BRITISH WILDLIFE Volume 29 Number 2 December 2017

The Asian Yellow-legged · The Wash St Helena: Island of Endemics · Larger Water of Britain and Ireland What Does ‘Traditional’ Management Really Mean? BRITISH WILDLIFE THE MAGAZINE FOR THE MODERN NATURALIST

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ii British Wildlife December 2017 The Asian Yellow-legged Hornet: the implacable advance of a -killer The Asian Yellow-legged Hornet: the implacable advance of a bee-killer

Karine Monceau and Denis Thiéry The Asian Yellow-legged Hornet nest that was discovered in Gloucestershire in 2016. National Bee Unit

he Asian Yellow-legged Hornet Vespa north Devon. Both UK records resulted in the velutina, known also as the Asian Hornet, discovery of nests, which were subsequently Tis among the most harmful of all the destroyed. Sightings have been reported also invasive species listed by the European Union. A from the ; the first in the British relatively recent arrival from China, it is of concern Isles was on Alderney in 2016, with several more chiefly because of its likely impact on the European nests discovered in the following summer on both Honeybee Apis mellifera. The newly arrived Guernsey and Jersey. was first spotted in in 2004, near Agen, Ecological impact between Bordeaux and Toulouse, in south-west . The European population’s starting point The hornet forms a large colony, founded by a appears to have been when a single female mated single queen, which begins laying its eggs in April with four males (Arca et al. 2015); it is striking and produces thousands of individuals each year. A that the enormous numbers now present – there huge amount of protein is required in order to feed are probably more than 50,000 nests in France the larvae during the colony’s growth, and this is alone – appear not to have suffered because of this obtained mainly from other , including genetic bottleneck. The insect rapidly colonised honeybees, the latter comprising one-third to several other countries, including , where two-thirds of the hornet’s diet, depending on it has reached the island of Mallorca, , the environment (Villemant et al. 2011). Wild , and, more recently, and pollinators clearly must suffer, but we are sorely . It was officially recorded in the lacking in reliable data. More research has been for the first time in summer 2017. conducted on the highly predatory Asian Yellow- The first confirmed UK sighting occurred in 2016, legged Hornet’s effect on commercial apiaries, in Gloucestershire, with a second a year later in where workers hunt during the summer, typically

December 2017 British Wildlife 79 The Asian Yellow-legged Hornet: the implacable advance of a bee-killer

synchronously wobble their abdomens as a visual warning, a behaviour known as ‘shimmering’. European Honeybees cannot defend themselves as effectively against attacks by ; they do sometimes display the bee-carpet reaction, but their attempts at heat-balling are nowhere near so efficient as those of their Asian counterparts (Arca et al. 2014). The mere presence of Asian Yellow- legged Hornets is a significant source of stress to the , resulting in reduced foraging by workers from attacked hives, with obvious consequences for the survival of colonies over winter (Arca 2012) and, probably, reducing the ability of attacked bees to learn the scent of, and thus avoid, the predators

Hornet larvae inside the nest. Karine Monceau (Wang et al. 2016). This stress may also interact with the negative effects of neonicotinoid pesticides, hovering, or ‘hawking’, near a hive entrance and further reducing a bee’s ability to avoid predators catching returning honeybees by hooking them (Tan et al. 2014). with their front legs (Monceau et al. 2013a). They The Asian hornet may, in addition, be a vector then cut the captured bodies into pieces, extracting of pathogens such as Israeli Acute Paralysis Virus, sugars by licking the haemolymph (a fluid which infects European Honeybees in China and in equivalent in most to blood) before France (Blanchard et al. 2008; Yañez et al. 2012). discarding all but the thorax, which is carried back Finally, the Asian Yellow-legged Hornet is potentially and fed to the larvae in order to provide them with a direct competitor of the native European Hornet protein. In Asia, the insect preys largely on the Vespa crabro, the latter being a predator of many Asian Honeybee Apis cerana and on the European common farmland pests, although early studies have Honeybee, which has been introduced there (Ken yet to find clear evidence of the occurrence of such et al. 2005; Yang 2005). competition (Monceau et al. 2015b). Asian Honeybees (known also as Eastern Honey- Economic impact bees) defend their colonies from raiding hornets by deploying a so-called ‘bee-carpet’, in which Beekeeping has in the last few decades suffered large numbers mass at the entrance of a hive as a several crises, these caused by such factors as deterrent, or by ‘heat-balling’, whereby they engulf the use of pesticides, the Varroa Mite Varroa the predator, making its body temperature rise to a destructor, the parasitic microsporidian Nosema lethal level (Ken et al. 2005; Tan et al. 2007, 2010, apis (the pathogen responsible for the disease 2012, 2013). Massed honeybees also sometimes nosemosis), and agricultural change, all of which Asian Yellow-legged Hornet workers hawking outside a honeybee hive in France. Karine Monceau

80 British Wildlife December 2017 The Asian Yellow-legged Hornet: the implacable advance of a bee-killer

Queen Queen

Asian Yellow-legged Hornet Vespa velutina

European Hornet Vespa crabro

Queen Queen Worker

Nest of Median

Common Wasp Median Wasp vulgaris media

The Asian Yellow-legged Hornet is smaller and darker than the European Hornet, and the largely black abdomen, thorax, and top of head help to identify the Asian species. The Asian Hornet is considerably larger and darker than the Common Wasp and similar species, but could potentially be confused with the Median Wasp; the thorax of the wasp, however, has characteristic yellow ‘tick’ marks, while in the hornet it is plain black. The nest of the Median Wasp is superficially similar to that of the Asian Hornet, but is much smaller and is typically constructed lower down in bushes, rather than high in the canopy. Richard Lewington

December 2017 British Wildlife 81 The Asian Yellow-legged Hornet: the implacable advance of a bee-killer

December

November January

October February

Death of Wintering males/workers

Foundress Reproduction emergence

September March Secondary Primary nest nest egg-laying

Predation First beginning workers

August April

July May

June

A diagram illustrating the annual life cycle of the Asian Yellow-legged Hornet. Karine Monceau & Denis Thiéry have weakened honeybee colonies. The Asian France, analysis of the number of annual incidents Yellow-legged Hornet adds yet another problem, of human envenomation by bees and has although its effects are difficult to separate from failed to find evidence of any increase in the years those of the others. While beekeepers in south-west since this species arrived in the country (de Haro France have reported losses of up to 30%, probably et al. 2010). Its sting is more serious than a bee’s from multiple causes, there has been no appropriate and people have suffered anaphylactic shock assessment of the hornet’s overall impact on honey because of multiple stings, leading to roughly 20 production. Nest removal can also be costly for deaths in mainland Europe. Although the species land owners, as private pest control companies is, so far, extremely rare in the UK, there have been charge several hundred euros for each nest that several reports about ‘killer Asian hornets’ in the they destroy. media, even if, in virtually every case, what had actually been seen was a native European Hornet. The impact on human health Confusion also arises from the term ‘Asian hornet’, While the male Asian Yellow-legged Hornet may which in fact covers 22 species of hornet found in bite to defend itself, it is only the female that can Asia, including the European Hornet, the Oriental sting. As a member of the – the family Hornet V. orientalis, and the Asian Giant Hornet V. that includes nearly all known social wasps – it mandarinia and its subspecies the Japanese Giant can, unlike honeybees, sting several times. In its Hornet V. m. japonica. The last-mentioned, known native range it is considered highly aggressive in colloquial Japanese as the Giant Sparrow Bee, is (Martin 1995), but this seems not to be the case in able to destroy a honeybee hive within a few hours, Europe; nevertheless, it is aggressive near its nests and has been responsible for attacks on humans in and will actively defend them from intruders. In Japan and China (Ono et al. 2003).

82 British Wildlife December 2017 The Asian Yellow-legged Hornet: the implacable advance of a bee-killer The Asian Yellow-legged Hornet: the implacable advance of a bee-killer

What should be done? destined to become queens (Monceau et al. 2014). To date, only traps baited with food have been used, After 13 years in Europe, the invasive hornet a technique that has attracted controversy because has become a real concern in many countries. As it is not specific to a single species, and is especially the ‘invasion’ expands, the cost of management problematic when trapping queens in spring. In increases dramatically (Simberloff et al. 2013), fact, queens represent only a small percentage of and the cheapest, most effective way of dealing overall catches, which comprise chiefly and with the problem therefore is to take immediate (Monceau et al. 2012). In addition, action to stop the insect’s advance before it there is little evidence on the efficacy of this method becomes established. In the UK, an early report (Monceau & Thiéry 2017); an assessment of the of workers preying on honeybees near Tetbury, in true impact and efficiency of the spring trapping Gloucestershire, in 2016 enabled officials from the of queens needs to be carried out as a matter of National Bee Unit quickly to locate and destroy urgency. During a colony’s growth, trapping by the nest (Defra 2016). Everyone should be aware means of either sugar-based baits in June, July of the risk and should report sightings to the GB and October or protein-based baits, usually , Invasive Non-native Species Secretariat. Recent in August can locally decrease predation pressure simulations suggest that most of the UK could in apiaries (Monceau et al. 2013a, 2015a, 2015b). be colonised within two decades, once nesting is This type of trapping has limited side-effects on established (Keeling et al. 2017). Unfortunately, in local insect populations because these are made France, the country with the largest population of up predominantly of honeybees, which are not the Asian Yellow-legged Hornet in Europe, none of attracted by the traps. Toxic baits, such as growth- the control techniques (below) has been able to stop inhibitors and insecticides, have also been tested this invasive species’ advance. but, in the absence of a specific bait targeted at the Asian Yellow-legged Hornet, these should be Trapping avoided because of the effect that they could have Trapping is a classic control method, one which can on the health of honeybees, and wider concerns be performed at different times in the year in order about the environmental impacts of pesticides. to target different stages in the Asian Yellow-legged This problem could, however, be solved by using Hornet’s life cycle. Traps can be set in spring to pheromones as species-specific mediators. Recent catch queens and in the summer and autumn to studies have revealed the presence in the antennal catch workers and emerging gynes, those females lobe of male Asian Yellow-legged Hornets of

A graph showing the number of hornets captured in traps with different baits at different points in the workers’ flight season. Karine Monceau & Denis Thiéry

Sugar-based bait Protein-based bait Sugar-based bait

Ϸ 40 days

Beginning of the increase in First predation workers pressure Cumulative number of trapped hornets

July August September October November December

82 British Wildlife December 2017 December 2017 British Wildlife 83

BWM29_2 01 Article Hornet.indd 83 04/12/2017 10:49 The Asian Yellow-legged Hornet: the implacable advance of a bee-killer several macromolecules that could be linked to sex found the nest where the flight paths intersected. pheromones (Couto et al. 2016). A recent study by At the time of writing, however, it is too early to Wen et al. (2017) identified sex pheromones from know whether the destroyed colony was the only the Asian Hornet, and these should be tested for use one in the area. Early detection methods using in trapping devices. harmonic radars are being studied (Milanesio et al. 2016, 2017), as is nest destruction by means of Natural enemies drones. A drone belonging to the Jersey Fire and Asian Yellow-legged Hornets in Europe may host Rescue Service was this summer reported to have a number of different pathogens. Darrouzet et al. been attacked by a swarm of Asian Yellow-legged (2015) and Villemant et al. (2015), respectively, Hornets as it was used to investigate a nest. found a parasitic (Conopidae) and a nematode In 2016, at least one female, either actively, by that kills the hornets. The fly, however, is unlikely flying across the English Channel, or passively, to be used as a biological control because it is a by hitching a lift on a boat or vehicle, arrived in generalist parasitoid (something which eventu- the UK and founded a nest, which was destroyed. ally kills rather than only parasitising the host) In the following year, a second nest was also of social wasps, sawflies, bees and ants. Several destroyed, one hopes before reproduction took entomopathogenic (capable of causing disease in place, but the origin of the queen is uncertain: was ) fungi – Beauveria bassiana and Metarhi- it another one that came from across the Channel, zium strains – can efficiently infect and kill workers or could it be a descendant from the 2016 nest in (Poidatz et al. in press); a queen trapped in the UK Gloucestershire? It remains particularly important, was found to be naturally infected by a Beauveria therefore, that people react at an early stage and species. Natural predators include the Eurasian contain any invasion before a colony can become Jay Garrulus glandarius, the European Bee-eater established. We believe that the experience in other Merops apiaster and the Badger Meles meles. invaded countries, more precisely the lack of a Honey-buzzards Pernis apivorus are specialist quick reaction, should serve as an example of how predators of insects such as these, having scale- not to do it. The French government took about like feathers around their bill and eyes to prevent eight years before legislating on this species, by stings, and one has been observed feeding at an which point eradication was impossible. The Asian Asian Yellow-legged Hornet’s nest near Bordeaux Yellow-legged Hornet is among 37 alien species (Monceau et al. 2014). The European Bee-eater and listed by the EU as harmful to native biodiversity, the Honey-buzzard are both rarities in the UK, so and we believe that the most effective way of the potential for biological control by these natural tackling this problem is at a European level. The UK enemies is restricted, but more predators will surely should monitor its beehives closely, destroy Asian emerge; domestic foraging in apiaries, for Yellow-legged Hornet nests where and when it can, example, are known to eat hornet workers. and be aware that if this fails the next step will be to learn to live with this invader. Nest destruction References Nest destruction is probably the most effective control method, because it ensures the destruction For details of references, see https://britishwildlife. of the colony (Thomas 1960; Spradbery 1973; com/site/suppl-dec-17-hornet. Hölldobler & Wilson 2008). Before the emergence of the first workers in the spring, the nest, coloured Dr Karine Monceau is a lecturer at the University grey, is no larger than a golf ball, and thus almost of La Rochelle (affiliated to UMR CNRS 7372 Centre impossible to detect. Later in the cycle, the much d’Etudes Biologiques de Chizé lab) interested in the behavioural ecology of insects and birds. larger nests, which can be up to 80cm in diameter, are often at the tops of the and are well Dr Denis Thiéry is a research director (INRA camouflaged until the leaves fall. At Woolacombe, Bordeaux-Aquitaine and head of the INRA Lab in north Devon, where a nest was discovered in health and agroecology of vineyards), with a particular interest in insect behavioural and September 2017, bee-inspectors followed the flying chemical ecology. direction of workers from different apiaries and

84 British Wildlife December 2017 surface soil, increase its fertility and promote a lush growth of grass. It has to be said that some of the old natural-history books have been hardly less whimsical. Le Court did at least try the experimental approach, and a number of naturalists, including my father, studied moles by systematically investigating the tunnel systems. The break-through in the study of mole behaviour came with Gillian Godfrey and Peter Crowcroft tagging individuals with radioactive cobalt and following them with a Geiger-counter. There is an obvious drawback to this technique, and it has been superseded by the ubiquitous radio-tag. Robert Burton Without investing heavily in time and technology, I cannot track my moles and have to rely on old-fashioned y soft spot for moles has lasted for 70 years, ever observation and speculation. Over the years, moles Msince I played Moldy Warp the Mole in a school appear to have targeted my own and neighbouring play based on Alison Uttley’s The Tales of Little Grey gardens while there have been very few signs of activity Rabbit. (I wore a black velvet waistcoat and a jockey in the adjoining pasture and arable fields. Yet there are cap.) Moles are at once the most obvious and the most sufficient molehills to show that these places must be secretive of our mammals. Their manifestation is very inhabited. The answer is that they are living in a network obvious on my lawn, which is not too much of a disaster of tunnels at depths of up to 150cm that have existed because it is more rough grass than manicured sward. for generations. The way to see signs of these tunnels Nevertheless, when a mole moved in some 15 years is to keep watch where ditches have been cleared, at ago I was soon fed up with clearing a barrowload of working faces of sand and clay pits or road-widening molehills per day. schemes. With the right consistency of soil, the tunnels As I had hoped, the production of molehills dwindled remain patent so that it is possible to see the basic when I presumed that the tunnel system had been layout. I have twice seen nests revealed by the excavator completed. In succeeding years, the lawn lay largely 80 or more centimetres underground, complete with unblemished except for a burst of eruption in spring, balls of leaves and, in one case, the decomposing body when, I presume, the tunnels were refurbished after the of a mole. winter rains. This year there was no sign of the mole, Despite an emphasis on adaptations in anatomy, so I presumed that it had died. Then there was a rash physiology and behaviour for a subterranean life, moles of new workings in late summer in a part of must spend a considerable time on the the garden that had previously been left surface. They may leave traces in the form clear. Had a new mole arrived, taking of shallow furrows once called rutting over the old tunnel system and angles or, pace le Court, traces extending it? d’amour. The names suggest a I have been writing ‘presume’ link with courtship behaviour,

John Watkins/FLPA because I do not know what but this is only partly true as has been happening under my the furrows can be found lawn. This has for long been a year-round. A mole outside problem for anyone trying to its system of tunnels could be study moles. You cannot learn described as like a fish out of much from molehills, although water. Yet it seems to manage. there have been some interesting When young moles cut the apron attempts. One of my favourite strings and leave their mothers’ stories in the history of natural history tunnel systems, they often live above concerns Henri le Court, who left Paris ground for a short time until they can

surfacing from a molehill. surfacing from to escape the horrors of the Revolution and find an untended patch of ground in which to retired to the country to study moles. He attempted to set up home. During this time they fall prey to a variety measure their speed underground by inserting a line of predators, from owls to cats, and in mid-summer of straws along a mole tunnel. Having ascertained that significant numbers are taken by Tawny Owls. This there was a mole present, he blew a horn down the suggests nocturnal activity, but a lucky few people have tunnel. The terrified mole fled, knocking the straws as it watched moles foraging on the surface by day. Talpa europaea Talpa went. ‘Spectators affirmed that its swiftness was equal I should be grateful that one manifestation of moles to the speed of a horse at a good round trot.’ A good is missing from my garden. At least they have not try, but a slow walk would be more accurate. disfigured it with a ‘fortress’, a pile of soil 60cm high The difficulty of observing moles in the wild has led and 100cm across, or more, that protects a nest at the to some fanciful folklore. Fairy rings have been blamed surface. Such a monstrous edifice would also indicate

European Mole European on moles burrowing in circles, which, by loosening the that the garden is liable to flooding.

December 2017 British Wildlife 85 Classic Wildlife Sites: The Wash Classic Wildlife Sites

The Wash

Will Brown Actively accreting Spartina anglica saltmarsh colonising mudflats. Note the complex intricate pattern of drainage rills. Will Brown he Wash is one of the most important significant formative influence on Sir Peter Scott, coastal in Europe, renowned the founder of the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) and Tparticularly for its huge populations of Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust (WWT), who lived wintering and migratory waterbirds. In terms here during the 1930s. of its conservation importance, it is the largest Formation and change estuarine system in the British Isles, and it contains the biggest Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) The Wash represents the unfilled section of the and National Nature Reserve (NNR) in . fenland basin and was formerly a much larger inlet Its intertidal saltmarshes and mudflats, vast in of the North Sea. Fluvioglacial processes created a extent and with high biological productivity and breach in the Cretaceous chalk between Norfolk lack of disturbance, support the country’s greatest and Lincolnshire, and this was widened into a basin concentration of waterbirds and Harbour Seals by subsequent glaciations. During the Quaternary, Phoca vitulina. cycles of marine incursions and retreats resulted in Despite its size and importance, the Wash has the deposition of fine clays and silts (Boreham et been profoundly altered by land reclamation since al. 2010). medieval times, resulting in extensive habitat loss The historical coastline of the Wash had formed and an artificial modern shoreline. There is a by the Iron Age, with a slightly elevated silt ridge dramatic transition in landscape character across around the shoreline separating the saltmarshes the man-made sea banks: inland lies one of the from the undrained freshwater peat swamps of country’s most intensive and rich arable regions, the interior fenland. A number of Romano-British while beyond lie marshes and mudflats, which settlements were established along this ridge. By the represent one of its last wildernesses. early medieval period these had become prosperous, The Wash has been the location of some import- with recently enclosed rich grazing marshes and the ant and pioneering conservation work. It had a profits of the wool trade funding the building of

86 British Wildlife December 2017 Classic Wildlife Sites: The Wash

magnificent churches. During the 13th century, Boston the two principal Wash ports of Boston and King’s Hunstanton Lynn were the most important outside London and THE WASH were members of the Hanseatic League, trading across northern Europe.

Land reclamations

Holbeach An estimated 47,000ha of land have been reclaimed Spalding Long Sutton King's Lynn from the Wash since Saxon times (Davidson et al. 1991) – more than in any other British estuary – the majority since the 17th century. Reclamation of saltmarsh was achieved through enclosure, drainage The changing Wash Wisbech N and the construction of new sea banks. The process coastline by reclamation c. 500 CE 1300CE Below Map of the Wash. Right Map showing 1700 CE 1900 CE 0 10 kilometres 20 historical changes in the coastline of the Wash. Present-day John Plumer

NORTH SEA Skegness

The Wash Steeping Riv Boston er NORTH SEA

King’s Gibraltar Point SPA/NNR Lynn Gibraltar Point Cambridge

Friskney s Flats p LONDON e e

n s i Wrangle D a p r n d Flats o n e D t a s S e e l o g

o B n D Holme Dunes h

h L o NNR b

b n o

o n H Boston H RSPB Freiston Shore y L Old Hunstanton T Roger h e Sand H Hobhole Drain THE WASH Hunstanton a v Outfall e n Black RSPB Frampton Buoy Marsh Sand Old South nd Seal lla e Sand Peter r W ve Ri Black RSPB Snettisham Sand Outer Trial Bank Breast Sand Inner Trial Bank Vinegar The Wash Special Protection Area Guy’s Head R iv Middle e Saltmarsh r

G N e Mudflat n r e e a Sandbank tidally submerged N t

r O e King’s u Sandbank slightly submerged iv

s e R e Lynn Other reserves 0 5 kilometres 10

December 2017 British Wildlife 87 Classic Wildlife Sites: The Wash of reclamation pushed the coastline farther out and a maximum depth of 50m in a central trench towards the sea, and Wisbech and Spalding – both called ‘The Well’. former ports at the head of the Nene and Welland Despite the appearance of uniformity, the habitats estuaries – now lie some ten miles from the modern of the Wash are highly varied. They range from shoreline. shingle, sand-dune and saline-lagoon complexes at Even after the drainage of the interior fenland the edges to large areas of saltmarsh and intertidal under Cornelius Vermuyden in the 17th century, mud and sand. Sublittoral habitats include areas the tidal rivers of the Wash were prone to siltation, of mobile sand, fine clay, coarse gravel and mixed which impeded discharge of floodwater into the sediments. In more sheltered and stable substrates, sea. The shrinkage of the peat fens meant that water there are rich biogenic reef communities. had to be lifted, against gravity, from land below Habitats sea level into the Wash. It was not until the late 19th century, with the Saltmarshes advent of steam pumping engines, the installation of The Wash contains approximately 4,228ha of tidal sluices and the creation of new artificial ‘cuts’ saltmarsh, the largest area in Britain, accounting for – straight, deep channels constructed to discharge about 10% of the national total. It occurs around water quickly into the sea – that the drainage of the three-quarters of the estuary in a band between Fens, and the uncoupling of its intimate connection 500m and 2km in width. In contrast to the majority to the Wash, was finally completed. Piecemeal of saltmarshes in southern Britain, those on the Wash reclamation of the Wash saltmarshes continued have been growing in extent since the cessation of well into the second half of the 20th century. A land reclamation. Following reclamation, the high- proposed 1981 reclamation at Gedney Drove End and low-water marks move seaward to re-establish was successfully opposed at Public Inquiry, and the equilibrium, the new sediment supply resulting in outcome, along with strengthening conservation a rapid growth of vertical elevation and lateral legislation, effectively ended the era of continuous accretion (Pye 1995). land take for agriculture (Chatters 2017). A consequence of historical reclamation of the upper marsh is that the majority of saltmarshes The environment of the Wash in the Wash comprise immature and species-poor The Wash stretches from a line between Gibraltar low-marsh and middle-marsh communities. There Point NNR, in Lincolnshire to Holme Dunes is an under-representation of botanically diverse NNR, in Norfolk, occupying approximately high marsh, the best examples of which are the 66,654ha. Five rivers discharge into the Wash, unreclaimed sections of Frampton, Kirton and collectively draining around 12% of England. Holbeach Marshes, which show a complex pattern From an anticlockwise direction, these are the of dendritic creek systems and diverse vegetation rivers Steeping, Witham, Welland, Nene and Great mosaics. Ouse. The Wash is more of a tidal embayment The pioneer zone is characterised by extensive than an estuary and, despite its considerable fresh- areas of Common Glasswort Salicornia europaea water input, is dominated by marine inputs and (NVC SM6), sometimes interspersed with Common processes. Cord-grass Spartina anglica (NVC SM8). The The majority of sediment within the Wash is middle-upper marsh (the Atlantic salt-meadow thought to derive from offshore material and communities) has mosaics of Common Saltmarsh eroding sections of coastline, including the till cliffs Grass Puccinellia maritima, Sea Aster tripolium of Holderness (Evans et al. 1987). The sediment and Sea Purslane Halimione portulacoides, the last is distributed around the Wash by tidal currents, being particularly dominant along creek edges and which deposit progressively finer material from better-drained areas of marsh. sand dunes at the outer margins to large mudflats The Wash has the largest area of scrubby, in the sheltered interior. Just under half of the halophilous vegetation in Britain, containing the Wash consists of intertidal sandbanks, mudflats nationally scarce Shrubby Sea-blite Suaeda vera. and saltmarsh. Although the majority of the water This is an SAC habitat, forming on the upper marsh is very shallow, there are several deeper channels at the transition to sand and shingle, such as around

88 British Wildlife December 2017 Classic Wildlife Sites: The Wash

Gibraltar Point and Snettisham. Small Cord-grass and Mussels Mytilus edulis, which have long been Spartina maritima, occurs on the Wash saltmarshes commercially harvested. at one of its most northerly locations in Britain (and the rest of Europe). This is the only native species of Shingle, sand-dune and lagoon habitats cord-grass growing on the upper marshes, often in Sand-dune and shingle complexes that are exposed association with Common Sea-lavender Limonium to higher wave energy have formed at the outer vulgare, the mauve flowers of which are a colourful edges of the Wash. Gibraltar Point NNR has a feature of the saltmarsh in late summer. dynamic series of actively accreting sand dunes Historically, the majority of the Wash saltmarshes extending seawards, with freshwater and saltwater were grazed but only about half are under grazing marshes formed in their lee. management today. Low-density grazing has the RSPB Snettisham contains a nationally important potential to enhance the structural and botanical vegetated shingle spit, behind which is a series of diversity of the vegetation – creating mosaics of saline lagoons (former gravel pits) that function as shorter grass for grazing Wigeon Mareca penelope important high-tide roosts for tens of thousands and Brent Geese Branta bernicla and taller areas for of waders. Between Old Hunstanton and Holme nesting Redshank Tringa totanus. Dunes NNR is a dynamic complex of shingle spits, Recent monitoring indicates a decline in the area saltmarsh and sand dunes. Both Holme Dunes and of pioneer Salicornia and other colonising annuals, Gibraltar Point support breeding colonies of Little which is likely due to erosion at the saltmarsh edge, Terns Sternula albifrons and Natterjack Toads Bufo but an increase in the area and species richness of calamita. the Atlantic salt meadows, possibly because of the Bird study on the Wash beneficial effects of an increase in light/moderate grazing (Ahern Ecology 2015). The spectacle of enormous skies filled with restive flocks of birds – darting over the shifting stage of Intertidal mud and sand sand and sea – is part of the magic of the Wash Vast expanses of mud and sand characterise the between autumn and spring and has inspired both Wash, accounting for around 40% of its area and amateur and professional naturalists alike. contributing to its international importance for During the early 1930s, Sir Peter Scott rented a waterbirds. Substrates range from fine marginal secluded lighthouse at the mouth of the River Nene, mud adjoining the saltmarsh to offshore banks of where he set up a studio and painted evocative drying sand with intriguing names such as ‘Old portraits of wildfowl on the local marshes. Scott’s Bell Middle’, ‘Thief Sand’ and ‘Roaring Middle’. period on the Wash marked an important transition There is a progression from sandflats, occurring in his career: from an initial focus on recreational between the low-water mark and 1.7m AOD (above wildfowling and painting, he developed a broader ordnance datum, i.e. height above mean sea level), concern for the conservation of wildfowl and their to mudflats, accumulating from this level to the habitat which led to his founding the WWT after limit of pioneer saltmarsh at 2.1–2.4m AOD (Pye the Second World War. 1995). While at the lighthouse, Scott developed a detailed The mudflats have a high biological productivity. knowledge of wild geese through catching and The tidal flows bring a continual supply of observing them at close quarters. His early trials sediments, supporting a faunal community of of catching flocks of geese by rocket-netting was marine worms, molluscs, crustaceans and bivalves refined and expanded by the Wash Wader Ringing feeding off the detritus, algae and zooplankton. Group (WWRG), established in 1959, now the The diversity of the flats is low, comprising a small largest and longest-running wader study group in number of species, but their biomass and densities the world. are exceptionally high, with an abundance of The WWRG employs mist-netting on the burrowing polychaete worms Arenicola marina, saltmarsh to catch birds under darkness. It was its Nephtys hombergii and Lanice conchilega and the development of canon netting, however, that led tiny gastropod Hydrobia ulvae. The mudflats also to an exponential increase in numbers of waders support high densities of Cockles Cardium edule caught, while the group is increasingly using

December 2017 British Wildlife 89 Classic Wildlife Sites: The Wash

Wader flock at RSPB Snettisham. Ann Miles coloured rings as a way of increasing records RSPB Snettisham support the largest high-tide roost through resightings. Since its inception, the WWRG on the Wash. has handled over 300,000 waders, and analysis Other wading birds in significant quantity include of its dataset has significantly improved our Grey Plover Pluvialis squatarola, Dunlin Calidris understanding of wader migrations and lifecycles. alpina, Bar-tailed Godwit Limosa lapponica, growing numbers of Black-tailed Godwit L. limosa Birds of the Wash and Oystercatcher Haematopus ostralegus. The The Wash supports the largest population of majority of species feed on the -rich wintering waterbirds in Britain, with a five-year mudflats, the Oystercatchers and Knots foraging mean peak (2011–16) of 345,440 individuals and primarily on shellfish such as Cockles. annual highs of more than 400,000. It is noted The WWRG dataset has revealed the vast dis- particularly for its huge numbers of Knots Calidris tances that the majority of waders travel to reach canutus islandica that migrate from Canada the Wash, most breeding in the High Arctic and and Greenland. Knots gather in flocks of tens of either passing through the Wash to refuel and moult thousands and create spectacular displays each side or staying over winter. Up to 50,000 Pink-footed of high tide as they move between their roosts and Geese Anser brachyrhynchus from Greenland their foraging grounds. The former gravel pits at and Iceland winter on the Wash, with Snettisham

The Wash Wader Ringing Group setting mist nets on Colour-ringed Turnstone feeding on Cockle. the saltmarsh at high tide. Rob Robinson Ruth Walker

90 British Wildlife December 2017 Classic Wildlife Sites: The Wash their favoured roosting site. Dark-bellied Brent since the 1960s. The population was badly affected Geese breeding in overwinter on the Wash, by outbreaks of phocine distemper virus in 1988 where they graze the short grass around saltmarsh and 2002, which reduced numbers by 52% and pools. 22%, respectively (Thompson et al. 2005). The The saltmarsh plants attract winter flocks of 2014 count, however, was the highest recorded and passerines to forage on their seeds and these, in estimated the population at 4,020 adults and 1,802 turn, bring roaming birds of prey such as Hen pups (Thompson 2015). Harrier Circus cyaneus, Merlin Falco columbarius A recent trend has been the growing number and Peregrine Falcon F. peregrinus. Barn Owls Tyto of Grey Seals Halichoerus grypus foraging in the alba are regularly seen quartering the upper marsh, Wash, perhaps as a consequence of its location sea banks and adjoining arable dykes. In winter, midway between the burgeoning breeding colonies they are joined by Short-eared Owls Asio flammeus, of this species at Donna Nook and Blakeney Point. which are occasional breeders here. The growth in Grey Seal numbers raises unknown The Wash saltmarshes are nationally important questions about their potential competition, and for breeding Redshanks, and the Outer Trial Bank – interaction, with the resident Harbour Seals. an artificial island constructed during the 1970s as part of a freshwater feasibility study – now supports Other mammals thousands of Herring Gulls Larus argentatus and The large expanse of on the sea banks and Lesser Black-backed Gulls L. fuscus. tussocky saltmarsh fringing the Wash supports high densities of small rodents such as voles, which are Mammals important prey items for owls and raptors. Brown Seals Hares Lepus europaeus are often encountered on The Wash contains the largest population of the upper marsh, which they use with the adjoining Harbour Seals in Britain, and possibly the largest arable land for breeding and foraging. Anecdotal in Europe outside the Waddenzee. The reason for observations indicate that the Wash hinterland still their abundance is the sheltered and shallow waters, supports good numbers of hares compared with the wide range of fish prey, and the numerous un- inland areas, possibly as a result of the greater disturbed offshore sandbanks and mudflats, which habitat diversity and moderating effect of large they use to haul out during low tide and to undergo areas of grassland on transient arable crops. pupping (June–July) and post-breeding moults. Invertebrates Seals were traditionally hunted for their fur, and the practice of shooting young seals for their pelts Other than the mudflat fauna already mentioned, continued in the Wash under government licence invertebrates have received comparatively little until the mid-1970s. The seal colony in the Wash is attention. The saltmarshes of the Wash and North the best studied in Britain, having been monitored Norfolk are some of only a handful of places in Harbour Seals haul out on mudflats at the mouth of the River Nene. Will Brown

December 2017 British Wildlife 91 Classic Wildlife Sites: The Wash

Britain with surviving populations of the Scarce by Cockles and Brown Shrimps Crangon crangon, Pug extensaria, a Red Data Book the latter representing more than 90% of the UK’s species whose larval foodplant, Sea Wormwood total catch. , is vulnerable to overgrazing. The Wash’s Cockle and Mussel fishery has Saline lagoons are a priority habitat and traditionally been handworked. However, the designated features of the Wash SAC. They occur introduction of hydraulic suction dredging in 1986, at several locations, including former borrow pits, combined with a reduction in minimum landing ditches and remnant creeks in arable fields adjacent size and natural mortality, caused a sharp decline to the sea wall. The largest areas are the former in stocks during the 1990s (Dare et al. 2004). This gravel pits at Snettisham, the new lagoon at Freiston led to the closure of the Mussel fishery. Shore and Moulton Marsh, which support a limited Mussel and Cockle spat are important prey but specialised and scarce community of lagoonal items for waders such as Knot and Oystercatcher. species, such as the sand shrimp Gammarus Declines in overwinter survival rates of these insensibilis, the mud snail Ventrosia ventrosa and species on the Wash during the 1990s have been the isopod Idotea chelipes. linked to falling stocks and overfishing (Atkinson et al. 2003). Stocks gradually recovered during the Conservation 2000s, although the Mussel fishery remains closed Designations owing to poor settlement. The Wash is covered by a plethora of conservation A notable success, however, has been the revival designations, reflecting its size and its importance of Cockle stocks, helped by a switch from a for nature conservation. It was first notified as predominantly dredged fishery to smaller-scale a SSSI in 1972, and, as mentioned above, it is and more traditional techniques using the boat’s the largest in England, covering 63,135ha. The propeller to wash the Cockles into circles and then SSSI formed the basis for the subsequent Special hand-raking them into bags (with a limit of 2–3 Protection Area (SPA) designation of 1988, which tonnes per boat). lists as qualifying features 21 species of bird There are current challenges over the possible occurring in internationally important numbers. impact of shrimp-fishing on vulnerable sublittoral The Wash and the North Norfolk Coast are habitats such as biogenic reefs of Sabellaria designated as a combined Special Area of Conserv- spinulosa and mixed sediment, which are also ation (SAC), protecting more than 100,000ha of qualifying features of the SAC. The beam trawlers coast between Gibraltar Point and Blakeney Point. used in shrimp-fishing have the potential to damage The south-east corner of the Wash forms part of the these habitats and may therefore contravene the largest NNR in England, and it is also classified as Habitats Regulations. There is currently a lack of a ‘ of International Importance’ under the available evidence on the exact impacts, and so Ramsar Convention. the Eastern Inshore Fisheries and Conservation The network of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) Authority (Eastern IFCA) is mapping the sublittoral is brought together under the Wash and North habitats of the Wash and undertaking impact Norfolk Coast European Marine Site (EMS), assessments of beam trawling, using field trials and which works collaboratively with 20 regulatory comparisons of different gear types. organisations through a management scheme. Three Given the current uncertainty, the Authority has advisory groups, composed of local representatives taken the difficult decision to implement closures such as wildfowlers, fishermen and conservationists, of certain fishing grounds, using the precautionary provide a forum for discussing management principle of the Habitats Regulations. The closures matters. have caused concern among some Wash fishermen over the future impact on their livelihood. Fisheries management Such problems highlight the complexities of The shallow and productive waters of the Wash fisheries management, the importance of good are an important spawning and nursery ground for dialogue between stakeholders, and the need many species of flatfish. The Wash shellfishery was to translate science into flexible and adaptive valued at £3-million in 2015 and is underpinned policy.

92 British Wildlife December 2017 Classic Wildlife Sites: The Wash

Aerial view of RSPB Frampton Marsh with the sea wall separating the mature saltmarsh from the new freshwater wetland. Tormod Amundsen Renewable energy large freshwater storage bunds. Feasibility studies The Greater Wash is one of three strategic areas were undertaken and two trial banks constructed in England designated for major growth in off- on mudflats near Terrington, which remain standing shore wind energy. The first scheme was the 194MW today as seabird sanctuaries. Lynn and Inner Dowsing, constructed in 2009 off Ecology formed part of the feasibility studies, the Skegness coast. Currently, there are three opera- with an assessment of the impact of the scheme on tional windfarms and a further three consented waders by means of invertebrate-sampling, ringing schemes under construction, including the 900MW data and population-modelling (NERC 1975). This . represented one of the earliest and best examples of While none of the windfarms is located inside the an ecological-impact assessment, and it highlighted Wash EMS, sections of transmission cabling pass the importance of the Wash. The proposals were through the designated area and have the potential eventually shelved owing to declining water to harm sensitive and protected habitats such as demand and growing conservation awareness. Sabellaria reefs, disturb Cockle beds and damage The Crown Estate owns the majority of the saltmarshes by trenching. foreshore around the Wash and leases the grazing There are also concerns over collision risk and wildfowling rights. Wildfowling has a long from turbines to birds using the SPA. In 2012, history around the Wash and remains an important the proposed Docking Shoal scheme was refused cultural activity. It is regulated through a network of permission on the grounds of potential impacts on clubs that receive consents from Natural England. Sandwich Terns Thalasseus sandvicensis, the main The RSPB, too, is a significant landowner, with UK breeding stronghold of which is the adjacent reserves at Snettisham, Frampton Marsh and North Norfolk coast. With the Greater Wash Freiston Shore. It has delivered ambitious wetland- also proposed as a potential SPA because of its habitat creation at the latter two reserves. The importance for seabirds, the need for schemes that managed realignment at Freiston Shore, completed balance the demands for green energy and nature in 2000, was one of the earliest such in the country conservation will be critical. and resulted in 66ha of new saltmarsh and 15ha of saline lagoon. Conservation management Ironically, the land at Freiston Shore, which was For centuries, the Wash has been regarded as a the first around the Wash to be returned to the sea, vast empty space that could be filled with grand was the site of the last reclamation undertaken engineering schemes or be chipped away to by HM Prison North Sea Camp in 1983. The yield productive farmland from marshy waste. reclamation left a narrow marsh frontage and a Recognition of its environmental and conservation bank vulnerable to erosion, and a cost–benefit importance is only very recent. analysis revealed that it was more expensive During the 1970s, there were proposals to continually to maintain this than to allow it to barrage sections of the estuary in order to construct revert back to saltmarsh (Badley & Allcorn 2006).

December 2017 British Wildlife 93 Classic Wildlife Sites: The Wash

The approach of the Wash Shoreline Management between the Great Ouse and the Nene forms part Plan for the majority of the Wash is to ‘hold the of the NNR and is promoted as the ‘Peter Scott line’ of existing flood defences. Although there has Walk’. There are proposals to make Scott’s former been a recent trend for net accretion of saltmarsh residence at the East Lighthouse open to the public, and mudflat – theoretically enhancing their natural while good views of the lighthouse are available defence function – under the scenario of elevated from the Nene bank at Guys Head (TF493257). sea-level rise, this may be reversed to net erosion, Although the saltmarsh is easily accessible resulting in the loss of protected intertidal habitat from the sea wall, the presence of large tidal and necessitating compensation through local creeks and soft mud necessitates great care and realignments. In an area with internationally respect. Potentially the safest places to access the important designations but at significant risk saltmarsh, and observe its transition to mudflat, are from tidal flooding (over 80 lives were lost around the causeway to the Inner Trial Bank (TF542263) the Wash in the 1953 tidal surge), there is a need and the track from the sea wall to the targets at carefully to balance flood defence and nature RAF Holbeach (TF460311). The latter is an active conservation. bombing range and access is strictly limited outside Since 2004, the RSPB has created a major new firing times (Monday–Friday). wetland reserve at Frampton Marsh on former The RSPB reserves at Freiston Shore, Frampton arable land adjacent to the sea bank. A new visitor Marsh and Snettisham, with their carefully managed centre has been constructed, along with 19ha of habitats adjoining the saltmarsh and mudflats, reedbed, 21ha of freshwater wader scrapes and are perhaps the best places to get on to the Wash. 110ha of wet grassland. The location of the new Snettisham is the finest location at which to watch foraging, roosting and nesting habitats adjacent to the spectacle of vast wader flocks as they are driven the existing saltmarsh and intertidal mudflats has off the mudflats by a rising tide to roost on the attracted large numbers of waders (35 different gravel pits. The RSPB advertises the optimum times wader species were recorded in 2015, more than at for viewing, which are generally between August any other RSPB reserve). and April and 1–2 hours before a high tide of 7m or Ten years ago, Frampton supported no breed- more. Flocks of Pink-footed Geese can also be seen ing waders (apart from Redshank on the salt- flying overhead between their roosts and inland marsh). The 2017 survey there recorded 44 pairs foraging grounds (best between mid-November of Lapwings Vanellus vanellus, 81 of Avocets and late January at dawn and dusk, and avoiding Recurvirostra avosetta and 16 of Ringed Plovers periods around a full moon). Charadrius hiaticula. Frampton is also one of very At the edge of the estuary, the NNRs at Gibraltar few sites in the country to have regular lekking Ruffs Point and Holme Dunes are where the intertidal Philomachus pugnax (John Badley pers. comm.). mud and saltmarsh of the Wash grade into sand- The significance of both new reserves is not dune and shingle complexes. confined merely to the creation of new wildlife The South Lincs RSPB organises guided boat habitat. They also serve to restore a previously lost cruises between April and October, operating from link between the intertidal habitats of the Wash and Boston into the Wash. These are an excellent way the freshwater habitats of its fenland hinterland. to observe birds and seals from the perspective of Furthermore, in a region dominated by intensive the water. arable farmland with limited public access, they References provide opportunities for people to connect with these special landscapes. For details of references, see https://britishwildlife. com/site/suppl-dec-17-wash. Visiting and access

The coastline of the Wash is publicly accessible Will Brown is a Chartered Landscape Architect via the sea banks for the majority of its length, a and Ecologist working in private consultancy. He notable exception being the section between the was born in Boston and his family farms on Gedney mouth of the Great Ouse and Wolferton (part Marsh. He is currently researching for a book on the Wash. of the Royal Sandringham Estate). The coastline

94 British Wildlife December 2017 Habitat management news Compiled by Conservation Management Advice, RSPB

Restoration of moth abundance in re-created species-rich grassland

alcareous grassland, a European Cpriority habitat, is noted for its diverse botanic and invertebrate interest, but has declined considerably in extent as a result of changes in land use. A recent paper, published in Biological Conservation, assesses the way in which moth abundance and the number of moth species are affected by the restoration of species-rich semi-natural grassland from intensively farmed arable fields, and compares moth populations in restored habitats with those of existing semi-natural chalk-grassland systems. Such restoration is a priority Calcareous grassland at Salisbury Plain; this habitat is recognised for under higher-tier agri-environment the diversity of plants and invertebrates that it supports. Richard Revels schemes, but there are relatively few studies that compare are primary sources of food for occurrence would be lowest biodiversity in restored habitats insectivores. on the control sites, higher on with that in control and reference This landscape-scale field study treatment sites, and highest on sites. For land-managers, there compared the abundance and reference sites. is therefore a lack of available diversity of calcareous-grassland 2. On treatment sites, how are advice on how best to implement specialists, grassland generalists and moth abundance and species restoration schemes and maximise other moth species in three habitats: occurrence affected by the their benefits for insects. arable fields (control), arable fields frequency of calcareous-grassland were chosen for this study that have been restored to flower- indicators, the time since because of their diversity, their rich grassland (treatment), and restoration was started, and the known habitat associations and their semi-natural calcareous grassland extent of semi-natural calcareous- long-term declines, the last being (reference site). grassland habitat in the wider linked predominantly to agricultural The study aimed to answer two landscape? It was expected that intensification. There is also evidence key questions: moth abundance and species to suggest that moths are important 1. How do moth abundance occurrence would increase with pollinators, while the defoliation and species occurrence on the frequency of calcareous of plants by larvae has been found the treatment sites compare indicator flora, with ecological to increase nitrogen retention in with those on the control and maturity of the restoration site, soil organic matter. Furthermore, reference sites? The hypothesis and with connectivity to other both adult moths and was that abundance and species calcareous grassland.

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on arable fields. There was, however, no significant difference in moth abundance and species occurrence between restored grassland and semi-natural calcareous grassland. The only group of moths that was more abundant on semi-natural was that associated with late successional habitats, suggesting that woody vegetation could be a key feature for maintaining insect biodiversity on chalk grassland. Where indicator plants had become established on restored grassland sites, calcareous-grassland moths were more numerous. It seems possible, therefore, that the abundance of target insect groups could be increased if a site is actively enhanced by the introducing of calcareous-grassland indicator plants. The authors conclude that, even over a short timespan (e.g. three years) and at large distances (e.g. up to 7km) from semi-natural calcareous grassland, the restoration of species-rich grassland from arable fields can have a positive effect on moth populations.

Reference Alison, J., Duffield, S. J., Morecroft, M. D., Marrs, R. H., & Hodgson, J. A. 2017. Successful restoration of moth abundance and species-richness in grassland created under agri-environment schemes. Biol. Conserv. 213: 51–58.

Contact details: Jamie Alison: jamie.alison@ liverpool.ac.uk Simon Duffield: simon.duffield@ naturalengland.org.uk Mike Morecroft: Mike.Morecroft@ naturalengland.org.uk Small Elephant Hawkmoth Deilephila porcellus on its foodplant Rob Marrs: [email protected] Lady’s Bedstraw verum. Restoration schemes may be able to Jenny Hodgson: jenny.hodgson@ increase the abundance of target invertebrate species by introducing liverpool.ac.uk calcareous-grassland indicator plants. Richard Revels The predictions applied primarily farms across southern England. The Anyone with information on to those moth species associated selected fields sat on underlying the success or failure of any with calcareous grassland, but chalk, had been restored for at least management technique is it was expected that patterns of three years, and varied in their level invited to contact John Day, abundance and occurrence of of connectivity to existing high- Land Management Adviser, grassland generalists and other moth quality calcareous-grassland habitat. RSPB Conservation Management species would be similar to those. On the restored grassland sites, Advice, The Lodge, Sandy, Beds A total of 32 former arable it was found that the abundance SG19 2DL; tel: 01767 680551; fields, now restored to species-rich of calcareous-grassland specialist fax: 01767 683640; e-mail: grassland, was selected from 22 moths was almost eight times that [email protected].

96 British Wildlife December 2017 St Helena: the island of endemics

St Helena: the island of endemics

Amy-Jayne Dutton A view towards Sandy Bay, St Helena. Amy-Jayne Dutton There are few places in the world that can rival the remoteness of St Helena. Situated in the South Atlantic, more than 1,000 miles from the nearest major land mass, this tiny island is most commonly known for being the location of Napoleon Bonaparte’s incarceration. St Helena has far more of interest than just its human history, however, with spectacular scenery, unique habitats and an incredible diversity of endemic species. Indeed, despite being similar in size to Jersey, the island is home to approximately one third of all species endemic to the United Kingdom and its Overseas Territories. A number of remarkable plants and animals have been lost in the time since humans colonised, but work is now being undertaken to ensure that those which remain are protected.

he fascinating natural history of St Helena species have been officially recorded from St Helena is not immediately obvious when one is – approximately 30% of the 1,549 UK Overseas Tdriving around the island. This small, rocky Territories endemics (Churchyard et al. 2016) – yet, outpost is the remnant of two volcanoes which as there are thought to be more than 460 endemic emerged from the Atlantic around 14 million years invertebrates alone, the true number is likely to be ago. It is incredibly remote, lying 1,800km off the significantly higher. coast of and 3,200km from South America. The island’s periphery appears steep, dry and Such isolation has allowed the development of an imposing. The capital, Jamestown, is nestled in one ecosystem consisting of many unique plants and of the valleys on the northern, leeward side of the animals, including plant species whose nearest island, and has been part of the initial vista greeting relatives have long since been lost from the travellers ever since the East India Company settled continental mainlands (Cronk 1987). Its position the island in 1659 (Ashmole & Ashmole 2000). As and formation mean that there are no native land of 2017, passage on the Royal Mail Ship (RMS mammals and only one endemic land bird, but St Helena) remains the usual way of reaching the the lists of endemic plants and invertebrates are island, for both locals and tourists alike. Departing considerably more impressive. To date, 502 endemic from Cape Town, the ship takes five days to arrive

December 2017 British Wildlife 97 St Helena: the island of endemics

a large suite of other species. Habitat restoration also has more wide-ranging benefits for the island, including prevention of soil erosion and improved hydrological function. St Helena’s biodiversity value is not restricted to its flora, however, and conservation work is constantly developing in order to incorporate new information and techniques, and to further protect the island’s special species.

Plants The landscape of St Helena today would be virtually unrecognisable to the original Portuguese discoverers of 1502. Areas of native vegetation, once extensive across the island, are now rare, and are interspersed with plantation forestry, pasture, and The RMS St Helena in James Bay. Amy-Jayne Dutton stands of invasive plant species such as Whiteweed and brings new supplies approximately every three Austroeupatorium inulifolium, African Fountain weeks. The island is set to become more accessible, Grass Pennisetum setaceum and Pheasant-tail however, with the successful start of a commercial Fern Nephrolepis cordifolia, among others. Wild air service from in October 2017. Mango Schinus terebinthifolius is common, and has Easier access will help to unlock St Helena’s taken over many valleys. Often, exotic plants were potential as an exciting new tourist destination, introduced to provide food or useful materials, with its unique military past and natural history or simply for their visual appeal, but many are offering plenty of interest. Once on the island, now growing out of control. Some are highly visitors are typically impressed by the fact that effective at dispersing and can outcompete slower- such astounding views and diverse vegetation can growing native flora, which restricts native plant be found in such a compact area. regeneration and is problematic for management; Average annual temperatures are 22–27°C in successful vegetation management requires con- Jamestown, but just a short, winding, upwards siderable planning and time commitment, with journey away, at Hutt’s Gate, which sits at an manual vegetation control, replanting and moni- altitude of 600m, this falls to 14.5–18.5°C. Average A view towards Lot’s Wife. Amy-Jayne Dutton rainfall is also remarkably variable: 175mm of rain falls on the outer edges of the island, while the upper summits – known as the Peaks and reaching an elevation of 823m – receive an average of 1,050mm per year (Ellick et al. 2013). This variation in climate has produced a number of different habitat zones on the island, each supporting distinctive, endemic biota. Many of St Helena’s species are listed as globally threatened on the IUCN Red List, and actions are being taken to protect endemic flora and fauna. Feral goats and pigs have now been eradicated from the island and thus no longer threaten the few remnants of native vegetation, while increased awareness has stopped the clearance and exploitation of endemic species. Nevertheless, St Helena’s wildlife continues to face challenges. Most conservation work is focused on plants, but the associated improvement in native habitats benefits

98 British Wildlife December 2017 St Helena: the island of endemics

The invasive New Zealand Flax, covering sides of Black Cabbage in flower. Amy-Jayne Dutton the Peaks. Amy-Jayne Dutton toring needed in order to minimise reinvasion by exotic species. The interior of St Helena was originally covered in extensive forests of endemic gumwoods and other native trees and ferns, but these unique plants are not adapted to cope with grazing pressures, and goats, introduced by sailors, quickly devastated the vegetation. Early settlers also harvested plants indiscriminately, cutting trees for fuel and stripping bark for tanning, which, when coupled with grazing, took a heavy toll on the woods (Ashmole & Ashmole 2000). While there were attempts by some early governors to slow the destruction of the native vegetation, these often came as too little, too late. In many areas now devoid of native vegetation, names such as Levelwood, Bottom Wood and Longwood The endemic gumwood robustum. Amy-Jayne Dutton provide the only indication of their original, forested state. There are historical references to the On the high, moist interior of St Helena, areas Great Wood (Melliss 1875) but nothing remains of of native vegetation have been widely cleared for it, and the land is so badly eroded that it is difficult pasture. Even on the steep Peaks, cloud-forest to imagine that any trees could ever have existed vegetation was removed in order to plant New there. On the dry, rocky slopes in the south-western Zealand Flax Phormium tenax for use in the rope corner of the island, among boulders and patches and string industry. This industry supported the of the endemic Boneseed Osteospermum sanctae- island’s economy in the early 20th century but helenae and other small herbs, it is still possible to collapsed in the 1960s, leaving thick swathes of find small, broken pieces of St Helena Ebony Tree flax monoculture which cannot be recolonised by melanoxylon, a species that was likely native species without substantial manual clearance driven to extinction as early as 1800 (Lambdon and vegetation management. Despite this, the Peaks 2013). As with many parts of the island, precipitous retain the largest areas of predominantly native drops and gravelly slopes mean that this is not a vegetation, with species such as St Helena Tree place for the faint-hearted. Fern Dicksonia arborescens, Black Cabbage Tree

December 2017 British Wildlife 99 St Helena: the island of endemics

Melanodendron integrifolium and Jellico Berula most notably in the temperate house of the Royal bracteata. It is a wonderful thing to walk the tracks Botanical Gardens at Kew and at the Eden Project through the cloud forest, surrounded by species that in Cornwall. are found nowhere else on earth. Less than 40ha Propagation of native herbs, and trees in of this habitat remains, restricted primarily to the nurseries is an important part of the conservation uppermost crest of the high central ridge (Lambdon strategy on St Helena, and complements fieldwork 2013). Elsewhere, areas of native vegetation are aimed at clearing invasive plants. Where possible, extremely scarce: aside from restoration areas and this work involves the careful collecting of seed, a few tiny patches of Commidendrum woodland, and sometimes cuttings, from a number of most native plants are restricted to remote and individuals within the population in order to inaccessible edges of the island, where they have provide a more diverse and robust genetic stock. been able to escape the historical clearance by Surviving populations of native plants, along humans and browsing by goats. These plants with their associated invertebrate species, are now persist in highly fragmented subpopulations bolstered by cultivation and replanting, and by the and little is known about their specific habitat careful translocation of suitable material between requirements, which creates problems when vegetation patches. attempting to conserve them. Propagation efforts have been successful, too, Owing to the challenging terrain, there are still for other plant species with dwindling adult hard-to-reach parts of the island that receive little populations. A number of restoration areas are or no conservation attention. Visits to some of now present and these contain young specimens of these have occasionally resulted in rediscoveries rare, endemic species, including the She Cabbage of biota thought to be long extinct, giving a small Tree Lachanodes arborea, the last wild individuals measure of hope that other such species may persist of which died in 2012 (Lambdon & Ellick 2016). in similarly inaccessible areas. In 1980, for example, The St Helena National Trust’s Millennium Forest, two bushes of the ebony Trochetiopsis ebenus located close to the new airport, is a gumwood were discovered on a cliff, after the species had restoration area which is openly accessible and been assumed to have been extinct for more than encourages the general public, locals and tourists 100 years. Cuttings of this shrubby species were alike, to get involved and learn about St Helenian carefully taken, and many plants and seedlings have species. The project is slowly transforming a dry now been established across the island. Individuals and denuded area back into a green oasis. Many can now be found also in collections in the UK, endemic invertebrates can now be found among the leaves of this young forest, demonstrating that they Cloud-forest vegetation. Amy-Jayne Dutton will recolonise if suitable habitat becomes available. Attempts to propagate other species have proven to be a greater challenge. Populations of the False Gumwood Commidendrum spurium and Bastard Gumwood C. rotundifolium have been reduced to just a handful of wild plants (two individuals in the case of the False Gumwood), but self- incompatibility limits the success of rearing seed of these species (Eastwood 2002) and sustained efforts have been needed to maintain a cultivated stock (Lambdon 2013). Endemic plant species are used to represent the Overseas Territories in ceremonies elsewhere in the world, such as the National Service of Remembrance. For this, Kew produces a wreath, made up of plants from St Helena and other Overseas Territories, for the Foreign Secretary to place on the Cenotaph. While the composition of

100 British Wildlife December 2017 St Helena: the island of endemics

known by islanders as Fairy Terns, lay their eggs in trees and on window ledges, where chicks have no nest for their protection and so must cling on with strong feet. Perhaps unsurprisingly, St Helena has a low diversity of landbird species and, unlike the seabirds, the vast majority of these have been brought to the island by humans. Common Mynas Acridotheres tristis are abundant; in town, their noisy calls at dawn and dusk can be enough to drive residents to distraction. Mynas are relatively recent arrivals, having been introduced in the 1800s to control cattle ticks, but the species is now well established to the point of being a pest. The most iconic, and the only endemic, landbird is the St Helena Plover Charadrius sanctaehelenae, known locally as the Wirebird owing to its long, stalk-like legs. In the distant past it would have St Helena Tree Ferns. Amy-Jayne Dutton inhabited the sandy beaches surrounding the island, but, as these were covered by rising sea levels, the species was able to move inland to make the open plains instead its home (Ashmole & Ashmole 2000). One of the easiest places to spot this species is the golf course at Longwood, where, even from a distance, its distinctive bobbing walk quickly identifies it. When defending its nest, the species performs a characteristic ‘broken-wing’ display aimed at luring danger away. Vegetation encroachment reduces the availability of the plover’s favoured habitat, and, as a ground-nesting bird, it is vulnerable to predation by introduced species.

St Helena Plover, known also as the Wirebird. Amy-Jayne Dutton

Young gumwood trees in the Millennium Forest. Amy-Jayne Dutton the wreath varies from year to year, it has previously included ebony and Old Father Live Forever Pelargonium cotyledonis. The latter is another rare St Helenian endemic, but one that can be found as an unusual pot plant in other countries after it was introduced into the horticulture market in the years before modern controls on exports.

The return of the Wirebird Birds are found across the island, flitting through areas of vegetation, hopping across the open plains and nesting on rocky cliffs. On coastal walks, it can be a little unnerving how close the White Tern Gygis alba will fly overhead. These pretty seabirds,

December 2017 British Wildlife 101 St Helena: the island of endemics

The Wirebird was in serious decline, being listed as in the cloud forest, a habitat that supports a number Endangered and then Critically Endangered on the of other Endangered and Critically Endangered IUCN Red List. Intensive conservation efforts have plants and invertebrates, including the He Cabbage been undertaken for this species and, more than Tree Pladaroxylon leucadendron, St Helena a decade after these were initiated, its prognosis Whitewood Petrobium arboreum and Ammonite has improved; in 2016, the population reached Snail Helenoconcha relicta (Lambdon 2013; 500 adult birds, leading the IUCN to downgrade White & Pryce 2014). In 2015, the woodlouse was its status to Vulnerable (Birdlife International considered to be on the brink of extinction, with an 2016). Conservation work for the species includes estimated 50 individuals remaining in one single, the managing of vegetation to create and maintain small habitat patch (Lambdon 2015). Surveys of areas of open ground for breeding, a programme endemic cloud-forest trees later in 2015 and in of feral-cat and rodent control, and educating and 2016, however, found the species to be present informing owners of pet cats, which can pose just as across a larger area of the Peaks. The Spiky Yellow great a problem as their feral counterparts. Woodlouse does not display the typical ground-

Invertebrates Spiky Yellow Woodlouse adults. Amy-Jayne Dutton While St Helena’s special plants and birdlife deservedly receive plenty of attention, the island’s less conspicuous inhabitants are by no means forgotten. There is a growing global awareness of the importance of invertebrates, and efforts are being made to describe, understand and value the huge range of species that is found on St Helena. As native plants have become rarer, the invertebrate species that are dependent on them have also suffered. It is likely that many species were lost before they were even discovered, as the massive reduction in vegetation cover of certain plants, such as the gumwoods, could easily have proven catastrophic for some of the invertebrates that were reliant on them (Ashmole & Ashmole 2000). Invertebrates associated with specific habitats, rather than specific plant species, have also been negatively affected by changes in habitat composition. Two high-profile insect species have become extinct in the last century: these are the St Helena Giant Earwig Labidura herculeana and the Giant Ground Aplothorax burchelli. Another species believed to have been lost is the St Helena Darter Sympetrum dilatatum, and the watercourses where it dwelt are now choked with non-native plants. Nevertheless, within the extant species there are a number of distinctive and iconic invertebrates which could be used as flagships for the island, helping to conserve the habitats to which they belong and protecting any associated species in the process. One of St Helena’s more charismatic endemics is the Spiky Yellow Woodlouse Pseudolaureola atlantica, which is listed as Critically Endangered. This species occurs at elevations above 740m on ferns and trees

102 British Wildlife December 2017 St Helena: the island of endemics dwelling detritivore behaviour of most woodlouse young are already well developed and, although species, living instead on the foliage of trees and they appear to remain in close proximity to the ferns. From original descriptions, it was known adult, and may even be attended by it initially, will to occupy the St Helena Tree Fern, Diplazium disperse within a week. ferns and the St Helena Dogwood Nesohedyotis Habitat restoration work, including replanting arborea (Vandel 1977), but a targeted Darwin Plus- of native plants and control of invasives, has been funded project, which ended in 2017, revealed the undertaken for the benefit of the woodlouse and woodlouse to be present on a number of other plant other cloud-forest inhabitants, but, as elsewhere, species, including non-natives such as the Bilberry the process is slow and the work requires Tree Solanum mauritianum. long term commitment in order to prevent the Adult Spiky Yellow Woodlice reach approxi- re-establishment of non-native plant species. mately 10mm in length, yet the species is remark- Restoration is ongoing, and is being led by the St ably cryptic considering its bright yellow coloration Helena Government’s Environmental Management and spiky appearance. Expert knowledge is needed Division and the St Helena National Trust. to locate them, and individuals can occur high in A Spiky Yellow Woodlouse under UV light. the canopy, where they are difficult to spot, a fact Amy-Jayne Dutton which makes the establishing of the species’ distri- bution and population size very challenging. Survey work is further complicated by the practicalities of moving around the steep terrain and sensitive habitats on the Peaks. One crucial finding from recent research efforts, however, has made detecting the species considerably easier: it was discovered, in November 2016, that the woodlouse glows under UV light. Surveys using a simple handheld UV torch (395nm) have provided an efficient method for recording populations at known locations, and for searching areas where the species is suspected to occur. As a result, knowledge of the Spiky Yellow Woodlouse’s distribution and habits has improved; the population is now known to be larger than originally thought, and is currently estimated at 980 individuals. Use of UV light is a relatively novel Young Spiky Yellow Woodlice. Amy-Jayne Dutton survey method, and there is potential for this to be used to detect other rare, cryptic species that display fluorescence, or to differentiate between similar species that have different fluorescent patterns. Although we have increased our knowledge of the Spiky Yellow Woodlouse, certain aspects of its biology and ecology remain less well known. It is believed to be a generalist, feeding on microalgae and fungi growing on fronds and leaf surfaces, as well as on spores, and general detritus found on vegetation. The species has been observed to feed also on snail excrement and, like other woodlice, its own shed exoskeleton (Sutton 1972). Breeding takes place throughout the year, reproduction apparently occurring only in larger females, those over 9mm in length, which each carry up to 12 young in a brood pouch. Upon emergence, the

December 2017 British Wildlife 103 St Helena: the island of endemics

different habitat types and thereby benefiting entire ecosystems. Ultimately, continued public engagement is crucial in generating interest in the island, as only by maintaining support for conservation will St Helena’s incredible biodiversity be protected.

Acknowledgements The Spiky Yellow Woodlouse project was funded by the Darwin Initiative and supported by a number of organisations, including the St Helena National Trust, RSPB, Zoological Society of London and Bristol Zoological Society. Thanks are due to Sarah Havery from the RSPB for comments on an early draft, and to Vanessa Thomas, Nursery Officer for St Helena Government, for information on the ebony.

A view down towards Sharks Valley. Amy-Jayne Dutton References The Spiky Yellow Woodlouse provides a positive Ashmole, P., & Ashmole, M. 2000. St Helena and Ascension Island: a natural history. Anthony Nelson, Oswestry. example of a charismatic invertebrate benefiting Birdlife International. 2016. Charadrius sanctaehelenae IUCN Listing. from targeted conservation actions which have been Available at: www.iucnredlist.org/details/22693785/0. Churchyard, T., Eaton, M. A., Havery, S., Hall, J., Millett, J., Farr, A., informed by dedicated research and investigation. Cuthbert, R., Stringer, C., & Vickery, J. A. 2016. The biodiversity of The support for this project highlights the value of the United Kingdom’s Overseas Territories: a stocktake of species occurrence and assessment of key knowledge gaps. Biodiversity the woodlouse as a flagship species, representing the and Conservation 25: 1677–1694. cloud forest of St Helena’s Peaks, along with all of Cronk, Q. C. B. 1987. The history of endemic : A relictual series. New Phytologist 105: 509–520. the other rare plants and invertebrates associated Eastwood, A. 2002. Evolution and Conservation of Commidendrum with that habitat. For many other threatened and Elaphoglossum from St Helena. PhD thesis, University of Edinburgh. species, however, there is a lack of basic biological Ellick, S., Westmore, G., & Pelembe, T. 2013. St Helena State of the and ecological knowledge, and this gap needs to be Environment report April 2012–March 2013. Unpublished report for the St Helena Government, available at: www.sainthelena.gov. addressed if we are to conserve the full suite of St sh/environment. Helenian invertebrates. Lambdon, P. 2013. Flowering Plants and Ferns of St Helena. Pisces Publications, Newbury. Lambdon, P. 2015. Pseudolaureola atlantica IUCN Listing. Available The future at: www.iucnredlist.org/details/67368866/0. Lambdon, P., & Ellick, S. 2016. Lachanodes arborea IUCN Listing. In addition to preserving and restoring remaining Available at www.iucnredlist.org/details/37595/0. populations of native species, effective biosecurity Melliss, J. C. 1875. St Helena: a physical, historical, and topographical description of the island, including its geology, fauna, flora and is an important part of conservation efforts on St meteorology. L. Reeve & Co., London. Helena, and this must be continued in order to Sutton, S. L. 1972. Woodlice. Ginn & Co, London. Vandel, A. 1977. Isopodes terrestres. In Basilewsky, P. (ed.) La faune prevent the arrival and establishment of additional terrestre de l’île de Sainte-Hélène, Quatrième partie, 385–426. problematic species. Fieldwork is complemented by Musée royal de l’Afrique centrale, Tervuren. White, L., & Pryce, D. 2014. Helenoconcha relicta IUCN Listing. education programmes, which explain why such Available at www.iucnredlist.org/details/9764/0. care is essential for the protection of the fragile Amy-Jayne Dutton worked as the Spiky Yellow remaining natural ecosystems. Woodlouse Project Manager for the St Helena The depth of St Helena’s natural heritage is truly National Trust between May 2016 and August special. The island is a unique place that supports 2017. The St Helena National Trust is a conservation a vast number of remarkable species, and the fact organisation working on both natural and built heritage projects, and it is actively involved in that many of these are small in stature should in no the promotion and delivery of a number of way detract from their value. As demonstrated by conservation initiatives across the island. This is the the Spiky Yellow Woodlouse, there is great potential first in a series of occasional British Wildlife articles for invertebrate endemics to be used as flagship that will celebrate the natural heritage of the UK’s species, helping to promote the conservation of 14 Overseas Territories.

104 British Wildlife December 2017 Naturally opinionated Mark Avery www.markavery.info/blog

Shifting baselines

he concept of shifting baselines was brought into government and a slashing of budgets, and a firm Tnature conservation and resource management instruction for the organisation to come to heel. by fisheries biologists, particularly Dan Pauly, in the Before then, Natural England had behaved, at least mid-1990s. sometimes, as a champion of nature (e.g. in creation What we regard as normal, natural, good or of the Marine Act) in a similar way to that of its acceptable is often set by what we can recall from our predecessor bodies English Nature (e.g. in its role in John Watkins/FLPA youth, and so attempts to repair ecosystems often aim assessing the sustainability of GM crops) and NCC (in its to restore them to a once-remembered state – even role in opposing, yes opposing, afforestation of upland if a much richer state preceded it. Our aspirations are biodiversity hotspots). Since 2010, Natural England has bounded by our experience. been bullied and assaulted by government with cuts and It’s true, isn’t it? I wish that the countryside were as with harsh words, and it is now no more than a flaccid rich in birds as when I first walked through it – because and withered arm of the limp department that is Defra. I can remember Cambridgeshire when the purring On the ground, local NE staff may well be doing their of Turtle Doves was the sound of summer, and I can best, and will be doing some good, but this is despite remember walking through wet fields on the Somerset the leadership from the top and not because of it. Levels and flushing hundreds (yes really, hundreds) of The likes of Derek Ratcliffe, Barbara Young and Martin Snipe. When I return to those places those birds aren’t Doughty were lions compared with the current fold of there, and I miss them – I miss them because I can sheep. Alexander the Great said that he feared more remember them and not because someone told me an army of sheep led by a lion than an army of lions led about them: I was there, once, with them. by a sheep. The foot soldiers of Natural England are a There is an upside to being tied emotionally to one’s motley bunch of animals; some are sheepish, but many RSPB Reserve, Somerset Levels. Greylake baselines, too. I am fairly sure that my thrill at seeing Red have a good roar left in them if only they were led. Kites (which I see nearly every day) is not just a result of The wildlife NGOs which I meet bemoan the decline their being wonderful living creatures, though they are, of state nature conservation. Enquiries which once but also because there is a bit of me that feels that Red would have led to a useful chat over a beer are now Kites are still rare even though I know perfectly well that treated as Freedom of Information requests and get they aren’t any more. I think that I get a bonus thrill at uninformative non-answers after a month has passed. seeing a Red Kite, above that experienced by a much NE rarely objects to a planning proposal these days, but younger observer, because of my low Red Kite baseline. merely gives advice for fear of annoying government’s Shifting baselines apply also to our expectations of favourite stakeholders, the developers. There are few other aspects of life. From bank interest rates to sexism important reports and little comment on the state of and racism, the old will have different expectations of nature. There is much talk of stakeholders and little what is normal from those of the young. And it applies action for nature. The sleeping sheep are dozing through to our expectations of organisations, too. The state did a biodiversity crisis, apparently undisturbed. nature conservation much better in the past. And this is now regarded as normal – the baseline I doubt that there was ever a time when the statutory has shifted. That will make it very difficult to resurrect conservation agencies were as hopelessly poor as they NE from its current position. Many of the staff who are now (my view is formed from observation of Natural work there now are accustomed to its lack of impact England, but I think it unlikely that things are very and lack of ambition – they have not known anything different elsewhere in the UK – but do shout if they are). different. It will take a lion or two to shake them out of Although the government agencies were never that position. It feels as if we are as likely to hear Natural perfect, the headlong decline and fall of Natural England roar again as we are to hear the purring of England started in 2010 with the arrival of the coalition Turtle Doves on a summer’s day. Baselines have shifted.

December 2017 British Wildlife 105 In search of the larger water beetles of Britain and Ireland In search of the larger water beetles of Britain and Ireland

Peter Sutton A male Highland Diving Beetle lapponicus, Isle of Arran. Peter Sutton

have always been fascinated by water beetles (Sutton 2008), a small monograph which provided and, since childhood, have spent many happy illustrations, life-histories, up-to-date distribution I hours in pursuit of these remarkable aquatic maps and other information about each species. insects. Early on, it was to admire the many aspects This publication, undoubtedly helped by Richard of these animals that made them so appealing, Lewington’s superb illustration of the Great Diving and I concur with Jonty Denton’s comment in his Beetle Dytiscus marginalis on the front cover, fared Water Bugs and Water Beetles of Surrey: ‘The pure well and, for a time, I was happy that my work had streamlined form of a water beetle does more for been completed. me than any Ferrari.’ Two things were to change that. The first was a It was an article by Trevor Beebee in an early issue review of the book, which posed a valid question: of British Wildlife (BW 2: 295–300), with its key for if the larger water beetles included the the identification of Britain’s largest water beetles, species of lesser diving beetle, why did they not also that galvanised me to study these spectacular include fuscus or the similarly sized insects in greater detail. In the mid-1990s, I found Graphoderus species? Secondly, there was still no myself in the fortuitous position of working at publication available that provided photographs the same university as two fellow entomologists, of all the species described in the book. Accepting David Bilton and Clive Turner, and it was these two the photography challenge would allow me to scientists who, on fish-and-chip-fuelled visits to the undertake a journey in accordance with another Somerset Levels, introduced me to the largest and line from Denton’s Surrey atlas: ‘The pursuit of our rarest of the six great diving beetle species to be fauna will entail a tour of much of our great wild found in Britain and Ireland, the King Diving Beetle country from the Broads and coastal marshes to the Dytiscus dimidiatus. tarns and lakes of the Highlands’ (Denton 2007). These fruitful expeditions, coupled with a general The start of a new quest lack of ‘popular’ literature regarding Britain’s largest water beetles, culminated in the production So began a mission to find and photograph of The Larger Water Beetles of the British Isles these beetles in their natural habitats, from the

106 British Wildlife December 2017 In search of the larger water beetles of Britain and Ireland heathlands and coastal grazing marshes of southern England to the mountain lochans of Scotland and the peat moorlands of Ireland. It turned out to be an incredible journey, providing the opportunity to communicate and occasionally conduct fieldwork with some outstanding entomologists while, at the same time, allowing me to introduce the natural world to my three sons, who, from a very early age, participated in my searches with great enthusiasm. The quest was aided by another stroke of luck when my father moved to the edge of the Somerset Levels, and I was once again able to visit the areas where, with David Bilton and Clive Turner, I had observed the King Diving Beetle, the Great Silver Water Beetle piceus, the Lesser Silver Great Silver Water Beetle Hydrophilus piceus from Water Beetle Hydrochara caraboides and, another the marshes of Canvey Island, Essex. Peter Sutton nationally scarce species, the beautifully marked Hydaticus transversalis. All of these were included in (one species), Graphoderus (three species, although the remit of the study, which aimed to photograph one is considered to be extinct) and Hydaticus (two species from the following genera: Dytiscus (six species). species), Acilius (two species), Colymbetes (one The project was now in full swing and a number species), Hydrophilus (one species), Hydrochara of key targets and locations were added to my list, including a species that ended up leading me the Searching for the rare King Diving Beetle Dytiscus dimidiatus on the Somerset Levels. Peter Sutton proverbial merry dance, the Scarce Lesser Diving Beetle Acilius canaliculatus. This former Red Data Book species (Shirt 1987) is known from mire habitats, including cutover bogs and shaded fens, and also from leaf-filled ephemeral pools in woodland (Denton 2007). It has been described as staging a remarkable recovery and is apparently now frequent in parts of the Weald (Foster et al. 2016), but for years I have searched here fruitlessly, even calling on the expertise of old friends to help in searching the places where it had last been found, or new sites which matched the described habitat, all without success. Eventually, in order to find and photograph this distinctive beetle I had to make the journey north to the Humberhead Peatlands, in , the largest area of lowland raised peat bog in the UK and a known stronghold of the species. This rich habitat provided a wealth of interest, among which were the largest congregations of Black Darter Sympetrum danae and Common Emerald sponsa that I have ever encountered.

High-quality wetlands It is worth recalling the words of Martin Hammond in his recent atlas, The Water Beetles of Yorkshire

December 2017 British Wildlife 107 In search of the larger water beetles of Britain and Ireland

Searching for the Scarce Lesser Diving Beetle: Denys Ovenden at a shaded woodland pond in Buckinghamshire (left); John Paul and Peter Hodge at a known Sussex site for this species (above). Peter Sutton (2017): ‘Any serious attempt to evaluate the biodiversity of an aquatic or wetland habitat requires some understanding of its invertebrate community.’ Hammond goes on to explain that, for a variety of notable reasons, water beetles form a key part of any assessment of the ecological quality of wetlands. A good water-beetle fauna, therefore, indicates good habitat quality, and it has been a constant of my visits to the places that harbour our largest water beetles that they also contain an extraordinary array of other species, including many that are scarce and threatened. Canvey Island, in south Essex, provides a classic example. I originally visited the flat coastal grazing marshes of this island to search its ponds and ditches The Wasp Dytiscus circumflexus (adult female). for another of the six Dytiscus species, the Wasp Peter Sutton Diving Beetle D. circumflexus. This large predator, with its characteristic yellow-and-black-banded underside, frequents these habitats, which are, to a lesser or greater extent, brackish; and it is the level of salinity that dictates, to some degree, which other species may be present. The marshes of Essex and Kent are characterised by this fauna, which includes water beetles such as Agabus conspersus, Hygrotus parallelogrammus and Limnoxenus niger, as well as the Scarce Emerald and the Flecked General soldierfly singularior. Until the recent range expansion of ‘The Wasp’, this species was generally thought to be associated with brackish water, to the extent that Frank

Balfour-Browne – considered by many to be the Black Belly Dytiscus semisulcatus; the only member father of water-beetle study – concluded that a of the six British and Irish Dytiscus species with a Dytiscus found on the Canvey marshes was black underside. Peter Sutton

108 British Wildlife December 2017 In search of the larger water beetles of Britain and Ireland likely to be only of this species, since no other Dytiscus appeared to be present (Balfour-Browne 1950). Last year, prior to finding the Great Diving Beetle and the Black Belly D. semisulcatus in the same ditch as The Wasp, I decided to test this theory and set up a pupation tank in accordance with the diagram and instructions in A Coleopterist’s Handbook (Cooter & Barclay 2006). The larva behaved perfectly, vacating its pool of water and making a pupation chamber in the soil as expected. Upon checking progress a couple of weeks later, I found that the chamber had simply disappeared. A complete search of the soil did not confirm that Larva of The Wasp Dytiscus circumflexus with a it had moved elsewhere, but instead revealed the Nine-spined Stickleback Pungitius pungitius, on largest specimen of the soil centipede Haplophilus Canvey Island, Essex. Peter Sutton subterraneus that I have ever seen. After a brief, but 2016), in Herefordshire, I obtained permission loud, exclamation (I need not go into the detail), I from Natural England to visit the Lawn Pond. was left kicking myself for not having vetted the G. cinereus was last recorded there in the 1970s, soil for freeloaders prior to meticulously setting up and since then it had been searched for, without the tank. success, by several notable entomologists and was Canvey Island’s marshes have given me some very presumed lost from this fascinating glacial kettle- memorable days, including the most recent, in late hole site. Once again, I was unable to locate this July 2017, when a perfectly timed visit coincided elusive beetle, but I found some other noteworthy with the appearance of large numbers of recently species, including exsoletus (which raised emerged Great Silver Water Beetles, The Wasp and my hopes, as it also has the yellow underside that the Black Belly, the last being the only member I was looking for) and, in what turned out to be of the Dytiscus clan with a black underside. The an important record for the site, Ilybius subaeneus, Scarce Emerald damselfly was present at the tail which at first glance I assumed to be the similarly end of its season, and another pleasant surprise coloured I. fenestratus. was the finding of more than ten individuals of the The critically endangered Spangled Diving Beetle recently arrived Southern Migrant Hawker Aeshna Graphoderus zonatus, despite its rarity, proved to affinis, or Blue-eyed Hawker as it is sometimes be an altogether easier prospect, since Jonty Denton known. Having colonised from mainland Europe, was able to show me this species on a conservation this striking species now appears to have day at its only known site in Britain, Woolmer become established in southern England. Another Forest, in north Hampshire. I arrived on a sunny surprise came in the form of the Flecked General morning in mid-September, and was greeted by soldierfly and its rare parasite, the chalcid wasp Denton with the words ‘Welcome to the world’s Chalcis sispes, which, for some reason, reminds me worst advertisement for conservation grazing.’ of a racing motorbike-rider. The day was dedicated to removing plant and tree growth that was supposed to be suppressed by A challenging task livestock, for the benefit of the Natterjack Toad Bufo It is difficult to decide which beetle has been the calamita and other occupants of this heathland. It most problematic to pursue, although the fact that was in one of the shallower Natterjack-scrapes, I have never found Graphoderus cinereus probably which was choked with growth, that places it at the top of the list. I revisited, on several he collected the Spangled Diving Beetle, and this occasions each, the places where it had been rare and beautiful insect was shown to the large recorded previously, including Stanwell Moor, in team of conservation volunteers as they enjoyed Surrey, Canvey Island, and Studland, in Dorset, but lunch, a delight for all present. Several other finely to no avail. Having seen that Will Watson had once marked species, including the Lesser Diving Beetle again found this species at Moccas Park (Watson Acilius sulcatus and Hydaticus seminiger, were also

December 2017 British Wildlife 109 In search of the larger water beetles of Britain and Ireland found and, once the procession of admirers had stopped crowding around the large white plastic bucket in which they swam, the specimens were carefully returned to their pool. The final Graphoderus species, known as the Chequered History Beetle Graphoderus bilineatus – after its chequered history rather than its appearance – has not been recorded in Britain since 1910. Because of a misidentification of the original specimens, it was not until 1976 that it was realised that this species needed to be added to the British list (Angus 1976). There remains a slim chance that it may still exist undetected in East Anglian fen habitat, but I had to go to the Natural History Museum to get a photograph. The museum’s statue of Darwin, plainly a man with a liking for water beetles, reminded me that it was when he saw a mollusc hitching a lift on a Great Diving Beetle’s Robert Angus, who unpicked the Graphoderus story leg that he realised how these immobile-looking in 1976, holding Carim Nahaboo’s illustration of the creatures moved around. Chequered History Beetle Graphoderus bilineatus. Peter Sutton An almost dry Lawn Pond, Moccas Park (top), It was a great privilege to see the original where Graphoderus cinereus was recorded again after an apparent absence of over 40 years. Ilybius specimens of the long-lost G. bilineatus in the subaeneus (bottom). Peter Sutton entomology department, and to photograph some of those other beetles that I had not been able to find. These included the sulcate (grooved elytra) and non-sulcate forms of female specimens of The Enigma Dytiscus circumcinctus, a species that is a close contender for the ‘most troublesome water beetle’ title. The Enigma is a scarce species which has now disappeared from most of southern England (Foster et al. 2016). I failed to find it on my travels in Ireland – where it appears to be widespread, with a good number of post-1980 records – and focused my attention instead on the Pevensey Levels, where both Beebee and Denton had previously encountered it with some degree of regularity. Hundreds upon hundreds of miles have been amassed on my travels to this site, and my students found it hilarious that I would routinely complete a 350-mile round trip to look for a beetle that was not there. Again, I occasionally enlisted the help of others, including Evan Jones, who had recently completed a survey of another notable resident of the Pevensey Levels, the endangered Fen Raft Spider Dolomedes plantarius. I was on my own when I finally caught up with this species. After checking the underside of countless Great Diving Beetles, I did a double-take on a specimen that appeared to be yellower than usual, and, in disbelief, stared at the sharp-pronged

110 British Wildlife December 2017 In search of the larger water beetles of Britain and Ireland metacoxal processes that I had spent such a long of this species from other areas of Scotland and time in searching for. Standing there in the fading Ireland, to see if this northern specialist was still light, a solitary figure in the middle of nowhere, there. These southerly populations of the species covered in foul-smelling mud, I raised my arms in appear to be vulnerable, lying at an altitude triumph and grinned at the heavens. The beetle, a (roughly 300m above sea level) at which others male, was in a reed-choked ditch, and to this day have been lost. My eldest son was five years old remains the only specimen of this species that I have when we ventured up to the plateau in 2011, found, despite extensive netting and trapping. and we doggedly searched for the entire day in kind weather – in the company of the Common The journey ends Hawker Aeshna juncea and Scotch Argus Erebia The final part of my quest was to search for the aethiops – before we found several specimens of the Highland Diving Beetle Dytiscus lapponicus, which Highland Diving Beetle. The following day was less led me to the mountains of the Isle of Arran, the forgiving, and, having photographed the beetles, I most southerly location in Scotland where this had to return them to the plateau, which was now species may be found. I had seen the beetle on the shrouded in low cloud. I toiled up the slope in the island previously, in 2011, but was driven to return wind and driving rain while trying to negotiate the for two reasons: the first was in order to experience bogs, which had become treacherous in comparison once again the beauty of the landscape, where the with the previous day’s journey. It was with relief complex of mountain lochans at the top of the that I returned the specimens to their rightful northern plateau captures the sky in a mosaic of home. Afterwards, in order to summon the energy duck-egg-blue mirrors; and secondly, having read for the return journey, I sat on a rock, hunched about the apparent climate-driven disappearance over in wet-weather clothes that had revealed their shortcomings, and tried to eat a packet of crisps Top Pevensey Levels, East Sussex. Bottom The Fen Raft Spider, a Pevensey Levels speciality. Peter Sutton while the lochan hissed. As I did so, I was treated to the most exquisite apparition as a ‘rain goose’, the Red-throated Diver Gavia stellata, materialised from the greyness in front of me. In late August 2017, I returned to the site, again with my eldest son, and now, being familiar with the habitat preference of the species, we searched the overhanging moss edge of the lochan pools. Within a short time, we had located a number of Highland Diving Beetles, as well as several specimens of another coleopteran species vulnerable to climate change, the Arctic Diver Agabus arcticus, and also Rhantus suturellus. This brought to an end my photographic quest, which had expanded to include a cameo for the Rhantus species and an overview of brackish-water fauna generally. These species were included, along with others of note such as the Fen Raft Spider and the Scarce Emerald damselfly, to celebrate the diversity of life associated with our larger water beetles, and to highlight the fact that some of these increasingly rare and special assemblages continue to be at risk from habitat loss. My journeying had made it clear that many of the habitats which I visited were of prime importance in terms of the biodiversity which they contained, and that the studying of water beetles could provide a

December 2017 British Wildlife 111 In search of the larger water beetles of Britain and Ireland barometer of habitat health, quickly alerting us to environmental changes, including those linked to changing climate or pollution. The closing weeks of my quest were somewhat blighted by my reading in British Wildlife about the plight of the Gwent Levels, the possible site of an extension of the M4 that could destroy or damage 125ha of SSSI habitats (Rappel 2017). This remarkable wetland is noted for its aquatic invertebrates, including the King Diving Beetle, which cannot be found anywhere else in Wales. Many of the water beetles that I have described are found at protected sites, and one would hope that (with the exception of those species that will be adversely affected by climate change) habitat loss should not be a significant factor in their survival. Unfortunately, these designations count for little or nothing in the face of new motorways, high-speed rail links, or even – and I kid you not – landfill sites (Sutton 2002). Until the protection of our remaining biodiversity is placed on an equal footing with economic considerations, our generation will inevitably be remembered for its failure to safeguard what is left of our natural heritage.

Acknowledgements There are too many people to whom I am indebted to mention here, but they will appear in the appropriate The Enigma Dytiscus circumcinctus (male) showing section of a forthcoming book being distilled from the sharp metacoxal processes (bottom) that this photographic quest, which includes paintings distinguish this species from the Great Diving Beetle by Carim Nahaboo and Denys Ovenden. I must, D. marginalis. Peter Sutton however, express my sincere gratitude to Professor Foster, G. N., & Friday, L. E. 2011. Keys to the adults of the water Garth Foster, and to my great friend and mentor beetles of Britain and Ireland (Part 1). Handbooks for the Identification of British Insects 4: 5. Royal Entomological Society, Nick Holford, for their unrelenting support. Now London. is a good time to study water beetles, and in recent Foster, G. N., Bilton, D. T., & Friday, L. E. 2014. Keys to the adults of the water beetles of Britain and Ireland (Part 2). Handbooks for the years some outstanding publications regarding the Identification of British Insects 4: 5b. Royal Entomological Society, identification, distribution and life-histories of the London. Foster, G. N., Bilton, D. T., & Nelson, B. H. 2016. Atlas of the aquatic Coleoptera have become available, including Predaceous Water Beetles (Hydradephaga) of Britain and Ireland. Foster & Friday 2011, Foster et al. 2014 and Foster Field Studies Council, Shrewsbury. Hammond, M. 2017. The Water Beetles of Yorkshire. Yorkshire and et al. 2016. Humber Ecological Data Trust, York. Rappel, I. 2017. Editorial: The hammer blow poised above an References ecosystem fizzing with life. British Wildlife 28: 387–388. Shirt, D. B. (ed.) 1987. British Red Data Books: Insects. JNCC. Angus, R. B. 1976. A preliminary note on the British species of Sutton, P. G. 2002. Council’s waste disposal plans threaten rare bush- Graphoderus Sturm, with the additions of Graphoderus bilineatus cricket and other protected species. BBC Wildlife Magazine 20 (12): Degeer and Graphoderus zonatus Hoppe to the British list. Balfour- 28–29. Browne Club Newsletter 1: 1–3. Sutton, P. 2008. The Larger Water Beetles of the British Isles. Amateur Balfour-Browne, F. 1950. British Water Beetles. Volume 2. The Ray Entomologists’ Society, London. Society, London. Watson, W. 2016. Graphoderus cinereus re-found at Moccas Park, Beebee, T. J. C. 1991. Identification: Britain’s larger water beetles. England. Latissimus 38: 23–24. British Wildlife 2: 295–300. Cooter, J., & Barclay, M. 2006. A Coleopterist’s Handbook. Amateur Entomologists’ Society, London. Peter Sutton is a science teacher at a state school Denton, J. 2007. Water Bugs and Water Beetles of Surrey. Surrey in Bedfordshire. Wildlife Trust, Pirbright.

112 British Wildlife December 2017 What does ‘traditional’ management really mean?

What does ‘traditional’ management really mean?

Paul Dolman, Tom Williamson, Physical disturbances, such as turf-stripping, may Rob Fuller and Gerry Barnes replicate past, intense land use. Neal Armour-Chelu

ver the past half-century, the contributions exploitation (e.g. Tansley 1939; Ratcliffe 1977; of Oliver Rackham and others have EC 1992), and, within our surviving fragments of Oincreased our knowledge of historical semi-natural vegetation, conservation management landscapes, but, in spite of this, we still know generally aims to continue the ‘traditional’ practices relatively little about historical land-use practices (those of pre-industrial, i.e. c. 1200–1750, land- or their ecological outcomes. By the time the management systems) which originally contributed characteristics of particular habitat types were to their character. While these practices have first recorded in the mid–late 19th century, by created many of the habitats that we value today, Richard Jefferies for example, they were already our ancestors were not, of course, carrying them changing fast as a consequence of agricultural out with any aim of increasing biodiversity. The modernisation, industrialisation and unprecedented wildlife value of traditional landscapes came as a human-population growth. Yet, even before fortuitous by-product of intensive land-stripping, all of these far-reaching developments, land- vegetation clearance and exploitation by humans. management systems had changed radically over These physically destructive processes created a time, and had varied from place to place, resulting landscape characterised by habitat heterogeneity in a constellation of landscape types that were at a range of scales, which provided suitable niches considerably more unstable and variable than those for a diversity of species. produced by modern conservation methods (Fuller Current management may attempt to mimic et al. 2017). Population fluctuated both locally aspects of ‘traditional’ practices, but it arguably and nationally, and farming varied in response to simplifies the character of wildlife habitats and markets in meat and grain, or the requirements of thus, as the ‘State of Nature’ report (Hayhow local and national industries. et al. 2016) has shown, is failing to sustain the Throughout western Europe, semi-natural species with which they are particularly associated. habitats are often classified according to their past Indeed, it is likely that the conviction that

December 2017 British Wildlife 113 What does ‘traditional’ management really mean?

Historical management: a wildlife panacea?

Past management practices created most of the environments that we now consider to be of key conservation importance, producing a diversity of habitats, in close proximity, which can seldom have been matched in the ‘wildscape’. But they could also be inimical to biodiversity, and some of the landscape features currently regarded as of high conservation value are likely to have been considerably less frequent in past times.

Intensive grazing Intensive grazing would have removed seed-heads, flowering herbs, dead stems and potential invertebrate overwintering sites such as tussocks; it was thus detrimental to many, although not all, invertebrate habitats (Lake et al. 2001; Alexander et al. 2005; McBride et al. 2011).

Dead wood Demand for fuel was often so high that dead wood in the form of fallen trees and branches must have been rare, judging from the frequency with which people were convicted for ‘hedge-breaking’ (removal of wood from hedges). In 1807, Howlett described how, in Essex, the traditional method of erecting well-constructed dead hedges, to protect regrowth after coppicing, was being abandoned, for they were ‘sure to be torn up… by the destitute poor, who from deficiency of wages, are utterly unable to purchase fuel, and compelled to steal it, or perish with cold’ (Young 1807). Nor was there as much dead wood and heart-rot in ancient trees as we usually assume. Most timber trees were felled before they reached 50 years of age (Bailey & Culley 1794), and even pollards, having reached middle-age, were usually taken down and replaced. ‘Pollards usually, after some Lopping, grow hollow and decay... The Produce of their Head is less, and of slower Growth’ (Hale 1756). Middleton, railing against the dominance of old pollards in the hedges of East Anglia, commented disparagingly that these were ‘of every age, under perhaps two hundred years’ [our italics] (Middleton 1798).

Disturbance The density of people working in the countryside would have been far, far greater than it is today, rendering many areas unsuitable for those mammals and birds unable to withstand significant levels of disturbance. The very low numbers of deer that evidently existed across most of lowland England before the 20th century is clear enough testimony to that. traditional management systems are insufficient land-use was in fact, in many ways, more intensive for conservation is based on a poor understanding in the past than it is today, but also more complex of what these actually involved, and of what they and heterogeneous. Historical management systems achieved. The management of individual land generally shared a number of features that were parcels, including those that we think of today as of key importance to wildlife, and these can be ‘semi-natural’, was far from static, and this raises summarised as follows (Fuller et al. 2017): important questions about how we can restore them to a meaningful baseline. More importantly, Nutrient depletion and intensive ground disturbance in failing to understand the real processes that made On many land parcels, not only was much of the certain suites of species characteristic of particular vegetation regularly removed, but a significant places, we may be unable to sustain these species proportion of the topsoil was too. Furthermore, into the future. In this article, we elucidate the real the daily movement of livestock between pastures character of past management systems and suggest and fallows served repeatedly to deplete nutrients how the principles that they embody could be in the former. Regular physical disturbance used to develop innovative new conservation created the early successional habitats required by techniques. ruderal plants and invertebrates associated with open ground (Key 2000; Dolman et al. 2012), How did ‘historical’ land management while nutrient depletion would have slowed the benefit wildlife? subsequent rates of vegetation development, While we often bemoan the intensification of ensuring that suitable habitat was continuously agriculture that has occurred over recent decades, available for species with limited dispersal ability.

114 British Wildlife December 2017 What does ‘traditional’ management really mean?

Multi-scale habitat heterogeneity key features, and explain how this would have Heterogeneity existed at numerous scales, from contributed to their wildlife value. farming regions down to individual land parcels, Heaths and other commons and, while this was merely a fortunate by-product of management, the spatial juxtaposition of landscape Lowland heaths are a good example of all this elements and microhabitats is important to many complexity. Most were common land, occupying specialist invertebrates with complex lifecycles. areas of leached, acid soils, and with vegetation Examples would have included such ecotonal characterised by Heather Calluna vulgaris and structures as saum and mantel at woodland heaths Erica, gorse Ulex, Broom Cytisus scoparius margins, enriched scrub at heathland margins and and grasses such as Sheep’s-fescue ovina. terrestrial–wetland transitions (Kirby 1992, 2001; Modern conservation management typically aims Alexander et al. 2005). Fine-scale heterogeneity to maintain open, treeless landscapes, dominated by is also important, such as within grassland and dwarf-shrubs, to suit the Dartford Warbler Sylvia heath, where the juxtaposition of exposed mineral undata and other birds, but, in the past, heaths soil, short swards, ungrazed nectar resources and displayed much deviation from this perceived ideal. well-vegetated overwintering sites are vital to many Most developed from grazed woodland, often in invertebrates (Dolman et al. 2010). In addition, prehistory (Groves et al. 2012) but sometimes as historical modes of exploitation often ensured late as the 18th century. Not surprisingly, the line dynamic mosaics of growth stages, as in woods between wood and heath was often blurred, with managed by coppicing. In general terms, rigorous wood-pasture heaths forming an intermediate and exploitation helped to maintain suitable conditions ecotonally complex landscape type once common for those species that depend upon both early and but now largely lost (Barnes et al. 2007). later successional stages. Heaths and downland were, for centuries, managed in a way that ensured constant depletion Localised stability and continuity of nutrients. Current conservation policy is based Although historical management often involved largely on light grazing, but heaths were usually regular disturbance, many land parcels were grazed very intensively in the past, and often by characterised by long-term stability in their overall Rabbits Oryctolagus cuniculus as well as sheep use. In wood-pastures, for example, this benefited (Sheail 1971). They served a vital role in ‘sheep- many macro-fungi and species of dung beetle, as corn’ farming systems, in which sheep were grazed well as saproxylic and other species that require on them by day, and folded (restricted to confined continuity of old-growth structures associated patches, the locations of which were periodically with veteran trees (Kirby & Drake 1993). The changed) on arable land by night, intensively historical landscape thus provided both stability dunging it (Kerridge 1993). This practice was and continuity, and areas of rapid (and often eroded by the adoption of new crops and rotations, cyclical) change. and subsequently by the use of artificial fertilisers. In a similar manner, the function of heaths and Controlled grazing other ‘wastes’ as major sources of fuel, something Grazing was, in most circumstances, intense. that shaped their character in critical ways, Livestock underpinned the arable economy declined as canals and railways spread the use of by supplying manure and traction, while most throughout England (Warde & Williamson farmers attempted to maximise the production 2014). Bracken Pteridium aquilinum, Heather and of meat, milk, wool and leather. But grazing, gorse were regularly cut for thatch, fodder and especially its timing, was organised in ways that bedding, but mainly as fuel (Webb 1998). remain insufficiently explored. Moreover, in certain Thomas Blenerhasset described how Horsford circumstances, it was limited or curtailed entirely, Heath, in Norfolk, was in the 17th century ‘to which created the distinctive suites of species that Norwich and the Countrye heare as Newcastle we associate with meadows and coppices. coales are to London’ (Barrett-Lennard 1921). Below, we describe the historical management Areas might be set aside for the extraction of these of different land types in relation to these four materials, intermingled with those exploited by

December 2017 British Wildlife 115 What does ‘traditional’ management really mean? grazing. Heather was usually harvested as turves, So, our simplified understanding of heaths, which included both the vegetation and a square based on observations made at a late stage in their of combustible roots, while burrowing Rabbits history, is misleading. Heaths displayed much and the excavation of sand and gravel produced variation over both space and time, and recurrent large areas of exposed substrates. In the late 16th disturbance, rather than long-term stability, was a century, Cawston Heath, in Norfolk, was described characteristic feature. It is not, therefore, surprising as having ‘Sand and gravell… cast upp in such great that a biodiversity audit of Breckland revealed heapes uppon the playne grownd by reason of the that, of the 72 Breckland specialities, at least 35 digging therof that ther will noe grasse growe upon require open habitats characterised both by grazing the said grownde in a verie long tyme’ (quoted in and by significant levels of disturbance (Dolman Whyte 2009). Heaths were, moreover, sometimes et al. 2012). Current agri-environment schemes less permanent environments than we usually and reversion programmes, which encourage the assume, for they might be ploughed up on a casual maintenance of a landscape of permanent and basis or on a long rotation – a practice especially lightly grazed heathland, thus fail to deliver the characteristic of the East Anglian Breckland but crucial microhabitats and ecological processes on common in other districts too. A court held in 1637 which biodiversity really depends. heard how the demesne farmer of the manor of Similar observations apply to other forms of Blythburgh and Walberswick, in east Suffolk, ‘used common land. For example, fens and mires, formed to plow such parte of the said walke or heath as in valley peats, were also exploited in complex ways they would; & when any part thereof was sowen involving a mixture of grazing and the systematic with corne, the inhabitants of Walberswick did not extraction of rough hay, reeds, Saw Sedge Cladium put their cattle upon such places soe sowen untill mariscus and peat. Patterns of exploitation the corne was reaped… And that it appearses by similarly changed over time and varied from the rigges and furrowes on most parte of the heath, location to location, depending on demographic that the same have usually byn ploughed’ (Ipswich and market conditions, peat extraction, for Record Office HA 30: 50/22/3.1). example, declining with the spread of coal use.

Traditional land management was likely to have been favourable for a number of Breckland specialities, including Spanish Catchfly Silene otites (a), Bur Medick Medicago minima (b) and Spring Speedwell Veronica verna (c). Tim Pankhurst

(a) (b) (c)

116 British Wildlife December 2017 What does ‘traditional’ management really mean?

Conservation management of fens has generally tied to wider economic systems. In parts of northern emphasised cutting and vegetation harvest, but, and western England, for example, the demand for in places, particular benefits have been brought pit timber ensured the adoption, by the 18th century, by active interventions which mimic the regular of particularly long coppice rotations of 20 years or disturbances effected by past management, such as more (Bailey & Culley 1794). the re-creation of turf ponds. Hay meadows and arable land Woodlands As with woodlands, hay meadows were usually Not all semi-natural environments were originally private, and were grazed only after the farmer common land, subject to frequent or continuous had removed the hay. This shaped their biological grazing, but all were intensively exploited in character, allowing tall, bulky species to flower and complex and varied ways. Private, enclosed woods set seed, although mowing regimes varied greatly were managed by regular coppicing, something that over space and time (Peterken 2013). Arable maintained both structural and species diversity land similarly needed to be protected from stock within limited areas, not least because individual for much of the time, although it was invariably woods were usually divided into separate ‘fells’, grazed after the harvest and during the fallow cut in turn. Particular herb species, such as Wood period. Much was farmed as open fields, containing Anemone Anemone nemorosa, flourished through many people’s strips, subject to varying degrees of the creation of cycles of light and shade, but the communal regulation and to seasonal common prominence of such ancient-woodland indicators grazing. Open fields were hugely diverse in form also reflects the fact that coppices were among the (Hall 2014), but in the most developed systems, few areas in the pre-industrial countryside that were found in the Midlands, they occupied almost the not subject to any significant degree of grazing, entire area of each parish. It is sometimes assumed stock being admitted only late in the rotation, if at that such landscapes provided few habitats for all (Barnes & Williamson 2015). These plants have anything other than arable weeds, but this again poor resistance to grazing and were thus probably is to underrate the complexity of early landscapes. uncommon in the grazed woodlands from which Narrow, unploughed ‘balks’ often separated the most coppices were originally enclosed in the early individual cultivated strips, while other areas Middle Ages. of unploughed ground, managed as pasture or As in other contexts, assemblages that we value meadow, were often present, running in ribbons today were largely the consequence of management through the furlongs (Williamson et al. 2013). systems, rather than being in any meaningful sense Combined with the adjacent strips of arable land, ‘natural’. The dominance of oak Quercus as a these provided a fine-grained mix of perennial and timber tree resulted from deliberate selection or ruderal elements. The balks were subject to episodic planting, and the understorey was also modified grazing during the fallow season and after harvest, by ‘weeding’ unwanted shrubs and by deliberate providing refuges for stress-tolerant grassland planting. Ash Fraxinus excelsior, in particular, was perennials that would be unable to survive either regularly planted or plashed in vacant spaces (Lowe in ungrazed closed swards or under conditions of 1794; Stevenson 1809) and sallow Salix and Hazel constant grazing. Babington, in 1860, memorably Corylus avellana also appear to have been widely bemoaned how, as a consequence of enclosure in established in the understorey. A lease from 1612 west Cambridgeshire, ‘the “balks”, with the various for South Haw Wood in Wood Dalling, Norfolk, plants which grew upon them’ had been ‘destroyed bound the lessee to plant sallows in cleared spaces by the plough. Thus the native plants have following felling (Norfolk Record Office BUL 2/3, suffered… Where they were once abundant they are 604X7); the tithe files of 1836 describe how there now rarely to be found.’ This complex landscape of were 35 acres of coppice wood in Buckenham in the episodically grazed and scuffed grassland, arable same county, ‘part of which has been newly planted land and ruderal fallows is entirely missing from the with hazel’ (The National Archives IR 29/5816; modern repertoire of semi-natural habitats. Barnes & Williamson 2015). There were both spatial Much farmland in England, especially in the variations and temporal changes in management, south-east and the west of the country, always lay

December 2017 British Wildlife 117 What does ‘traditional’ management really mean?

(a) (b)

Stripping a plot at Weeting in order to provide suitable habitat for species favouring bare, disturbed ground (a); a plot immediately after stripping (b) and the same plot after three-and-a-half years (c). Bev Nicholls in hedged fields. Elsewhere, hedges proliferated habitats themselves have an arbitrary character: steadily through the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries, they are accidents of history, shaped by now as open fields were progressively enclosed. Like redundant economic systems as much as by natural everything else, hedges were managed with processes (Dolman et al. 2012; Williamson 2013). remarkable intensity in order to ensure that they They represent only some of the environments that remained stock-proof and to provide an abundance once existed, and just a small subset of all those of firewood in this fuel-hungry world. Some were which might have been created, and sustained, plashed or laid every ten to 15 years, and others had different forms of management developed, were coppiced; either way, they were subjected to under different economic, technological or social regular and repeated cycles of change, and they conditions. provided a high degree of ecological heterogeneity, The adoption of a range of complementary enhanced by the fact that different hedges on a strategies in order to maximise opportunities for property would be at different stages in the cycle wildlife in a rapidly changing world would seem to of management. be the most appropriate way forward. One of these would be rewilding, particularly where extensive Lessons for the future areas of land can be deployed for conservation, Given the present, highly fragmented state of although it is not yet known whether this approach habitats, the act of simply mimicking ‘traditional would provide the full suite of conditions needed by management’ may not be enough to sustain priority biodiversity without further intervention. A particular species. Furthermore, there are important second would be a continuation of the established conceptual problems, as we have noted, involved policy, of managing key habitats along ‘traditional’ in such an approach. Apart from the fact that lines, although with greater attention paid to the much about past practices remains unknown, the true character of past land-use systems. This brief manner in which these clearly changed over time review, however, also suggests a third route. Already, makes re-establishment to a particular ‘baseline’ large-scale wetland habitats are being actively essentially arbitrary. Indeed, the semi-natural designed in order to promote certain species, or

118 British Wildlife December 2017 What does ‘traditional’ management really mean?

the availability of land, the resources available for conservation, the requirements of existing wildlife at different sites, and the vision of those championing conservation in the future. It is, however, possible that, by studying the past, we can learn not only how to improve ‘traditional’ management but also how to devise quite new modes of intervention.

References For details of references, see https://britishwildlife. com/site/suppl-dec-17-trad-man.

Paul Dolman is Professor of Conservation Ecology at the University of East Anglia and researches multi-taxa effects of conservation management in human landscapes. Tom Williamson is Professor of Landscape History at the University of East Anglia. Rob Fuller is an Honorary Professor at the University of East Anglia and an emeritus Research Fellow of the British Trust for Ornithology. Gerry Barnes is a landscape researcher and an Honorary Fellow of the School of History at the University of (c) East Anglia. guilds of species, such as the RSPB’s new reserves on Below A regenerating stripped plot: patches of former agricultural land at Lakenheath, in Suffolk, open ground provide niches for a number of plant or at Wallasea Island, in Essex, where water levels, and invertebrate species. Bev Nicholls grazing regimes and vegetation-harvesting are directed towards specific conservation objectives (Ausden et al. 2014). But we could go further, especially with terrestrial habitats. The absence of historical stability, and therefore of a baseline model for particular habitats, blurs the distinction between the replication of ‘tradition’ and the adoption of new practices. New systems of intervention could be devised which would create a range of habitats and landscapes that have never existed before, but which might be of considerable benefit to certain endangered species or groups of species. Conservation could apply, in novel ways, the key principles that shaped wildlife diversity in managed landscapes in the past. For example, anthropogenic sites with low nutrient status could be created by the addition of mineral or industrial spoil, or by managing mineral-spoil heaps or other brownfield land; and experiments could be made with the adoption of more diverse physical-disturbance practices, especially on heathland but also on former low-grade farmland acquired by conservation bodies. Which of these three broad approaches should be adopted in which contexts will depend on many factors, including

December 2017 British Wildlife 119 Flying kites a view from Wales James Robertson

s I live down a farm track, unexpected visitors are Ministers’ pledges on environmental issues and their Auncommon. I was away when Joanna answered an actions. The Minister countered that much of the insistent knock at the door. Our farm, as usual, had drawn money was still there, having been transferred to Local the short straw for a rigorous inspection to see that we Authorities. With so many other calls on Local Authority were fulfilling every last dot and comma of our Glastir resources, such arguments look like sophistry. The agri-environment scheme agreement. message which the cuts send out is that, when times are After spending several hours in examining the hard, the environment is expendable. paperwork and walking around the farm measuring the All is not gloom and doom. It is time for me to quarter sward height with a ruler, our inspector decided that the country, looking for environmental good-news stories he would come back to check that we had erected the hiding in the long grass. Or, in the case of Bitterns, in the twenty bat and bird boxes required to get us into the reeds, where they are booming, while Marsh Harriers, scheme. along with Ospreys, soar, or at least increase. Large-scale I was home the next day, so I had the pleasure of HLF and LIFE funding is earmarked for sand dunes and showing him the bits of infrastructure so necessary to raised mires. the wellbeing of birds and bats. On the way, I pointed to When the biggest landowner in Wales decides to a piece of heathy woodland under a Glastir agreement restore and create new wildlife habitats on 10% of its which had recently been bulldozed ahead of ploughing land over the next ten years, it deserves our thanks. This and reseeding. ‘Surely this can’t be allowed under is what the National Trust intends to do, and it has the Glastir?’ I queried. ‘None of my business’ he answered, practical skills, expertise and proven track record to deliver and literally turned his back. gains for nature on several thousand Welsh hectares, for Were not agri-environment schemes intended to example by pulling back boundaries to create a broader help farmers to help the environment? Glastir is a poor corridor for nature along the coast. Its other ambitions scheme by all accounts. But it can bring benefits for include converting half of its farmland to high-nature- nature so long as its implementers on the ground are value farming. Its strength lies in its ownership of land. trained and encouraged to see that it does. This captures Outside their nature reserves, conservation bodies a wider truth. We have some impressive environmental struggle to make a tangible difference for wildlife. law in Wales, notably the Well-being of When I look closely at the ground, at each Future Generations (Wales) Act 2015 wet curlew-field, then up at the powerful and the Environment (Wales) Act bodies which claim to be safeguarding 2016. What matters, though, Welsh nature for future generations, is for fine implementation to the two do not connect. As the match fine legislation. Laws announcer on my local train service need to be translated so that has it, we should all ‘mind the future generations truly enjoy ‘a gap’. It is a gap into which wildlife biodiverse natural environment with can so easily disappear. healthy functioning ecosystems’. ‘Most projects in the Public bodies need to examine their environmental field are some kind decisions to the benefit of nature if their of scam – there is money for meetings, ‘biodiversity duty’ is to have any real value. ideas, exchanges, but something real does not The evidence of high-profile schemes tells another necessarily happen.’ I found these words in Orison for a story. How can a 15-mile six-lane motorway across Curlew, spoken by a Hungarian Romanian called Dr Kiss. the most sensitive slice of the Gwent Levels, cutting This graceful, bittersweet volume by Horatio Clare mourns through four SSSIs, conform to the Welsh Government’s the almost certain passing of the Slender-billed Curlew own legislation? How is it that its independent wildlife and honours its eye-witnesses and champions. Like watchdog, Natural Resources Wales, can withdraw dedicated conservationists the world over, theirs is a story its ecological objections to the scheme and still fulfil of love and loss. It is ours, too. We watch and we grieve, its statutory purposes? Then there is the decision to powerless to halt nature's retreat. And yet… downgrade the primacy of conservation in the report on Alongside our own insignificance is the wonder of protected landscapes being alive, surrounded by life. Half full or half empty, Roger Tidman/FLPA Welsh NGOs united recently in condemning the Welsh what remains in the glass is simply overwhelming. That Government’s draconian cut of 15% to its environment we can appreciate it and exalt in it makes us the lucky

Curlew. Curlew. budget. It represented, they claimed, a gap between ones.

120 British Wildlife December 2017 December 2017 British Wildlife 120 Wildlife reports

compiled by Guy Freeman

Weather for September and Badgers on a Devonshire farm October 2017 against bTB. Farmers, as well as wildlife campaigners, are becoming t the start of September, high more critical of the existing cattle Apressure brought dry, sunny test for bTB, which misses many weather to many parts of the UK, cases of the disease and thus leaves but conditions were generally undiagnosed cows to spread the unsettled for the rest of the month, disease within herds. In 2015, it being either bright and showery or appears that 16% of English bTB warm, wet and cloudy, depending ‘breakdowns’ were detected in on the wind direction. The first abattoirs after supposedly healthy named storm of the autumn, storm Mammals cows had been slaughtered. Sibley Aileen, passed through on 12th– is pioneering two new techniques 13th, bringing high winds, including report in The Observer of 15th for detecting the disease: the phage a maximum recorded gust of 83mph A October suggests that the highly test and qPCR. The phage test, at The Needles, on the Isle of Wight. controversial, multi-million-pound, developed by microbiologist Cath Overall, temperatures were slightly annual slaughter of Badgers Meles Rees of Nottingham University, uses below the long-term average, and meles may soon become history. An a bTB-invading virus to ‘hunt’ for rainfall was mostly higher than expanded Badger cull is scheduled the live bacterium. On the Devon normal. for autumn 2017, during which farm where it is being trialled, use October saw the arrival of two 33,500 animals will be killed in an of this technique is detecting bTB named storms: ex-hurricane Ophelia, effort to stop the spread of bovine in cows months before they test on 16th, and Storm Brian, on tuberculosis (bTB). As reported in positive with the traditional ‘skin 21st–22nd. Ophelia brought strong The Observer article, however, Dick test’: 85 cows have tested positive winds and heavy rain to Ireland, Sibley, a leading vet, believes that a when the phage test was used, causing extensive damage, while pioneering Devon farm will be able despite all being declared disease- the impacts of Brian were mainly to demonstrate a way to eradicate free after skin testing. Nonetheless, restricted to south-west coasts. In the disease without slaughtering farmers need to know if the general, the month was warm, wet any Badgers. Although the trial infected cows are infectious. To and cloudy, and some unusually was halted earlier this year, when find out, Sibley employs the second high temperatures were recorded, two new tests to identify better test, qPCR, which was developed including a maximum of 23.5°C at the presence of bTB in cattle were by Liz Wellington, a life sciences Manston, Kent, on 16th, associated deemed illegal, it now appears professor at Warwick University. This with Ophelia. Temperatures were that government regulators have test detects bTB in dung, thereby 1.8°C above the long-term October changed their minds and given showing if a cow is ‘shedding’ and average, and rainfall, although permission for the trial to go ahead. thus spreading the disease. If a higher in parts of western Scotland, The vet’s work was supported by cow is found to be shedding it is north-west England and Northern rock star turned activist Brian May, slaughtered, even if the conventional Ireland, was below average overall. whose Save Me Trust has started a test suggests that it is healthy. Both Guy Freeman four-year programme of vaccinating professors have given Sibley free use

December 2017 British Wildlife 121 Wildlife reports Wildlife reports of their new technologies, and these immune system, is collected from Moors, Hobson Moss and along have shown that supposedly healthy each mother, but is pasteurised Dukes Drive. In previous years cows are the ‘hidden reservoir’ of before it is fed to the calves so that dozens of hares have been seen bTB on the farm. In the article, it is it will not spread disease. at these locations, but the latest pointed out that ‘TB in cows – as Congratulations to the Sorby observations could perhaps be linked well as humans – is traditionally a Natural History Society (SNHS), to accounts of systematic shooting disease of bad living conditions’. At which, on Sunday 26th March of hares in winter 2016. the Devon farm, efforts are made to 2017, completed its 44th Annual In contrast to the above, improve hygiene standards: barns Colin Marsden Memorial Hare Walk the Daubenton’s Bat Myotis are kept airy, with fewer cows in through the Peak District National daubentonii Annual Monitoring each compared with a typical dairy Park. This involved tramping 18 Survey recorded the highest count farm, and walkways are cleaned miles along the traditional route of the species for seven years at three times a day. Furthermore, as established by Colin Marsden in a site along the River Derwent, dung falling into drinking troughs 1973 and plotting each sighting of at Grindleford. This was the 19th is likely to be an important mode Mountain Hares Lepus timidus. consecutive survey and makes it one of disease transmission, water is The total for the day amounted to of the most valuable data sets in the regularly changed and is held in 162 live hares and ten dead ones, National Bat Monitoring Programme. ‘tipping troughs’ that are kept and, although this was a lower It proved to be a great night, still scrubbed clean. Having studied number than in previous years, it and warm, with plenty of bat each cow’s history, Sibley considers was considered to be a good result activity: 222 Daubenton’s Bat passes it likely that mothers often spread nonetheless. In spite of patchy were recorded by means of the the disease to their calves at birth. densities, good numbers were standard methodology. It appears This problem is being addressed by recorded between Margery Hill and that the site is the 30th best for the building a new maternity unit with Outer Edge and to the south of species in the UK out of 1,343 sites rubber floors that will be disinfected Margery Hill. The really big shock, surveyed, and the second best in the after every delivery. Colostrum, the however, was that of finding only East Midlands out of 98 surveyed. crucial first milk that boosts a calf’s two hares east of Broomhead Gordon L. Woodroffe, Mammal Society Mountain Hare in the Peak District; the annual Colin Marsden Memorial Hare Walk aims to survey populations of the species within the National Park. Mark Evans

Birds ecently, the main talking point Ramong birders has been the arrival of unprecedented numbers of Hawfinches Coccothraustes coccothraustes – have you seen one? Since mid-October, a record- breaking influx of the species has been underway and, as of early November, there are still new reports coming in daily. Many thousands of the birds have been recorded, the majority in southern Britain, especially central England. The largest count so far is of 115 over Steps Hill, Buckinghamshire, on 23rd October, but groups of

122 British Wildlife December 2017 Wildlife reports

in Ireland), and a Scarlet Tanager Piranga olivacea was at Mizen Head, Co Cork, from 3rd to 6th October (the fifth Irish record). A Blackpoll Warbler Setophaga striata was at Blacksod, Co Mayo, from 7th to 15th October, and another was on North Uist, Outer Hebrides, on 23rd of that month. A first-winter White-crowned Sparrow Zonotrichia leucophrys on Foula, Shetland, from 8th to 11th October may well have been the same individual as that seen in the Faroe Islands on 7th October. On St Mary’s, Isles of Scilly, at least one Wilson’s Snipe Gallinago delicata was at Porth Hellick from 10th to 31st October, and one was at Lower Moors during 3rd–6th November. From the east, a female Hawfinch, Devon; the record-breaking influx of this species has been Siberian Rubythroat Calliope one of the highlights of the 2017 autumn. Tim White calliope reached Bressay, Shetland, 30–50 individuals have been erythropthalmus was on Mainland on 8th October and, the star of relatively common. Reasons for on 18th September. Britain’s first the autumn, a male Siberian Blue the influx are not clear, but it is Eastern Orphean Warbler Sylvia Robin Larvivora cyane on North likely that the species had a good crassirostris was on St Agnes, Isles Ronaldsay, Orkney, was found in a breeding season in eastern and of Scilly, from 27th September to shed, caught by hand, ringed and southern Europe, prompting mass 17th October, although it was often released. There have been dispersal, and/or there has been a elusive; the last Cornish record of The male Siberian Blue Robin failure in food crops, causing the an orphean warbler was in 1991, captured on North Ronaldsay, birds to erupt. It will be interesting but at that time the eastern and Orkney. to see how many Hawfinches will western forms had not been split Tom Gale stay here for the winter. So, have as separate species. Pechora I (Dawn Balmer) seen one? Yes, I Pipits Anthus gustavi were saw four in west Cornwall, in late recorded on Foula, Shetland, on October, while on holiday, although 27th September and 8th October. I have also been gripped by the one For many people, the bird of the that my husband saw as it flew autumn was the twitchable Scops over our house in Thetford! Owl Otus scops at Ryhope, Co A Buff-bellied Pipit Anthus Durham, from 27th September to rubescens was at Tawin, Co Galway, 5th October, although it was not on 12th September, and one was seen at its daytime roost every day on Mainland, Shetland, on 4th–6th during this period. There was a good October. Birders in Shetland also run of birds from North America enjoyed a mini-influx of Arctic during the prolonged westerlies, Redpolls Acanthis hornemanni including a -breasted in early October, including both Grosbeak Pheucticus ludovicianus Hornemann’s Arctic Redpolls on St Agnes, Isles of Scilly, from A. h. hornemanni and Coues’s 29th September to 1st October, and Arctic Redpolls A. h. exilipes, and single Cliff Swallows Petrochelidon small flocks of Parrot Crossbills pyrrhonota in October on Tresco on Loxia pytyopsittacus. Pallas’s 2nd–3rd before moving to St Mary’s Grasshopper Warblers Locustella (both Isles of Scilly) until 6th, at certhiola were at Burnham Porthgwarra, Cornwall, on 7th and Overy, Norfolk, from 17th to at Spurn, East Yorkshire, on 22nd. 24th September, and in Shetland A Cedar Waxwing Bombycilla on Fair Isle on 22nd September cedrorum was on St Agnes during and Mainland on 1st October. A 3rd–9th October, the seventh record Black-billed Cuckoo Coccyzus for Britain (there have been two

December 2017 British Wildlife 123 Wildlife reports Wildlife reports three previous British records Sandpiper was present also at remains. Interestingly, while there of this last species, one of which Seaton Marshes, Devon, for a single were more daytime predation was also on North Ronaldsay, on day on 12th September. events, predation at night was more 2nd October 2001. Wales’ third Waders have recently been intensive and predation by mammals Rock Thrush Monticola saxatilis, the subjects of a couple of (day and night) had a larger impact a male on the slopes of Blorenge, interesting science stories. Many than did predation by birds. A total near Abergavenny, Gwent, of our ‘commoner’ waders are, of 87% of chicks was preyed on, delighted birdwatchers from 12th of course, in decline in the UK, most by foxes. In the UK, lethal fox October to 3rd November. A and, as predation of nests and control is common on wet-grassland Short-toed Treecreeper Certhia young is an important contributory sites that are managed for waders. brachydactyla was trapped and factor, an understanding of which The fact that foxes still account for ringed at Samphire Hoe, Kent, on predators are the most responsible a high proportion of chick predation 16th October. for mortality of eggs and chicks suggests that these control efforts A juvenile drake White-winged is a key step in managing their are largely ineffective. Until this point Scoter Melanitta deglandi was on impact. In wet-grassland habitats, this ‘difficult-to-detect’ mammalian Unst and Yell, Shetland, from 16th predation during the night tends to predation of wader chicks was to 23rd October, the first juvenile be by mammals, such as Red Foxes unproven, and the results of this of either form of White-winged Vulpes vulpes, Hedgehogs Erinaceus study highlight the importance of Scoter to be recorded in Britain. A europaeus, Stoats Mustela erminea not making assumptions about Yellow-billed Cuckoo Coccyzus and Weasels M. nivalis, whereas predation based on observations of americanus on St Agnes, Isles of predation in the daytime is typically predator abundance or predation Scilly, on 20th October was in poor by birds, such as raptors and corvids. events alone. (Ibis 2017, doi: condition and was later taken into The time at which predation occurs 10.1111/ibi.12523) care, where it died. On the same can therefore provide vital clues The drumming of a male date, a long-dead Black-and- to the culprit’s identity. While this Common Snipe Gallinago white Warbler Mniotilta varia was can be recorded relatively easily gallinago during courtship is one found on a ship that docked at for nests, using temperature data- of the most wonderful sounds of Seaforth, Lancashire. In Co Cork, in loggers and nest cameras, it is summer. Generated by vibration of October, Ireland’s second Common extremely difficult to determine their outermost tail feathers, it plays Yellowthroat Geothlypis trichas the time at which chicks are a key role in the establishing of a was at Toe Head on 28th, and preyed on. A recently published territory and in mate attraction, but there were three Grey-cheeked study on predation of Lapwing a recent study suggests that it is not Thrushes Catharus minimus: one Vanellus vanellus chicks used just the sound that is important. at Galley Head during 19th–22nd, technology to address this challenge, The coloration of these feathers another nearby at Rosscarbery combining data from automatic can, it seems, also act as an honest on 20th–23rd and one at Red radio-tracking stations (ARTS), which signal of male quality. Scientists Strand on 26th. A Two-barred constantly search for and record studied the variation in rusty-brown Warbler Phylloscopus trochiloides signals from radio tags, with findings melanin pigmentation in the birds’ plumbeitarsus was at St Aldhelm’s from more conventional field tails by using spectrophotometry Head, Dorset, on 15th–18th October techniques. in order to measure brightness (an (first identified on 17th), an adult Across 15 sites, almost 180 indicator of total melanin content, Ross’s Gull Rhodostethia rosea was Lapwing chicks were ringed and as brighter feathers have less at Fenham Flats, Northumberland, fitted with tiny radio tags. At melanin) and redness (red chroma) briefly on 29th October, and on the each site, one or two ARTS were of the outermost tail feathers in following day a juvenile Ivory Gull installed, each comprising a multi- juvenile and adult Common Snipe. Pagophila eburnea flew past Papa directional antenna mounted on In both sexes, structural quality Westray, Orkney. a 4m pole and connected to a declined with brightness (lower Dorset had an excellent spell receiver. Chicks were recorded as melanin content), which suggests for rare waders, with a Stilt preyed on if ARTS data indicated that melanisation may alter the Sandpiper Calidris himantopus a sudden change in tag signal mechanical properties of feathers at Lodmoor and then at sites in and chick remains were recovered and, in males, enhance the quality the Poole Harbour area from 11th subsequently, or if the tag signal of courtship drumming. The team September to 2nd November, a and chick disappeared (before also found that as redness increased, Least Sandpiper C. minutilla from the lifetime of the battery) and its so did measures of body condition, 11th to 19th September (present at parents were no longer calling for suggesting that this pigmentation Lodmoor with the Stilt Sandpiper!), it or alarm-calling. The predator may act as an honest signal of and a long-staying Spotted could usually be identified on the condition. (Ibis doi: 10.1111/ Sandpiper Actitis macularius at basis of the exact time of predation, ibi.12530). Abbotsbury from 17th September provided by ARTS data, and the Dawn Balmer (BTO) and to 4th November at least. A Least location and characteristics of Juliet Vickery (RSPB)

124 British Wildlife December 2017 Wildlife reports

outside the central and eastern understanding the threats to the United States being affected. health of these animals. In addition, The disease was discovered as comparing the way in which snake a result of an analysis of samples fungal disease affects wild snakes collected from wild snakes in the on different continents may help to United Kingdom and the Czech shed more light on the factors that Republic between 2010 and 2016. are causing the disease to emerge These samples confirmed the and help managers to identify presence of the disease in Europe mitigation strategies. for the first time, and indicate the It is sad to witness the emergence need for further research to help us of fungal pathogens affecting to understand fully the significance first amphibian and now reptile Reptiles and amphibians of the disease for Europe’s already species. Chytrid fungal infections precarious snake populations. have been closely monitored in UK esearch that was published The snakes affected were Grass amphibian populations for some Rearlier this year highlights a new Snakes Natrix helvetica from the time, and one of the most recent potential threat to Europe’s wild UK and a single example of the studies, undertaken during 2016 snakes in the form of a fungal skin closely related Dice Snake N. and 2017, was carried out by the disease. The disease was discovered tessellata from the . Cambridgeshire and Peterborough as a result of an international The analysis found that the fungus Amphibian and Reptile Group, collaborative study, which was led strains from Europe are different which has been monitoring a by the Zoological Society of London from those identified previously in population of Midwife Toads along with other partners, including North America, which suggests that, Alytes obstetricans. Any toads that the US Geological Survey. rather than being introduced across were encountered were swabbed Snake fungal disease is caused the Atlantic, the disease could have for the amphibian chytrid fungus by the fungus Ophidiomyces been present (‘below the radar’) in Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, but ophiodiicola and can lead to European snakes for some time. the results from the first batch of symptoms, including skin lesions, Snakes are notoriously difficult these swabs were received from the scabs and crusty scales, which, in animals to monitor, even for simple Institute of Zoology at London Zoo some cases, can result in the death reasons such as determining and were, thankfully, negative. of the infected animal. A similar presence or abundance, and These important research projects disease has contributed to wild snake any attempts to monitor their demonstrate that there is still a lot to deaths in North America, having first health present an additional set learn about the lives and the health been recognised in the eastern states of challenges. It is hoped that this of all of our reptile and amphibian around a decade ago. The discovery study will represent an important species. of snake fungal disease in Europe is milestone and one that will Howard Inns, Amphibian and the first example of wild populations encourage a greater focus on Reptile Conservation Trust

Grass Snakes could potentially be threatened by the recently discovered snake fungal disease. Richard Revels

December 2017 British Wildlife 125 Wildlife reports Wildlife reports

sites where it was newly discovered those populations at the edge of its during 2016, few new sightings range before further expansion takes were made in these, or other, place. areas at the edge of its range, and Although the autumn was a fairly those that were tended to be only quiet period for resident species, a a few kilometres from previously number of migrants did produce established sites. In Buckinghamshire, important records. Following major for example, a new sighting at invasions of Red-veined Darter Knowlhill on 12th September is only Sympetrum fonscolombii during the 5km from Tattenhoe Park, in Milton spring, it was widely expected that Keynes, where Emeralds there would be autumn emergences first appeared in 2016 and where of locally bred, second-generation Dragonflies a good population is now present. individuals, and these duly came to The one apparent exception to pass. Presumed breeding localities he final period of the dragonfly this general trend of limited range reported were well scattered, with Tflight season is traditionally a expansion was in southern Kent, multiple sightings of tenerals and/ fairly quiet time, as the number of where numerous records were made or immatures made at sites in species still on the wing gradually during late summer and autumn Cornwall (on The Lizard), Dorset, declines. In recent years, however, along the Royal Military Canal in the Kent, Suffolk (at Landguard and the Willow Emerald Damselfly Appledore–Bilsington area, some Minsmere), Norfolk (at Kelling viridis has provided 20–30km south of previously known Water Meadows), Warwickshire important highlights, late August sites. The high numbers seen and (at Marsh Lane NR), East Yorkshire through September having come to the long stretch of canal that was (at Spurn and Oakhill) and even be seen as the best time for finding occupied do, however, rather imply as far north as Lancashire, where new sites for this recent colonist that there has been a population immatures were noted at Ainsdale- that is spreading rapidly throughout in this area for some time, but on-Sea between 28th August south-east England. The year 2016 that it is only now that it has been and 8th September. The species’ saw a major range expansion, no discovered. The lack of any major breeding productivity, however, was fewer than four counties recording range expansion during 2017 is in clearly rather low. At Minsmere, the species for the first time, but, some contrast to the rapid expansion for example, where up to 15 adults sadly, 2017 has turned out to be seen in previous years; perhaps the had been seen in spring, only a much more low-key. Although the species has ‘overstretched’ itself handful of tenerals or immatures species reappeared at most of the recently, and now needs to build were noted during early August, and Vagrant Emperor on the Isles of Scilly; there have been a number of recent reports of this species. Josh Jones

126 British Wildlife December 2017 Wildlife reports none was seen thereafter. At nearby strongholds are in sub-Saharan cyanea, Migrant Hawker A. mixta Hollesley, where an even larger Africa, was once highly erratic in its and Common Darter Sympetrum influx had been noted in spring, arrivals on our shores, but it is now striolatum are still being reported no second-generation emergents being seen with some regularity. regularly, along with the last few were discovered at all. The one In October 2017, individuals were individuals of Willow Emerald breeding site to buck the trend a either seen well or photographed Damselfly, and it will be of interest little was Oakhill, near Goole, in at Falmouth, Cornwall, on 2nd, on to see just how long the 2017 East Yorkshire, where immatures several of the Scilly Isles between dragonfly season lasts. were noted between 8th September 5th and 9th and again, on the island Adrian Parr, and 5th October, including a peak of Bryher, on 29th, in a garden at British Dragonfly Society count of 13 on both 13th and 22nd Gorton, Manchester, on 18th, at September. As expected, emerging Portland, Dorset, during 25th–27th individuals did not hang around (several individuals), at Keyhaven, for long and instead dispersed, Hampshire, on 28th, and near presumably migrating back south; as West Bexington, Dorset, on 30th. a result, no fully mature individuals In addition, early October produced were noted at Oakhill during the several other, less well-documented autumn. In addition to records sightings that probably also referred from these breeding sites, single to Vagrant Emperors. These included Red-veined Darters were observed reports from the Lizard Peninsula, in at a few other sites in England Cornwall, and from Start Point and and Wales during September and Dawlish Warren, in Devon. October. These records likely refer to No doubt one of the reasons individuals dispersing from breeding for the large number of Vagrant Butterflies sites in Britain or elsewhere in Emperor sightings during the northern Europe, although some autumn was the prevalence of warm fter rather dismal weather limited, fresh immigration from winds from the south from late Aand attenuated the south cannot be ruled out. Of September to early October, seen numbers during August, there particular interest are sightings from most dramatically during the arrival were no great expectations for Dungeness, Kent, on 2nd September of ex-hurricane Ophelia, which September. Nevertheless, many and 8th October, and from brought Saharan dust and smoke species soldiered on and some of Skokholm Island, Pembrokeshire, on from Iberian bushfires to large parts the multi-brooded ones did rather 12th September and 3rd October. of England. This warm weather well. Most obvious and ubiquitous, Intriguingly, the latter site is just also had an effect on our resident except in the far north-west, was across the sea from the Wexford species, resulting in a number of Red Admiral Vanessa atalanta: area, at the south-east tip of Ireland, unusually late sightings. Three many day counts exceeded 20 and where Red-veined Darters are Banded Demoiselle some were substantially higher, known to have bred during 2017, splendens were seen at Weldon, such as the 182 reported from a tenerals having been discovered Northamptonshire, on 15th October, Derbyshire site on 22nd September. there in September. while a Small Red-eyed Damselfly Small Copper Lycaena phlaeas also Other migrants to appear during Erythromma viridulum reported from did well in southern and eastern the autumn included the Lesser Buckinghamshire, on 3rd October, England. At both the beginning and Emperor Anax parthenope, is the joint latest ever sighting of the end of September, more than continuing its run of good showings this species in the UK. Several early- 100 Small Copper were reported from earlier in the year with a record October records of Blue-tailed from a Lincolnshire site, and 76 at Trimingham, Norfolk, on 17th Damselfly Ischnura elegans (for were counted in 90 minutes at a September, quite a late date for example, near Romsey, Hampshire, Hertfordshire site, where the species the species to be seen in the UK. and at Goole, East Yorkshire) are was found egg-laying in October. Since there are very few breeding of interest, too, as are records Coenonympha sites in East Anglia, and certainly of an Emperor Anax imperator pamphilus fared well, too, with none in Suffolk, two males of the at Dawlish Warren, Devon, on widespread reports and some Black Darter Sympetrum danae 3rd October, a Keeled Skimmer good counts for the time of year, reported from the Suffolk coast at Orthetrum caerulescens at Falmouth, including 30 at a Suffolk site on 7th Dunwich Heath, on 3rd October, Cornwall, on 2nd October, and September. Indeed, the Small Heath may well also be Continental Brown Hawkers Aeshna grandis continued to fly into October at immigrants. Perhaps the highlight at Sound Heath, , on 26th many sites, and a most remarkable of the autumn, however, was the October and Bramshill, Hampshire, report of this butterfly came from appearance of good numbers of on 28th October. At the time of East Lothian on 20th October. Some Vagrant Emperor Anax ephippiger. writing (early November), species fear that the third brood of Wall This nomadic species, whose such as Southern Hawker Aeshna megera is driving its

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decline, but the butterfly showed no signs of altering its propensity to indulge, wherever the weather encouraged it. Thirty-nine Wall flew at a Lancashire site on 2nd September, two mated pairs were seen in Sussex on 28th September, and the species continued to fly into the third week of October along southern and south-eastern coasts. It has been a warm year overall, and in September this, combined with improving weather from the first week of the month, produced late individuals and extra generations, including: Small Pearl-bordered Fritillary Boloria selene on 1st (Radnorshire), Pearl- bordered Fritillary B. euphrosyne on 2nd (Sussex), Dingy Skipper Erynnis tages on 2nd (Shropshire), Grizzled Skipper Pyrgus malvae on 2nd (Shropshire and Surrey), Marbled White Melanargia galathea on 2nd (Sussex), Small The Geranium Bronze, in Dorset, was presumably imported with Skipper Thymelicus sylvestris on ornamental plants. Colin Lamond 5th (Derbyshire), White Admiral Limenitis camilla on 5th (Essex), Red Admirals have had a good autumn, with high numbers present Scotch Argus Erebia aethiops on through October. Richard Revels 9th (Highland), Duke of Burgundy Hamearis lucina on 14th (Cumbria), Gatekeeper Pyronia tithonus on 17th (Derbyshire), Silver-washed Fritillary Argynnis paphia on 19th (Dorset), Peacock Aglais io larvae on 26th (Devon) and, best of all, ’s latest ever Purple Hairstreak Favonius quercus on 16th, in Co Tyrone, which was a first for the county. Queen of Spain Fritillary Issoria lathonia remained as the star migrant species. A small number flew at a Sussex site from late August until 10th September. During the same period, we learnt of Monarch Danaus plexippus in Dorset and Sussex on 2nd September, although both were seen in areas close to butterfly-breeders, and another of unknown origin in Nottinghamshire, on 13th. There were no reports of any Monarch along west-facing shores, where they would normally appear if they travel, wind-assisted, across the Atlantic. A Geranium Bronze Cacyreus marshalli was discovered with imported plants in Dorset on 14th September, and a Long-tailed Blue Lampides

128 British Wildlife December 2017 Wildlife reports boeticus was reported in Kent on species was retreating south, the the potential pitfalls in the Big 28th. This fairly weak showing of most northerly report coming from Butterfly Count methodology scarce migrants contrasted with the Bedfordshire. Painted Lady, while (non-standardised sampling by fortunes of Clouded Yellow Colias never seen in large concentrations, often inexperienced recorders and croceus and Painted Lady Vanessa was reported more widely and no verification of records prior to cardui. The Clouded Yellow, in farther north in October than it had analysis, for example), the scheme particular, became quite numerous been in September, in 14 English produced butterfly population trends at its favoured eastern and southern counties that included Cumbria and that closely matched those from sites. During September, it was Yorkshire. the UKBMS (see Dennis et al. 2017, reported from 13 English counties Otherwise, migrants in October available at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley. and from Co Down, Northern were scarce. The only report of com/doi/10.1111/cobi.12956/full). Ireland, and was more widespread a possible migrant was that of a This rather surprising result must and present farther north than the Camberwell Beauty Nymphalis be due, at least in part, to the large Painted Lady, which was reported, antiopa at Felixstowe Dock, Suffolk, amount of data gathered each year usually singly, from 11 counties, as on 12th October, but it may have by Big Butterfly Count. The 2017 far north as Lincolnshire. arrived with cargo. event was no exception and proved October’s weather was beneficial A rather stark contrast to the to be the most successful yet, with for butterflies, having little rain and generally positive autumn news of more than 60,400 participants average temperatures that were UK butterflies was provided by the undertaking 62,547 counts during well above the long-term norm. results of Big Butterfly Count 2017 July and August. There were also In response, butterflies of various (see www.bigbutterflycount.org). some positives to take with regard species continued to fly beyond This year’s count, run by Butterfly to the species in Big Butterfly Count the dates that we might expect, so Conservation and Waitrose, took 2017. Red Admiral had its best ever that it was easily possible to see 10 place from 14th July to 6th August. result, with abundance 75% higher species in a day in southern England. Recorders spotted the lowest than in the previous summer and A Meadow Brown Maniola jurtina average number of individuals three times that recorded in Big in Derbyshire on 10th October was (just 10.9) of the 20 target species Butterfly Count 2015; it was the remarkable, but the latest was on (18 butterflies and two day-flying second most abundant butterfly 28th, in Surrey. A Purple Hairstreak moths) per 15-minute count since recorded, behind Gatekeeper. The in Lincolnshire, on 14th October, this citizen-science project began, in Comma Polygonia c-album, too, was an outstanding new county ‘late 2010. Counts of some widespread fared well, increasing by 90% after record’. Brown Argus Aricia agestis species, such as the three common a relatively poor year in 2016, as did flew in many counties, and almost whites (Large White Pieris brassicae, Small Copper and Common Blue to the end of the month in Essex, Small White P. rapae and Green- Polyommatus icarus. Big Butterfly where it was reported on 29th. veined White), decreased by more Count will be back from 20th July to Brown Hairstreak Thecla betulae, than a third compared with those 12th August 2018. however, was reported in October from Big Butterfly Count 2016, and If you have not already done only from Surrey, at two different Small Tortoiseshell Aglais urticae so, please pass on any butterfly sites on 6th, and some other species numbers remained low. After the sightings to your county recorder that would normally be prevalent warm spring, however, several as soon as possible. Recorders’ were rarely reported, such as Green- abundant, single-brooded summer contact details can be found in veined White Pieris napi and Holly species, such as Marbled White and the ‘recording and monitoring’ Blue Celastrina argiolus. Ringlet Aphantopus hyperantus, section of the Butterfly Conservation The Red Admiral continued to do were already well past their peak website. Booking is now open for very well through October. Reports when the Big Butterfly Count started Butterfly Conservation’s international of 20+ were common, but, to judge this year, and their apparent large symposium on ‘The ecology and from reports of 80 in Co Durham declines must therefore be treated conservation of butterflies and on 6th, 112 on the Lincolnshire with caution. moths’ (6th–8th April 2018, at coast on 25th, and 500+ moving Fortunately, a recently published Southampton University) via the through Suffolk on 25th, the species analysis comparing Big Butterfly website. appeared to be moving south-east Count data with those from the As always, if you have and congregating near the coast. long-term, standardised transect any observations concerning Clouded Yellow numbers remained counts of the UK Butterfly butterflies, please contact Butterfly reasonably high, and Suffolk again Monitoring Scheme (UKBMS) shows Conservation on 01929 400209, had large assemblies at single that such phenological anomalies www.butterfly-conservation.org, sites, including 20 on 15th and 19 can be corrected retrospectively Facebook, or Twitter on 25th. Sussex and Dorset also by using climate data. The key (@RichardFoxBC), or e-mail reported it as widespread and quite finding of this study, led by Dr Emily [email protected]. numerous, with 15 at a Dorset Dennis of Butterfly Conservation, Nick Bowles and Richard Fox, site on 28th, for example, but the was, however, that, despite all Butterfly Conservation

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Mere Wainscot fluxa, a immigrations of the species from female Fox Moth Macrothylacia both the south and the east, but also rubi, the Bordered Sallow Pyrrhia further evidence of colonisation of umbra, Round-winged Muslin new ground, continuing a pattern , Silky Wainscot which has been evident for the last Chilodes maritima, Small Rufous decade. For example, Sue Clarke rufa and Cream-bordered reported that she captured four Green Pea Earias clorana, and Clifden Nonpareil on both of the also to update records of the nights of 25th and 26th September Six-belted Clearwing Bembecia in her garden near Redlynch, on ichneumoniformis, three males of the Wiltshire/Hampshire border, just Moths which came to a pheromone lure north of the New Forest. Examples on the sunny morning after the such as this, of multiple individuals in here was so much news about light-trapping. We were surprised one trap in one night, were unheard Timmigrant moths in the previous also to record two Scarlet Tigers of ten years ago, but are becoming report (BW 29: 53–55) that we did Callimorpha dominula, both in more frequent. At the time of not have space to cover news of our Malcolm Hillier’s traps on the upper writing, Sue had recorded some 15 rarer resident species. The following grassland. This species had never individuals in her garden this year, account provides an example of been seen in this area previously, and four or five in nearby woodland. what can sometimes be discovered despite frequent light-trapping Sue reported also that various other by surveying sites that are not and other recording having been nearby trap-operators had caught well known, have no reputation carried out over the past 30 years in several this year. We have previously for supporting rare insects, and nearby Helpston and Werrington. included reports from Sue in this have few, if any, records of moths. Since the 1990s, however, there column, and these show that not One such site is Swaddywell Pit, have been several records elsewhere only is the moth now seen annually a nature reserve of the Langdyke in Northamptonshire of individual at this site, but also its numbers are Countryside Trust, near Helpston, Scarlet Tigers, which are assumed increasing. Paul Brock has in previous Northamptonshire. On the night of to be vagrants, the most recent on years reported finding several Clifden 18th June, the British Entomological 2nd July 2010 at Wellingborough (D. Nonpareil resting on walls at the and Natural History Society (BENHS) Larkin). railway station at Brockenhurst, in held a field meeting here, which The BENHS returned to the New Forest, and in 2017 he has I attended. During the meeting Swaddywell Pit on 22nd July for seen more again. It is now clear that we found three individuals of the another field meeting, which the species is breeding successfully in Dotted Fan-foot Macrochilo produced the first records for the many such places, scattered across cribrumalis, a new species for the site of Webb’s Wainscot Globia southern England, although I am still site, in two traps that had been set sparganii, the Bulrush Wainscot unaware of any reports of caterpillars near the lake by Paul Black. This typhae, Fen Wainscot being found. In 2016, it was clear result indicates that a breeding phragmitidis, Scallop from the records that Berkshire had population is likely to exist here. Shell Hydria undulata and Bordered been colonised, and in 2017 there The Northamptonshire county list, Beauty repandaria, among have been a number of sightings compiled by John and Brenda Ward others, as well as another individual in Oxfordshire. All of these records and published in 2015, includes only of the Concolorous to add to those make it increasingly difficult to two records of the Dotted Fan-foot, seen there on 18th June. distinguish the genuine immigrants, although there have subsequently We shall return to news about which are still evident at coastal been two more reported on the the rarer resident species of moths localities, from wandering residents. Moths of Northamptonshire website; in the next issue, because, once On 13th September, one reached all records have been of single again, there is much news to report Brailes, in Warwickshire (Chris Irvin, individuals. on the many influxes of immigrant per David Brown). A major aim of the BENHS moths which took place during Another feature of the autumn meeting at Swaddywell Pit September and October 2017. of 2017 has been the substantial was to see if we could find the Much of the following news is as and prolonged immigration of Concolorous Photedes extrema expected at this time of year, and the Scarce Bordered Straw (a Red Data Book species), and in will therefore be heavily summarised Helicoverpa armigera. Judy Dunmore this we were successful, as two in order to allow space for the more in Sheringham (Beeston Bump), on individuals were recorded on a unusual records. A major highlight the north Norfolk coast, reports a grassy bank some distance from the has been the numbers of Clifden total of 42 Scarce Bordered Straws lake. We were pleased to record the Nonpareil Catocala fraxini, known at her garden trap between 7th Leopard Zeuzera pyrina, Ruddy also as the Blue Underwing, which August and 22nd September, with Carpet Catarhoe rubidata, Lesser have been recorded in 2017. There peaks of seven on 26th August immutata, appear to have been substantial and 3rd September. These are her

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colonisation, with very few recorded in 2007 and 2008. When Sean writes his reports on immigration for the Entomologists’ Record and Atropos magazines, it will be very interesting to see how the number of Scarce Bordered Straws recorded this year compares with that for 2006. In September and October, there were fair numbers of the more widely recorded migrant species such as the Silver Y Autographa gamma, Dark Sword-grass Agrotis ipsilon, Pearly Underwing Peridroma saucia, Hawkmoth Agrius convolvuli, Delicate Mythimna vitellina, White-speck M. unipuncta, Vestal Rhodometra sacraria, Gem obstipata, Hummingbird Hawkmoth Macroglossum stellatarum, Rusty- dot Pearl Udea ferrugalis, Rush Veneer Nomophila noctuella, and vitrealis, especially on the south and east coasts of England. On the night of 19th October, 23 Vestals were reported on Portland, Dorset (per Atropos), and 54 on The Lizard, Cornwall (David Brown). The Concolorous (above) and Webb’s Wainscot (below). Paul Waring The less frequent and more unusual species included the Golden Twin-spot Chrysodeixis chalcites, Portland Ribbon Wave Idaea degeneraria, Bloxworth Snout obsitalis, Dark Crimson Underwing Catocala sponsa, Rosy Underwing C. electa, Death’s- head Hawkmoth Acherontia atropos, Silver-striped Hawkmoth Hippotion celerio, Cosmopolitan loreyi, Passenger Dysgonia algira, Radford’s leucogaster (at least a dozen), Small Mottled Willow Spodoptera exigua, Dewick’s Plusia confusa, Four-spotted Footman Lithosia quadra (in Warwickshire on 25th September per Stan Taylor, as well as elsewhere outside the known breeding areas), Plumed Fan-foot Pechipogo plumigeralis, Splendid Brocade splendens, Clancy’s Rustic Caradrina kadenii, first records of the species since she moths – Sean Clancy. In that year, Blair’s Mocha Cyclophora began trapping, in 2009. It is a pity many of us were encountering puppillaria, Crimson-speckled that she missed trapping in 2006, Scarce Bordered Straws everywhere Utetheisa pulchella (including one in when an unprecedented 11,700 we went light-trapping, including in Northern Ireland on 25th October, individuals were reported to the northern Britain, but in the long term per Atropos), Ni Moth national recorder for immigrant there was no evidence of successful ni, Slender Burnished Brass

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Thysanoplusia orichalcea, Flame Brocade Trigonophora flammea, Purple Marbled ostrina, Small Marbled E. parva, Sombre Brocade Dichonioxa tenebrosa, and Red-headed Chestnut Conistra erythrocephala. A Scar Bank Gem was reported on the night of 14th October at Coverack, The Lizard, Cornwall (John Foster), and a second on 18th October on St Marys, Isles of Scilly (per Atropos). The second British record of Chevron Snout Hypena lividalis was trapped at Buckland, Surrey, on the night of 18th October (per Atropos) and a Latreille’s Latin Callopistria latreillei was reported at the end of October on The Lizard, Cornwall (Bob Arnfield). Full details of almost all of the above immigrants can be found on the Flight Arrivals section of the Atropos website (www.atropos.info/ flightarrivals). As always, I thank all the above- named individuals, organisations and websites, and others involved in the above-mentioned projects, and all other correspondents. Dr Paul Waring

Stenoria analis is likely to arrive in the UK soon, if it is not here already. Steven Falk

in East Kent. Several specimens have pest species in pear orchards near subsequently been found there, and Maidstone, Kent. The larvae develop Beetles the beetle is probably associated in vegetative buds, while the adults with decaying wood. In view of feed on young twigs and buds. Two ew beetles continue to be the fact that the species’ natural other species in the , A. pyri Nadded to the British list at an distribution appears to be restricted and A. pomorum, also attack pears, unabated rate and five additional to small areas of northern Morocco as well as apples, and in view of the species are noted here, although and southern Spain, it is obvious long history of study of fruit-tree how many of these are established that this should be considered pests in Kent it is considered likely as breeding species remains, as to be an introduced non-native that A. spilotus is a relatively recent usual, uncertain. species, established in the wild. introduction, perhaps from garden- The weevil subfamily Another new British species of centre material, rather than a Cryptorhynchinae is a large one weevil is Anthonomus spilotus, previously overlooked British species. in the Western Palearctic, but a added by Morris et al. (2017). The third new species, which is of small one in Britain, with only four, There were already 13 species of some general interest, is a longhorn rather distinctive species on our Anthonomus on the British list, beetle, Pogonocherus caroli, the list up to now. Mark Telfer (Telfer many of which are rather similar fourth species from this genus in our & Stüber 2017), however, has in appearance. Unlike most recent fauna. Specimens were collected recently discovered a further species, additions, this species was found as long ago as 2006, but the Onyxacalles gibraltarensis, at a site initially in large numbers, as a information has only recently been

132 British Wildlife December 2017 Wildlife reports published (Rejzek & Barclay 2017). analis, is associated with the Ivy Bee Derodontoidea, the latter of which As these beetles were found in some hederae, which is itself well has only one British species. This of the oldest and largest native pine known for its recent arrival here and publication includes the so-called forests in Scotland, it would appear subsequent rapid, well-monitored woodworms and related species, that it is a long-overlooked native spread. In view of the present among others. The second review, species. It seems to be scarce over abundance of the bee, it would by Steve Lane, concerns the most of its rather limited European seem highly likely that the beetle has , sometimes known as range, and the larvae develop in arrived here also, but, although it has clown beetles. Both groups include decaying branches of pine, from been found on Jersey, there are not many relatively obscure, black where the Scottish specimens were yet any confirmed mainland records. or brown species, which may be reared. One method for recording difficult to identify. Indeed, while Two other new species are S. analis is to look for triungulin preparing the review, Steve became mentioned briefly here, but not larvae on the thorax of the bee, and, aware that many specimens of in detail as they both belong to as many photographs of the latter the genus Gnathoncus had been the subfamily Aleocharinae of the are being submitted to websites misidentified and, as a result, he and Staphylinidae, a large subfamily such as Facebook for confirmation others have published a very detailed of mainly very small beetles which of identification, this would seem to account of the four British species are very much the preserve of the be a possible source of records of the (Lane et al. 2017), correcting errors, specialist coleopterist and of little beetle. The life cycle of this species made by both British and mainland interest to the more general reader. is even more remarkable than that European authors, that have led to Tomoglossa brakmani and Dilacra of the other Meloidae. Male bees previous keys being unreliable. lindbergiella are both reported in are strongly attracted to clusters These status reviews, and volume 26 (2) of The Coleopterist of triungulin larvae and actually numerous others, can be (2017). attempt to mate with them, which downloaded in pdf format from In the previous report I discussed suggests that the larvae have some http://publications.naturalengland. oil beetles of the genus Meloe, form of chemical attraction which org.uk/category/30001, and once and further records of these have mimics the pheromones of female again I would emphasise that continued to be submitted via bees. As a result, large numbers of they should be consulted when Facebook. All British members of triungulins attach themselves to the considering the true status of our the Meloidae share the family’s male bees and are subsequently beetles, rather than relying on unique life cycle: the females lay transferred to the females and hence reviews from the early 1990s which large numbers of eggs, which to the nests of the bees, where they were based on much more limited hatch into small larvae, known as complete their development. All in information and are now often triungulins, and these then attach all, this species would make a very very out of date. themselves to bees; the triungulins interesting addition to our beetle References are then transported to the bees’ fauna, although it is perhaps more Alexander, K. N. A. 2017. A review of the nests, where they change into a likely to be found by hymenopterists status of the beetles of : The wood-boring beetles, spider beetles, different form which feeds on the than by coleopterists. There are woodworm, false powder-post beetles, hide bees’ eggs, pollen and nectar. The numerous images of the beetle, and beetles and their allies – Derodontidoidea very rare Orange-shouldered of bees with triungulin larvae, on () and (Dermestidae, Bostrichidae and Ptinidae). Sitaris muralis is the internet. Natural England Commissioned Reports, the only other member of the Another group of beetles that Number 236. family that is native to Britain. This are often found by non-specialists Lane, S. A. 2017. A review of the status of species is associated with colonies is the burying beetles Silphidae, the beetles of Great Britain: The clown beetles and false clown beetles – Histeridae of the Hairy-footed Flower-bee many of which turn up frequently and Sphaeritidae. Natural England plumipes in old walls in the light traps of lepidopterists. Commissioned Reports, Number 235. and other vertical faces, and in We have an active recording scheme Lane, S. A., Luff, A. G., & Collier, M. J. 2017. A Britain is usually found in urban for these beetles and I have now review of the British species of Gnathoncus (Histeridae). The Coleopterist 26 (2): 81–93. areas. It has apparently always been produced a much more detailed pair Morris, M. G., et al. 2017. Anthonomus rare in Britain, and is now confined of identification guides, which can spilotus Redtenbacher, 1847 to a very few sites in southern be found at www.coleoptera.org. (Curculionidae) new to Britain, a pest in England, although the exact number uk/silphidae/home. I hope that this pear orchards in Southern England. The Coleopterist 26 (2): 117–122. of these seems uncertain and, as will encourage more moth-recorders Rejzek, M., & Barclay, M. V. L. 2017. its favoured habitat receives little to take note of these beetles and Pogonocherus caroli Mulsant, 1863 attention from naturalists, it may submit their records via iRecord. (Cerambycidae, Lamiinae) new to Britain well be overlooked. It now seems The publication of status reviews from two localities in Scotland. The Coleopterist 26 (2): 123–127. likely, however, that an additional of beetles continues, two more Telfer, M. G., & Stüber, P. E. 2017. Onyxacalles species of Meloidae will colonise this having appeared in August 2017. gibraltarensis (Stüber, 2002) new to Britain. country, if, indeed, it is not already The first, by Keith Alexander, The Coleopterist 26 (1): 1–6. present. This species, covers the Bostrichoidea and Richard Wright

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years for this species. My soundings Rare Invertebrates in the Cairngorms of other dipterists suggest that project, which is employing a project it was in general a poor year for officer for three years to work with hoverflies, apart from early in the this species and five others, including season when the weather was the Northern Silver-stiletto Fly particularly favourable. At least Spiriverpa lunulata. There had been in the east of the country, the concern that the clear-felling of pines occurrence of hoverflies faded very at a Pine Hoverfly reintroduction rapidly after late July. site might threaten the population, The Bulletin of the Dipterists but reassurances have been given. Forum No. 84, incorporating reports Fonseca’s Seed Fly Botanophila Flies from recording schemes and study fonsecai is endemic and globally groups, includes plenty of interesting threatened, the entire known world n my last report, on the subject information. Notably, following the population being confined to a small Iof garden hoverflies, I noted publication of WILDGuides’ Britain’s stretch of coast on the east side that the numbers of Marmalade Hoverflies, a UK Hoverflies Facebook of Sutherland. The fly is known to Hoverfly Episyrphus balteatus were group, managed by a team of eight occur on Coul Links, where plans to increasing several weeks earlier people, has gained 3,150 followers construct a golf course have resulted than ever experienced in 30 years of within two months. in public meetings and petitions, monitoring at Peterborough. There The Bulletin includes plenty on the arguing either for (for economic was, however, no second peak at subject of conservation, including 12 reasons and for the benefit of the ‘normal’ time, and although ‘Adopt a Species’ reports, three of golfers) or against (for conservation substantial inward migration was which refer to species that occur only reasons and because of SSSI and noted, on the Dorset coast for in Scotland. The Pine Hoverfly Blera SAC designations) the proposals. At example, it was among the poorest fallax falls within the remit of the my time of writing, Scottish Natural Heritage had not made a firm Work is being undertaken to protect the Pine Hoverfly in its Scottish opposition statement. The larvae strongholds. Steven Falk of a closely related species of fly feeds on seeds in ragwort flowerheads, but attempts to confirm the host plant of Fonseca’s Seed Fly have failed thus far. The Aspen Hoverfly Hammerschmidtia ferruginea has its stronghold in Strathspey, but, reassuringly, a survey of a small population near Loch Ness located 30 larvae. This species is especially vulnerable because its larvae live under the bark of newly decaying Aspen tremula, and hence it requires a continuous supply of recently dead trees. Other species covered by the reports include the Bog Hoverfly Eristalis cryptarum, which in England is now confined to a very few sites on Dartmoor. The precise larval habitat is unknown, but research now aims to develop an environmental DNA technique for detecting the presence of the species from samples of bog water, much as the testing of pond water can reveal the presence of newts. In Dorset, it is heartening that the Broken-banded Wasp-hoverfly Chrysotoxum octomaculatum may not yet be extinct, although the only recent record was of a single individual, in 2015.

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The Bulletin also comments on something beyond comprehension as a consequence of climate change, the (now well-publicised) Krefeld now that we live in such a sterile there will be an increase in the Entomological Society study, which environment. Nowadays, it is rare extreme weather conditions which revealed a 78% decline in the mass to be annoyed by flies on a country bring this species to our shores. of insects on 12 nature reserves in walk or on a picnic, which seems Although often mistaken for north-west Germany over a 24-year like a good thing until one realises a true jellyfish, the Portuguese period. In Britain, regrettably, there the wider implications. For each Man-of-war is in fact a complex is no comparable dataset based on new generation, the clock starts animal, belonging to an order of trapping. The Rothamsted Insect ticking from the year when they are hydroids known as siphonophores Survey light-traps provide some born, or at least the year when they (Siphonophorae). Most hydroid long-term data for the larger moths become aware of the wildlife around colonies grow as small, often at least (along with aphids and them. What will the young dipterists elegant, plant-like tufts, which are patchy attempts at identification of of today be saying to the new fixed to rocks or algae. These can be other insects), and the UK Butterfly generation in 2050, let alone 2100? torn from their moorings by strong Monitoring Scheme has also proven Alan Stubbs waves, and so can also be found invaluable. As the pollinator crisis scattered along our strandlines has been brought to prominence, following storms. In contrast to however, alone will not typical hydroids, the Portuguese provide a full picture of the problem. Man-of-war lives a permanent Recording schemes are important, floating existence, with different but few have adequate historical individuals (polyps) within the colony data. Abundance data cannot be dedicated to feeding, defence translated from occurrence data, and reproduction, all suspended and records of some fast-declining underneath an elegant, translucent species are actually increasing float (Dipper 2016). because there are more recorders September saw the death of visiting appropriate places. thousands of farmed salmon along Monitoring of fly abundance could the west and south-west coasts of be achieved by using Malaise traps Marine life Ireland, killed by an influx of the to measure biomass, but that would Mauve Stinger Pelagia noctiluca. not separate dominance by a large utumn is the time for storms This jellyfish is regularly encountered number of few species (perhaps Aand the year 2017 has been around western and southern coasts large-bodied ones) from the same no exception. Storm Aileen blew in of the UK and Ireland, but generally biomass comprising a great richness on 12th–13th September, and then occurs only in small numbers as it in species. For long-term trapping, ex-hurricane Ophelia on 16th–17th is usually a warm-water species. other factors would need to be October, closely followed by storm Similar kills occurred in 2013 and carefully monitored also in order to Brian on 21st October. Storms such 2008, but more data are needed establish the cause of any changes as these make autumn the time for before such incidents can be in biomass, and the identification beachcombing, and this year has attributed to climate change or of flies to species level would be seen some spectacular strandings. other anthropogenic causes. immensely time-consuming. During September, huge numbers As well as beaching jellyfish In my youth I was pretty much of Portuguese Man-of-war and other pelagic drifting animals, isolated as an entomologist, but, in Physalia physalis were washed up violent storms can also dislodge 1962, I chanced to meet another along beaches in south-west Britain, and dump large numbers of dipterist. To me there were plenty including north Cornwall and swimming and crawling creatures. of flies and other insects, but Pembrokeshire. Dr Peter Richardson Immediately following Storm Brian, he said that he felt sorry for my from the Marine Conservation there were numerous reports of generation because we would Society says that he has never seen (mostly juvenile) Curled Octopus not experience how things were anything like it during 15 years Eledone cirrhosa on beaches and in the 1920s and 1930s, when of the society’s national jellyfish in rock pools around Anglesey and good habitats and insects were so survey. The press would have you the Llŷn Peninsula, in north-west much more plentiful. Now, I find believe that we are being invaded Wales (see: www.beachstuff.uk/ myself saying the same thing to by killer jellyfish, but, although these octopus). Octopus breeding activity new generations of entomologists strange creatures pack a hefty and peaks between July and September, with regard to my earlier years. sometimes dangerous sting (never and so there are likely to be many In the 1940s and into the early pick one up with bare hands), they juveniles around during October. 1950s, I remember the vigorous are not invading, but are simply With weaker ‘suction power’ than campaign against the scourge being blown here by persistent adults, the juveniles are more likely of the house fly, and the yellow, strong winds coming in from the to be swept from their rocky lairs by sticky flypapers littered with flies – mid-Atlantic. It is quite possible that, strong waves.

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There has been an unprecedented arrival of Portuguese Man-of-war on our shores this autumn. Hannah Jones

Common Starfish Asterias showed a small decrease in the Laboratory and visited shores rubens are especially prone to number of litter items recorded per along the Northumberland and Co mass beach strandings, and it is 100m. Nevertheless, over the beach- Durham coasts. The highlight was now thought that this may be due clean weekend, there were still a boat trip out to the Farne Islands to a particular behaviour known nearly 270,000 items collected, from (Inner Farne) at the invitation of appropriately as ‘starballing’. When 364 beaches, by 6,000 volunteers. the National Trust. Normally, the exposed to strong currents, starfish Some beach litter, however, carries rocky shores of the Farnes are out have been filmed bowling and fascinating animals. Common of bounds to visitors in order to bouncing along the seabed with Goose Barnacles Lepas anatifera prevent disturbance to birds and their arms curled up. The reason for live a drifting existence, attached other shore life. By carefully lifting this behaviour is not known; it may to old logs, glass bottles, fishing and then replacing boulders, we be unintentional, but it could also floats and other similar debris. found a wide variety of crabs and be a means of helping these slow- They make an arresting sight, with other crustaceans, molluscs, worms moving animals to disperse to new white, shiny shell plates covering and small shore fish, including a areas. Whatever the reason, it may the head (capitulum), supported 15-spined Stickleback Spinachia inadvertently lead to the animals’ on a long, brown stalk attachment. spinachia, but it was the encrusting destruction if they are caught up in Several other, rarer species of goose life that was most astonishing. strong, wind-driven waves (Sheehan barnacle may also wash up attached While the tops of the boulders & Cousens 2017). to seaweed, bird feathers and even sported a dense cover of seaweeds, Beach litter is a huge problem in dead cetaceans (Trewhella & Hatcher the undersides, resting on damp the UK and across the world but 2015). sediment, were covered in rich some initiatives are attempting to In early September, I again joined growths of encrusting sponges, sea tackle this, one such being the MCS up with others from the Porcupine squirts, bryozoans, hydroids and Great British Beach Clean which Natural History Society (www. tube worms. These rich assemblages takes place every September. Results pmnhs.co.uk) for its annual field of sessile animals are encouraged for 2017 are not available at the trip. This year we were based at by the clear, clean water, strong time of writing, but the 2016 report Newcastle University’s Dove Marine tidal currents and lack of human

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Undisturbed boulders may support diverse communities of encrusting organisms. Frances Dipper disturbance. This field trip was an Sheehan, E. V., & Cousens, S. L. 2017. drab species is not immediately excellent chance also to indulge “Starballing”: a potential explanation apparent and can be fully admired for mass stranding. Mar. Biodivers. 47: a passion for seaweed-pressing. 617–618. and appreciated only when effort is This is not just an art but also a taken to examine them more closely. Trewhella, S., & Hatcher, J. 2015. The science, as pressed specimens can be Essential Guide to Beachcombing and the In the latter group we might include used to make important reference Strandline. Wild Nature Press, Plymouth. sedges, such excellent indicators collections. Scour the strandline Frances Dipper, PMNHS of habitat and with a ‘hidden and seashore pools in autumn for splendour’ that is fully appreciated delicate, washed-up red and green only under a hand lens. One major seaweeds; put them into a tray of find this year was Bog Sedge Carex water for their beauty to unfold limosa on Bodmin Moor, Cornwall, in front of you; and, finally, slip by Iain Diack. Iain found a large a piece of art paper under them, patch of this delicate sedge, with its drain off the water, and dry them nodding heads fruiting, in a small between sheets of newspaper under runnel surrounded by rank, lightly a weight (covering the seaweed with grazed, Molinia-dominated mire. He a nappy liner or with material from considers the presence of Bog Sedge tights prevents the newspaper from to be an indication of a top-quality sticking). Try Bunker et al. (2017) for mire, as the species appears to be seaweed identification. one of those that disappears at References Plants – England the first hint of major drainage or Bunker, F. StP. D., Brodie, J. A., Maggs, C. A., nutrient enrichment. The site on & Bunker, A. R. 2017. Seaweeds of Britain hile some plants have the Bodmin Moor is the first for this and Ireland. Second edition. Wild Nature advantage of producing species in the south-west of England Press, Plymouth. W bright, colourful flowers that have and is a long way from the nearest Dipper, F. A. 2016. The Marine World: A Natural History of Ocean Life. Wild Nature an immediate and obvious impact, site – Crymlyn Bog, near Swansea Press, Plymouth. the beauty of other, seemingly more – and farther still from the five

December 2017 British Wildlife 137 Wildlife reports Wildlife reports sites on the Dorset heaths (two of having disappeared from the in the north of England and both which support very small, precarious Norfolk Broads in the 1970s. NNRs. In June 2017, however, a populations, with no records in the One of our rarest sedges is the new population was discovered at last 15 years) and four in the New Large Yellow-sedge Carex flava, Little Hawes Water, 30km north of Forest. Of the other English lowland a species known in Britain from Roudsea, by Ros Tratt and colleagues sites, the sedge survives only at only two localities, Roudsea Wood while they were undertaking a Wybunbury Moss, in Cheshire, and Malham Tarn, which are both survey of the site. This remarkable find was confirmed by the BSBI Bog Sedge, which has recently been discovered on Bodmin Moor, sedge referee, Mike Porter, but, well away from any known populations. Pete Stroh as word spread, it soon became apparent that this population was, in fact, the result of a hitherto unheralded introduction that took place in 1999, when mature plants were translocated from Roudsea Wood by Natural England (NE). The fact that this population has persisted for 18 years is remarkable in itself, as there are vanishingly few examples of successful long-term introductions of rare species. It is all the more noteworthy as it would appear that there has not been any management targeted specifically at retaining this population. Rob Petley-Jones, who oversaw the translocation while with NE, clearly had an outstanding eye for suitable habitat and, now that this ‘forgotten introduction’ has been refound, it seems like an excellent opportunity to understand more about the ecology of this species. It may also serve as a reminder that information on the whereabouts of such introductions, and the methods used to introduce them, is both useful and highly desirable. It is a matter of some irritation to us that we have so little idea of what is introduced and where, and, if anything, even more frustrating is how rare it is for there to be any long-term research carried out on the fate of these introductions. Aquatic plants are sometimes perceived as difficult, and some are, but there are three excellent BSBI Handbooks (Pondweeds, Water- starworts, and Stoneworts) to help with identification. As these plants receive relatively little attention, one can often find species that are new to an area, sometimes considerably extending their known range. In July 2016, Narrow-fruited Water- starwort Callitriche palustris was found new to England within the ‘drawdown’ zone of Haweswater Reservoir, in the Lake District (a

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Pondweed Potamogeton nodosus was found by Frank Hunt. The latter species was thought previously to be extinct in the Thames (although it later emerged that the Environment Agency held a few post-1999 records for the Berkshire side), so many congratulations go to Frank, both for finding the plant and for realising what he had found. Another pleasant surprise was the rediscovery of Bladderseed Physospermum cornubiense in South Devon, where it has always been very rare and was last recorded in 1977. Following Ian Bennallick’s detective work, Mary Breeds, John Day and Hilary Marshall searched the old site near Blaxton and found one plant on a roadside verge. This is the only recent record of the species outside Cornwall; the population at Dorney Wood, Buckinghamshire, is assumed to be a long-established introduction. For the species’ Cornish populations, the last Red Data Book noted a major decline since the 1970s in numbers of sites and, perhaps more importantly, in population sizes at its remaining sites, lack of management being cited as the principal reason for this decline. There are recent (post- 1999) Bladderseed records from 46 monads in the county, but most of these records are of small numbers in these monads, no fewer than 18 of which are ‘new’ (they have no records prior to 2000), which is probably a reflection of recent, more intensive recording at the monad level rather than at the (more usual) tetrad or hectad level. Shading from trees or shrubs due to lack of management prevents Large Yellow-sedge at Roudsea Wood; a recently discovered colony plants from flowering and nearby is now known to have been introduced. Kev Walker presumably fruiting, so that, although often perceived to be a stone’s throw from the ‘new’ Large leaf characters and the discovery plant of woodland, Bladderseed is Yellow-sedge site, coincidentally), of jet-black, heart-shaped ripe more usually associated with open by Jeremy Roberts and Phill Brown fruits. Using a grapnel to search woodland and areas of Bracken (BSBI News 135: 38–39). It takes for plants hidden beneath the Pteridium aquilinum and Purple some experience to become familiar waters can also produce the most Moor-grass Molinia caerulea, with this group, and one of the unexpected finds. For example, and often does well after burning. skills accrued over time is the at Little Oakley, in Kent, recorders Some plants are present in an area ability to recognise plants that look surveying a brackish ditch hauled for many years, awaiting discovery, subtly different from the common out Zannichellia obtusifolia, new to but others may have recently species which one would expect to Britain and Ireland, and in the River established following dispersal via find. In the case of Narrow-fruited Thames, in both Oxfordshire and a variety of vectors, including birds, Water-starwort, the clincher was Berkshire, the very rare Loddon wind, sea currents and people. On

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Surveying of the Thames in both Oxfordshire and Berkshire has revealed the rare Loddon Pondweed. Frank Hunt 16th October 2017, 30 years to the a ‘helping hand’, and at least two and north of Ireland and in western day since the ‘Great Storm’, the of the orchids mentioned above Scotland, this orchid has been imminent arrival of ex-hurricane are readily available from specialist seen in England at only a single Ophelia caused the light to dim nurseries. In 2016 a second (and locality, on the south-western and the sun to turn pinkish-orange. sizeable) colony of Greater Tongue- edge of Dartmoor, where it was Ophelia had picked up a veil of orchids was discovered, this time discovered in 1957. It was last Saharan dust and smoke from near Tiptree, in Essex. Michael seen there in 1993, although Portuguese forest fires, obscuring Waller and Sean Cole (BSBI News there are hopes that, with the the sun and coating the nation’s 136: 11–12) think that the orchid right management, it could yet cars in grime. probably got there under its own reappear. This is not the first time that high steam, but they judge that long- Wild plants making giant winds have brought the Sahara to distance arrival on the wind, leaps into new territories can do our doorstep and it may be more while plausible, is unlikely. The so without any assistance from than ‘dust’ that such storms bring. nearest presumed native populations humans, and we do them a Several orchids noted for their of this orchid are in south and disservice to presume otherwise. minuscule seeds could, conceivably, south-west France, but there have We might, however, also stop reach our shores on the wind. been recent (post-2000) discoveries and think before, with the best of Lesser Tongue-orchid Serapias in Brittany. intentions, we try to quicken the parviflora in south-east Cornwall The ‘Saharan sand hypothesis’ journey by planting them in the (discovered in 1989, last seen c. may seem a bit far-fetched, but wild ourselves. We learn little from 2008), Greater Tongue-orchid Frank Horsman (BSBI News 136: such undocumented introductions, S. lingua in South Devon (present 28–29) has suggested that seeds of and, at worst, it muddies the from 1998 to 2004) and Sawfly some North American species, such biogeographical waters considerably Orchid Ophrys tenthredinifera as Irish Lady’s-tresses Spiranthes when we attempt to study the in Dorset (2014 onwards) are all, romanzoffiana, could have reached way in which plants disperse and arguably, candidates for being wind- Europe by being swept across on establish themselves naturally. borne ‘natural colonists’. Equally, the high-altitude winds of the jet David Pearman, Pete Stroh these species may have arrived via stream. Occurring locally in the west and Simon Leach

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examination of the single record in Derbyshire, having been last (made in 1993 by Rhodri Thomas) recorded further south in the county it was from millstone-grit boulders in 1831, by W. Wilson (specimen in below the Horse Stone in the the British Museum). Upper Derwent Valley, and the ‘On 10th August this year, I Horse Stone is on the east of the ploughed through the flowering valley, 1km into Yorkshire, not heather up to Grinah Stones, a Derbyshire! similarly-situated set of outcrops ‘The boulder field associated with and boulder fields, high-up (590m the Horse Stone is of an easterly/ altitude) on the Derbyshire side of Lichens south-easterly aspect (somewhat the Upper Derwent. Here, I located sheltered from the impact of historic 23 thalli of C. normoerica on five big ichenologists, like other industrial pollution from the west boulders. I also found Ochrolechia Lenthusiasts for wildlife, are often and south-west) at an altitude of frigida f. frigida, a second record inspired to set themselves little around 500m. Over the last couple for VC57, last recorded elsewhere quests in order to satisfy a niggle – of years, I have made a number in the valley by Oliver Gilbert. not earth-shattering, but satisfying. of visits to sites of similar aspect, Plus, the usual hoped-for upland So it was with Steve Price, who is and similar or greater altitude to suspects: Cladonia luteoalba, the lichen recorder for Derbyshire the Horse Stone in search of C. Schaereria cinereorufa and four and for the Sorby Natural History normoerica in Derbyshire. I did not species of Umbilicaria (U. polyphylla, Society. This is Steve’s account: find the target species, although U. polyrrhiza, U. torrefacta and U. ‘Here is the story and the there was usually something of a deusta). The VC57 (Derbyshire) taxa motivation (it is not every day I reward associated with these visits, count does not now have to be would walk ten miles in search e.g. Usnea cornuta on boulders reduced by one! The next job is to of a lichen!): the upland species below Fairbrook Naze, at the eastern re-find it at the VC63 (SW Yorkshire) Cornicularia normoerica had been corner of Kinder Scout, at just site. listed by Oliver Gilbert in the 1995 below 600m altitude. This species ‘The rocks on the plateau that Derbyshire Red Data Book. On was previously considered extinct have been fully exposed to the 300

Grinah Stones, Derbyshire. Steve Price

December 2017 British Wildlife 141 Wildlife reports years of airborne industrial pollution from the west are noticeably bereft of lichen cover. Yes, they really are bare, not even Acarospora fuscata! Oliver Gilbert had used the phrase “scrubbed clean by industrial pollution” to describe them. So, the boulders below the slope on the south-east and east sides have been offered some shelter. The pollution was obvious: I remember going for winter walks in the 1960s when snow that had been lying for a few days was covered in a layer of soot and the sheep were blackened by the same.’ Steve added: ‘Also, what a good week it was, as on 17th Aug on a Sorby NHS outing at Roystone Rocks (dolomitised carboniferous limestone) we found a stone with 14 decent (>20mm diameter) thalli of Eagle’s Claws Anaptychia ciliaris ciliaris. This is a new site for the taxon in Derbyshire, and is now only the second known extant site for this rather special lichen.’ Cornicularia normoerica on the Grinah Stones, Derbyshire. Steve Price There have been some fascinating exchanges on the UK Lichens same is true also of Vulpicida Because of the apparent rarity Yahoo forum, between Henk pinastri, another lichen that seems of imported lichens in the UK, Timmerman in the Netherlands to be somewhat transient in its it was with interest that Henk and colleagues in Britain, regarding behaviour: whether it will expand Timmerman wrote to British friends ’imported’ lichens. The deliberate or beyond its well-established locality of an instance of lichens from accidental importation of vascular in the eastern Cairngorms remains Britain having been imported into plants over centuries is well known to be seen. a park in Amsterdam. In 2009, it and well documented, as is the Mark Powell, Peter Earland- seems that a large, granite standing recent colonisation of Britain by Bennett and Chris Hitch have stone was erected in Frankendael various birds and insects. But what reported on lichens new to south- Park, and today Parmelia of lichens? Generally, it would east England, but which are known omphalodes, Pertusaria aspergilla, be assumed that lichens would from the Netherlands and are P. pseudocorallina, Rinodina not easily survive as immigrants, regarded as having arrived naturally, atrocinerea and Xanthoparmelia whether arriving naturally or being perhaps as a result of changes in tinctina – all lichens that are very imported. In previous issues of climate or improving atmospheric rare in the Netherlands – are found British Wildlife, I have mentioned conditions. Mark commented on this stone. Henk said that he increasing incidences of Golden- that he was aware of surprisingly and his colleagues felt that ‘Surely, eye Teloschistes chrysophthalmus. few reports of lichens imported, this stone must have been hi-jacked This species seems to be ‘on the accidentally or deliberately, to the from abroad…’ They were right: the move’, popping up at scattered, British Isles. The two cases that stone originates from Bodmin Moor, mainly coastal localities in southern he cited referred to Caloplaca in central Cornwall. Henk will be England, with some outliers demissa on a large terracotta urn at writing a piece in the forthcoming farther inland in Wales. After Highgrove, and possibly C. calcitrapa Winter 2017 BLS Bulletin, giving appearing at a site, the species is on a travertine balustrade at the full story. To add a little twist to not always refound subsequently, Cleveden. In both of these examples, the tale, the BLS database suggests but it is suggested that, with climate the lichens were brought along that X. tinctina appears not to have change, T. chrysophthalmus may inadvertently on antique artefacts been found previously on Bodmin become more regular in Britain. from southern Europe, imported Moor, so there is now a new Landscape management for the in Victorian times to enhance the challenge – a quest to seek out benefit of this stunning lichen, gardens or parterres of grand and satisfy. however, is also pertinent to its houses. Will they survive, and will Sandy Coppins, long-term establishment. The they spread? Time will tell. British Lichen Society

142 British Wildlife December 2017 Conservation Sue Everett news

compiled by Sue Everett

DEEP BLUE nylon, polyethylene, polyamide, problems for nature and reducing and unidentified polyvinyls closely the quality of air, rivers and streams, Acid oceans resembling polyvinyl alcohol or but regulations that restrict the Meadow Saxifrage in Thatcham Churchyard. polyvinyl chloride – PVA and PVC. development of big livestock farms ceans are under siege, but, See http://bit.ly/2hATQcE for details. and the handling of the waste while many of the pressures O which they produce are insufficient, upon them can be reduced, climate- Sea litter ineffective and failing to protect change impacts and plastics in the either the public or the environment. environment are a double-whammy ccording to new government Campaigns that aim to change of fast-emerging problems that data, there has been a big A this are now gaining momentum. cannot be easily or quickly solved, if increase in the quantity of litter At the forefront of this is Philip they can be solved at all. An eight- that is present in the seas around Lymbery, Chief Executive Officer of year German research programme Britain. In 2016, the amount of litter Compassion in World Farming and has found clear indications that recorded was 158% more than in author of several books on intensive ocean acidification and warming, the previous year and 222% higher livestock-farming (Farmageddon along with other environmental than the average for 1992–1994, and, more recently, Dead Zone stressors, are harmful to marine although it was 75% less than the – Where the wild things were). life and compromise the important ‘peak’ year of 2003. The majority Another campaign is led by a group ecosystem services that oceans of litter (more than three-quarters) of people in south-west England provide to humankind. The acidity was plastic. Patrick Barkham reports (https://toomuchslurry.co.uk), but of the ocean surface has, since the on this in The Guardian of 3rd is aiming to spread its wings more industrial revolution, increased by November (see http://bit.ly/2zeGb1e). widely – anyone with an interest in 30% already, and the effects on this subject is invited to sign up to marine life will have been profound. New sea plans news on the matter. See http://bit.ly/2yVFZUe to read the n its new marine strategy report, The BBC TV programme Inside conclusions of the BIOACID project. IThe Way Back to Living Seas (see Out recently included a feature Plastic deep down http://bit.ly/2zX6wPA), The Wildlife on slurry, exposing some of the Trusts asks the UK Government to problems experienced by residents lastic fibres have been found embrace a new marine management in North Devon and also looking at Pin marine animals in some of system based on Regional Sea the impacts of slurry-spreading on the deepest parts of the Pacific Plans and a nationwide network human health – see https://tinyurl. Ocean, at depths of nearly of Marine Protected Areas. This, it com/yab4lgw9. Ammonia (NH3) 11,000m. A study, led by scientists says, is necessary in order to achieve emissions from intensive livestock- from Newcastle University, found sustainable fishing and appropriate farming are also in the spotlight microscopic fragments of plastic in development in the marine zone, with regard to climate change: for every creature sampled from the and to eliminate pollution. the second consecutive year, total bottom of the Mariana Trench and EU emissions of NH3 increased, in half of the animals sampled in by 1.7% from 2014 to 2015, as a the New Hebrides Trench. The ON THE FARM result of higher reported emissions fragments identified include semi- Too much slurry from the agriculture sector. For that synthetic cellulosic microfibres, period, the UK was one of 11 EU such as rayon, which is used to Slurry from intensive livestock- member states in which the ceiling make textiles and other products, farming is increasingly causing or reduction commitment for NH3

December 2017 British Wildlife 143 Conservation news Conservation news was not attained and, without Rural and farming commission bill and a 25-year environment plan intervention, commitments to 2030 will reflect the concerns presented will not be met. he RSA (Royal Society for by the SSA. Mr Gove’s speech Tthe encouragement of Arts, was picked up widely, including Slurry and bTB Manufactures and Commerce) has in The Telegraph (https://tinyurl. established a new Food, Farming com/yc5wcuwc) and The Daily Mail wo new techniques for the and Countryside Commission (see (https://tinyurl.com/y8wxss6y). He early detection of bTB in cattle T https://tinyurl.com/yawe6d2q) that is had already announced that there are being trialled at a farm in to host a new conversation in order will be no 25-year food-and-farming Devon. Read more about these in ‘to identify practical and radical plan, but that the environmental the mammals section of the wildlife solutions, ensuring future policy aspects of farming will be addressed reports (p. 121). delivers what the nation needs from within the Government’s 25-year Extinction and livestock food, farming and the countryside’. environment plan, for which no timeline is yet available. See https:// he first international Extinction Brexit and farming tinyurl.com/y7hprehs for WiIdlife and Livestock Conference, and Countryside Link’s latest briefing T reener UK (http://greeneruk.org/ organised by Compassion in World on this subject. Priority_areas.php) has issued Farming and the Worldwide Fund G briefings on ‘Four priority areas for for Nature (WWF), took place in a greener UK’: farming and land October 2017, in London. The management, fisheries, climate PESTICIDES AND conference examined how global and energy, and environment and CHEMICALS food and farming systems could be wildlife laws. The UK is expected to transformed to work for people, leave the EU at the end of March the planet and animals. It brought Which way for glyphosate? 2019, at which time any links together diverse interests and between the Common Agricultural y the time this issue of British began a process of acting as a Policy and the UK will be severed. Wildlife hits the doormat, a catalyst for future collaboration B In September, Wildlife and decision will have been made on and the development of solutions. Countryside Link also issued a whether the world’s most useful Presentations are available via briefing document, Sustainable herbicide, glyphosate, will be http://bit.ly/2szxWXY. farming and land management awarded a new licence for its use in Medicinal pastures policy for England (see https://tinyurl. the EU. The European Parliament, by com/yceho7jz). It proposes that there majority vote, agreed that it should question that has never been should be: (1) effective regulation; be banned for agricultural use by A successfully answered through (2) comprehensive environmental 2022 and withdrawn immediately direct research or evidence review land-management contracts – for household use. The decision (despite its having been flagged as universally available payments will have profound implications. If a UK cross-cutting research priority to address environmental issues it is banned, this could open up the about 17 years ago) is that of what common across the countryside, possibility of beginning a transition pharmaceutical benefits livestock such as soil degradation, declines of towards a type of farming that is less gain from the variety of wild plants widespread species, diffuse pollution reliant on chemicals. Many farmers in a herb-rich grassland. A brief and public access; (3) targeted no longer plough, but therefore discussion on the Nibblers forum environmental land-management rely on glyphosate-based herbicides was sufficient to get one person contracts – for delivering specific (GlyBH) to kill weeds and cover interested in delving deeper, and gains for nature and ecosystem crops prior to sowing their new Cath Shellswell of Plantlife has now services; and (4) measures to crop directly into the ground. Many published the first evidence review promote sustainable, innovative and farmers and advisers say that this has that looks into the nutritional and humane food production. major benefits, reducing soil erosion pharmacological benefits of species- and runoff and rebuilding healthy Slipping away rich grassland. Again, just as nearly topsoil. It is also incredibly useful for two decades ago, a huge hole in our nvironment Secretary Michael controlling competitive weeds as knowledge is flagged up. It is about EGove has warned that soil fertility part of ecological restoration, and time that this gap was plugged – could be completely destroyed in is the main tool used to kill some Cath’s research will, one hopes, some parts of the UK within the non-native invasive plants such as be followed up. Is the rye-grass next 30–40 years. Mr Gove spoke Japanese Knotweed. Residues of the always greener? An evidence review at the parliamentary launch of the pesticide, however, are found in soil, of the nutritional, medicinal and Sustainable Soils Alliance (https:// water, and the food which we eat, production value of species-rich sustainablesoils.org) and has and in urine. Long-term systematic grassland can be downloaded from pledged his support for soil health, research into how it interacts with https://tinyurl.com/yckytgqv. stating that Defra’s new agriculture other pesticides in the environment

144 British Wildlife December 2017 Conservation news is lacking, but some studies identify Nitrogen time bomb new proposals. Farmers say that adverse effects on honeybees, and there are a lot of triazole fungicides the substance is toxic to aquatic itrogen that is applied on land to that are potentially endocrine- organisms. Concerns have been Nhelp to boost food production disruptors, and that if these are raised by scientists, including a is accumulating below the soil lost there will be no replacement ‘statement of concern’, recently but above the groundwater table, products available to help farmers to published in the British Medical in geological strata within what control pests such as the Cabbage Journal, about rising exposure to is known as the ‘vadose zone’. Stem Flea Beetle (for which they the herbicide among people, and Unsurprisingly, the situation is worst can no longer use neonicotinoids). the need for safety levels to be in the intensive agricultural regions Resistance is already a problem reviewed. Some adjuvants, used in of the world, including intensively owing to a reliance on too few commercial formulations to assist farmed areas in Europe. The long chemicals. in the application of GlyBH, are travel times of this nutrient mean Pesticides and bees much more toxic than the active that a massive pollution legacy is substance itself. The herbicide has building up, one which is likely to ichael Gove has announced been instrumental in transforming affect groundwater, Mthat the UK supports entire landscapes, and so has played and shallow coastal waters. The further restrictions on the use a key role in enabling intensive authors of a recent study (see http:// of neonicotinoids, owing to farming to supplant nature, with go.nature.com/2zSFzzD) argue for their effects on bees and other other associated consequences policymakers to consider the matter pollinators. This follows advice for the environment and people. of nitrogen storage in the vadose from the UK government’s advisory For my review of this subject, see zone when designing mitigation body on pesticides, which said that https://t.co/n4lV21P6JF. There is also measures aimed at reducing scientific evidence now suggests a fully referenced paper available. pollution. This, as well as previous that the environmental risks posed Comments and edits are welcome. research in the Thames Basin (see by neonicotinoids are greater http://bbc.in/2jplvO5), demonstrates than previously understood, thus Post-nics pesticides that attempts to use conventional supporting the case for further nitrogen budgets to reduce the restrictions. A European Commission hat will take the place of impact of agricultural nitrogen proposal, which suggests a ban neonicotinoids? Farming has W will fail to deliver on water-quality on all outdoor use of the three a long way to go before embracing objectives, and that our rivers face a neonicotinoid pesticides currently a system that is less reliant on very long-term challenge from this subject to a temporary ban (for use chemicals. In France, two pesticides legacy of agricultural-nutrient input. on flowering crops), is expected that contain the systemic insecticide to be presented to an EU Council sulfoxaflor were authorised in June Endocrine-disrupting meeting in December. 2016, much to the dismay of French chemicals beekeepers. The news channel Pesticidovigilance Euractive (http://bit.ly/2xS28Qc) he European Commission is reports that, in October 2017, the Tworking on proposals that will recent study on insect declines environmental organisation Future designate biocidal substances as A in Germany (which featured in Generations filed a lawsuit to endocrine-disruptors (ED) – see the editorial in BW 29.1) has received prevent the pesticides from being https://tinyurl.com/ofh2u7j. It is widespread publicity, but closer marketed in France. Apparently, expected that between 26 and scrutiny of the research indicates the chemical formula of sulfoxaflor 42 active ingredients in plant- that there are some problems with allows it to escape the framework protection products could be extrapolating the findings from that of the ‘law for the reconquest of deemed ‘endocrine disruptors’ and study to the wider countryside of biodiversity’. In force since 8th cease to be available to growers. Germany. Professor Ian Boyd, retiring August 2016, this law bans the The list includes well-known Chief Scientific Adviser to Defra, marketing of neonicotinoid-based substances such as cypermethrin critiques the study in his blog – see pesticides in France from September (insecticide), propyzamide http://bit.ly/2ig9ZkC. Nevertheless, 2018. Sulfoxaflor was approved for (herbicide), pendimethalin Prof. Boyd, in an article written marketing within the EU in 2015 (herbicide), tebuconazole (fungicide), jointly with Alice Milner (see http:// and is licensed for ten years, despite boscalid (fungicide), 2,4-D (grassland bit.ly/2yyWRAk – I have the full data gaps in the ecotoxicological- herbicide) and mancozeb (fungicide). article, should anyone wish to see it), risk assessment. The peer-reviewed According to an Impact Assessment criticises the fact that pesticides have risk assessment of sulfoxaflor (see published by the European been authorised for use at industrial http://bit.ly/2AJ0Bh9), upon which Commission, 8.8% of fungicides, scales without understanding their the licensing decision was based, 7.3% of herbicides and 4.1% of effects on entire landscapes. And, concluded that ‘a high risk to bees insecticides could be lost as a result as others have pointed out, the was not excluded for field uses’. of being classified as ED under the current way in which pesticides are

December 2017 British Wildlife 145 Conservation news Conservation news brought to the market is inadequate resistance genes for driving and severnvision.org) by an alliance of and needs to change. Boyd and maintaining antimicrobial resistance organisations representing wildlife Milner call for better regulation in in freshwater systems. See http://bit. and landscape interests. This is the order to control the use and effects ly/2zFQdco for details. UK’s largest coastal-plain estuary, of pesticides at a landscape scale. with nearly 190,000ha of coastal, Likening them to antibiotics, they say ON THE COAST intertidal and subtidal habitat that is that ‘Both have been manufactured recognised internationally as being and supplied to market demand with Tidal-lagoons review under threat. The vision sets out little care taken to consider whether seven steps: to avoid further loss n Independent Review of the this is sensible. Both are often used of nature; to restore nature; to use feasibility and practicality of prophylactically or as therapies of A coastal habitats to reduce climate- tidal-lagoon energy in the UK, led first resort, when sparing use would change impacts; to use the estuary by the Rt Hon Charles Hendry, was be more appropriate. Both are to help to reduce carbon emissions; published in January this year: see vulnerable to loss of efficacy because to grow knowledge to enable https://hendryreview.wordpress.com. of resistance.’ They also point out better decision-making; to develop Among the recommendations are: the limitations of existing safety- – in harmony with nature – tidal a National Policy Statement for tidal testing regimes that rely largely on renewable energy; and to establish lagoons that can inform the consent testing a few species – a regime that stronger governance. process, where specific sites are has ‘limited predictive power when designated by the Government as chemicals are used widely’ and when being suitable for development; the ‘diffuse environmental effects that SPECIES NEWS establishment of a new body (Tidal arise from ecosystem connectivity Power Authority) at arm’s-length Birdcrime at a landscape scale... may still from Government, with the aim to be appreciable’. Boyd and Milner SPB’s Birdcrime 2016 report maximise the advantages from a highlight the lack of any systematic (https://tinyurl.com/y8sblncw) tidal-lagoon programme in the UK. R monitoring of pesticide residues reveals a minimum of 81 confirmed Mr Henry also points out that there in the environment, and say that ‘incidents of bird-of-prey persecution are ‘only a limited number of sites ‘no equivalent to MRL (permitted in the UK, but many illegal killings around the country which would be Maximum Residue Levels) in foods are going undetected or unreported. suitable for tidal lagoons’. Subject to exists for the environment’ while For the first time in 30 years, there funding, the first to be built is likely ‘There is no consideration of were no prosecutions. The RSPB to be the Swansea Bay Tidal Lagoon safe pesticide limits at landscape is calling for the introduction of a (see www.tidallagoonpower.com/ scales.’ licensing system for driven grouse- projects/swansea-bay) – construction Many would agree that it is shooting, and asking police and is scheduled to start in 2018. time for a sea change in the way other enforcing authorities to make in which chemicals used in the Trashed by Trump full use of all existing powers to environment are evaluated. At protect birds of prey. the same time, societies need ews channel The Ferret reports to work out better ways of not Nthat Scottish Natural Heritage Back from the Brink having to rely upon them. Where is considering whether to remove his new project (see https:// farming is concerned, this will the protected (SSSI) designation naturebftb.co.uk) focuses on require a systems transformation, from Foveran Links (see http:// T saving threatened and endangered something that should be planned bit.ly/2hqtfeF). This is because of species in England. Through 19 for and adequately resourced, and damage caused to the dune system different projects, it aims to save that will require increased focus by the Trump Organisation’s golf- 20 species from extinction and on independent research and a course development there. The benefit more than 200 others, and complete overhaul of agricultural development has caused some it involves a partnership of seven education. habitat loss and other changes, conservation charities, which are such as the stabilisation of mobile also supported by Natural England Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) dunes. Objectors to the boundary and the Forestry Commission review say that, if the designation is his is a growing problem (England). removed, this will make it easier for for people and in livestock- T another proposed development to farming. The Centre for Ecology proceed in the area, which is likely and Hydrology is currently leading ODDS AND SODS to cause further damage. a cross-research council-funded Planetary warning ‘AMR in the Real World’ project, Severn Vision which aims to quantify the relative s many as 15,000 scientists, importance of a subset of antibiotics, vision for the Severn Estuary Afrom 184 countries, have signed metals, biocides and antibiotic- A has been published (http:// a warning about negative global

146 British Wildlife December 2017 Conservation news

environmental trends, such as a indicators, environmental goods documents submitted along with changing climate, deforestation, and services provided by the NNR, a planning application, not all that loss of access to fresh water, species and their value. The accounts were glistens is made of gold’. His scrutiny extinctions and human population partial, as not all services could be of ecological data submitted with growth. The warning (World quantified and few could be valued. planning applications reveals a Scientists’ Warning to Humanity: It was found that, if the accounts recurrent theme – ‘unreliability’. A Second Notice) is published in were used to monitor NNRs, the More detail is given in his article, BioScience (2017 in press; DOI: output would be complex, would be published in a recent edition of 10.1093/biosci/bix125). A new difficult to interpret and would cover the CIEEM bulletin In Practice (95: independent organisation, the only part of the purposes of NNRs. 43–48). Ecological consultants are Alliance of World Scientists, has required to follow standards of been founded to act as a collective Welsh top bod survey and reporting in their work; it voice on environmental sustainability is extremely concerning to find out atural Resources Wales has and human well-being. Scientists that often this is not happening. announced that Clare Pillman who did not sign the warning prior N has been appointed as its next Chief to publication can still endorse the Dogs and nature Executive. Currently Director for published warning by visiting http:// Culture, Tourism and Sport at the ather few people have scientists.forestry.oregonstate.edu. I Department for Digital, Culture, considered, in the round, the have signed, of course. R Media and Sport in Westminster, impact of dogs on nature, but it is Beautiful burial grounds Clare will take up the post in a growing issue – dog ownership February 2018. She takes over from increased from 4.7 million dogs in he Beautiful Burial Ground Emyr Roberts, who was NRW’s Chief 1965 to a peak of 9 million dogs in TProject is a new project, Executive since it was set up in 2014 (dropping down to 8.5 million starting next year, that will use 2013. NRW is facing a 29% cut in in 2016). Problems associated with citizen scientists to reveal the its overall budget by 2019–2020. dogs include increased disturbance, hidden heritage and wildlife of affecting ground-nesting birds burial grounds across England and Flowers in woods such as those on riverbanks, Wales. Caring for God’s Acre, the and in-stream habitats such as here are the woodland wild charity running the project, says spawning gravels; conflicts with flowers? Kate Holl, woodland that burial grounds are surprisingly W livestock, which make conservation adviser for Scottish Natural Heritage, under-recorded – there are scant grazing difficult (and sheep grazing describes woodlands full of wild biodiversity data, as individual impossible on most urban-fringe flowers in places where herbivores naturalists or groups rarely record sites); and deposition of nutrients are absent or are present at a low there and, when they do, records go and anti-parasite medication density. She visited woods in Iceland, into national systems which are not from urine and faeces. Miles King France, the Isle of Wight and site-specific but are instead based explores some of these in his blog , and her blog (see http:// on Ordnance Survey grid squares. ‘Gone to the dogs’ – see http://bit. bit.ly/2iSwOuk) also illustrates the The project aims to change this. ly/2jqfyQQ. rapid disappearance of woodland For details, see https://tinyurl.com/ Is one way forward a robust flowers soon after fences were k52by26. Caring for God’s Acre dog-licensing scheme? A licence removed from a woodland on the also has a ‘Botanical Companion’ with a one-off fee of at least £100, Isle of Mull. Kate concludes that leaflet and other useful literature, that requires dogs to be chipped and Scottish woods could and should including plans for making a mini- to have samples of their DNA taken, have far more flowers, and that, baler, available for download via its and owner’s details to be kept up until herbivore numbers can be website. to date (just as cars have registered reduced ‘to an ecologically beneficial keepers), would be a possibility. Monetising nature level’, many woods in this country Such a scheme would enable dog will remain hollow examples of orporate Natural Capital attacks on livestock and dog-fouling the ecosystems that they ought to Accounting, a new monitoring offences to be traced to the C be. Her research was funded via a framework, has been found to perpetrator. A fee would also deter Churchill Fellowship – see the link at be inappropriate when applied to many people from keeping dogs, the bottom of her blog should you some National Nature Reserves and, as a result, dog ownership have a good idea for a project. (NNRs). The research (see http://bit. would eventually decline further. The ly/2yJ0bG0) was commissioned by Ecology in planning fee would also pay for enforcement Natural England. Initial accounts and education, and perhaps would were developed for a plan to cologist Tim Reed, writing need to be implemented via an deliver a long-term goal for each Eas a guest blogger (on Mark existing charity rather than through NNR. They comprised long-term Avery’s blog of 19th October), says local authorities, which would projections of costs, ecological ‘when you scratch the surface of potentially find many ways to siphon

December 2017 British Wildlife 147 Conservation news off the money to cover their not Pedunculate Oak and Wych Elm. the first State of Natural Resources insubstantial overheads. It is likely, however, to affect other Report (see https://tinyurl.com/ woody plants if it arrives in the UK – ycbhvjrz), which does not make for Progress on peatlands the potential for this cannot yet be happy reading. Some 249 ‘priority’ predicted. In October, the European species have been assessed, in ince 2012, PeatlandACTION Commission’s Standing Committee comparison with their status at the has set more than 10,000ha of S on Plants, Animals, Food and Feed time of the last Biodiversity Action degraded peatlands in Scotland on approved increased measures Plan report, in 2008. The data show the road to recovery. The initiative against the pathogen. This followed that approximately one third (34%) recently entered a new phase, with a letter to the Commission by are declining, 30% are improving, £8 million to spend on continuing Michael Gove, who said that, if EU and the status of 36% has remained Scotland-wide peatland restoration protections were not increased, the unchanged. The largest decline in 2017–2018. Meanwhile, UK would consider its own national was in priority (38%), validation for the UK’s first Peatland measures, which could include a which include birds such as the Code Project is underway at suspension of high-risk imports. Curlew. The condition of the most Dryhope, in Scotland’s Southern extensive semi-natural habitats of Uplands, where a 10km area of peat Brexit and the environment mountain, moorland and heath hags is being reprofiled and the within SSSIs ranges between vegetation restored. The Peatland ichael Gove has set out 63% and 73% unfavourable, Code is administered by the IUCN plans to consult on a new, M and the overall assessment of the (see http://bit.ly/2z2aA3R) and independent body that would conservation status of the 15 Annex provides a set figure for the carbon hold Government to account for I habitats associated with these emissions of eroding peat and upholding environmental standards semi-natural areas is either bad or restored peat. To seek verification in England after the UK leaves the inadequate. under the code, it is necessary to EU. The official statement (see One piece of good news is calculate the carbon saving made by http://bit.ly/2hoi71P) says that that, of the approximately 2,000km undertaking restoration, after which ‘Ministers will consult on a new of drainage ditches on upland the landowner signs a contract independent, statutory body to peatlands, at least 742km have (minimum 30 years) and agrees to advise and challenge government been blocked – actions which maintain the peat in its restored and potentially other public bodies will help to improve biodiversity, state for that length of time. on environmental legislation – carbon storage and sequestration, Landowners are then eligible for stepping in when needed to hold and flood-risk management. carbon finance for the carbon that these bodies to account and enforce There has been a continued is saved over that period. In the case standards.’ A consultation on the decline in the length of managed of the Dryhope project, the carbon specific powers and scope of the hedgerows, despite progressive finance came from Forest Carbon new body will be launched early uptake of agri-environment (www.forestcarbon.co.uk), which next year. The proposed consultation schemes, resulting in increases in provides supplemental funding, on the statutory body will also both relict and overgrown hedges, separate from SNH’s Peatland Action explore the scope and content of and the number of hedgerow trees fund. The benefit of applying the a new policy statement that will has decreased by 3.9% (between Peatland Code means that the aim to ensure that environmental 1998 and 2007). Fresh waters are landowner agrees to a longer period principles underpin policy-making. not faring well, either: in 2015, of restoration (compared with 63% of all freshwater waterbodies only ten years in a purely Peatland Natural resources in Wales defined by the Water Framework Action-funded project); it also he Welsh Government has Directive were not achieving good means that government funding will published a Natural Resources or better overall status, while achieve more. T Policy (https://tinyurl.com/yayhqnyp), only one out of six freshwater Xylella measures which is a statutory product of habitat types were in ‘Favourable the Environment (Wales) Act. The Conservation Status’. ollowing growing concern focus of the NRP is the sustainable Fabout the potential impact of the management of Wales’ natural Sue Everett is an independent bacterium Xylella fastidiosa on the resources, to maximise their ecologist and sustainability UK’s environment, the Horticultural contribution to achieving goals consultant and can be Trades Association (HTA), together within the Well-being of Future contacted on conservation. with several garden retailers and Generations Act. The policy sets out [email protected]. She growers, have embargoed imported three national priorities: delivering occasionally blogs and stock from infected areas. nature-based solutions, increasing increasingly tweets at http:// X. fastidiosa can cause disease in renewable energy and resource warmerandwilder.blogspot.com a wide range of woody plants. efficiency, and taking a place-based and @suesustainable. One of its four subspecies attacks approach. It has also published

148 British Wildlife December 2017 behind my back and, looking at his marks, it’s definitely not ‘V for Victory’. ‘The race is not to the swift, nor the battle to the strong.’ And definitely not to this guy, ‘Orange’ Swift, that carrot-haired slacker. He would not win a race if all the others dropped out and he’d grown a third leg. I could have done without the twins known as The Uncertain and The Confused. I suppose that we call them that because we never know which is which, not that it makes any difference: they are both clods. As for those missing laptops, I have my eye on The Suspected. If I’m right, he will shortly be seeing the headmistress, Mother Shipton, for some ‘moth-erly’ attention! I do love my little jokes. Our problem with Northern Rustic is that no one can understand a word he says. He thinks that he’s studying ‘mothematics’! He wandered into my office one day. ad news. The Christmas Island Pipistrelle is no ‘What are you doing here, moth?’ I shouted. ‘Well, zur, Smore. I do not know what they have been up to on ‘appen t’ light were on.’ Christmas Island but it’s all over for the bat. It has been When I find out the name of the ‘Small Eggar’ who bowled out. ‘Our activities as humans are pushing [such] has been lobbing eggs at the staffroom window, he’ll be species to the brink’, comments IUCN’s director-general, going the same way as Barred Red last term, out on his Inger Andersen. Evidently, his solution is for us to stop ear, that’s where. having activities. But there is another way of looking at Speaking of which, just look at that pair of lovelies, the problem, and that is the stubborn refusal of some Large Ear and Bloxworth Snout. I’ve seen more attractive species to conform to the exciting modern world. They piglets. put you in mind of a class of recalcitrant kids. They The hope of our class, Pale Shining Brown, will ought to try a bit harder but they won’t. However be unable to attend this term after that unfortunate you set the bar, they are determined to fall over it. incident in the gym involving Barred Red and As an example, let me give you The Moth Academy Minor. They tell me that Brown made himself unpopular (prop.: Mother Shipton; long-suffering class teacher: by picking holes in everything. Haworth Minor has been Twitcher). carpeted. We shall start with the Footmans. I’ve about had it Dinner time! Cabbage, Dark Spinach and Cream- up to here with the Footmans. What a bunch of lazy bordered Green Peas. We dare not give them meat. little slobs! There’s Dingy Footman for a start, and he’s Coxcomb Prominent, the class show-off, tells a joke. well named, as well as smelly. There’s the foul-mouthed ‘If you have a moth ball in one hand and a moth ball Four-dotted Footman; and that lout, in the other, what do you have? Answer: the Red-necked Footman, and his The undivided attention of a very irritating sister, Rosy Footman, large moth!’ Evidently, young not to mention Crimson- Coxcomb has not been speckled Footman, who is paying attention in biology currently off sick. I had class. a word with their Dad, Garden Tiger, the Hoary Footman, at the school cat, has seen last parents’ meeting better days. We’d be but I might as well have better off with a Shark

saved my breath. roaming the premises, or Derek Middleton/FLPA I feel rather sorry for maybe a Woolly Bear. . Peach Blossom. Why do Absent this week: parents give them names the seldom seen Scarce like that? What’s wrong with Tissue, who has another cold Mary or Susan or Emily? If she’s not (a-tishoo!); and The Delicate, who careful she’ll end up like that ‘little angel’ is way too fragile to get out of bed in the Thyatira batis Small Seraphim, who is now modelling swimwear morning. Also Blair, who was continually teased by for low-end magazines, and I think we know where Blair’s Mocha, a moth so stupid that he can’t even spell that’s leading. ‘mocker’. The Drinker: another low achiever, the big, hairy oaf. I wish that we had a Ruddy Highflier, just one. As it is, As soon as I find out where he’s stashed his crate of malt we are bound to be Red-listed in the next Ofsted report. whisky, I’m confiscating it. If I had my way, we would exclude the whole lot of

The V Moth. Oh yes, he certainly loves making V-signs them and start again with the butterflies. Peach Blossom moth

December 2017 British Wildlife 149 Obituary Trevor Poyser 1925–2017

revor Poyser, doyen of ornithological publishing, Tdied on 2nd September 2017, at the age of 91. He would have chuckled at this description – ‘Really? Don’t you mean Dean, not doyen, or is that too American?’ Then an anecdote: ‘I remember when I was at Putnams, there was this chap…’ delivered with a David Niven-esque drawl. And, if walking at the time (his favourite activity before an accident incurred during his regular BTO ‘local patch’ surveying, in his beloved native Derbyshire) put paid to his knee, he would have interrupted himself to point out a bird. He had a remarkable life – so there were many stories. From childhood and schooling in Leek, in north Staffordshire, he was plunged into the War in 1944, as a glider pilot, in South-east Asia. At War’s end he was drafted into the military police in India, in the turbulent phase before Partition, an experience that marked him deeply. Much later in life he researched the lives of First World War pilots by way of their letters, and wrote an unpublished novel based on those sources. One suspects that this was both an act of homage and a form of delayed therapy. But when I first met him, in 1984, that was all in the he would like to read – and he charmed and cajoled his past, and in the intervening years life had been good. authors to deliver the goods. Soon after demobilisation Trevor met and fell in love Much of the charm was applied via convivial with Anna at a London School of Printing evening class; hospitality in Calton, with authors and their families the two remained devoted to each other until Anna’s invited for long weekends, and work intermingling with death, in December 2005. Both worked in publishing, walks, food, drink, talk. The ambience contained a whiff at various firms, honing production and editorial skills. of the Bohemian London that Trevor and Anna had In the 1960s, their lives were punctuated by a period of inhabited in the post-War years, plus something of the several idyllic years in a cottage in Provence (long before country house. Peter Mayle made the region fashionable). On returning I was admitted to this select world when I set up to London, Trevor had a stint as a director at Putnams the Natural History Book Service in 1985. My senior by before he and Anna set up T. & A. D. Poyser Ltd, in three decades, Trevor became an invaluable adviser, 1973, originally in Berkhamsted, west Hertfordshire, stout supporter of the fledgling enterprise (which soon and later in Calton, just over the Derbyshire border in began to sell plenty of ‘Poysers’) and good friend. My Staffordshire. family and I look back on the visits to Calton with great Seventeen remarkably creative and happy years pleasure. followed, in which the Poyser imprint was placed on a In 1990 Trevor and Anna sold up, retiring to north series of monographs (including, among others, Hen Norfolk. The Poyser imprint lives on, now under the Harrier, Kestrel, Peregrine Falcon, and Sparrowhawk), aegis of Bloomsbury. In retrospect, the achievements of identification handbooks (notably the seminal Flight this remarkable couple were gravity-defying. The 1970s Identification of European Raptors) and atlases (of and 1980s saw the rise of big and complicated bird- breeding and non-breeding birds of Britain and Ireland). identification guides, and Trevor’s preoccupation with These books hold a special place in the affection of books that were a joy to hold and to read meant that he ornithologists, perhaps rivalled only by the early New was therefore swimming against the prevailing current. Naturalists. In part this is because the design – always The Poyser legacy is both the list itself – classic studies white dust jackets, and beautiful layout and typography that will retain their place on ornithological bookshelves – was so distinctive, but the principal ingredient of – and the proof positive that good publishing is success was good and clear writing. As a passionate but appreciated and rewarded, regardless of fashion. non-professional ornithologist, Trevor wanted books that Bernard Mercer

150 British Wildlife December 2017 Book reviews

A Photographic Guide European Mediterranean (not , although to Insects of Southern Europe it is likely to be useful in the damper and cooler parts), & the Mediterranean extending inland to The Alps and central France. The more southerly countries, such as Spain, Italy, and Paul D. Brock the former Yugoslavian countries, are covered fully, or as Pisces Publications 2017 fully as a 2.27% coverage of species allows. 412pp, colour-illustrated So, now to the key questions. Would I recommend ISBN 978-1-874357-79-7 £27.50 this to a friend (or British Wildlife reader)? Unhesitatingly (pbk) – it takes the possibilities for insect identification in or those of us who travel to the species-rich parts of southern Europe into a new realm. Would I buy it myself? Fsouthern Europe, identifying the insects which we see Absolutely, I already had, and I would buy it again if I has always been a problem. Butterflies and dragonflies lost this copy. I also like the fact that it is produced by an are well covered, moths, grasshoppers and crickets not adventurous, small publisher, and that publisher has done too bad, but for all other groups it has always proved an excellent job of producing it, at a reasonable price. difficult. My main stalwarts for the last decade or so Incidentally, Pisces also produces two other UK insect have been Chinery’s Insects of Britain and Western books by Brock, which are well worth looking at. Europe (surprisingly good, at least as far east as Italy and Any criticisms at all? Essentially no, except that the as far south as the Pyrenees) and Haupt’s guide to the author does that common thing of confusing ‘i.e.’ and millipedes, arachnids and insects of the Mediterranean ‘e.g.’, and my editor-girlfriend found a typo on the first region (originally in German, but mine is in French), which page she looked at (although I failed to find any more). is good but covers only about 300 species, and is not As any reader might observe, ‘if that is all he has got to available in English. complain about...’. So, when the call came to review Paul Brock’s Buy it, it is excellent! photographic guide to the Insects of southern Europe, Bob Gibbons I was delighted. It so happened that, at the time, I was already in Provence, clutching my own brand-new copy Carnivorous Plants of of the book, which I had pre-ordered many months Britain and Ireland before. The driest autumn for at least 150 years is not the ideal time to field-test an insect book, but, of the Tim Bailey & Stewart McPherson, rather few non-butterfly species that we found, all were edited by Alastair S. Robinson satisfactorily identified. Redfern Natural History Publications For me, this book is a quantum leap forward. The 2016 photographs are generally excellent, the species 200pp, colour-illustrated descriptions are clear, often with the defining features ISBN 978-1-908787-23-1 £12.99 (pbk) clarified, and there are distribution maps for every species e have only 13 species of insect-eating plant, (which must have involved a lot of work, or they are Wnamely three sundews, three butterworts and rather broad-brush, but, either way, they are a useful seven bladderworts, plus a couple of introduced pitcher indication of where the insect might be found). The book plants, and three natural hybrids: a tiny but representative covers 1,500 species, which, since the area contains an sample of a sizable world flora. This book is the first estimated minimum of 66,000 species, represents only British field guide devoted to them, and each species 2.27% of the total. The selection, however, is limited to or hybrid is thoroughly illustrated, mapped and written those that are reasonably conspicuous and identifiable up. Most of what you would expect is here: a bit of in the field, so that most of those not covered may be evolutionary history and habitats, quite a bit about of interest only to the specialist. In practice, it seems to Darwin’s experiments and on capture mechanisms, and be a well-chosen selection. There are no spiders or other even a short section on the unlikely medical uses of non-insect invertebrates, but that probably makes sense. sundews and butterworts. The colour illustrations are Perhaps they will come next. lavish, the cover is waterproofed for field use, and the Interestingly, the book covers the major groups well: book is very good value. there are about 80 species of dragonfly and damselfly, All the same, I was disappointed. The authors’ and over 250 species of butterfly included. I guess that enthusiasm for these wonderful and eerily beautiful the intention is to make this a one-stop book, a purpose plants is not reflected in their writing. I wanted more which it achieves well. Personally, I would have been on the discovery that we had not four bladderworts, as happy to have had fewer of these well-covered species we had thought before 1990, but seven. I wanted to and more of the little-known ones, but other readers may know why you rarely see more than a light sprinkling be glad to have it all in one volume. of open flowers even in the densest Drosera‘ lawns’, Geographically, the book covers essentially the and exactly when bladderwort species flower (‘summer’

December 2017 British Wildlife 151 Book reviews is not enough; in my limited experience, Common The final four chapters broaden out to look at what Bladderwort flowers in June, theintermedia group in the Lady Park studies can tell us about long-term studies August and September). I wanted to know whether the generally, on natural woodland, on near-to-nature newly discovered Utricularia bremii has ever flowered in forestry and on the current interest in rewilding. Britain. ‘It can easily be confused with U. minor’, state What conclusions or lessons do the authors’ seem to the authors, but that is putting it mildly. Without flowers have come up with, after all this work? Perhaps some it is practically impossible to distinguish the two. It might that will surprise readers. have been worthwhile to end with a section on the non- • What has been learnt about stand changes could British European species. There are not all that many and probably have been discovered just as well by other they are always highlights of botanical tours. methods, such as the study of chronosequences; but, This field guide is a long way better than nothing, but of course, this itself can be said only because it has in their desire to be factual and scientific the authors been confirmed by long-term studies such as those at have missed the magic. Lady Park. Peter Marren • Leaving woods with a long cultural history to minimum intervention may not be optimal for the conservation Woodland Development: of some groups. Rewilding has to be at a much bigger A Long-term Study of Lady scale than the Lady Park Reserve to maintain a wide Park Wood range of species, but the outcomes are still likely to be unpredictable. George F. Peterken & • What has happened at Lady Park reflects the particular Edward P. Mountford nature of the site (for example, the fact that it is partly CABI Publishing 2017 on a cliff, so that trees occasionally drop off) and 286pp, colour-illustrated particular events, such as the lasting effects of the ISBN 978-1-78639-281-7 £35 (pbk) 1976 drought on Beech growth. Other sites, subject his is the story of Lady Park Wood, a story that is to other events, would produce different results; Tstill ongoing. Characters appear and then drop generalisation has its limits. out, sometimes to come back later in a different guise. • Long-term records have considerable potential to Chance plays a strong role, alongside meticulous test ecological ideas and theories; but it is almost recording of thousands of tree stems. What is discovered impossible to predict, at the time when first data turns out not to be what was perhaps expected at the collections are made, for which questions they may beginning. eventually be most useful. Even if you have read the papers that have come out • A story about a place and people can perhaps inspire of the Lady Park Wood research over the years, there will, people in conservation to think in a way that standard I suspect, still be new insights from this book; it is also scientific papers do not. very convenient to have the story to date in one place. • And, finally, that long-term studies are difficult to The book is written in George Peterken’s usual clear, maintain, generally relying more on individuals’ precise style, and is well illustrated with photographs. For interests than on any sort of planned, institutional its size, it is also reasonably priced. support (nice though this would be). Without George The first three chapters introduce the wood which Peterken’s commitment to the site in the early 1980s, straddles the England–Wales border in the Wye Valley: the reserve itself, let alone the records, might well have how it came to be established as a reserve in 1944 by been lost. Ed Mountford has played a key role in the the Forestry Commission initially, and how it has been more recent recordings. An increasing number of other treated since. The next two set out how permanent researchers from Britain and the Continent have made transects were established by Eustace Jones from the use of the site and the past data. All depend on the Forestry Department in Oxford in the 1940s, and have original recordings made out of curiosity by Eustace been recorded at irregular intervals since through the Jones in the 1940s. measurement and plotting of all but the smallest stems Keith Kirby in the transects. There is then a summary of what the patterns of mortality and regeneration, growth and Grassland Fungi: A Field Guide stagnation tell us about the development of different stands within the reserve. Elsa Wood & Jon Dunkelman Six subsequent chapters form the core of the book. Monmouthshire Meadows Group 2017 Each follows the fate of particular trees and shrubs, 336pp, colour-illustrated starting with Ash, Beech and oak, Limes and Wych Elm, ISBN 978-0-9576424-1-6 £19.99 (pbk) and other short-lived trees, Field Maple and Hazel, here are now several pretty and other minor components of the woody layers. Two Tgood field guides to fungi on the chapters assess what the implications of the changes market, and also a growing number have been for different habitats (dead wood and open of monographs on particular genera or related groups, space etc.) and other species groups (ground flora, but none of them addresses the fungi of a particular bryophytes, lichens and invertebrates etc.). habitat. There is much interest in the fungi of semi-

152 British Wildlife December 2017 Book reviews/Letters natural grassland, from cottage lawns and churchyards to identification and even taxonomic difficulties arise. The commons and uplands. Many of these are colourful and book has 15 species of pinkgill or Entoloma (out of about not too difficult to identify, and grassland fungi are now 100 species), a judicious mix of the common and more a recognised form of habitat assessment. Acidic grassland easily identifiable ones, but, given that the standard key can be relatively poor in vascular plants but rich in fungi, begins with microscopic characters and proceeds from especially defining species such as waxcaps, pinkgills, club there, mistakes are likely. The same can be said for earth- fungi and earth-tongues. tongues, of which only two out of 25 are described. This book pulls together experience gained in the And half of the book is given over to fungi that are still plentiful natural grasslands of the lower Wye Valley. certainly found in grassland, but which are of more It describes and illustrates most of the species that are marginal interest so far as conservation is concerned: identifiable in the field: some 170 species in all. It is mushrooms, puffballs, inkcaps, funnels, bonnets and so clear, not too technical, and very well illustrated with on. The selection of only two brittlegills, two milkcaps, colour images. It will be a boon to any field worker. two boletes and three fibrecaps does make you wonder The question is this: will it be as useful nationally as it is whether it was worth including them at all. for the Wye Valley? The answer, perhaps surprisingly, is This is a well-produced and much-needed guide to probably yes. The 33 species of waxcap (out of about grassland fungi that should be useful to beginners as well 50 found in Britain) are those which are most likely to as to more experienced field mycologists. And it should be found in natural grassland anywhere. For waxcaps it encourage others to become involved in field survey, or will perform from Cornwall to Caithness, and probably just spotting fungi for fun, which is all to the good. Holland and , too. For the other groups, Peter Marren Letters Small insect decline Lost biomass grazed out

y October issue of British Wildlife, with Dave he editorial by Dave Goulson (BW 29: 1–2) refers MGoulson’s editorial on declining wildlife (BW 29: Tto a study, based on trapping in nature reserves 1–2), arrived hot on the heels of an article on insect in Germany, that indicates a significant decline in the declines in The Daily Mail, to which I had replied the biomass of insects over recent decades. It is suggested previous day. Where I live, in mid-Cheshire, this trend that a similar decline may have occurred in the UK, and became noticeable to me three years ago, but it has this impression is certainly supported by the experience of been significantly worse this year. It is my habit to make entomologists who have been active during this period. daily walks in the countryside, which include walking The editorial discusses various factors that might footpaths through arable farmland and also the towpath explain this decline, but one that has been overlooked of the River Weaver – a six-mile round trip. is the increase in numbers of herbivorous mammals. In early spring, the first insects to appear are hoverflies, The editorial states that the nature reserves involved feeding on dandelions, and these are quickly followed have not changed much over time, but there has been a by early butterfly species, such as the Peacock, Speckled substantial increase in deer numbers in both the UK and Wood and Orange-tip. In this year, 2017, things did not Germany, affecting many habitats – probably the studied live up to normal expectations thereafter. The butterfly sites among them. In addition, in the UK, conservation numbers proved disappointing and the dragonflies and grazing has become very widespread, resulting in the damselflies even more so. introduction into many nature reserves of domestic Come mid-summer, there are many larger umbellifers livestock – cattle, horses or sheep, depending on the along the Weaver towpath, and these are usually terrain and local preferences. Attention was drawn by visited by a variety of bees and hoverfly species. These Jonty Denton (BW 24: 339–346) to some of the negative plants were hardly touched this year, however, and consequences of relying on grazing as a conservation this trend was noticeable to a lesser extent in the two measure, which should, it is hoped, have led to some previous years. This is beginning to affect the local bird reassessment of its aims and effects. populations, too. This year there were fewer Chiffchaffs, It is fairly obvious that any grazing results in a reduction Blackcaps, Whitethroats and Reed Warblers than there in the biomass of herbaceous and other accessible are normally. It was notable also that the local Swallows vegetation, and it clearly follows that there will be a and House Martins departed several weeks earlier than corresponding reduction in the biomass of associated usual and appear to have had smaller broods – I do not insects that rely on it for food or shelter. Advocates of think that this had anything to do with the weather. grazing argue that this does not matter, because there As for myself, I was born in 1930, in east Suffolk, will be benefits to those species that they are targeting to and have since spent ten years in Surrey and 29 years in conserve, and that biodiversity is not diminished, or even East Sussex, before moving to Cheshire. So, I have been (though with scant evidence to support this claim) that it around a bit and seen some changes! has been increased. Comparable surveys before and after Peter Friston, Northwich, Cheshire management changes rarely happen. The trapping study

December 2017 British Wildlife 153 Letters in Germany did not address changes in biodiversity, but 1976). Those animals that try to do so do not usually the overall reduction in numbers must have involved local forget the consequences. They also avoid eating the extinctions. plant (Rothschild 1961). Moreover, the Stinging Nettle’s There is, however, evidence of lost biodiversity in the characteristic scent, although to my mind not unpleasant, New Forest. The recent letter by John Phillips (BW 28: is distinctive enough to reinforce the memory of its 462) highlighted the dire situation there with regard stings. Although I cannot present any definite evidence to the decline in Lepidoptera, citing the increasing in support, it may well be that mammalian herbivores numbers of deer, cattle and ponies and encroachment also avoid patches of certain species of dead-nettle that by them into the woodland inclosures. These losses were have a close resemblance to Stinging Nettles. I have documented by Andrew Barker and David Green in the noticed that the White Dead-nettle album may report of a symposium (Newton 2010), in which declines frequently be found growing in patches close to, or in several insect groups were discussed. They noted that, even among, Stinging Nettles, and may thus gain some of the 264 Lepidoptera species with conservation status measure of protection from browsing mammals, such that had records from the New Forest, only one half had as deer. Furthermore, the dead-nettle’s slightly aromatic been recorded since 1980, with the greatest losses in scent smells, to me, similar to that of the Stinging Nettle, those species that are dependent on the woodland herb although not so pleasant. and layers, closely followed by those of heathland, As is, of course, well known, a wide range of insects bogs and mires. It is probable that there have been similar inhabits nettle beds, their larvae often feeding on the declines and losses of other phytophagous insects in the plant’s foliage while presumably gaining some protection New Forest and elsewhere, although this has yet to be from birds and other predators by doing so. Some of documented. Those dipterists who have visited the New these species are noxious and have apparently evolved Forest over many years have noticed a general decline the same odour as, or a similar one to, that of the in the numbers and diversity of Diptera, including of Stinging Nettle, and advertise their presence by both their saproxylic species (where loss of shelter, humidity and odour and their warning colour patterns. Thus, if this nectar sources may be significant). This may be regarded really is the case, the common protective system of the as anecdotal and lacking precise data, and information nettle community is the distinctive scent and this may, on New Forest Diptera is now being assembled in order arguably, be an example of Müllerian mimicry (Rothschild to provide a baseline for future surveys. 1961). Of course, grazing is not the only culprit in biomass In addition to their camouflage, many other loss. Where grass is not grazed, it is mown – for fear non-noxious, palatable insects obtain protection by living of being overgrown. This happens too frequently on on Stinging Nettles, and birds such as the Common roadside verges, which might otherwise provide more Whitethroat, Marsh Warbler and Nightingale, which of a reservoir of insects in heavily White Dead-nettles growing among Stinging Nettles. John F. Burton managed landscapes. To sum up, with such a chewed-up countryside, the losses are not at all surprising. Reference Newton, A. C. (ed.) 2010. Biodiversity in the New Forest. Bournemouth University. Peter Chandler Melksham, Wiltshire

Stinging Nettle – White Dead-nettle mimicry

was interested to read in David IM. Wilkinson’s admirable article ‘On the scent of deception’ (BW 28: 407–413) that he knows of ‘no good evidence that the similarity in appearance between nettles’ and dead-nettle species ‘is mimicry, rather than just coincidence’. In my experience, most browsing mammals avoid moving through a Stinging Nettle dioica bed, because, even though much of their body area may be well clothed with effective, protective hair, their sensitive noses are not (Burton

154 British Wildlife December 2017 Letters often nest in nettle beds, also achieve some measure of there is for food and living space in a countryside that is protection from their predators by doing so. increasingly hostile to this declining species. This can have References only one outcome for those animals that do not compete Burton, J. 1976. The fascinating world of the Stinging Nettle. In Field successfully. Sentimentality can, at times, be misplaced and Moor. Kingsmead Press, Bath. and unhelpful, both for conservation and for the animals Guilford, T., et al. 1987. The biological roles of pyrazines – evidence themselves. for a warning odour function. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 31: 113–128. Ian Carter Rothschild, M. 1961. Defensive odours and Müllerian mimicry among East Worlington, Devon insects. Transactions of the Royal Entomological Society of London 113: 101–121. Pollen record John F. Burton Heidelberg, Germany read with great interest Miles King’s account (BW I29: 27–33) of the recent conference at Knepp Castle Misplaced sentimentality entitled ‘Freeing the Landscape’. It suggested that two speakers, Mike Allen and Professor Mick Crawley, had imon Barnes asks why many conservationists are cast doubt on the accuracy – or even the scientific basis Swary of sentimentality towards wild animals (BW 29: – of pollen studies in deducing the vegetation cover of 44). He goes on to highlight one of the main reasons historic and prehistoric landscapes. By coincidence, a few (seemingly without realising it) when he refers to the days after reading the article I attended a public lecture Ruddy Duck cull, bemoaning the fact that it resulted in by one of the country’s leading palynologists, Professor the loss of much public goodwill. And that is the point. Ralph Fyfe of Plymouth University. I was impressed by the An overly sentimental attitude towards this abundant, lengths to which he and collaborators across Europe have non-threatened, non-native species was a hindrance gone to establish an accurate and credible relationship to conservation efforts aimed at securing the future between free pollen quantities and actual vegetation. of the White-headed Duck, a species under threat of Samples have been taken from a large number and wide global extinction. A similar point could be made about variety of contemporary sites, and both pollen and the Grey Squirrel control in order to protect pockets of Red quantity and types of vegetation growing on those sites Squirrels, or Fox control to protect scarce ground-nesting measured. From these, a formula has been established to birds. apply to pollen samples found in peat cores, correcting Another significant issue is that the public often for the heterogeneous behaviour of different pollen conflate animal welfare and wildlife conservation, aided types, especially trees as opposed to grasses. and abetted by rehabilitation centres that rescue large Furthermore, the woodland/grassland balance resulting numbers of animals from the wild each year. In the long from these studies convincingly matches patterns of term, this does not (in most cases) contribute in any human colonisation and agriculture established by other meaningful way to wildlife conservation. Thirty years archaeological methods. from now, the number of Hedgehogs living in Britain will It appears that no one at the conference was prepared be set by the prevailing conditions in our countryside: the to reply on behalf of palynology, so I think that it is availability of decent feeding sites and places in which to important to record in your excellent journal that a very rear young – the carrying capacity of the environment. It robust reply is in fact available. Readers can search online will not be influenced by the thousands of underweight for ‘POLLANDCAL network’ for more details. animals that are subject to an annual round-up, stuffed Tim Ferry full of food and corralled into houses and outbuildings South Brent, Devon for the winter. Rehabilitation centres need funding and are often keen to portray this work as valuable for species Editorial note: for a recent summary of the conservation, a sleight of hand that works very well. That contribution that pollen analysis has made to ecology is understandably frustrating to those seeking funds for and conservation, see: Edwards, K. J., Fyfe, R. M., & genuine conservation projects that will protect wildlife Jackson, S. T. 2017. The first 100 years of pollen analysis. habitats and secure long-term, sustainable benefits. Nature Plants 3: 17001. Perhaps a final reason why conservationists shy away from sentimentality is the unpalatable but inescapable The Vera Conference truth that animal suffering and areas rich in wildlife go hand in hand. Wild animals have a pretty hard time of s author of the book Ancient Oaks in the English it just trying to stay alive. If you help to protect an area ALandscape, referred to by Jill Butler at the Knepp of high-quality habitat, you are, unavoidably, helping Vera conference in support of her challenge to to conserve an awful lot of animal suffering – disease, perceptions of the primeval forest ‘myth’, as reported starvation, injury, and the inevitable deaths that tend in British Wildlife (29: 27–33), I should like to make the not to be quick or painless. Of course, to complete the following comments. Thank you to Miles for an excellent circle, every rescued Hedgehog nurtured through the report on that conference. It is a pity that I could not winter is put back into the wild to take its chance. The attend myself, because I might well have represented more animals reared and released, the more competition the ‘dissenting voice’ that was rightly noted as missing.

December 2017 British Wildlife 155 Letters

Palynology ‘not a science’? I do not know Mick Crawley, silva pastilis) has truly ancient trees. It is a man-made but I would think that his negative view on palynology landscape, maintained by domestic ungulates, with needs a comment. If you would read chapter eight of pollards or maidens left standing for centuries. To see my book, it may also become clear why Jill Butler could primeval temperate forests, with large, open gaps and perhaps have misquoted me. massive dead standing and fallen trees (for the ancient- Pollen diagrams do not reconstruct past vegetation tree invertebrates), I recommend a visit to some of the structure (closed-canopy versus more open, tree- Chilean national parks, containing Nothofagus and dominated landscapes) and no palynologist has ever Araucaria, or the temperate rainforests of the US Pacific made such a claim. All that they show is the relative Northwest. The periodic ‘hurricanes’ (e.g. October 1987) abundance of taxa (mainly tree genera, but also shrubs in north-west Europe could create the same, but only in and herbs) as indicated by deposited pollen. If grass a few centuries from now under non-interference. Large pollen is ‘scattered by wind’, then so is tree pollen of herbivores are not needed and, at any rate, Britain had wind-dispersed taxa such as birch and oak. Calibrations only the Aurochs and Ireland had none of Vera’s ‘drivers’ are needed for species which produce less pollen, and of park-like woodland, and yet oak is as abundant for insect versus wind dispersal mechanisms, as I explain in Ireland’s pollen record as it is elsewhere in lowland in the chapter. Neither Clements nor Tansley ever used north-west Europe. and Q. petraea have pollen diagrams to ‘prove’ their hypotheses of forest no need of big grazers for their long-term survival in succession. The Frans Vera acolytes seem to misrepresent the landscape. They require instead a more or less open palynology. We would not know from those data forest structure, surely. whether or not the trees represented by the pollen and As a Dutchman who worked in the Netherlands before expressed as a percentage of the total pollen count stood I came here, 25 years ago, I have known Vera’s ideas for in a closed-canopy forest. a very long time. Britain only now has this discussion, but The problem is this: when Frans Vera, Francis Rose, we had it 35 years ago. It is all about how to manage Keith Alexander, Ted Green and others talk about closed- nature reserves. Science is bent to serve arguments from canopy forest, they have in mind the young (plantation) both sides. Miles did a good job of trying to strike some forests of lowland north-west Europe. Leave these balance, even though speakers from the opposite side forests unmanaged and oak will be outcompeted by were notably absent. beech. We simply have no primeval forest with which Aljos Farjon to compare this, and only pasture woodland (not ‘wood FLS Honorary Research Associate, pasture’, as this is the wrong translation of Domesday’s Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew

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Volume 29 Number 2 December 2017

79 The Asian Yellow-legged Hornet: the implacable advance of a bee-killer Karine Monceau and Denis Thiéry

85 Through a naturalist’s eyes Robert Burton

86 Classic Wildlife Sites: The Wash Will Brown

95 Habitat management news Compiled by Conservation Management Advice, RSPB

97 St Helena: the island of endemics Amy-Jayne Dutton

105 Naturally opinionated Mark Avery

106 In search of the larger water beetles of Britain and Ireland Peter Sutton

113 What does ‘traditional’ management really mean? Paul Dolman, Tom Williamson, Rob Fuller and Gerry Barnes

120 Flying kites: a view from Wales James Robertson

121 Wildlife reports Compiled by Guy Freeman

143 Conservation news Compiled by Sue Everett

149 Twitcher in the swamp

150 Obituary: Trevor Poyser Bernard Mercer

151 Book reviews & Letters

The Asian Yellow-legged Hornet · The Wash

Front cover photograph Great Diving Beetle. Paul Hobson/FLPA St Helena: Island of Endemics · Larger Water Beetles of Britain and Ireland www.britishwildlife.com Artworks 121–142 Wildlife reports artworks John Davis What Does ‘Traditional’ Management Really Mean?