regions, some suggested tìrat workshops of practitioners would be very useful.

6.2 Landowners

Landowners are, importantly, initiating many wetland protection and restoration works. This is being done for a number of reasons and advice is sought from DOC, Fish and Game, and others.

The initiative is usually instigated by a desire to protect a wetland, often with a QEII covenant. Nga Whenua Rahui Kawenata have also been involved in some major projects such as the retirement, fencing and ptanting of the margins of Lake Rotoehu.

Wetland restoration in cities

There are some very exciting initiatives underway in urban a¡eas. Those that stand out nationally are in Christchurch Cþ and Waitakere City. Christchurch has a substantial team devoted to restoration works, including a wetland ecologist. To date work has focused on steams, but this focus is now widening to wetlands and estuarine margins. A major project is underway to restore the Travis Swamp' Manaeement oractices for ma¡ginal zones of wetlands and lakes 28

Both Christchurch and Waitakere have produced a steady flow of written information for ratepayers (and others) including comprehensive guidelines on how to undertake restoration projects. Both initiatives are characterised by a strong community focus, with community groups having major roles in the works undertaken.

Hamilton Cþ is developing a similar approach, but it is at an early stage.

6.4 Trusts

Independent trusts are a recent but significant initiative and are starting to play a major role in wetland restoration works. The Ta¡anaki Tree Trust and the Waiau Trust are the most prominent examples. The Waiau Trust was set up with ECNZ funding, and is focused on wetlands and waterways. A significant level of funding is available annually to undertake active management. The Trust is administered by a board with agency and community members.

The Taranaki Tree Trust is also an independent body, with costs of administration provided by the Taranaki Regional Council. Funding is donated by corporate agencies and all donated funds are used for protection works. The Trust works with forest remnants as well as wetlands.

A Trust has also been established to oversee restoration of the Travis Swamp in Christchurch.

6.5 Regional Councils and Unitala .A.uthorities

Regionat Councils are at different stages with wetland management. Some have carried out basic inventories of wetland location and extent (e.g. Waikato, Taranaki, Wellington, Otago), others are currently doing this (e.g. Canterbury, Bay of Plenty), or are refining previous inventories (e.g. Waikato). The Department of Conservation compiled an inventory and an assessment of management priorities for the Hawkes Bay Regional Council. Taranaki Regional Council is focusing on 20 regionally significant wetlands but also administers the Taranaki Tree Trust, which is undertaking work on other wetlands.

Some Regional Councils have now allocated sizeable annual budgets for wetland restoration works (e.g. Hawkes Bay - $200 000) or have funds which a¡e available for wetland and other natural a¡ea works (e.g. Waikato). Some have similar-sized budgets which were traditionally allocated to riparian stream-side fencing and planting but the focus of this work has shifted and works are being undertaken on lake and estuarine margins (e.g. Bay of Plenty). In some regions this focus is in the process of changing (Manawatu-Wanganui). zones ofwetlands and lakes

Unitary authorities seem to have significant resourc€ limitations and are not to date, allocating significant funding to wetland protection or restoration'

Voluntary approaches using property plans are a focus for several councils (e.g. Otago, Taranaki, Bay of Plenty).

6.6 District Councils

Although Regional Councils are responsible for wetland water quality and management of water discharge and abstraction, District Councils manage land uses which can affect water quality in wetlands.

Many Disnict Plans contain regulatory provisions relating to land use within specified wetland buffer zones. Stafffrom several councils noted, however, that it was difhcult to define wetland boundaries, and that Regional Council and District Council responsibilities were still unclear.

Many councils have undertaken ecological inventories of wetlands and other natural areas. Councils are commonly trying to use voluntary non-regulatory approaches to the protection of wetlands and other features. Some now have annual budgets for active conservation works such as wetland protection (e.g. Waikato, Western Bay of Plenty, Rotorua) and at least one (Western Bay of Plenty) is attempting to use financial contributions at the time of subdivision or building consent as a funding source for natural area protection.

Some councils are involved in sizeable restoration projects. The most notable a¡e the Waipa District project at Lake Ngaroto and Horowhenua District is involved in a sizeable project at Lake Horowhenua, one of the largest underway in New Znaland.

6.7 Department of Conservation

All conservancies are involved in the management or monitoring of wetlands, and some have very well developed management programmes. The Department generally has limited resources for wetland management and this has resulted in the development of close collaboration with other agencies. This is particularly evident in the Waikato, Bay of Plenty, Hawkes Bay, Canterbury, and Southland. In the Bay of Ptenty the Regional Council will match DOC fi¡nding of water management works related to wetlands while in Hawkes Bay major restoration projects are being undertaken with Regional Council funding (with some private and Fish and Game firnding) combined with DOC expertise and oversight. Management practices for nal zones ofwetlands and lakes

The Department is a st.ong advocate for wetland protection and makes many submissions annually on resource consents.

The Department is involved in some innovative approaches such as private sponsorship of a small degraded wetland in Canterbury; and the Otago Conservation Management Strategy specifies a target for protection and revegetation of riparian margins over the life of the plan.

6.8 Fish and Game New Zealand

Fish and Game have a major focus on wetland management in areas that they own or manage and also on private lands. Nationally they have a relatively small funding base and they have developed some innovative approaches to raising funds such as the habitat stamp scheme and the sale of wetlands after restoration works have been undert¿ken and appropriate long-term protective covenants are in place. Signifrcant amounts of funding have been allocated to some individual projects such as the Whangamarino wetland. They also provide advice to private landowners at no charge, and have access to a significant voluntary labour base for protection and restoration works.

Staff tend to liaise closely with other agencies such as Regional Councils, District Councils and DOC, and there are some very good examples of collaborative projects. Nevertheless, Fish and Game staff a¡e also active advocates for wetland protection via Resource Management Act (RMA) consents, making around 2000 submissions each year on consents. Several staff expressed frustration with the lack of will by District and Regional Councils to implement their responsibilities under the RMA in relation to wetlands.

Detailed wetland inventories have been undertaken in the southern North Island and other regions are also doing this type of work. The information is being used to prioritise the allocation of funds and management effort'

6.9 Multi-party collaboration

In the Hawkes Bay Region, DOC has only limited funding for restoration works but have been able to further such work by assisting the Regional Council. DOC have provided restoration priorities field expertise and technical advice.

Multi-party collaboration is a feature of some of the most exciting wetland protection and restoration projects cunentþ underway, such as work being undertaken at the Te Henga wetland (Auckland), [,ake Horowhenua, and in the Hawkes Bay. zones of wetlarids and lakes

Regionally based forums (such as the Waikato Wetland Forum), with representatives from district and regional councils, Department of Conservation and Fish and Game . New Zealand, and input from Crown Research Institute researchers (as required), provide a mechanism for co-ordinated management of wetlands and lakes within that region.

6.10 Numbers of agencies and other parties

There are many agencies involved in wetland management in New Zealand - 12 Regional Councils, 4 unitary authorities, 7l District and City Councils, Fish and Game, and Department of Conservation. There a¡e 11 Fish and Game Regions and 13 DOC conservancies, and each has separate strategic planning documents and a slightly different management focus. If these are regarded as 'separate' entities there are 110 management agencies involved in wetland management. There are also other parties such as many hundreds (or thousands) of private landowners with wetlands on their properties, and various husts that have been established to oversee wetland work.

Information transfer and collaboration are obviously key elements needed to facilitate ongoing works.

6.11 Voluntary protection

Councils are frequently using voluntary approaches to the protection of wetlands and their margins. Some have backed up these approaches with financial assistance - say a 50% subsidy - for fencing and planting. This type of approach has been used for many years by some regional councils with farm plans or environmental plans, and seems to be increasingly popular with dishict councils.

6.t2 General comments

Although protection of wetland margins is being undertaken in a 'patchy' way in different regions and districts, it is nevertheless evident that this type of work has considerable momentum in terms of both policy generation and physical works. There is a strong thrust towa¡ds the use of voluntary protection mechanisms, reinforced with rules relating to changes in land use on or adjacent to wetland margins. Associated with the use of voluntary mechanisms there is also increasing funding being allocated to support physical works.

The most exciting initiatives tend to involve multiple parties, often including private/lvfaori landowners and several management agencies, e.g. Lake Horowhenua marginal restoration project. A feature common to many, but not all of these Management practices for marginal zones of wetlands and lakes

initiatives, is that a lead management agency such as a Regional Council is prepared to fund much or all of the works required.

7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We would like to thank Chris Tanner and Kevin Collier for their input into this review, providing many of the references and along with John Clayton for their critique of this document.

Thanks also go to the many staff of various organisations who provided the information leading to the compilation of the survey of current management activities. zones ofwetlands a¡rd lakes

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Wetzel, R.G. 1995: Death, detritus, and enerry flow in aquatic ecosystems. Freshwater Biologt 3-3: 83-89.

Wheeler, B.D. 1980: Plant communities of rich fen systems in England and Wales (Parts Ito III). Journal of Ecologt 68:365'394,405-420,76l-788.

Whyte, R.J.; Cain, B.W. 1981: Wildlife habitat on grazed or ungrazed small pond shorelines in South Texas. Journal of Range Management 34 (l):64-68.

Williams, M. 1981: The duckshooters bag: an understanding of New Zealand's game birds. The Wetland Press, Wellington.

Williams, P.A. and Timmins, S.M., 1990: Weeds in New Zealand Protected Natural Areas: a review for the Depafment of Conservation. Science and Research Series No. I4,Department of Conservation, Wellington, New Zealand.

Williamson, R.B.; Smith, C.M.; Cooper, A.B. 1996: Watershed riparian management and its benefit to a eutrophic lake. Journal of Water Resource Planning and Management I 22 (I ): 24-32.

wilson, s.D.; Keddy, P.A. 1986: Species competitive abilþ and position along a natural stress/disturbance gradient. Ecologt 67 (5): 1236-1242. zones ofwetlands and lakes

APPEI\TDD( 1

Lists of birds, reptiles and amphibians, fish, invertebrates and plants nominated by various respondents as being dependent on riparian zones of lakes or wetlands in some way (A - Critically Dependent - all life stages of species dependent on specific riparian zone conditions for survival, B - Dependent - species dependent on specific riparian zone conditions at some stage during its life cycle, Category C - Favoured - species is typically most abundant in nparian zones. This category applies only to terrestrial species). Information on habitat type (lake or wetland), range and riparian requirements is given where possible. (Adapted from Collier 1995b)

BIRDS

Species / Family (Common Main habitat Range Dependency Riparian requirements / comments

Phalaqocotax ca¡bo lake, wetland New Zealand-wide. Nesting, roosting on vegetation overhanging water Phalacrocracidae on vegetation overhanging water Ph al acrcæ¡ax mel an ol e u co s lake, wetland New Zealand-wide. Nesting, roosting

Nesting, roosting on vegetation overhanging water P h al a c rc co rat< sulcirosfn s lake, wetland Mainly Northland, Waikato and Bay of Plenty; Phalacrocracidae (little black scattered populations elsewhere in North lsland. shag) Uncommon in South lsland away from Marlborough

Rallus phîlippenis lake, wetland North lsland in areas north of Aotea Harbour on west A Rallidae (banded rail) coasl, ano unnva on easl ooasr. Himantopus novaezelandiae wetland Mackenzie and Waitaki areas of South lsland. A Most birds spend entire lives along river margins Management practices for marginal zones of wetlands and lakes 47

Anas aucklandica lake, wetland Mostly on Great Banier ls. lsolated groups in areas of A Nesting, resting, moulting. Present localities Anatidae (brown teal) Northland; occasional reports from Fiordland and usually contain overhanging grasses under which Stewart lsland. birds hide during the day

Ponana fabuensis lake, wetland Scattered locations in North and South lslands. Often found where there is raupo and an overstory Rallidae (spotless crake) of manuka. May be more common in riparian areas now due to and

Pozana pusilla lake, wetland Scattered locations in North and South lslands. Often found associated with raupo margins Rallidae

Anas superc/iosa lake, wetland New Zealand wide Nesting

Botaurus poiciloptilus lake, wetland New Zealand-wide. Feeding, roosting, ngsting. Prefers lake, river and Ardeidae wetland maqins for Anarhynchus fmntalis Concentrated in mid Canterbury in breeding season. Nesting, chick rearing. Requires clean shingle Charadriidae (wrybill) Outside of this, spreads further afield around North close to water. Nests exclusively on braided riverbeds of eastem South

Himantopus himantopus lake, wetland New Zealand-wide. Nesting

areas by Bowdleria punctata wetland North and South lslands; largest population in North. May have been driven to riparian pastoral Muscicapidae (fembird) destruction of true habitat following

nesting Polioceph al us rufopectu s lake, wetland North lsland. B Resting, Podicipedidae (dabctt ickl

Poliocephalus poliocephalus lake Limited locations in North and South lslands. B Nesting Podicipedidae (hoary-headed zones ofwetlands and lakes

Egrctta alba wetland New Zealand-wide Feeding

Atdea novaehollandiae New Zealand wide Feeding

Tachybaptus novaehollandiae lake Limited locations in North and South lslands. Podicipedidae (Australasian little

Podiæps cnsfafus lake Localised in parts of South lsland. Largest populations Podicipedidae (southem crested in mid-Canterbury lakes.

Tadoma variegata lake, wetland New Zealand-wide Moulting. Often seek sanctuary on large lakes off shoreline

,Anas gnaci/rs lake; wetland New Zealand wide, especially in Waikato, Rotorua B Nesting Anatidae (grey teall distdct. otaqo and southlancl. raupo Anas rhynchotis lake, wetland North and South lsland lowlands; some high-altitude B Nesting. Live mainly where rush and cover

Arthya novaeseelandiae lake, wetland Particularly c¡mmon on clearwater lakes of Rotorua Anatidae (New Zealand scauP) and Taupo. Well spread on South lsland lakes,

verges Fulica atra lake, wetland ln restricted locations in North and South lslands. B Nesting. Also feeds among rush and raupo Rallidae (Australian coot) Porphyrio porphyrio lake, wetland New Zealand-wide. B Foraging, roosting, nesting zones ofwetlands and lakes

Chandrius melanops lake Common in Hawkes Bay, Wairarapa, Manawatu; B Nesting. Usually on inland rivers Caradriidae (black-fronted moving into Bay of Plenty and Coromandel. ln South dotterel) lsland, found in Marlborough, near Timaru and

Chandñus bicinctus North and South lslands. Clear sites for nesting, chick rearing. Frequents braided riverbeds

Circus apprcximans wetland New Zealand-wide. B Nesting, roosting Arcipitridae (Australasian hanier) Hirundo tahitica wetland New Zealand-wide. C Feeding, nesting. Typically feeds over wetlands and rivers, and nests under bridges, culverts etc

__ __=-_- zones ofwetlands and lakes

FISH

Species / Family Main habitat Range Dependenry Riparian requirements / comments

Neochanna apoda wetland Southem half of North lsland and West Coast of South B Aestivation in banks or beneath tree roots Galaxiidae (brown mudfish) lsland Neochanna dlVersus wetland Northern half of North lsland B Aestivation in banks or beneath tree roots

Neochanna öunoursius wetland North of Christchurch and south to Temuka and B Aestivation in banks or beneath tree roots Galaxiidae (Ganterburv mudfish) Wa¡mate' canterourv Galaxras argenfeus Galaxiidae lake, wetland Throughout New Zealand C Moves into flooded areas and feeds on tenestrial

Anguilla ausfraÍ.s Anguillidae lake, wetland Throughout New Zealand Moves into flooded areas and feeds on tenestrial (short-finnecl eelì food souces

r__,ww zones of wetlands and lakes

INVERTEBRATES

Species / Family (Common Main habitat Range Dependency Riparian requirements / comments

Bembidion maoñnum \Mdespread with one subspecies in North lsland south A Prefers stone/silt on banks close to water Carabidae of Bav of Bembìdion deñiscens North lsland (not North Auckland peninsula)

pebbles Rarely Bembidion chañle \Mdespread from Bay of Plenty to Central Otago. Bare banks where rest on sand. Carabidae occurs with deñiscens. Bembidion tairuense \Â/idespread and abundant south to 45o

away from water. Locally Bembidion oftiferum Westland and montane areas of South lsland On dry sandy sites common. Carabidae species known only from a few lake Bembidion actuarium North lsland Very rare shore and river reaches Carabidae very common Bembidion chalceipes Widely distributed in South lsland Locally carabid abundant on gravel banks beside Bembidion achonoderum New Zealand-wide Common to water Carabidae Locally common, occurs on sterile banks close to Bembidion tekaPoense Between 38oS and 460S Carabidae Widespread by montane rivers and lakes Bembidion wanakense Nelson to Otago Management practices for marginal zones of wetlands and lakes 52

Bembidion uteweÍense lake Known from 3 well spaced North lsland sites, probably A Carabidae (a carabid beetle) more widely distributed Bembidion hokitikense lake \Mdely distributed in South lsland A Carabidae (a carabid beetle) Bembidion paruiceps lake Widely distributed in both islands A Carabidae la carabid beetle) Bembidion rctundicolle North and South lslands, Ghathams Common Carabidae (a carabid

Ac:tenonyxbembidioides Widespread Common on open, bare braided riverbeds and lake

Duvaliomimus brittoni lake, wetland Lakes Wakatipu and Te Anau. Possibly elsewhere in A Present along shores of lakes, streams and Carabidae (a carabid beetle) Fiordland Duvaliomimus walkeri wetland Northem Parts of Westland A Mainly on stream banks

Mischoderusforcipatus wetland Widespread Tanvderidae (a crane flvì Zelandotipula novanae wetland \MdesPread A On margins of streams and in wet soils, especially

Zelandotipula otagana wetland Margins of streams and probably also in shallow

An ab anhynchus lacusfns Lake Waikaremoana Taken only from lake beach

Taenafthrus n.sp.A Homer Tunnel area Stony margins in subalpine seepages and streams

Jr-"WyA'/ zones ofwetlands and lakes

Iaenarfårus n.sp.B Craigiebum Range A? Wet screes and stream margins in subalpine areas Carabidae (a carabid beetle) Ephydrclta thermarum lake, wetland Rotorua district A? Margins of hot pools Ephydridae (a shore fly) Eriopten rnconsfans wetland \Â/idespread C Fine sands and silts on the borders of many Tpulidae (a crane fly) streams and within seepages. Often very abundant. Also into estuaries fuiopten confluens \Mdespread Fine sands and silts on the borders of many streams and within

Jr-Æ-: for marginal zones of wetlands and lakes

PLAIYTS

Riparian requirements / comments Species / Family (Common Main habitat Range Dependency

Recently found near North Cape, extending known Baumea complanata Ngawha (near Kaikohe), Te Paki

Forms a shoreline turf alongside mountain tams C;enfrolepis pallida Montane and subalpine, local including Central where it is frequently flooded Gentrolepidaceae Volcanic Plateau, Ruahines, Otago and Fiordland cushion Part of a turf community subject to occasional Deschampsrb chapmanii lake Widespread at subalpine and penalpine levels flooding on tarn shores. Tolerant of moderate Poaceae (a grass) qrazinq but vulnerable to tramPli ommunity on tam and lake shores. Subject to frequent flooding. Tolerant of moderate Onagraceae (a willow herb) but vulnerable to hooves

penalpine Part of a turf community on tarn shores and swamp Gnaphalium paludosum lake, wetland \l/idespread at subalpine and levels margins where subjecl to occasional flooding. Asteraceae (a cudweed) Tolerant of moderate grazing but vulnerable to

J-wuÅ{ Management practices for marginal zones of wetlands and lakes

Panhebe canescens lake North lsland and Northwest Nelson A Found on tarn and lake shores subject to frequent Scropulariacæae flooding. Part of a turf community that is tolerant of moderate grazing but vulnerable to trampling hooves

Tetnchondn hamiltonii lake A few localities in Otago and Southland and one in the A Found on gently sloping lake shores and stream Tetrachondraceae Ruahine Range banks. Part of a turf community subject to occasional flooding. Tolerant of moderate grazing but vulnerable to and shallow muddy Syzygium mairc wetland Northland to Marlborough and Nelson Wet soils adjacent to wetlands

Long-term survival depends Plagianthus regíus wetland ln most lowland districts Mainly on floodplains. deposited on flats Malvac¡ae (manatu or lowland on colonisation of alluvium

B Mainly on floodplains of lowland rivers. Long-term D acrycarpu s d acrydi oi de s wetland Once throughout lowland districts of New Zealand, but depends on regeneration or colonisation of Podocarpaceae (kahikatea) now greatly reduced survival

forms a sward that extends as floating mats Carcx gaudichaudiana wetland Scattered throughout North and South lslands, Often into the water. Especially characteristic of margins Cyperaceae (a sedge) widespread in mountains oftarns and inlv montane to on periodically flooded ground but can Carcx secta lake, wetland \Mdespread throughout New Zealand in lowland and Establishes persist in quite deep water by building 'trunks' of Gyperaceae (niggerhead) montane areas roots and rhizomes. Margins of swamps and shallow. still lakes a maior habitat zones of wetlands and lakes

Deschampsr'a caespifosa wetland Local in wetlands Wet silt flats bordering lowland to subalpine Poaceae (a grass) swamps and stable stream channels are the main habitats. Grows as tussocks in sedge-dominated

lsolepis aucklandica lake, wetland \Mdespread in mountains, mainy subalpine and Often forms a turfy border on margins of tams and Cyperaceae (a rush{ike sedge) penalpine swamps that extends as floating mats into the water pools a J uncu s n ov ae-zel and i ae wetland Mainly montane and subalpine, through main islands Peaty margins of and tarns are major Juncaceae la native but rather local habitat grows Lepfocarpus simi/rs Throughout Mainly in coastal lagoons where on shores Restionaceae (ointed rush) subject to wave action, with bases submerged of the time. Also on some penalpine Montia fontana Throughout Seepages on lowland to river banks and borders of mountain habitats (e.9. river bank Neopaxia ausfra/aslba Throughout Habitat depends on wet substrate periodic remove taller Portulacaceae seepages) and floods that competitors. Main habitat is wet alpine scree and gravel, but descends to low altitudes along stony river banks and lake shores. Probably incudes more than one soil is moist and Olearia aröorescens wetland Throughout, but mainly montane and subalpine Colonises disturbed areas where stream banks are an Asteraceae (a tree daisY) well drained. Shaded

Jr--"wadilf| zones ofwetlands and lakes

Oxalis lactea wetland Throughout but mainly montane and subalpine c Most common on rocky riverbanks in flood zone Oxalidaceae (a native oxalis) where shaded by forest and on sides of small, watercourses.

Phormium tenax lake, wetland Throughout lowlands Riverbanks, lake shores, swamps, hillsides. Many Phormiaceae (harakeke stands have been induced through clearance of or New Zealand flax) forest from wet ground, but main natural habitat is on gently sloping, periodically inundated ground beside rivers and sheltered lakes riverbanks, swamp margins and Ran un cul us amphitri ch u s lake, wetland \Mdespread in lowland and montane districts Gently sloping lakes are the major habitats. Ranunculaceae (waioriki) shores of small Extends from frequently flooded ground into

penalpine on wet ground. Often Schoenus pauciflorus wetland Abundant in mountains throughout Montane to anchored in rock crevices beside waterfalls and Cyperaceae (a rush-like sedge) mountain tonents Management practices for marginal zones of wetlands and lakes

APPENDD( 2

REGIONAL COTJNCILS AI\D TJNITARY AUTHORITIES

General

lt can be difficult to obtain information from councils due to the number of different staff and sections within councils that have relevant areas of responsibilþ. These include policy (for land, water, and the coastal marine-land interface), resource consents, water quality monitoring, soil and water conservation, operations, and land care and community co-ordinators. Baverstock (1998) has a summary of significant issues, policy approaches, and initiatives by region.

Auckland Regional Council

The Auckland Regional Council (ARC) is helping to fund the GRID project, with 3 trial wetlands in the region - Te Henga Swamp, Puhinui Creek, and Orams Road Wetland (Hunua Ecological District). The intention is to develop classification and monitoring systems that a¡e applicable at regional and national scales.

ARC undertaken PNAP surveys to identiff remaining natural features in the region. Based on these surveys, and other information, an inventory of known wetlands has been compiled. This will not be complete but is a very useful baseline.

ARC funded an MSc project in 1997 at the Universþ of Auckland on the vegetation of Kaitoke Swamp, Great Banier Island. Other projects were also undertaken on the fauna and history of the wetland.

ARC provides ad hoc advice on wetland restoration as required; and some funding for willow control in the Te Henga wetland, along with Rodney District Council and Waitakere District Council.

ARC is convening a focus group on natural heritage monitoring, including wetlands. Other members are from territorial authorities and DOC.

ARC are working with Rodney District on the development of criteria for the District Plan to extend the bush lot subdivision planning provisions to include wetlands.

The proposed Auckland Regional Policy Statement (RPS) has sections on heritage and water quality. The natural heritage section specifically recognises the loss of inal zones ofwetlands and lakes

freshwater and saline habitats and includes a table of the loss of freshwater wetland in each ecological district.

The RPS requires District and Annual Plans to consider advocacy and the provision of information, to provide for voluntary heritage preservation and protection, and to provide for incentives and economic instruments for restoration for fencing.

Riparian margins and buffers are specifically noted in terms of their buffering roles from external adverse effects.

'No net loss' is an important concept in the RPS. "The concept of 'no net loss' includes avoidance, where possible, of the destruction of existing wetlands. If this is not possible then a preferred mitigating action is the creation of a wetland or, failing that, the protection of an existing unprotected wetland'"

The protection of vegetation (excluding plants pests) wherever practicable adjacent to water bodies and coastal waters is recognised as an important factor in the protection of water qualþ.

Doing a lot of work with streams, including community/care groups. Producirg riparian zone management guidelines, including concepts, classification and evaluation, consultation, vegetation management, monitoring and assessment, and catchment groups.

Environment Bay of Plenty o The Bay of Plenty RPS contains policies on riparian management in chapters dealing with land and water management, and to a lesser degree ecosystems. Particula¡ policies refer to protection and enhancement of wetlands and the recognition for the need for integrated management of riparian a¡eas and wetlands. Methods referred to in the RPS include rules, education, development of databases, assistance (farm plans), and advocacy.

¡ The Regional land management plan (RLMP) is the principal tool for riparian management in the region. The plan defines riparian management zones, within which activities are carefully managed - in some cases consents will be required for works in a riparian management zone (i.e. earthworks and vegetation clearance). The plan also controls modification of wetlands. zones ofwetlands and lakes

¡ Environment Bay of Plenty (EBOP) is currently in the process of developing a regional water plan, which may include provisions relating to riparian management and wetland modifrcation.

¡ EBOP are developing a heritage database, which includes ecological athibutes of specific sites. This will, in part, be used to prioritise sites for protection, and in some cases this may guide riparian management priorities (e.g. corridors). Va¡ious sustainable land management projects will also be used in prioritising sites for riparian management. o EBOP staff a¡e currently devetoping a wetland database, which will form part of the wider heritage database. This will include site-specific information, and will be used to promote protection of significant areas using a variety of mechanisms' Have undertaken a previous survey of geothermal features and associated vegetation. o EBOP has produced a large number of fact sheets relating to soil conservation and riparian management. These include topics of plant establishment, managing riparian margins, and plant selection.

¡ Soil and water conservation works have recently been reviewed. Current annual expenditure is around $300,000 and significant amounts have been spent on fencing of lake and estuarine margins over the last 2 years.

¡ EBOP offers a 50Yo subsidy for riparian retirement works associated with farm plans and environmental plans. o Significant recent initiatives include the fencing and retirement from grazing of much of the margin of I¿ke Rotoehu (c. $300 000 in total, including a contribution from Rotorua District Council; DOC has fenced areas that they administer). This is mostly multiple-ownership Maori land, and a Ngawhenua Rahui Kawenata has been placed on the retired area. o Considerable effiort has been made on the margins of Ohiwa Ha¡bour under the farm plan/environmental plan initiatives. This is due to be expanded to include the wider harbour catchment.

o There is likely to be significant ongoing expenditure on lake and estuarine margins, with major projects under consideration such as the fencing of the northern shoreline of l¿ke Rotoiti - nearly all multiple ownership Maori land'

ry{ Management practices for marginal zones of wetlands and lakes

. EBOP has a comprehensive water qualþ monitoring network and has recently commissioned NIWA research into the nutrient removal role(s) of lake edge wetlands. This work found that even degraded wetlands play a significant role in protection of lakes from nutrient inflows.

Canterbury Regional Council

. Canterbury Regional Council (CRC) is mapping and documenting all wetlands in the region.

o Riparian zones are regarded as a key area for achieving integrated management of resources between regional and tenitorial authorities.

o The Canterbury RPS contains various provisions relating to wetlands:

- avoidance of off-site effects of land use on water bodies - protection of biodiversþ - protection of gross area of wetlands - protection of water bodies in their natural state - improvement of degraded water bodies

o Canterbury regional plans includes provision for:

- activities within 50 m of a wetland or 100 m of a lake to be discretionary activities - enhancement of riparian buffers - a proposed environment¿l fund to encourage and assist maintenance, enhancement or restoration of riparian vegetation (particularly indigenous) - CRC to undertake investigations/resea¡ch into the relationships between riparian vegetation and water qualþ - development of a riparian strategy. CRC is producing fact sheets for land use activities, including riparian maintenance and restoration.

CRC encourages local communities to take responsibilþ for lakes and wetlands within their area; with co-operation between the regional councils, district councils, iwi, and communþ groups. CRC has provided financial and 'in kind' support to several projects. CRC is involved with the establishment of land care groups, water care gfoups, and the promotion of best management practices. tt also provides encouragement to iwi to define important wetland values (including margins) and to identiff enhancement requirements. zones ofwetlands and lakes

Gisborne District Council

Most riparian management issues and initiatives are associated with rivers and streams in highly erodible hill country. Most wetlands have been drained.

The Waiapu and Turanga PNAP surveys have identified significant remaining wetlands and these are listed in the Gisborne District Plan as Protected Management Areas.

Wetland protection is addressed in objectives, policies, and implementation sections of the District Plan. o Advocacy, education and information is a key focus of the District Plan, and promotion of the establishment of a community-based contestable Natural Heritage Fund. Clearance of more than 10m2 per contiguous 100m of riparian management area, or clearance of l0m2 over a 24 month period is a restricted discretionary activity.

Hawkes Bay Regional Council

The Hawkes Bay RPS contains the following policy and methods of implementation on wetland identification and protection:

To promote the identification of wetlands and their protection from the adverse eflects of:

* encroachment and reclamation,

* indigenous vegetation removal,

* water extraction and drainage,

* discharges of contaminants, and

+ the introduction of exotic flora and faun4

other than for the purposes of maintaining or enhancing wetland amenity values.

Methods of implementation :

* Encouragement and support for the inclusion of distict plan provisions to give effect to these policies.

* Inclusion within regional plans of provisions to give effectto these policies. Management practices for marginal zones of wetlands and lakes 63

* Preparation by the Hawke's Bay Regional Council, in consultation with territorial authorities and the Department of Conservation, of an inventory of regionally significant wetlands.

* Preparation and distribution by HBRC of information on the sustainable management of lakes, rivers and wetlands.

r The proposed Hawkes Bay Regional Water Resources Plan includes a separate section on riparian margins, including objectives, policies, and methods of implementation (investigation, education, advocacy, incentives, services, monitoring and review).

¡ FIBRC is in the final stages of preparing riparian management priorities; based on GIS mapping. Have instigated a grant system for riparian retirement - up to 90Yo if the farmer will covenant with QEII, DOC, or use a new riparian strip covenant being developed by the regional council. Have c. 30 years of experience with soil conservation works on farms. IIBRC e¡¡coulaggs rather than requires protection works to be undertaken.

o HBRC has a very positive working relationship with DOC and Fish and Game. DOC provided (on request) a list of priority wetlands, which the regional council has been addressing systematically - fencing, planting, water level management. DOC also provided a report on restoration works on the highest priority wetlands. The regional council has provided significant funding while DOC has provided technical advice, and co-ordinated some physical management; e.g. Whakaki and Mangawhero wetlands, both Maori-owned.

o Whakaki Lagoon was the top priorþ in the region and has been the focus of considerable effort and expenditure. HBRC has invested c. $300 000 in this projec! with a further $30 000 each from the owners and Fish and Game. DOC has contributed technical advice and has co-ordinated fencing.

o Annual planning has been an important process for the allocation of resources to wetland restoration. Initial wetland funding was $100 000/year, it is now $200 00O/year.

o HBRC has also purchased part of the Pekapeka Swamp and have inst¿lled outlet controls, and undertaken control of willow and raupo.

¡ The HBRC staff interviewed suggested that a workshop(s) is needed for information-sharing on current management activities rather than more written guidelines and techniques.

-- nal zones ofwetlands and lakes

Manawatu./Wanganui Regional Council

¡ Wetland management issues are touched on in a plan for the beds of rivers and lakes. o The Manawatu/Wanganui Regional Council (MWRC) General plan- contains provisions relating to discharge or abstraction of water, including fertilisers. Riparian issues will also be dealt with in a strategy, which the council is starting to prepare.

¡ MWRC still need to identif, special wetlands - this is only partially completed.

. Some major wetlands are reasonably stable or are in reserves (e.g. Lake Papaitonga, dune lakes). There is a shatery for the restoration of Lake Horowhenua - with active involvement of a number of parties. This is a major iwi-ted restoration project with significant involvement of iwi and wider community.

o Propeû environmental plans are a new initiative. The regional council has tended to focus on speciflrc projects rather than environmental plans - they have a grant system funded to $300 000 per annum. Starting to change the former emphasis on soil and water conservation works to wider aspects of sustainable land management.

o Remaining smaller wetlands are not protected by provisions in either regional or district plans. MWRC is encouraging landowners to protect them.

Marlborough District Council

¡ The Marlborough RPS has policies relating to wetland protection.

¡ The district has two RMA plans (Marlborough Sounds and Wairar¡/Awatere) and both contain objectives, policies and rules relating to riparian protection.

A schedule of a¡eas of significant ecological value (including wetlands) has been included in the Marlborough Sounds Plan (the schedule was prepared by DOC).

Marlborough District Council is not directly involved in any physical management of wetlands.

o Refer to Baverstock (1998). Management practices for marginal zones of wetlands and lakes 65

Nelson City Council

The Nelson RPS contains objectives, policies and methods relating to protection and management of wetlands and their margins.

The Nelson Resource Management Plan (combined District Plan, Regional Coastal Plan, and Regional Plan) has district-wide policy on wetland esplanade reserve requirements, activities in margins, and management of margins. There are rules on vegetation clearance, soil disturbance, and effluent disposal related to wetlands and their margins.

The plan contains provisions for property plans, which can include active management and protection of significant features, including wetlands.

The Council's proposed long-term financial strategy 1998-2008 includes provisions for an inventory of all habit¿S of high conservation value, and protection of freshwater wetlands.

Northland Regional Council

Northland regional Council (NRC) a colour glossy A4 pamphlet on creating and enhancing wetlands (the series also includes 5 others on streamside management, streamside fencing and water supplies, gassed òheamside margins, revegetation and tree planting, maintaining planted streamsides).

The Northland RPS contains water qualþ policies relevant to \ilater qualþ (and related land ones) in wetlands and soil conservation of land management policies directed towards water bodies and their margins.

The proposed water and soil plan contains policies and rules relating to wetlands, including provisions for financial contributions :

'Circumstances where a financial contibution may be required include where a use or development authorised under a resource consent will cause adverse effects on the environment including:

- damage to riParian vegetation.

The purposes for which a financial confübution may be required to avoid, remedy or mitigate and/or offset the adverse effects listed above, may be applied by:

- planting, replanting, transplanting or maintaining new and existing plantings either at or adjacent to the water body; ices for marginal zones of wetlands and lakes

- protecting, restoring or enhancing lake and wetla¡rd habitats and margins including (without limitation) maintenance and planting of vegetation, erosion protection works, fencing, margin and wetland protection; - works require to avoid, remedy or mitigate any adverse effects on the environment resulting from an activity for which a consent is required.'

. Appendices to the proposed regional water and soil plan include criteria for "significant indigenous wetlands" and colour photographs to illustrate what is considered to be "indigenous wetland" and "wet areas" that are "not considered to be indigenous wetlands".

Otago Regional Council

¡ Otago Regional Council (ORC) have undertaken an inventory of wetlands in the region. A schedule of significant wetlands is included in the proposed Regional Water Plan, along with criteria for their selection, and maps showing location and extent. Information is also held on other known wetlands.

¡ The proposed Otago Regional Plan Coast includes a schedule of coastal protection areas, including estuaries and their margins.

e A comprehensive riparian management manual has been developed which includes best management practices, monitoring and assessment, guidelines for various aspects of wetland margin management, and riparian planning.

¡ Management strategies have been prepared for two lakes (Hayes and Tuakitoto), including provisions relating to marginal management.

. ORC has a special enhancement programme to fund fencing for priority sites. Using environmental plans for individual properties.

o ORC is working with land care groups.

Southland Regional Council

The Southland RPS is operative; Southland Regional Council (SRC) considering preparation of a water plan. The approach is to be based on non-regulatory, education, and land user support.

SRC doesn't provide fencing subsidies but is considering a heritage management fund for wetlands, riparian management, and indigenous vegetation. SRC is inûoducing some 'seed' money in 1998 lot a25%o subsidy for fencing' ær Management practices for marginal zones of wetlands and lakes 67

. SRC is moving towards catchment/community care. Some land care groups have self-established. SRC has an environmental education programme.

¡ SRC is working with forestry groups, deer farmers, and individual farmers (some have very large properties). There was mostly a positive response from the recipients, using best management practice to suit each situation'

. SRC run a field day focused on streamside management, and a draft code of practice was due by June 1998.

TaranakÍ Regional Council

Taranaki Regional Council (TRC) have a State of the Environment report (1996) which summarises:

- location and quality of PNAP and WERI wetlands - criteria for establishing the importance/significance of wetlands - ownership and protection - awetland inventory

¡ TRC will prepare comprehensive voluntary farm plans and conservation plans for landowners. They provide advice and information, and will provide cheap plants (at cost). Once a plan is prepared it is up to the landowner to organise the physical works.

o An inventory of regionally significant unprotected wetlands (20) has been prepared. This report also includes a collation of protected wetlands or wetland complexes (31) in the region.

. Schedules of protected and unprotected wetlands are included in the proposed Regional Freshwater Plan. Objectives, policies, and implementation provisions are included in the plan.

TRC is funding wetland protection and restoration works for regionally significant wetlands. For other wetlands it provides information, technical advice, and protection advocacy.

o TRC works mainly with private landowners but will assist community projects.

¡ TRC provide environmental enhancement grants for wetlands. Three regionally significant wetlands are currently being fenced, planted, and covenanted (QEII or other).

-' zones ofwetlands and lakes o The Taranaki Tree Trust provides funds for work on wetlands not classed as regionally significant. The Tree Trust is an independent body administered by the regional council, which pays for all staff and administration costs. All trust funding is directed to active management. The Trust is funded by donations from the business sector, with some funding associated with resource consents (donations are tax deductible). It is focused on Taranaki funds directed to Taranaki projects. A number of large corporations have made significant contributions, including ECNZ, Fletchers, and Methanex.

Tasman District Council

A wetland inventory is currently underway - mostly by Fish and Game with some assistance from DoC and the Dishict Council'

Tasman District Council (TDC) is working on a roading good practice protocol with Transit NZ; DOC is involved as well.

TDC recognises the importance of education and advocacy. A programme is likely to be developed, but this is still at a conceptual stage. o TDC has a network of contacts in landcare groups.

¡ There has been some discussion in council of funding for protection of natural values on private lands. Funding constraints are a significant limitation.

Environment Waikato

Environment Waikato (EW) maintains an environmental initiatives fund up to $240 000 annually and up to $40 000 for any one project. Applicants provide a case for funding to the regional council.

EW has significant involvement with landcare groups - 27 operate in the region and some of these are focused on harbours and harbour margins (Whaingaroa - Raglan, and Whangamata) and lakes (Cameron and Mangahanene).

EV/ is a member of the Waikato Wetland Forum - an interagency working goup that includes DOC, Fish and Game, CR['s, territorial authorities. This group is seeking an iwi representative. It is currently addressing issues such as water level benchmarks for wetlands.

EW is compiling a state of the environment repor! to including palustrine, lakes, and coastal wetlands dealing with:

-- - for marginal zones of wetlands and lakes

curent extent and distribution wetland types wetland values and policies key wetland species

protection status

pressures affecting wetlands

responses to pressures (regulation, management, protection, research, education)

'need data on wetland management and restoration (including costs)

The wetlands section in the water module of the draft proposed regional plan includes a list of wetlands for which there is a discretionary activþ rule applying to drainage within 200 metres of the wetland (does not apply if the activþ is separated by a perennial water body). Drainage of other wetlands is a discretionary activity with a lower th¡eshold of 5 hectares - this may be lowered to include all wetlands. Includes a method that encourages and supports the creation of new wetlands and the remediation of degraded wetlands.

A wetland monitoring scoping report has been produced, which will be used to devise a monitoring plan.

There is a current EW project to define habitat requirements for key habitat species:

- criteria for 'key' species - identiff key habitat parameters - literature review - summary of habitat needs

EW are involved in various national initiatives - LINEP/GRID project, national biodiversity strategy, MfE environmental indicators program (trying to get national standards and guidelines).

EW have a database on indigenous vegetation, including wetlands. It is now mapping wetlands down to lha in extent.

The major thrust of the draft proposed regional plan is education and advocacy. Discharges (excluding stormwater) and abstractions are likely to be non- complying activity for wetlands and lakes. Management practices for marginal zones of wetlands and lakes

Wetlington Regional Council

o The Wellingfon RPS contains policies and methods for the protection of wetlands.

¡ Wellington Regional Council (WRC) have undert¿ken a survey of all wetlands in the region - mapped and assessed the condition of 169 wetlands; 13 300 ha total area with 9 000 ha in the Lake Wairarapa complex. This is focused on natural wetlands rather than artificial structures. Fifty percent a¡e less than 10 ha, and only l%o exceed 100 ha. The next phase is to identifu management requirements for each wetland, and then select key private wetlands for active management'

o The proposed regional freshwater plan contains policies relating to the natural values of wetlands, and rules for activities that can affect wetlands. Non- comptying activities include discharges to wetlands with surface water to be managed in a natural state; while diversion of water from wetlands with a high degree of natural character is a non-complying activity.

o Parties interested in wetland management have been involved in formulation of the freshwater plan - DOC, Fish and Game, Ducks Unlimited, Forest and Bird, Wellington Botanical Society. WRC has set up meetings with key wetland owners around the region - five focus group meetings while compiling the freshwater plan.

¡ WRC administers some wetlands and is starting to investigate potential protection and restoration works.

. WRC is involved in the management of the Taupo Swamp and Lake Wairarapa - working with DOC to set water levels.

¡ WRC is working on an environmental education strategy, and delivery mechanisms.

o WRC has an in-house riparian working SouP, including wetlands.

o WRC make submissions on Disûict Plans about key wetland issues. Responsibilities of the regional council and ænitorial authorities are perceived as blurred. Management practices for I zones ofwetlands and lakes

West Coast Regional Council

The West Coast RPS chapter on habitats and landscapes includes a section of waterbodies, specifically effects on the natural character of wetlands, lakes, rivers and their margins arising from land uses.

West Coast Regional Council (WCRC) has no regional water plan. There are policies in RPS relating to land disturbance and setbacks from water bodies.

WCRC tiaise with land users, provide information and education, and codes of practice.

. WCRC have no operational activity related to wetlands at this stage.

. WCRC are considering the use of rates relief for the protection of estuarine margins.

DISTRICT AND CITY COI]NCILS

General

Brief outlines of l4 District or City Councils are provided below. All others are listed following these. The l4 below all provide examples of different types of approaches being used in relation to wetland protection and restoration. A summary of some of the planning rules in Dishict Plans relating to wetlands is also presented in Froude (tee7).

Esplanade Reserves

Under the RMA the territorial authorities need to address Esplanade Reserve requirements on waterway margins at the time of subdivision. Most District Plans contain esplanade reserve provisions and they have not been considered further in this review.

Christchurch City Council

. Christchurch City Council (CCC) has a major initiative underway to protect and restore the waterways in the city - including streams, estuarine margins, and wetlands.

¡ CC is working closely with community care groups.

I zones ofwetlands and lakes

. MfE is also involved and have funded the production of a booklet.

¡ A range of protective mechanisms is being used including conservation covenants, esplanade reserves, and Purchase'

o CCC has a stratery for the city's natural environment with a "green" corridor network to connect outstanding natural features.

o CCC has a design manual.for waterways, wetlands, and drainage, which includes relevant disciplines. The manual includes sections on site and design process, consultation, planting guidelines, inundation design performance standards, rainfall and runoff, hydraulics, and soils.

o Brochures have been produced on waterway enhancement (restoring Christchurch's waterways and wetlands), and conservation covenants ('a partnership to restore on waterways and wetlands') (also streamside margins).

o CCC maintain information flow via mainstream media such as 'City Scene', the CCC Newsletter.

. Various plans have been produced for restoration projects in different parts of tire city.

o CCC has a separate waterways and wetlands team with a group of 4 staff focused on restoration and protection, including a wetland ecologist.

o Effort to date has focused mainly on flowing waterways but this is changing and an inventory of wetlands is planned, including status and condition. There has been a tendency in the past to run with opportunities rather than priorities - now assessing priorities based on natural values. Local Government Act Amendment No. 3 (1995) - mandate to assess natural assets and assign priorities.

o CCC has a sizable annual budget for waterway enhancement management - c. $500 000/year on physical works and planting alone'

o A major restoration initiative is underway with the Travis Swamp, a large (>l50ha) wetland in the city. Ecological assessments were undertaken prior to purchase by CCC. Communþ groups have been very active with advocacy for protection and are now involved in management - have sought sponsorship and have obtained significant funding for boardwalk construction, visitor cenüe construction. A draft management plan has been prepared and circulated for public comment. Active management is underway with water levels (weirs), weed zones ofwet¡ands and lakes

control (wiltows), planting, and some contouring. Some grazing will be retained, but grazing regimes have yet to be decided on.

Other small wetland restoration projects are underway in other parts of the cþ (e.g. South Shore Spit, Broadlands) - weed control and planting. tr'ranklin District Council

The Franklin District Plan includes a section on the conservation of natural features, and there is a schedule of natural features, which are also identified on planning maps. Adverse effects are specified. Implementation methods are specified, including criteria for addition of further items to the schedule of natural features.

There are some large and significant freshwater wetlands (e.g. Whangamarino) and estuaries in the District.

A voluntary and proactive approach is used.

A conservation plan has been prepared for the district and includes a July 1'997- June 1998 work plan. There is also a list of activities to be considered for future work programmes.

Hamilton City Council o The Hamilton District Plan review is underway - the transitional plan has very limited relevant provisions. o Hamilton Clty Council (HCC) is developing a'green network stratery' to provide an overall framework for the cþ - lakes and wetlands are key elements of the strategy. A draft discussion paper (May 1998) has been circulated for public comment including visions, aims, principles, and implementation provisions. Community partnership is a key element of the proposal. o The District Plan review has a separate section on peat lakes and wetlands. A schedule of significant sites is proposed. Draft objectives and policies have been developed which include protection and enhancement of riparian margins of lakes and wetlands. o There are operative management plans for some lakes that the Council administers with provisions for protection and planting of some margins. There is a current proposal for a joint initiative between Waikato Polytechnic and HCC to develop zones ofwetlands and lakes

Horseshoe Lake as a 'living museum', based on the re-establishment of native forest around the lake.

Hauraki District Council

The operative Hauraki District Plan has a section on natural areas of ecological significance, including wetlands (with sub-sections on coastal wetlands and freshwater wetlands).

Unprotected natural areas have been surveyed by DOC and the Hauraki District Council.

Regulatory controls are also applied to natural areas of greatest significance. Controlled activities include clea¡ance of indigenous vegetation.

There are separate sections in the plan related to a Conservation (Wetland) Zone, and Management of Riparian Margins. These include comprehensive policies, methods, and rules relating to wetland and riparian management'

Ilorowhenua District Council

Horowhenua District includes Lake Horowhenua (Waipunahau) and Lake Papaitonga (Waiwiri). The Horowhenua Dishict Plan recognises the significance of these lakes and the importance of riparian management of inflowing streams.

The District Plan contains policies, objectives, and methods relating to the management of riparian margins to promote the sustainable management of water bodies.

Horowhenua District Council (fDq considers that regulatory mechanisms are insufficient to promote responsible riparian management. Various methods are proposed, including cooperation with regional initiatives (such as the Lake HorowhenuaÆIokio Stream Management Strategy).

HDC is involved in the restoration of Lake Horowhenua. The lake and its margins are in a very degraded state, having been cleared around the turn of the century. A major project has been started to restore the lake and its margins, and the project is a major focus for tangatawhenu4 the Muaupoko iwi (see Lucas 1998). The lake and its margins are Maori land, administered by a trust that has representatives nominated by the Maori owners and the District Council, and is chaired by an ex- offrcio Department of Conservation representative. Management practices for marginal zones of wetlands and lakes

This restoration project has involved the resurvey and fencing of property boundaries around the entire lake margin. An archaeological survey was undertaken and a restoration and revegetation plan was completed and is being implemented. Some Lottery Grants Board funding was obtained for the restoration plan. The lake margin has been divided into sections ('grids') and the District Council and the local polytechnic have each invested in a 'grid'. The trustees have organised c. $500 000 of implementation works, including the involvement of the Eastern and Community Trus! Labour Department Community Employment Group, the Employment Service, the District Council, Te Puni Kokiri, DoC, Department of Corrections, Manawatu- Wanganui Regional Council, Forest and Bird, the local polytechnic, and schools (Lucas 1998). The trustees are seeking further corporate funding over the next 3-5 years.

The restoration project is a major initiative and will run for many years.

Kapiti Coast District Council

The Kapiti Coast District Plan includes a schedule of ecological sites, including wetlands, and has provisions for rates relief for such features, and an 'environmental award' scheme to recognise private efforts to protect areas. The plan identifies 6 nationally significant wetlands along the coast.

Various Kapiti Coast District Council (KCDC) policies relate to wetlands. The maintenance of water tables of significant wetlands and lakes is recognised in the plan; appropriate buffer zones are to be provided around areas of significant natural value and wider ecological processes are to be considered when making decisions about significant sites. Vegetation clearance is a discretionary activþ.

KCDC is preparing an environmental strategy next year which will contain criteria for issuing grants for physical protection and restoration works.

Matamata-Piako District Council

o Matamata-Piako District has some significant wetlands, e.g. Kopuatai Peat Dome.

o The proposed Matamata-Piako District Ptan has a rule relating to the riparian management of all wetlands >2,500m2, and the plan may provide provisions for riparian areas.

o This includes criteria for significant natural features ('a freshwater wetland' is regarded as being significant). Manaqement practices for ma¡ginal zones of wetlands and lakes 76

Rotorua District Council

Lakes are a significant feature of the district. Rotorua District Council (RDC) is preparing a lakes management strategy in partnership with Te Arawa and EBOP to ensure integrated management of lake catchments and lake margins. RDC has already undertaken a landscape study to underpin the lakes management strategy, and a comprehensive natural area inventory that includes all remaining wetlands.

RDC has previously attempted small scale wetland establishment associated with stormwater disposal but local residents were opposed,

RDC has made a significant financial contribution ($45 000) to the fencing of the margins of Lake Rotoehu (EBOP project). Have made a frrrther contribution to fencing of a signifrcant Maori-owned wetland on the northern shores of Lake Rotoiti (organised by EBOP).

RDC is negotiating with a private landowner who wishes to undertake restoration of a degraded wetland.

RDC have recently negotiated protection of a forested area on the margins of Lake Rotorua.

Stratford District Council

Stratford District Council (SDC) have identified significant waterways in the plan and a schedule of ecological sites, including some wetlands.

o Controls are initiated in response to consent processes.

¡ Plan provisions encourage landowners to voluntarily protect riparian margins.

¡ The plan includes an outline of the various agencies (and their roles) involved in riparian management (DOC, TRC, MWRC, Fish and Game, and SDC).

o The plan encourages the voluntary use of conservation covenants, and suggests that covenanting of wetland can be used as a condition of resource consents. Rates relief could be offered as a financial incentive to landowners who voluntarily covenant wetlands.

-,:- ices for marginal zones of wetlands and lakes

Tauranga District Council

Tauranga District Council (TgDC) has undeftaken a preliminary assessment of remaining natural areas and is proposing to do further work to provide the basis for State of the Environment monitoring.

The proposed District Plan has a section on coastal margins and sensitive habitats. This contains objectives and policies on protection of the natural character of wetland margins, ecosystem functioning and integrity, and protection of special ecological sites.

District Plan methods include the establishment of a conservation zone over coastal reserves and esplanade reserves, addressing the effects of earthworks and vegetation removal in consent processes, restriction of activities within significant ecological sites, assessments of effects of any developments on special areas, identifrcation of significant natural areas, application of rules and performance standards to address effects on significant sites.

A precautionary approach is advocated for consideration of effects of activities that are long term or not well understood.

TgDC administers a saltmarsh reserve and has a management plan for the area. This outlines management to be undertaken and a process for ongoing collaboration with stakeholders in the reserve,

Waikato District Council

Waikato District Council (WDC) hosted a conservation forum with other agencies and interested parties.

WDC has an annual conservation budget of $50 000, which is to increase to $100 000. WDC sometimes contribute to the costs of protection on private land - mostly forest but also wetlands, e.g. Opuatia peat bog-2 km of fencing.

A draft esplanade strategy has been prepared and a conservation strategy for the district is proposed.

The Council has l:50 000 scale vegetation maps and cadastral overlay which are used by Council staff - these are very useful, although small but significant features may not be shown on the maps.

_,,,t zones ofwetlands and lakes

o The District Plan has a section on conservation and natural resources, including policies on wetlands. Subdivision rules include opportunities for one further 'conservation house lot' where a conservation feature is to be protected as a result of subdivision. o WDC are compilingawetland inventorydownto I hawith EW.

. DOC is to produce an action plan for wetlands in the Dishict. o WDC is involved in some active management - willow control (Lake Kainui), blackberry control and planting (Lake Rotokauri); and are considering active management at Lake Areare.

Waimakariri D istrict Council o There are no relevant provisions in old District Plans. A proposed plan was recently notified and includes significant sites on private lands, including wetlands. o The proposed District Plan includes a section on indigenous vegetation, fauna and habitats which includes objectives (maintenance, enhancement, and restoration of wetland ecosystems), policies (including criteria for the assessment of relative significance, provisions for landowner assistance, the need for ecological corridors, safeguarding the ecological integrþ and natural functioning of wetlands), methods (including further survey requirements). o Rules include controls on land use within identified sites, controls on earthworks, setbacks for structures.

¡ There are comprehensive sections on wetland maintenance, enhancement and restoration; promotion of understanding and awareness of wetlands; and a section on anticipated environment results and monitoring for wetlands.

¡ Waimakariri District Council (WmDC) is involved in Tutaepatu Wetland - recently handed back to Ngai Tahu by the Minister of Conservation. A management Trust is being established which is likely to involve councilors, community representatives, council staff, Ngai Tahu, and DOC' o WmDC is doing some restoration work with old gravel pits - recontouring and planting. for marginal zones of wetlands and lakes

¡ WmDC has recently purchased a wetland (Forest Dale) - no active management underway yet but preliminary assessments have started.

Waipa District Council

. Waipa District Council (WpDC) has a strong focus on wetland protection and restoration.

. Early assessments of the ecology and management requirements for the Waipa lakes was undertaken in the late 1970's, with some attempts at active management in the 1980's.

¡ WpDC is undertaking a major restoration initiative on Lake Ngaroto - a peat lake. This started in 1994; a restoration and development plan was prepared in 1995. The lake margins were previously grazed to the water's edge, but is now 75% fenced. Silt and nutrient traps are being constucted on c. 15 inflowing streams. Major plantings are underway - more than 80 000 plants already, with more than 100 000 more over the next 2-3 years. Total likely cost is more than $1 million.

Waitakere City Council

The Proposed District Plan includes comprehensive provisions for a 'green network' through the cþ. Riparian margins of streams and wetlands have been recognised separately in a Riparian Margins Natural Atea Zone. This includes wetlands, lakes and estua¡ine margin, and is one of six natural area zones known collectively as the Green Neturork.

Methodology has been included for the determination of riparian margin widths on wetlands (0-25 m) and lakes (5-30 m).

Waitakere City Council (WCC) has prepared and circulated a draft version for the future (2030) of the west coast and Waitakere Ranges, including ecosystems and waterways.

A WCC guide to 'Gardening with Vy'ater' (16 p.) includes planting guidelines for wetland margins. Simila¡ advice is also available from a Council pamphlet 'Waitakere gardening guide for people living in urban Waitakere'. (There is also a streamside planting pamphtet.) A brochure has been prepared and circulated on the protection and enhancement of riparian areas. This is part of a larger brochure/information sheet series that includes ecological links and restoration areas, environmentally damaging plants, revegetation and restoration, the gfeen network, and tree and bush protection. ices for marginal zones of wetlands and lakes

o There is a comprehensive 'Guide for Planting and Restoring the Nature of Waitakere City' produced by the WCC with funding from the MfE Sustainable Management Fund.

o Funding provisions are included in the annual plan for fencing and weed control. There is a significant staff team working on green network initiatives, including a co-ordinator, community development person, and implementation staff

. There is a lot of involvement with community group planting projects - mainly stream margins. WCC staff undertake work on protected areas and support community based projects elsewhere.

o Considerable effort is being invested in the Te Henga wetland, the best in the District. WCC commissioned a report on willow control and significant resources are being invested in implementation, including follow up planting.

Western Bay of Plenty District Council

western Bay of Plenty District council (WBPDC) has compiled, with Doc, a schedule of natural areas including wetlands which was included in the proposed District Plan. This is subject to appeals to the Environment Court.

The proposed Dishict Plan cont¿ins a proposal for financial contributions associated with subdivision or new building consents for ecological protection works in the districl such as the fencing of wetland and estua¡ine margins. The proposed levy would not be required where legally binding environmental protection or enhancement measures have been undertaken or are proposed.

WBPDC cunently allocates $55 000 annually for 'protection incentive grants' and this is provided to Environment BOP to extend their farm plan fencing programme in the District, to encompass wider conservation concerns'

OTIIER TERRITORIAL ÄUTIIORITMS

Ashburton District Council

o The District Plan has provisions relating to the natural character and nature conservation values of wetlands, estuaries, and their margins. Also has set back zones (100 m for lakes, 20 m for wetlands) for earthworks, vegetation clearance (other than pest plants), buildings, and rubbish dumping.

- Manaeement practices for marginal zones of wetlands and lakes 8l

o The council are working with other agencies to ensure that riparian vegetation and habitat vested in local authorities or government agencies is protected.

¡ The council has a schedule of significant conservation areas, including wetlands, with associated protective rules.

Auckland City Council

o The council administers an area covered by 3 District Plans - business district, Isthmus, and the Hauraki Gulf Islands.

o The Hauraki Gulf Islands District Plan (operative since 1996) includes a schedule of sites of Ecological Significance, including wetlands. Controls a¡e established for clearance of indigenous vegetation and ea¡thworks.

o Community initiatives are well developed on Waiheke Island, including the purchase of wetlands. Community Boards and tangata whenua work with the Council in developing initiatives and policies for the island'

Banks Peninsula District Council

o Two important lakes a¡e situated within this district - Wairewa (Lake Forsyth) and southern section of Te Waihora (Lake Ellesmere).

¡ The District Plan contains objectives and rules for marginal protection related to vegetation clearance, earthworks, and structures.

Buller District Council

o The proposed District Plan contains policies on the protection and enhancement of riparian margins of lakes, wetlands and the coast.

o Implementation methods include the provision of information to landowners on the benefits of buffer/riparian managemen! in conjunction with the regional council, and encouragement of the retention and enhancement of indigenous vegetation on tlte margins of waterways.

o The Council intends to compile a schedule of significant natural areas within 3 years.

o Resource consent decisions a¡e to recognise and provide for protection of significant indigenous vegetation and riparian margins. { Management practic€s for marginal zones of wetlands and lakes

o Rural zone standards include setback zones for wetlands (>0.5 ha; 25 m) and lakes (20 m).

Carterton District Council

The proposed District Plan contains sections on the preservation of the natural character of water margins, and important natural areas and features (including wetlands). The plan includes a set of criteria for the assessment of relative significance, and a schedule ofsignificant features'

The plan includes restrictions on the clearance of wetland vegetation (in any wetland >1000 mt no more than 100 m2 of indigenous vegetation may be modified, removed or damaged in a 5 year period).

Central Hawkes Bay District Council

. The proposed District Plan hearings are being held mid-1998; the Council has not yet considered riparian management.

o Landowners aÍe opposed to regulatory methods but the conservation interest groups are pushing these controls.

o The District Council offers a 50% subsidy for protection works associated with subdivisions over 4 ha.

Cental Otago District Council

o The District Council are using an approach of landowner education complemented by performance standards for activities within riparian margins'

o The District Plan includes policies on riparian margins; effects on water qualþ; significant indigenous vegetation, wetlands and wildlife; with rules on riparian margins and related land use practice'

Chatham Islands DistrÍct Council

A draft resource management plan is cunently in preparation' It is primarily focused on non-regulatory methods but will place restrictions on new land use activities within 5 m of wetlands and rivers, for all wetlands larger than t ha.

The District Council has no involvement in active management due to limited funds.

'ly,A",l zones ofwetlands and lakes

Clutha District Council

The District Plan includes rules relating to land use effects on water, including removal of undesirable plants, vegetation removal, harvest of commercial crops, and the restoration and rehabilitation of wetland margins. It is an effects-based plan, which encourages good practice.

Land use activities are to avoid or mitigate adverse effects on riparian vegetation and associated habitat, and bank stability on water body margins. 'Riparian wetlands should be retained for denitrification, filtration and habitat purposes.'

Wetlands get a special mention in water supply catchments. 'Any activity that has a significant adverse effect upon the qualþ and quantity of water, habitat and vegetation of any wetland ... is a non-complying activity.'

Dunedin City Council

The proposed District Plan includes policies and rules on areas of significant conservation value (including wetlands) and the surface of water.

Discretionary activities in relation to significant conservation a¡eas incluàe pastoral intensification, vegetation clearance/modification, and ground disturbance.

Far North District Council

The District Plan is under review and includes a draft section on lakes, rivers and the coastline. Recognised risks to wetlands include drainage, modification of water levels, vegetation clearance, filling, and polluted runoü stock. Policies recognise the adverse effects of land use on riparian margins and wetlands, and methods include the retention of indigenous riparian vegetation and the encouragement of planting.

Preservation of wetlands is recognised in rules, with setbacks specified - 40 m in rural coastal zones, 30 m in urban zones, and natural wetlands are not permitted to be used in any way which will change the natural ecosystem of plants and animals. There are controls on buildings, impermeable surfaces, and effluent disposed close to wetlands.

The District Plan includes a schedule of significant natural areas, including wetlands, compiled by the Department of Conservation. ær Management practices for ma¡ginal zones of wetlands and lakes 84

. Application for discretionary activities will be assessed with a set of criteria which includes 'the extent to which the activity may adversely affect wetlands'.

Gore District Council

¡ The proposed District Plan is to be withdrawn and a new proposed plan is due for release.

o There are some significant wetlands in the district; some of these wetlands also involve ORC, SRC, DOC, and Gore District Council. It is diffrcult to define wetland boundaries - how do you limit activities within a defined distance of a wetland?

o The District Council is trying to use a non-regulatory approach - consultation with landowners and encouragement of good practice.

Grey District Council

o There are no provisions in place apart from esplanade reserves.

o The District Council is considering the use of artificial wetlands for disposalìf sewage effluent.

Hastings District Council

o The proposed District Plan has a section on conservation and natural areas, including the protection of significant areas alongside water bodies.

o The District Council is going to work with other relevant agencies to establish a Natural Areas Information Base, to document significant access for monitoring, investigation and protection. Incentives are to be used to encourage voluntary protection of significant sites.

o Some wetlands and lakes have been identified as significant sites (Lake Rotoohiwa" Lake Tutirg Pekapeka Swamp, Lake Poukawa) and wetlands are also included in a schedule of significant vegetation and habitat sites.

¡ Dishict plan rules include setbacks from wetlands for buildings and septic tanks. Management practices for marginal zones of wetlands and lakes 85

Hurunui District Council

o The proposed District Plan contains policies and methods for managing the margins of water bodies.

o This includes consultation with tangata whenua, liaison with CRC, negotiation with landowners, and promotion of public awareness.

¡ Some methods in the proposed plan relate to active management of wetlands but these are subject to Environment Court appeal.

Hutt City Council

o The City Council administer the Pencarrow lakes but WRC staffdo most hands on management. Stock fencing the greatest challenge; fences don't last long.

¡ The City Council also administer other lakes - Kohangara, Kohangapiripiri.

¡ There are also privately-owned lake margins within the Cþ Council boundaries. Subdivisions are a discretionary activþ, with appropriate assessment's -of environment affects on wetlands and other features. Earthworks are not permitted.

fnvercargill City Council

o The City Council regard wetlands as being a SRC responsibilþ. There are no provisions in the Distict Plan.

Kaikoura District Council

o The draft District Plan contains objectives, policies, implementation methods, and rules relating to wetlands (20 m setbacþ earthworks, buildings, and vegetation clearance other than pest plants).

Kaipara District Council

¡ The operative District Plan has a section on coastal, lake, and river management. There are various lake complexes, with lakes from 5-30 ha'

o A proposed change to the operative plan contains comprehensive provisions on the protection of natural features, including freshwater wetlands. Significant zones ofwetlands and lakes

wetlands (64) and coastal margins have been selected using the Department of Conservation SSBI schedule (included in the proposed variation).

Landowners are encouraged to undertake voluntary protection. The proposed plan variation includes rules relating to any development use, excavation, building or other work likely to adversely affect wetlands.

Kawerau District Council

¡ The District Council has undertaken a natural area inventory, including all wetlands. o The proposed District Plan includes a description of remaining natural areas and wetlands.

. Any remaining significant wetlands are either zoned as reserve or are already fenced.

MacKenzie District Council

The District Council have identified and mapped significant natural areas, including wetlands, and included them in the proposed District Plan - which has received many submissions. Existing use rights are paramount'

The District Council are working through issues with landowners, DOC, and other interest groups.

¡ The District Council have not carried out any monitoring to date.

Manawatu District Council

The draft District Plan includes provisions on ecologically significant indigenous vegetation, including wetlands. o A schedule of 14 significant wetlands, lakes, rivers and their margins is included in the draft plan. o The District Council is exploring the use of voluntary mechanisms to protect significant wetlands. zones ofwetlands and lakes

Manukau City Council

o The District Plan has no rules relating to wetland margins except for esplanade reserve requirements.

Masterton District Council

¡ The District Plan includes a section on water courses and lists activities that can be undertaken.

Napier City Council

o There are few provisions relating to wetland protection in the Disfiict PIan.

¡ Most wetlands a¡e in community ownership; the City Council administers part of the Ahuriri Estuary which is grazed to the edge. The estuary is likely to pass to Maori ownership.

New Plymouth District Council

The draft District Plan has a section on the 'Margins of Wetlands, Rivers and Lakes'.

Objectives and policies are directed at the protection of natural character, with draft rules relating to control of buildings, earthworks and fill, vegetation clearance, hazardous facilities, subdivision sizes, esplanade reserves' and significant coastal areas.

There are simila¡ draft policies and rules related to the effects of subdivision on wetland and lake margins.

The draft plan also indicates support for TRC use of voluntary riparian plans, conservation plans, and land management agreements, and for the use of incentives and community care groups.

North Shore City Council

The City Council has identified estuarine margins (20 m) as proposed reserves (been recognised for 12-15 years).

o The City Council is carrying out local possum and weed control. practices for marginal zones of wetlands and lakes

¡ There are some reasonably large private wetlands within the City Council boundaries - created by impoundment.

Opotiki District Council

The District Council has undertaken a comprehensive survey and documented all natural areas, including wetlands.

o The proposed District Plan due for release August 1998.

o The District Plan will use defined criteria to assess the effects of changes in land use or subdivision on wetlands'

o Consents for land use on the margins of Ohiwa Harbour will be assessed using similar criteria, but additional criteria will be used as well, to recognise the sensitive nature ofthat area.

Otorohanga District Council

o The District Council is using a non-regulatory approach - education, advocacy, and advisory approach. There are some rules related to vegetation clearance and hazardous substances. Plan is effects based.

o The District Council administers three lakes. The District Council have a programmed approach to planting and other management. The Distict Council has prepared a development plan for habitat restoration works undertaken at Lake Huiputea by the Otorohonga Fish and Game Group. This project involves weed control, planting, fencing, and track construction.

Palmerston North City Council

¡ The Cþ Council has prepared a State of the Environment Report - now 2 yeats old but includes some wetland sites and monitoring provisions. An updated report is being prepared.

o tüetlands and wetland margins are not dealt with specifically in the District Plan.

Papakura District Council

o The District Council has no rules relating to wetland margins except for esplanade reserve requirements. zones ofwetlands and lakes

Porirua City Council

The City Council has some natural wetlands (e.g. Taupo Swamp) and a¡tificial ponds within its boundaries.

There are only general plan provisions related to resource consents, rather than those specifically providing for wetland marginal protection'

Queenstown Lakes District Council

There are controls in the District Plan include restriction on earthworks, vegetation clearance within 100 m of wetlands, exotic tree planting, and buildings'

Factors to be considered when land use consents are being considered include relative significance of indigenous plant or animal communities' extent of proposed alteration of wetland, nutrient inflows to a lake or wetland, and natural character. o For specific wetland lake margins the District Council has developed or been involved with the development of reserve management plans, foreshore management plans, and the Lake Hayes management strategy'

Rangitikei District Council o The proposed District Plan has setback controls for wetlands - no structures within 15 m from a lake edge, or 350 m from Mean High Spring Water Level (MHWS), and no earthworks within l5 m of a wetland. o The plan has a schedule of significant natural areas, including wetlands, and controls on activities within these a¡eas.

Rodney District Council

The proposed District Plan has a section on controls on removal of riparian vegetation (this section is subject to appeal). Performance criteria include exclusion of stocþ avoidance of nutrient inflows retention of vegetation (no clea¡ance within 10 m), and protection of natural character.

The District Council are developing criteria (with ARC) to extend bush lot subdivision provisions to include wetlands. zones ofwetlands and lakes

Ruapehu District Council

The proposed District Plan has a section on riparian management and public areas, and objective, policies, and methods relating to wetland margins.

This includes provisions to promote the conservation values of wetland margins, dissemination of information on riparian management, and consideration of financial incentives (rates relief and fencing loans) for the retirement of riparian strips.

Selwyn District Council

o The District Council has no plan provisions relating to wetlands.

o The District Council are organising a State of the Environment Report which will include wetlands.

Southland District Council

The District Council is involved in two proposals for active wetland managernent - the DOC Ramsar proposal for the Awarau wetland (Wetlands designated as being of international imporüance may be recognised as such by the Ramsar Convention, based in Gland, Switzerland), and GRID co-ordinated monitoring of New Zealand wetlands.

The proposed District Plan restricts vegetation removal and soil disturbance on wetland margins, and encourages the planting of riparian buffers'

The plan has a separate section on heritage, including a schedule of significant features and criteria for assessment of significance.

South Taranaki District Council

o The District Council held an in-house wetlands workshop for elected representatives. The proposed District Plan has no provisions except for esplanade reserves and council wetland reserves. Submissions from interest groups have requested a more pro-active approach. The District Council considers that there is overlap with TRC, and that an integrated approach is needed' zones ofwetlands and lakes

e The District Council administers two lakes - are carrying out some management (Lake Rotokare), and are going to prepare a reserye management plan (Lake Rotorangi).

South Waikato District Council

The proposed District Plan contains policies and methods relating to wetlands; including the development of perforrnance standards to promote land use practices that avoid adverse effects, and to remedy or mitigate any adverse effects.

The Council encourages the use of voluntary management practices to enhance and protect wetland margins, and intends to consult and co-operate with relevant parties such as Environment Waikato and tangata whenua.

South Wairarapa District Council o The only relevant planning provisions (proposed District Plan) relate to esplanade reserves.

Tararua District Council

The operative District Plan has a section on water bodies and their margins, with objectives and policies, on natural character ecological and cultural values of wetlands priority areas for riparian management, and protection from inappropriate use and development.

Co-operation and liaison with relevant organisations such as the Manawatu- Wanganui and Wellington Regional Councils, and DOC is specified as a method in the plan, along with encouragement of voluntary riparian management.

Taupo District Council

A new Dishict Plan is cunently being prepared. This will contain extensive lake margin reserve provisions. o A lake management plan is a top priority, including lake margins. o A natural values study is in progress with the Department of Conservation compiling a schedule of significant sites, including wetlands. Consult¿tion has yet to be undertaken with landowners. t practices for zones ofwetlands and lakes

Thames-Coromandel District Council

The proposed District Plan is effects based and includes a strong policy emphasis to avoid negative effects on freshwater wetlands (identified and mapped) and estuaries, and has methods controlling the removal or loss of wetlands.

The proposed plan has a separate section on biodiversity, including the establishment of rules for wetland protection, and provision of support to other agencies and individuals involved in protection works and control of pest animals and plants.

Timaru District Council

A number of coastal lagoons, generally associated with estuaries occur within the District Council boundary.

The proposed District Plan contains provisions relating to wetlands that have been included in areas of significant conservation value, WEzu sites, SSWI sites, and Recommended Areas for Protection (RAP).

Plan provisions include controls on tree planting, vegetation clearance, structures and earthworks within or adjacent to significant wetlands.

Upper Hutt City Council

¡ The new District Plan to be notified late in 1998. This will contain some provisions for the protection and management of wetlands.

Waimate District Council

There are some basic rules in the District Plan. The proposed plan is subject to Environment Court appeals.

Intensive dairy farming is recognised as a threat to wetlands' with the need fence and avoid nutrient inflows from irrigation'

Wairoa District Council

¡ A draft District Plan is being prepared. DOC information on natural areas (RAP) is likely to be incorporated in the plan, with provision for a consultation process with landowners. Management practic€s for marginal zones of wetlands and lakes

Waitaki District Council

. The proposed District Plan includes l8 significant conservation areas. DOC has submitted a schedule of more than 100 sites, including some wetlands. PIan is currently in an evolutionary stage, trying to assign responsibilities for wetlands and other natural features.

Waitomo District Council

o The draft District Plan is cunently in preparation. The only provisions at this stage relate to esplanade reserves. There is no inventory ofnatural areas.

Wellington City Council

o The City Council has a draft policy on riparian protected areas, including margins of streams, wetlands, estuaries, and the coast.

¡ The draft policy includes a section on regulatory versus voluntary protection, including a discussion of the merits of promotion of protection and indicative funding levels required for assistance with fencing and revegetation.

Westland District Council

o There are no related provisions to wetland protection in the proposed District Plan apart from esplanade reserves.

Wetland margins are the subject of an appeal to the Environment Court by the Minister of Conservation relating to riparian setbacks, significant indigenous vegetation, and other matters.

Whakatane District Council

The District Council has undertaken a comprehensive inventory of all natural areas, including wetlands. Some are included in a schedule in the proposed District Plan (Rural).

Wetlands are recognised in the plan as a significant resource management issue.

Controls on ea¡thworks and vegetation clearance are included within 20 metres of wetlands and the council may require riparian planting as a condition of resource consents. zones of wetlands and lakes

. The transitional District Plan includes an Estuarine Protection Zone on the margins of Ohiwa Ha¡bour but this has not been carried over into the proposed plan.

Whanganui District Council o The proposed District Plan has sections on riparian edges (no excavation or damage to land within 20 m of waterways) and indigenous vegetation. o The District Council is doing some revegetation and restoration work in association with a new walkway in the estuarine margins of the lower Whanganui River. DOC is providing ecological advice.

Whangarei District Council

The District Plan has sections on riparian and coastal esplanades and indigenous vegetation and habitat.

The latter section includes provision for assessment of relative significance of indigenous vegetation and fauna habitats (a schedule is included in the plan) and recognition that examples of these in or near water bodies should be protected. Protection methods include economic instruments to achieve protection such as rates relief, and financial confiibutions, annual plan allocations for assisting other protection agencies.

Rules relating to significant ecological areas include controls on vegetation clearance, vegetation planting (indigenous species are permitted), and wetland destruction. The Council is promoting voluntary protection (e.g. QEII covenants) rather than the use of planning rules.

Department of Conseruation

Auckland Consenancy

¡ Auckland Conservancy is assisting with some Dishict Council projects, e.g. Waitakere/Rodney/ARC joint approach to willow control in the Te Henga wetland. o Auckland Conservancy provide technical advice, e.g. species for riparian planting'

¡ Auckland Conservancy are involved with an estuarine margin protection project at Miranda - working with Franklin District Council - fencing and land purchase. zones ofwetlands and lakes

. Some wetland research is underway, e.g. Kaitoke Swamp (Great Barrier Island) wildlife research. o Brown teal habitat protection is undertaken on Great Barrier Island - liaison and negotiation with landowners.

¡ The Conservation Management Strategy (CMS) has references to implement measures under a number of Key Areas; e.g. continue RMA statutory advocacy for riparian protection, monitoring of mangrove ecosystems and management of marginal strips on estuarine margins; encourage community participation in revegetation of lake margins, and monitoring of lake levels and water quality (L. Ototoa).

Bay of Plenty ConservancY o The Conservancy has considerable involvement with consents for forestry harvesting on wetland margins (tree felling away from wetlands; setback zones for future planting). They use the NIWA-DOC riparian management guidelines and consider this to be a useful advocacy document. o The Conservancy undertake ongoing RMA advocacy with regional and distrìct councils (e.g. proposed road realignment through or adjacent to the Kaituna wetland). o The Conservancy has a database of geothermal features.

¡ The Conservancy has fenced Lake Rerewhakaaitiu and removed stock, with a marked improvement in water qualþ. They are preparing a landscape plan to formalise camping sites. o Willow control is seen as an issue in many wetlands'

The Conservancy is involved in water level management for several wetlands - trying to raise water levels in the Kaituna wetland (which also needs fish passage into the wetland). They undertake some monitoring in Kaituna - photopoints and swamp maire.

Within the Rotorua lakes and wetlands the Conservancy fenced and planted DOC land on the margins of Lake Rotoehu as part of larger project co-ordinated by EBOP; fencing wetland/swamp maire stand in Te Arero Bay, Lake Rotoiti (Maori Land); weed control and planting in the Kapenga wetland; assisting with EBOP fencing project at Lake Te HaPua. al zones ofwetlands and lakes

. On the Rangitaiki Plains wetlands, EBOP will match DOC funding for wetland water level management (50:50); EBOP is preparing an environmental plan for the Kohika wetland (Doc instigated projecÐ and may supply materials; the Conservancy are monitoring water levels, improve fish passage, recent report on water levels and vegetation management in the Tumurau wetland (private; Conservation Act Covenant); the Conservancy along with strong iwi and community support for restoration, with Rotary/Jaycees interested in undertaking restoration project in the Tamurenui wetland; the Conservancy are developing a management agreement with Fish and Game, have monitored rare plants in the Awaiti wetland, rare plant monitoring is about to be reinstated here and in other wetlands. o Fish and Game and DOC wetland liaison group meets every 2 months. There is also an informal wetland liaison group (DOC, Fish and Game, EBOP) but this is currently not very active. o The Conservancy has carried out a PNAP field survey of Te Teko Ecological District. Previous surveys have been undertaken of Taneatua and Otanewainuku ecological districts. o The Conservancy has undertaken or require the following activities in Ohiwa harbour:

- a comprehensive property-based inventory of harbour margins to identiff management requirements - liaising with iwi - retired, fenced and monitoring DOC land - want a management plan for the ha¡bour (get away from piecemeal management) - Ngati Awa retiring estuarine flats and margins - Salvation Army Conservation Corp. focused on harbour margins - fencing, planting, weed control, rubbish removal.

Fletcher Forests Ltd. has undertaken an inventory of wetlands in most of their plantation forests.

Canterbura ConseruancY

There are many wetlands within the Conservancy, from high country lakes to coastal lagoons. o The CMS has a section on freshwater management, including wetland margins. o There is a need for review and rationalisation of use of wetlands for grazing. ry' Management practices for marginal zones of wetlands and lakes 97

o The Conservancy has a major focus on Te Waihora (Lake Ellesmere). There are Wildlife Management Reserves on the margins; land exchanges are providing better lake edge protection; proposed joint management plan between Ngai Tahu (lake bed), DOC (riparian margins) and CRC (marginal protection).

o Some marginal habitat management is planned for Lake Coleridge - the outcome of an agreement with the Electricity Corporation of New Zealand (ECNZ) related to a power generation resource consent.

o The Conservancy has strong support for CCC initiatives - considered to be leading edge in intemational terms.

o Tenure review of pastoral leases is resulting in retirement and protection of high counüy wetlands. A similar outcome is likely from the sale of Universþ Endowment land, e.g. Lake Denny is being fenced. DOC has purchased and fenced some high country wetlands. Similar outcomes may occur near Lake Coleridge and in the Castle Hill Basin.

o I firm of funeral directors (Lamb and Hayward) are sponsoring the restoration of a wetland (Otukaikino or Wilsons Swamp). An ecological concept plan. was prepared in 1992 and a brochure published that outlines the project (a 'LivÌng Memorial') - weed control (willows, blackberry), native replanting.

East Coast Conserancy

o There are wetland and lake margin objectives and policies in the CMS.

. The Conservancy is funding ecological research on the margins of Lake Waika¡emoana.

o The Motu River oxbow cutoff wetland has a weed issue (willows, old man's beard) - possibly a good community project.

¡ Wherowhero Lagoon restoration planting is a joint DOC and local community project.

o The Conservancy has a very good working relationship with HBRC. DOC has prepared a wetland scoping paper for IIBRC c.3 years ago, including a ranking system for assessing priorities for restoration works. There is a list of 10 wetlands highest priority for active management - some Maori-owned, most private. DOC produced scoping report of works required. IIBRC providing funding (initially for marginal zones of wetlands and lakes

$100 000/year, now $200 000); DOC is providing technical advice and field co- ordination for some major wetland restoration projects on Maori land.

Nelson[Vlarlborough Conservancy

¡ The Conservancy find the NIWA/DOC riparian management guidelines useful. o There is a strong focus on RMA advocacy. There are currently difficulties dealing with various different unitary councils (Marlborough, Nelson and Tasman),

¡ The Consewancy is considering some wetland restoration opportunities reflooding previously drained areas. o There is a possible freshwater wetland restoration project on Puponga Farm Park - hydrological assessment to be done. o The Conservancy is completingQslgg) wetland survey of the north-west coast.

¡ The Conservancy is working with landowners to get protection of estuarine margins. Estua¡ine margin fencing in Golden Bay, less than I km in 1997/98 but have a prioritised list of fencing required.

Northland Conseruancy

¡ The CMS highlights the best representative a¡eas. The section on land habit¿ts includes an analysis of representativeness of various types of freshwater wetlands (and other ecosystem types) on protected and unprotected land. Protection priorities have been assigned for each type of wetland, with the highest priorities being volcanic lake/riparian, Ngawha thermal lakes, pakihi gumland, peat bog, ephemeral swamp, and dune lakes. The conservancy is working through protection priorities. Have a draft habitat protection strategy (cf. Canterbury has one also).

o The Conservancy maintains an active SSBI database. SSBI sites have been included in 3 proposed District Plans (to various levels). The Conservancy is assisting District councils and NRC with provision of information.

o PNAP surveys have now covered c. 213 Northland Conservancy using a rapid survey model, incorporate SSBI data and will eventually combine PNAP and SSBI data. zones ofwetlands and lakes o The Conservancy has ca¡ried out some active management at Kaimaumau and Hikurangi (weed control). It is starting to work through fencing priorities - margins of Poutu Peninsula dune lakes, and working with adjoining landowners and community groups. The Conservancy have funding for survey ànd monitoring of other wetlands.

Otago Conservancy

. The CMS contains a physical target for wetland protection - the provision for protection and revegetation of 100 km of riparian margin within the 10 year term of the plan.

¡ The Conservancy provides RMA advocacy for wetland protection and enhancement with ORC and district councils. DOC was a member of a group of key stakeholders that ORC convened to produce riparian guidelines, and also contributed to the regional council wetland inventory.

. General advocacy and advice to landowners has resulted in some successful outcomes (e.g. in the Catlins area).

¡ The Conservancy is fencing the boundaries of Wildlife Management Reserves, Èut no planting is being done in these areas. o DOC staff are involved in land care groups in various parts of the region. A community group at Waitati has been doing some fencing and native plantings on the margins of a DOC reserve (DOC supplied plants and advice)' o The .Conservancy is supportive of Fish and Game initiatives with wetland restoration.

o The Conservancy has a lot of involvement with forestry companies, at field days etc.; generally being sensitive to good management practices.

Southland ConservancY

The CMS has a section on ¡estoration, including a focus on wetlands and wetland margins. The involvement of other parties (iwi, communities, other agencies) is recognised as a key element of restoration projects'

Sphagnum harvesting is a significant commercial activity in Southland wetlands, but none is permitted in wetlands administered by DOC (illegal harvesting continues to ocour). Management practices for ma¡ginal zones of wetlands and lakes

¡ The CMS also has a section on the use and management of riparian areas, and a section on the Waituna lagoon complex, one of the most significant in New Zealand (Ramsar listed). (DOC published an information pamphlet on the wetlands in 1996.) Weed control is being undertaken, DOC is negotiating with other parties about water levels; several studies are underway, including one on vegetation change. DOC is cunently preparing a case to extend the Ramsar listing to a wider area of freshwater and coastal wetlands.

o RMA advocacy is ongoing; e.g. nutrient inflows to Waituna Lagoon,

¡ Gravel extraction sites are being managed for restoration purposes, with DOC providing technical advice.

o DOC is involved in the Waiau Trust, which was established using ECNZ resource consent monies. Much effort is focused on wetland restoration.

o The Conservancy is involved with SRC with a major restoration initiative on the Otakou Stream. Dykes have been established and a wetland recreated.

o The Conservancy has some involvement with community groups such as the Waituna Wetlands Care Group - focused on water values.

Tongariro/Taupo Conservancy

¡ The Conservancy has a Lake Taupo Conservation Strategy with a section on wildlife and wetlands. Wetland areas are listed and described, and policies are provided for wetland management (promotion of values, protective status, advocacy for protection, and monitoring).

o DOC administers some significant wetlands (e.g. Rangitaiki, Motuoapa) and management policies are contained in the draft CMS.

o The Conservancy are providing information on natural areas to Taupo District Council for inclusion in the proposed District Plan.

Waikato Conservancy

¡ The Conservancy is providing statutory advocacy for wetland protection and enhancement. It is a member of wetland forum group convened by EW.

o The Conservancy is establishing outlet water level benchmarks for 30 lakes - to provide baselines for inclusion in the Regional Water Plan. zones of wetlands a¡rd lakes

o The Conservancy is involved in a number of active management projects:

Lake Patetonga planting since 1989, now full restoration programme. Whangamarino fencing and planting and reinstatement of the weir. Lake Areare similar to Lake Patetonga but only running for one year. may set up a Lake Care group with Environment Waikato. Lake Cameron Lake Care group with local landowners. - in 2nd year Lake Rotomanuks fencing boundary next year and starting full restoration. Lake Ngaroto have provided technical advice (WDC project)' Lake Penniwaka recently fenced - management plan being written - planting next year ABCD Flax Block(800 ha water leveVweir, habitat stamp funding, pond adj oins Kopuatai) creation, waterfowl habitat.

('Full restoration' works = lake level management, fencing, weed control, planting.) o NIWA are contracted to monitor and manipulate turf communities using exclosure plots at Lake Whangape.

Wanganui Conservancy

¡ The CMS is based on ecological districts and refers to wetlands where present.

¡ The Conservancy has a comprehensive SSBI database which includes PNAP data. Most privately owned natural areas in the conservancy have been resurveyed since 1996, including many wetlands'

¡ Indigenous vegetation is changing visibly over time in wetlands with lower fertilþ species (Baumea) being replaced by higher fertility species (raupo).

Weed control is a major concern - especially grey willow which is not inhibited by high water levels. Weeds are the main management problem in dune lakes'

DOC is under pressure from adjoining landowners to control water levels in some protected areas e.g. Lake Pukepuke.

The Conservancy is providing technical advice on estuary wetland (and margins) restoration for the lower Whanganui River, and doing some fencing and planting of small estuaries and margins. Management practices for marginal zones of wetlands and lakes t02

Wellington Conservancy

¡ The Conservancy includes DOC administered areas on the Chatham Islands:

- some reseryes have significant wetlands - seeking covenants via Forest Heritage Fund and Nga Whenua Rahi - 800 ha wetland purchased in 1990 - some wetlands partly protected (e.g. Green Swamp - not fenced) - some animal control - fencing programme underway; fences only last l0 years due to high salt levels - some private protection initiatives, e.g. Te Awatea - farmer donated 5 ha to reserve

¡ The Conservancy is undertaking a major wetland restoration initiative on Mana Island.

¡ The Conservancy is involved in the management of populations of nationally th¡eatened wetland plant species such as Amphibromus fluita¿s and Urtica linearifolia.

¡ There are guidelines in the Conservation Management Strategy for management of key wetland areas such as Papaitonga Scenic Reserve and Lakes Kohangapiripiri and Lake Kohan gatera.

o There is advocacy from Wellington Botanical Society on indigenous plants to use in riparian plantings.

o The Conservancy carry out legal protection initiatives of Category 1 RAP's identified in PNAP documents. Recent PNAP surveys have been undertaken for Wairarapa Plains and Eastern Wairarapa ecological districts.

¡ The Conservancy has obtained science advice on restoration work in wetlands, e.g. for the Lake Horowhenua restoration project.

o There is ongoing pest control at key reserves in and around wetlands such as Lake Papaitonga and Lake Wairarapa, and Pauat¿hanui Inlet.

o The Conservancy has prepared a site plan for Lake Wairarapa - a key wetland in Wellington Conservancy. It has organised a workshop on Lake Wairarapa in September 1997which produced conclusions on:

- priorities and scale of management required - gazing - weed control other than gruun;g Management practices for marginal zones of wetlands and lakes 103

- water level management - water fowl hunting - freshwater fish - research needs - long term management

o A restoration strategy has been published forthe conservancy, including wetlands.

West Coast Conservancy

o Some provisions in the CMS related to wetlands.

o The Conservancy provides RMA statutory advocacy with Regional Council and district councils.

¡ The Conservancy is reviewing grazinglicences in riparian zones of rivers.

o Sphag¡um harvesting from wetlands is a significant local industry.

o The Conservancy has been updating an inventory of West Coast wetlands. - zones of wetlands and lakes

Fish and Game New Zealand

National

Nationally, the largest expenditure for Fish and Game is on protection/enhancement of habitat - mainly wetlands (Fish and Game and private).

Each Fish and Game region has a wetland enhancement programme' Most also o\¡/n or manage wetlands on behalf of the Crown.

Fish and Game nationally invests significant effort in resource consents - c. 2 00O/annum. o Fish and Game has a national 'Habitat Stamp' scheme - hunters and others purchase stamps and the NZ Gamebird Habitat Trust (an independent trust) administers the funds. Grant applications are called for annually - from clubs, DOC, and private landowners; c. $250 000 has been allocated over the last 4 years, mainly for wetland work.

AucklandAilaikato Region

¡ The Region covers a very large area (Wellsford to National Park).

o It is the only Fish and Game Region to produce an approved sport Fish and Game Management Plan to date.

o There is a very strong club system - a legacy of the former acclimatisation societies (23 active clubs, minimum 10 members, some have 200-300 members). There are also strong wetland interest groups; e.g. Whangamarino Wetland Management Association, and Piako Peat Dome Management Association'

. c. $50 000/annum goes into active wetland management - not always riparian as it also includes wetland creation and weed spraying). The Region distributes c. 20 000 trees/annum for wetland planting (natives and exotic) (e.g. Lake Waikare planting). Clubs also have their own nurseries.

o There are I 600ha of wetlands in Fish and Game ownership/management (e.g. whangamarino, Mangatawhiri, waikato River Islands, Lower waikato River DelÐ. Management practices for marginal zones of wetlands and lakes

o The Region work closely with DOC; e.g. Whangamarino weir - DOC funded parts of the project, Fish and Game funded others.

o The Region has variable relationships with district councils (16 in the Fish and Game Region) - impressed with the Waipa District Council Lake Ngaroto project.

o The Region has some involvement with landcare groups (see EW).

¡ The Region is involved in some large projects such as the Waihou Valley scheme - 7 4 krn of fencing, including 2 wetlands.

o The Region use or are involved in the allocation of habitat stamp funds for wetland works.

Central South Island Region

¡ The Region is currently preparing a Sport Fish and Game Management Plan - has a section on habitat management.

¡ The Region maintains an advocacy role with private landowners and other management agencies.

o The Region is invotved in management on 3 properties to demonsfrate good riparian management on small streams. It is also involved with a landcare group south of the Waitaki River.

o The Region has purchased wetlands, largest being 160 ha. This is owned by Fish and Game, protected with a QEII covenant. They also manage (by agreement) a privately owned wetland that has a QEII covenant.

. The Region is considering management of a DOC reserve - previously gtazed, now mostly gorse but has the potential for wetland development'

¡ The Region has a volunteer base of 50-60 people involved in planting and other work. They are available on request to private landowners.

o Hunting clubs are also involved in active management - planting, pond creation.

o The Region has commented that better co-ordination of effort is required between Fish and Game, tangatawhenua, private landowners, DOC and other management agencies, including Non-Government Organisations (NGO's), and a need for Management practices for marginal zones of wetlands and lakes 106

better information sharing. Regional Councils could create regional forums on riparian management.

Eastern Region

o The Region manages wetlands in Fish and Game ownership, and has appointments to control and manage some Crown-owned wetlands, some jointly with Doc.

o Wetlands are mostly balloted to hunters who do most of the day-to-day management, subject to Fish and Game approval'

o The Region have carried out physical works at Kaituna, Awaiti, and other wetlands - fencing (DOC funded), planting (Lottery Grants Board funded), wetland creation.

o The Region has significant input to statutory planning processes (e.g' September 1996-June lgg7, l}l consents; September 1997-June 1998, 83 consents). Fish and Game has a'rough' wetlands database.

o The Region provide advice to private landowners (planting, wetland creatiÀn; funding sources - e.g. habitat stamp fund). They need a database on the scale of service provided.

o The Region is working with EBOP, DOC, District Councils on a wetland inventory.

o The Region work closely with hunter groups carrying out wetland management' One of the groups has a nursery; Fish and Game has also maintained a small nursery, though not cunently operational.

Hawkes Bay Region

¡ The regional Sports Fish and Game Management Plan is not finalised'

o The Region has identified priority wetlands and are systematically working through the following management sequence:

- purchase - establishment of weirs to control water levels - planting - fencing Manasement Dractices for ma¡einal zones of wetlands and lakes 107

- covenant - sell - re-invest the capital in another wetland enhancement project

o The Region liaise closely with FIBRC and DOC.

o The Region provide technical advice to landowners - water levels, fencing, planting, some funding.

o The Region encourage landowners to apply for habitat stamp funding'

Nelson/Marlborough Region

o Nelson/lvfarlborough region used $35 000 from the habitat stamp fund to purchase a wetland.

o The Region are carrying out a basic inventory of wetland extent - mainly from aerial photographs (c.f. Benn 1997), but also reviewing satellite data.

o The Region is involved in a small-scale scheme with landowners - 50olo of wetlàd development costs up to $1 500 - some pond creation; some sponsorship initiatives; some trees for planting.

o The Region has some involvement with communþ groups and schools. Done on an ad hoc basis with limited resources.

o The Conservation Corps in Marlborough doing some work in wetlands.

o All of the unitary authorities have a different approach to wetlands. None employ an ecologist and so will consult Fish and Game as technical advisers.

North Canterbury Region

o The Region purchased a 26 ha wetland on the shores of Te Waihora (Lake Ellesmere), and have produced a management plan. It is fencing an area on the Birdlings Flat side of Te Waihora, to exclude cattle during the black swan nesting season.

o The Region is managing a DoC reserve (Coots Island) - pond creation, willow control. Management practices for marginal zones of wetlands and lakes r08

¡ The Region provide RMA general advocacy for wetland protection.

¡ Some habit¿t stamp funds have been used for private wetlands in the region.

o The Region is providing technical advice and advocacy to landowners.

Northland Region

o The Region manage one wetland (50-60 ha) on behalf of DOC; (formal management agreement); established weir ($30 000) and maintains the consent for the weir.

o The Region is starting to work with hunting clubs but with only limited action to date.

o The Region is involved in management enhancement works on private land - wetland creation (by excavation), fencing (provision of materials), planting, technical advice, some funding, working with QEII.

o Invasive aquatic species such as alligator weed a¡e a problem. These are managed by temporary draining the wetland and then reflooding.

e The Region is working with NRC and district councils. It attends regional council field days (along with DOC stâff) - providing advice to landowners.

. The Region has very limited st¿ffand other resources.

o Forestry management is a big issue in Northland.

Otago Region

o The requirements for physical management not clearly addressed yet. Fish and Game have been doing fencing and other active management but has very limited resources.

o Rural wetlands are critically neglected and riparian zone management often overlooked. There is some interest starting to develop in Dunedin Cþ.

o The Region provides significant input into ORC riparian management document - good guidelines, but need to be carried through into implementation. M Management practices for marginal zones of wetlands and lakes 109

o The Region provided input to ORC wetland inventory - suggested wetlands working party to focus specifrcally on wetlands. Need some good criteria for assessment of conservation values, threats, and management requirements.

Southland Region

¡ The Region provide technical advice to private landowners on plantings, fencing, other management on small to large scale projects. It has produced planting guidelines.

o The Region is involved in the active management of various wetlands - fencing, planting, weed control.

. The Region has previously canied out management improvement on a wetland and then sold it by tender. The capital is being reinvested in similar projects. This has generated a considerable interest from other potential purchasers who have expressed interest in other wetlands.

o The Region liaise closely with other management agencies - particularly DOC and SRC.

o The Region is involved with the Waiau Trust - established as a result of ECNZ consent process - $5 million invested which generates c. $300 000/annum for wetland protection works:

- purchase and protection - active management works (including access, river margins) - fencing and planting - been operating 1 year - only to be used in the Waiau catchment - Trust includes Fish and Game, DOC, ECNZ, local communþ

o The Region is involved in RMA advocacy related to plans and consents; e.g. gravel extraction consents and wetland creation as a consent condition.

Taranaki Region

o Riparian management is referred to in general terms in the draft Sport Fish and Game Management Plan.

o The Region had a species focus for the first 100 years or so, but by the mid-1970's this started to change to a habitat focus. Riparian interests are now focused on Management practices for marginal zones of wetlands and lakes

waterfowl habitat (mainly ducks). The Region has a legacy of decades of riparian management - previously.reactive on a first in, first served basis, with a.l/3 to ll2 subsidy for earthworks and planting. The future focus is on advice and support.

lnventories have been undertaken of waterfowl habitat - quantity and condition.

- 1500 wetlands in Ta¡anaki - c. 50% artificial,50/o of natural origins

- c. 9%o of wetlands have ungrazed margins (provide waterfowl nesting habitat) - the number of wetlands appear to be staying reasonably static - no trend information available yet from wetland inventory'

The Region don't administer many areas - one area (250 ha farm) has a QEII covenant; one other is grazed to the margins - due to be fenced and planted'

. The RMA good for trout habitat advocacy, not for waterfowl habitat.

¡ TRC is focusing on the "best" wetlands, but is starting to get into enhancement works via the Ta¡anaki Tree Trust. TRC provided some support for Fish and Game wetland inventory.

MWRC has a soil conservation programme that is starting to focus on wetlands as well as stream and river margins. It is working closely with Fish and Game.

Wellington Region

The Region has done a comprehensive wetland inventory (Benn 1997) covering:

- all wetlands (including artificial ponds and drains) - mainly based on aerial photographs and existing information, wft limited field checking

The Region spent $100 000 overthe last 7 years on c.30 wetland enhancement projects - c. 70 ha of habitat. Costs are c. $1 000/ha for restoration/wetland creation works.

o The Region provided a lot of advice to landowners, at no charge.

¡ The Region has heavy involvement in statutory advocacy. Management agencies don't place enough emphasis on the ecological value of ephemeral wetlands. There is a problem defining where wetlands start and finish. However, rules in Management practices for marginal zones of wetlands and lakes lll

plans will not stop degradation over time. Also some territorial authorities don't recognise wetlands other than DOC RAP's in their plans.

o The Region own 2 wetlands but is considering selling one of them to free up capital (cf. similar approach to Hawkes Bay and Southland).

¡ The management approach is now focused on advice, advocacy, and research (to better direct effort).

. The Region has a short term approach of advice, advocacy, and encouragement. A longer term approach - consent processes need to deliver. It suggested that resource consents should be required for ongoing drainage schemes (c.f. consents are needed for power generation schemes), and that a rating fund should be established to recreate and restore wetlands.

o Hunting clubs are involved in some hands on management. Fairly low key project every l-2 years, great enthusiasm.

o An Eastern Wairarapa inventory found 5 000 - 7 000 ponds, and now need to focus on quality rather than numbers. The Region was previously spending $15 000/year on pond building but has stopped this, now investing in improvement of habitat quality. The Region want to finish the Wellington inventory, extending to Rangitikei and Dannevirke.

o The Region manage hunters on the eastern shoreline of Lake Wairarapa but not the habitat.

West Coast Region

¡ The regional Sports Fish and Game Management Plan is well advanced'

¡ The most significant wetlands in the area administered are in DOC tenure, or have some statutory protection.

o There is no regionally co-ordinated fencing or planting underway.

o The Region is providing input to WCRC and district council statutory planning processes.