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Metal Ions and Synaptic Transmission: Think Zinc Emily P Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA Vol. 94, pp. 13386–13387, December 1997 Commentary Metal ions and synaptic transmission: Think zinc Emily P. Huang Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Molecular Neurobiology Laboratory, The Salk Institute, 10010 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037 Zinc is abundant in the brain, having, after iron, the highest that its vesicular uptake is mediated by ZnT-3, or a transporter concentration among all transition metals. Most of this brain complex containing ZnT-3. zinc ('90%) is bound up in metal–protein complexes, such as As noted above, the localization of zinc to synaptic vesicles zinc-finger gene regulatory proteins, in which the zinc is used has led to the speculation that it has an important role in for enzymatic catalysis or for structural stability, and this neurotransmission. Aside from prompting wonder on the tightly complexed portion of the zinc pool is essentially invis- cellular effort expended to sequester synaptic zinc, the present ible to histochemical stains specific for metal ions. Many results leave open the main question of its endogenous func- neurons in the brain, however, contain in addition a significant tion. Any answer to this question must certainly take into amount of histochemically reactive, ionic zinc, which is clas- account the high estimated vesicular concentrations of zinc sically detected by Timm’s sulfide-silver staining method. Such and its specific colocalization with glutamate transmitter. One histochemical stains reveal that large amounts of chelatable interesting proposal is that zinc acts as a cofactor to stabilize zinc are concentrated in the cerebral cortex and the limbic the storage of vesicular molecules (such as glutamate), as it region, notably in the hippocampal formation (1). does in non-neural cells. For example, zinc ions are necessary Ultrastructural studies show most of the ionic zinc detected to maintain the crystalline structure of the insulin precipitate by histochemical stains in the above-mentioned areas is local- in secretory granules of pancreatic b cells (1). Another idea is ized within synaptic vesicles of glutamatergic neurons (1), and that zinc, like glutamate, acts directly as a neurotransmitter. researchers have thus suspected for many years that zinc acts Possible receptors for zinc transmission, however, are un- as a neurotransmitter or neuromodulator at excitatory syn- known. apses. Staining for synaptic zinc is especially intense in hip- Probably the most widely accepted proposal regarding the pocampal mossy fibers (2), which project from granule cells in function of synaptic zinc is that it acts as a modulator of the dentate gyrus to the CA3 region of the hippocampus, and synaptic transmission. In particular, a number of studies have stimulation of these fibers causes the release of zinc from addressed the issue of how zinc affects glutamate receptors synaptic boutons (3). The zinc concentration in the synaptic (8–10). At glutamatergic synapses in the central nervous cleft is estimated to reach nearly 300 mM during strong system, several types of glutamate receptor channels on the stimulation (4), certainly enough to have profound effects. postsynaptic membrane mediate glutamate transmission. Despite this accumulation of data, however, determining the Broadly, these receptors are divided into N-methyl-D- true function of vesicular zinc has been problematic, in part aspartate (NMDA) receptors and non-NMDA receptors, both because of the lack of any specific method to inhibit synaptic of which pass cationic current in response to glutamate binding zinc function and because of ignorance about interactions but which differ in several important respects. Specifically, between zinc and glutamate transmitter. Wenzel et al. (5) have NMDA receptors are distinguishable from non-NMDA recep- taken a step toward amending these difficulties by showing that tors by their permeability to calcium ions and the fact that they a putative zinc transporter (ZnT-3) is specifically localized to open chiefly under conditions of strong synaptic stimulation. the surfaces of glutamate-containing synaptic vesicles in mossy Calcium influx through NMDA receptor-channels is critical fiber terminals. Using a combination of electron microscopy, for inducing increases in synaptic strength (termed long-term immunocytochemistry, and histochemical methods, they dem- potentiation, or LTP) believed to underlie the formation of onstrated that all such vesicles express ZnT-3, and up to 80% memories. Also, NMDA receptors are thought to mediate a contain zinc. Taken together, these results confirm that syn- form of neurotoxicity caused by excessive glutamate excitation apses in the mossy fiber system of the hippocampus store and (glutamate excitotoxicity), which is implicated in neuronal death following anoxic events or seizures, as well as in neu- thus corelease zinc with glutamate transmitter. rodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer’s disease (11). Although proof that ZnT-3 is capable of transporting zinc Researchers have shown that physiological concentrations awaits demonstration of its functional properties, this gene is of zinc significantly inhibit NMDA receptor function while classed as a zinc transporter based on its homology with ZnT-1 slightly potentiating the activity of non-NMDA receptors (9). and Znt-2, members of a defined family of mammalian zinc The precise mechanism by which zinc interferes with NMDA transporters (6); ZnT-1 and ZnT-2, respectively, mediate zinc receptor function is not known, but it appears to act as a efflux from cells and zinc accumulation in endosomal vesicles. noncompetitive antagonist whose major site of action lies This family in turn belongs to a larger family of heavy metal ion outside of the channel pore (12). This action contrasts with the transporters, all characterized by possessing six putative trans- 1 action of other divalent cations, notably Mg2 , which binds membrane domains with a conserved signature sequence within the pore to block ion permeation. Given that zinc between domains I and II (7). ZnT-3, the latest mammalian potently inhibits NMDA receptor activity, one would certainly addition to this family, is abundantly expressed in hippocampus expect its corelease with glutamate to modulate transmission and cerebral cortex, in an overall pattern that resembles at glutamatergic synapses. Of particular relevance in this Timm’s stain for zinc (6). By extrapolating from the current regard is whether zinc affects different subtypes of NMDA results of Wenzel et al., it thus seems probable that all synaptic receptors differently. One recent report (13) demonstrates that zinc is colocalized in vesicles with glutamate transmitter and the magnitude of NMDA receptor inhibition by zinc depends on the molecular subunit composition of the receptor. This © 1997 by The National Academy of Sciences 0027-8424y97y9413386-2$2.00y0 result raises the possibility that glutamatergic synapses may PNAS is available online at http:yywww.pnas.org. have differential sensitivities to zinc inhibition and might even 13386 Downloaded by guest on September 30, 2021 Commentary: Huang Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 94 (1997) 13387 be capable of modulating their zinc sensitivity by altering strates, and some researchers have proposed that synaptically NMDA receptor subunit composition. released zinc may actually palliate epileptic symptoms. Clearly, In any case, zinc blockade of NMDA receptor activity might considerable further work must be done to clarify the role of have several functional consequences. Zinc may act to block zinc in synaptic pathologies. NMDA receptor-mediated LTP at specific synapses and may The same, in fact, can be said about the role of zinc in normal inhibit NMDA receptor-mediated excitotoxicity, as discussed synaptic transmission. Despite what is already known, it would above. Interestingly, mossy fiber synapses, which possess very not be surprising to find that there are still missing pieces to large amounts of synaptic zinc, express a special form of LTP the puzzle of synaptic zinc function. For instance, the esti- that does not depend on NMDA receptor activity, although mated concentrations of zinc reached in the synaptic cleft these synapses do have NMDA receptors (14). Zinc is found, appear to exceed that required to modulate glutamate and however, in other hippocampal synapses that do express GABA receptors (4, 9). Thus, the identification of ZnT-3 as NMDA receptor-dependent LTP, so it should not be inferred the synaptic vesicle zinc transporter by Wenzel et al. may be that the presence of synaptic zinc is incompatible with this exactly the advance needed to bring this field into its own. form of LTP. Finally, studies examining the effect of zinc on Construction of mutant mice with targeted deletions of ZnT-3 neurotoxicity have shown that micromolar concentrations of will be an excellent step toward elucidating the endogenous zinc protect cortical neurons from the toxic effects of excessive function of synaptic zinc (as well as its role in disease states), glutamate exposure (15). This result suggests that by modu- and it may be especially desirable to create mice with muta- lating NMDA receptor activity, synaptically released zinc may tions restricted to specific regions of the forebrain, such as has have neuroprotective effects. been done for the NMDA receptor (17). Then, truly might we Aside from its effects on glutamate receptors, zinc has also begin to understand how zinc helps us to think. been shown to block certain types of g-aminobutyric acid (GABA) receptor channels, which mediate inhibitory synaptic 1. Frederickson, C. J. (1989) Int. Rev. Neurobiol. 31, 145–238. transmission in the central nervous system. Although the 2. Slomianka, L. (1992) Neuroscience 48, 325–352. relevance of this block to normal synaptic behavior is not well 3. Howell, G. A., Welch, M. G. & Frederickson, C. J. (1984) Nature understood, it is of special interest in light of possible zinc (London) 308, 736–738. 4. Assaf, S. Y. & Chung, S.-H. (1984) Nature (London) 308, involvement in the pathological physiology of epilepsy. Among 734–736. the disease features of human temporal lobe epilepsy are 5. Wenzel, H. J., Cole, T.
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