The Era of Lifelong Learning : Implications for Secondary Schools
Australian Council for Educational Research (ACER) ACEReSearch
Lifelong Learning Teaching and Learning and Leadership
2000
The Era of Lifelong Learning : Implications for Secondary Schools
Jennifer Bryce ACER, [email protected]
Tracey Frigo ACER
Phillip McKenzie ACER, [email protected]
Graeme Withers ACER
Follow this and additional works at: https://research.acer.edu.au/lifelong_learning
Recommended Citation Bryce, J., Frigo, T., McKenzie, P., & Withers, G. (2000). The Era of Lifelong Learning : Implications for Secondary Schools. https://research.acer.edu.au/lifelong_learning/1
This Report is brought to you by the Teaching and Learning and Leadership at ACEReSearch. It has been accepted for inclusion in Lifelong Learning by an authorized administrator of ACEReSearch. For more information, please contact [email protected]. The era of lifelong learning: implications for secondary schools
Jennifer Bryce, Tracey Frigo, Phillip McKenzie and Graeme Withers The ACER Core-Funded Research Program
The Australian Council for Educational Research conducts a core program of research funded by an annual grant from the States and Territories and the Commonwealth.
This annual grant allows research to be undertaken into issues of general importance in Australian education and complements research projects commissioned from time to time by individual States, Territories and the Commonwealth.
Priorities for the ACER core research program are reviewed every three years. The three-year program under which this work was completed focused on an over- arching question: What can be done to improve learning outcomes? and addressed five priority areas:
• assessment and reporting to improve learning • improving literacy and numeracy learning • improving outcomes for Indigenous students • teaching practices to improve learning • vocational outcomes and lifelong learning The era of lifelong learning: implications for secondary schools
Jennifer Bryce, Tracey Frigo, Phillip McKenzie and Graeme Withers
This publication is the result of research that forms part of a program supported by a grant to the Australian Council for Educational Research by state, territory and Commonwealth governments. The support provided by these governments is gratefully acknowledged. The views expressed in this publication are those of the authors and not necessarily those of the state, territory and Commonwealth governments.
First published 2000 by Australian Council for Educational Research Ltd 19 Prospect Hill Road, Camberwell Victoria AUSTRALIA 3124 Copyright © 2000 Australian Council for Educational Research All rights reserved. Except as provided for by Australian copyright law, no part of this book may be reproduced without written permission from the publisher. ISBN 0 86431 359 4 Printed in Australia
TABLE OF CONTENTS Page
What this paper is about 2 Why is this an era of lifelong learning? 3 Implications for the individual 5 Implications for schools 7 Key areas for school action 9 Information literacy 10 Implications for the student 10 Implications for schools 11 Assessment of information literacy skills 12 The overcrowded curriculum 13 Questioning, reasoning and evaluating 14 Values, dispositions and attitudes 15 Implications for the individual 15 Skill sets beyond the ‘basic’ 17 Problem-solving skills 17 Communication skills 18 Implications for students 19 Implications for schools 20 One’s self and one’s learning 21 Developing a strong learner self-concept 21 Assessment and self-concept 22 Learning how to learn 23 Encouraging deep learning 24 Developing metacognitive skills 24 Helping young people construct their own knowledge 26 Providing an engaging context for learning 26 Implications for schools 27 Conclusion and summary tables 30 How can schools assess their progress towards lifelong learning? 30 The journey to lifelong learning 34 References 35 Websites 36 Acknowledgments 38
WHAT THIS PAPER IS ABOUT
Knowledge will increase and change in every sphere of life, and people will need to be in a constant state of learning. This era of lifelong learning needs to be considered.
This paper is concerned with the role What precisely is lifelong learning? Is it that schools can play in engaging young just another concept that excites people in their learning, and helping attention for a while but then fades them to develop skills and attitudes that because it ultimately fails to deliver? Is it will give them an orientation towards simply old ideas that have been learning for life. To meet the needs of an repackaged for new times? Or does era of lifelong learning schools need to lifelong learning offer something that is view themselves as a stage, and a vastly genuinely innovative and fresh? And important one, in the ongoing learning what does it all mean for schools? How process, where the skills essential to a would a lifelong learning orientation lifetime engagement in learning are transform what schools currently do? acquired, honed and developed. This paper offers some positive answers to the last two questions, and the The paper starts by asking just why this strategies which underpin them. should be considered an age of lifelong learning. It then focuses on a range of In this paper we suggest that a key specific issues for individuals and change for secondary schools is to schools, and suggests how people can immerse their students, to a greater become lifelong learners, and what degree than ever before, in the world schools can do to help young people outside school – particularly the world of develop the attributes and characteristics work. This will involve not just simple of learning that will serve them work experiences, as in the past, but throughout life. The final section of the giving opportunities for developing and paper offers a summary of what lifelong honing personal skills, particularly in learning implies for secondary schools, information technology, boosting self- teachers and students, and a list of esteem and personal confidence, and resources for further work. maximising opportunities for the display of enquiry, enterprise and imagination in the world beyond the school fence.
Page 1 What could it mean to be a lifelong learner at secondary school?
We reflect and We build on what think about our progress. we’ve learnt and make links with other learning areas, and community and global issues. We’re good at finding and sorting information. We often work together
We are flexible. We plan ahead.
We enjoy surfing We’re open to the net. change and we’re happy to adapt.
We are problem- solvers.
We’re comfortable about taking risks in class. We are well organised. Before we start something we think about where our We like to adapt new strengths lie. We often ask ourselves: technology to our am I going in the right everyday lives. direction? (Our teachers help us to think about this.)
Page 2 WHY IS THIS AN ERA OF LIFELONG LEARNING?
In Australia many of the features of the leading industrialised countries have post-industrial society predicted by Barry generated lists of generic employment- Jones in 1982 are now evident: related skills needed by young people in preparation for the world of work (the • a sharp reduction in the number of prime example in Australia is the Mayer people engaged in routine or repetitive Key Competencies, published in 1992). It work; is now generally recognised that generic • a number of personalised service conceptions of this kind are an essential occupations now being fulfilled by basis for all forms of post-compulsory computerised technology (such as education and training (Robinson, 2000, electronic mail delivery); p. 28). • a decrease in the number of workers This diverse situation is reflected in employed in manufacturing; views on lifelong learning. There is often • increasing anxiety about the depletion a gap between perceived of the world’s resources; and understandings. For example, the OECD (1998) has characterised Australia as one • a mounting tension between those of the countries where discussions on who are information rich (who are lifelong learning tend to emphasise skills employed, affluent and have access to training and retraining for improving further riches) and those who are employability and economic information poor, who are often competitiveness. Japan, by contrast, is subsisting on income support and have seen as paying relatively more attention little chance to expand their learning to the potential contribution of lifelong horizons. learning to citizenship, and a better Forecasters of thirty or so years ago enjoyment of life, especially in light of reached the conclusion that this might that country’s ageing population. be an Age of Leisure, but events have developed somewhat differently. For the many unemployed, there is free time but it is hardly leisurely, and is fraught with the problems of getting a job or otherwise supporting oneself. For the many who are employed, changes in working conditions and the advances in technology have meant increased expectations of what can be accomplished in the workplace and a great deal of stress which comes with meeting those expectations. There has been considerable discussion about the need for flexibility and adaptability to meet the frequently changing work environment, and many Page 3 CLOSING THE GAP How might Lifelong Learning benefit educational policy and planning?
In AUSTRALIA there is an emphasis In JAPAN, there is more of an on lifelong learning’s contribution emphasis on lifelong learning’s • through skills training; • potential contribution to citizenship; • through retraining for continued • promotion of better enjoyment employability; of life; • in regard to economic • ensuring a continued full, considerations. rich life into old age.
Well planned lifelong learning policies and procedures are inclusive of both of the above attitudes or streams.
In this paper we are trying to encompass At the first Global Conference on both sides of this gap. We are therefore Lifelong Learning the major issues for focusing on what seem to be the most schools, as they grapple with new skill appropriate approaches to learning, both and knowledge requirements, were from the purposeful, self-improvement linked to four types of generic skills, point of view, and from the employment- shown in the following diagram related, self-advancement one. It is (Longworth and Davies, 1996). notable that education systems are taking on this type of holistic orientation as they grapple with the definition of new skill and knowledge requirements. For example, there are major reforms in the South Australian, Western Australian and Victorian systems. In South Australia ‘essential learnings’ express cross- curricular values, dispositions, skills and understandings which focus on thinking, identify, interdependence (connection with others and the world), optimism about shaping the future and capability Page to make powerful use of literacies, 4 numeracy and learning technologies. MAJOR ISSUES FOR SCHOOLS AS IDENTIFIED AT THE FIRST GLOBAL CONFERENCE ON LIFELONG LEARNING
Skills-based Links to industry, Linking to the Extracurricular curriculum university, etc. community activities
LIFE SKILLS SOCIAL SKILLS
Teacher as THE SCHOOL IN A School–home developer of LIFELONG LEARNING cooperation human potential WORLD
LEARNING SKILLS ENABLING SKILLS
Use of National/ Personal Lifetime educational international learning plans learning strategy software networking
In this paper we explore some of the key Implications for the individual issues for Australian secondary schools In an era when access to knowledge and as they seek to put this challenging communication can be achieved agenda into effect. Our analysis has two Lifelong learning almost instantaneously, it is main messages. Most schools are already can be seen as obvious that information bringing engaged to varying degrees in many of technology and its related skills together life the elements summarised in the diagram. and abilities play a huge role, and skills, learning However – and this is the challenging skills, social are likely to become even more part – these elements are not normally skills and central. The necessity to be an enabling skills. brought together in ways that build on adventurous and inquisitive and reinforce each other. The paper learner, as well as adaptable and flexible, argues that the traditional focus of much is paramount. The means to be such a schooling on ‘Learning Skills’ (the bottom person have enlarged and left-hand corner of the diagram) will be The complexities diversified: what is necessary is much more effective in lifelong learning of modern access to these means, and the societies require terms if designed around students skills, knowledge and motivation people to be developing personal learning plans open to new to use them effectively. The (‘Enabling Skills’) linked to settings ideas and adept workplace gives such access to outside the classroom (‘Social Skills’) at new ways of many – others have it at home. doing things. oriented towards more applied learning Cybercafes and connection (‘Life Skills’). facilities at libraries and elsewhere in the Page community offer it to others. 5 But the cyber-revolution is primarily a means to learning (even though it carries its own learning load). The field is Lifelong learning is far broader than broader. Ongoing economic and social the provision of second-chance changes have increased the importance education and training for adults. It of up-to-date skills and knowledge. The is based on the view that everyone complexities of modern societies require should be able, motivated, and people to be open to new ideas and actively encouraged to learn adept at new ways of doing things. Those throughout life. This view of learning who are not able to anticipate and adapt embraces individual and social to change – to continue learning development of all kinds and in all throughout their lives – are likely to settings: formally, in schools, become increasingly marginalised in vocational, tertiary and adult economic and social life. education institutions; and non- The foregoing suggests that school formally, at home, at work and in the leavers will require community. • literacy competence with print and OECD, 1997 electronic media; • critical thinking and analytic skills for Here is another similarly broad coping with complex community definition: changes and uncertainty in job markets, economies and workplaces; and Lifelong learning is the development • commitment to and resources for of human potential through a retraining across their lifespans using a continuously supportive process range of media, print and electronic. which stimulates and empowers individuals to acquire all the Lifelong learners have a positive attitude knowledge, values, skills and towards learning and about themselves understanding they will require as learners. They are commonly throughout their lifetimes and to described in terms of their curiosity, apply them with confidence, interest and enthusiasm for learning. creativity and enjoyment in all roles, Researchers such as Candy et al. (1994) circumstances, and environments. refer to the learner’s ‘inquiring mind’ (their love of learning and critical spirit) European Commission (1995), p.5 and their sense of ‘personal agency’. So what does this suggest that lifelong In both definitions, both sides of the learning actually is for a person? Here is ‘gap’ mentioned earlier are encompassed one attempt at a definitional statement: – the personal and the vocational are both accommodated. ‘All roles’ are foreseen as being supported by lifelong learning, not least because it is now much harder to separate ‘vocational’ Page 6 from ‘personal’ skills. Implications for schools By the end of the nineteenth century ‘intelligence’ was mainly conceived of in Many schools will ask, regarding a paper terms of logico-deductive reasoning – such as this: ‘But how does a lifelong witness the early intelligence tests, such learning approach essentially differ from as those of Binet, developed to identify what we do now?’ A good question – and children who were found to be one which we shall try to answer What is now unable to cope with the schooling successively as each section is explored. considered of the late nineteenth century, In most aspects of school process there ‘essential’ has dominated as it was by rote enlarged in is no difference. Indeed the central role learning and the following of scope of schools, in equipping students with predictable patterns. Being essential attributes and abilities, to the ‘intelligent’ no longer necessarily means utmost of their capacities, will not primarily being good at maths, or its change at all. But what is now to be extensions into verbal logic. Influenced considered ‘essential’ has indeed in part by a world which values diversity changed, or rather enlarged in scope far and flexibility, definitions of intelligence beyond ‘basic skills’ and previous notions today are more fluid and less of ‘core curriculum’. constrained than early in the twentieth Change and enlargement of boundaries century. Current definitions refer are both constants in educational theory to practical intelligence, multiple Definitions of and practice. For example, as a result of intelligences and an intelligence the Industrial Revolution which straddled acknowledgment that feelings may today are more the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, fluid and less play a more significant role in constrained than people had to learn to work with thinking than we once imagined. the traditional machines, and what ‘education’ was logico-deductive Schools are geared for change, provided in the workplace valued definitions. either from within, with school precision, regularity, predictability, and reviews, professional development and being able to follow patterns. Early in the the like, or imposed from without, in period this ‘education’ was rarely formal, terms of curriculum mandates or policy and generally provided in the form of directives. Communicating this readiness rules for workplace behaviour rather to change to its students is the key to than training courses. As the nineteenth many other forms of learning success. At century progressed, it became obvious the end of this paper a summary is that universal (or near-universal) general offered of the many and diverse aspects education was vital, not only to supply of lifelong learning policies and factories with a new breed of worker, but procedures which a school might as a fundamental expression of human encompass; for now, the table below rights. serves as an introduction to the field.
Page 7 CHARACTERISTICS OF A LIFELONG LEARNING SCHOOL Such a school • has a written organisational strategy, available to all, for developing the full human potential of each student and member of staff; • involves students and staff in the maintenance of a culture of quality and respect for high standards in everything it does, and in continuous improvement programs for staff; • increases the resources available to the school by harnessing the skills, talents and knowledge of administrators, parents, business leaders and other members of the community, to create new learning opportunities and implement school strategies; • makes links with the world of work which enrich students’ knowledge and experience and facilitate a ‘learning’ approach to adult life; • develops a curriculum based on the enhancement of personal skills and values to improve knowledge and understanding, and to enable students to manage change through their lives; • uses modern information and communication technologies widely across all disciplines, including the exploration of collaborative learning opportunities through networks; • looks outward to the world, promoting a sense of tolerance, justice and understanding of different races, creeds and cultures in all students; • stimulates home–school cooperation and involves the family in the life and work of the school; • expands lifelong learning in all its students and staff by involving them in the development of personal learning plans, guides and mentors; • broadens the vision of staff and students through a wide range of cultural experiences and extracurricular activities; • celebrates learning frequently as a desirable, permanent and enjoyable habit for all.
A school Based on Longworth and Davies, 1996, p. 43. communicating readiness to change to its students is the Our discussion of lifelong learning young people are engaged in a process key to many and school education will focus of sorting out who they are, the values other forms of particularly on young people at they support, their interests, and with learning success. secondary school – whom they identify. Integral to this
Page a time of considerable change and process is the development of an identity 8 development. During these years most as a learner. Many young people will be seriously where qualifications can lead either to considering their post-school futures, work or to further study. This approach is particularly as they move into Years 11 attractive because it encourages young and 12. Some will be pursuing part-time people to have a lifelong learning work, which may involve various outlook, seeing the world of work and combinations of work and study. These the world of study as a fine, intricate students need to be helped to draw on mesh. the resources provided by vocational experiences to help them make Key areas for school action connections between the context of The remainder of this paper considers school and the wider community, some of the key areas in which schools including the world of work. can prepare school leavers so that they But making connections between have a lifelong learning orientation. The learning and working is important for all discussion covers secondary students, not just those • the importance of becoming an studying vocational subjects. This is ‘information literate’ individual; explicitly recognised in the National • the need to question, reason about, Goals for Schooling recently endorsed justify the relevance of, and evaluate by State and Territory Education information; Ministers. Among the key goals is the following: • the values, dispositions and attitudes associated with lifelong learning; When students leave schools they should: • generic skills that promote lifelong learning; have employment related skills and an understanding of the work • the way that a strong personal self- environment, career options and concept assists learning, and ways this pathways as a foundation for, and can be developed; and positive attitudes towards, vocational • ways of helping people learn how to education and training, further learn. education, employment and life-long learning. (MCEETYA, 1999) This goal requires that all students be prepared for both work and further learning, and that all students, whether headed for further education or directly into the labour market, will benefit from a curriculum that combines a strong general education with the development of employment-oriented skills and knowledge. Research by the OECD (2000) indicates that the fastest growth in secondary school programs around the world is Page 9 INFORMATION LITERACY
The key word to start with is information. multiple sources of information. These Briefly, the field can be broken down days we are faced with multiple modes of into collecting, sorting, analysing, meaning-making and we need to be able combining and using information. The to engage with combinations of oral, keys to acquiring and managing print, visual and multimedia The keys are the information, even in a communications. The term used for these ‘basics’ of word cybernetically oriented world are new kinds of literacies is ‘multiliteracies’ and number. not themselves cybernetic facts. (New London Group, 1996). The keys are, of course, the basics of An information literate person An information word and number, as they have always literate person is someone who recognises been. Despite occasional attempts to recognises when when information is needed information is raise symbols, icons, logos and such to a and then has the ability to needed and similar status and power as locate, evaluate and use the then locates, communication media, what they (like evaluates and information effectively. This numbers) communicate has a uses the information may come from information fundamental verbal underpinning. books, reports, computers, effectively. Learning of all this begins early, fuelled films, people, conversations, by young children’s natural curiosity and posters, television shows and other capacity for play and exploration. visual images. What is important is that At primary school students move on students can dissect, understand and quickly from basic literacy, to develop a evaluate information in a range of rich repertoire of linguistic and contexts, both in and out of school. metalinguistic abilities for which the word ‘skills’ is too puny a word. By the end of primary school they can explore dimensions such as critical reasoning, INFORMATION LITERACY aesthetic appreciation and other mastery of the processes of language activities, and develop distinct becoming informed encompasses literacy skills in other subject areas the ability to: including mathematics and science. • recognise the need for information; Implications for the student • solve problems and develop ideas; Basic literacy and numeracy are often • pose important questions; nominated as foundation skills for • use a variety of data gathering lifelong learning and are essential in strategies; developing information literacy skills. • locate relevant and appropriate data; Without a basic level of literacy, motivation to learn will be significantly • assess data for quality, authority, inhibited. However, while literacy and accuracy, authenticity; and numeracy continue to be learnt at • acknowledge that stress and increasing levels of complexity, the uncertainty are essential lifelong learner needs to develop other components of becoming
Page skills which enable a broader and more informed. 10 sophisticated ongoing engagement with Henri, 1999, p. 4 The various sources of information that A school which seeks to know Lifelong learning the learner needs to be able to engage (and responds to) students’ needs is a long-term with imply a need also to be and demand, encourages self- planning strategy. technologically literate, as noted earlier . direction, and provides the richest Information technology skills are needed possible knowledge base (or access to to use a number of information sources. it), is a lifelong learning oriented school. However, information literacy focuses on Lifelong learning does not always exist in an individual’s understanding and use of concrete, readily identifiable forms, such information. Gaining information literacy as classrooms, buildings or curriculum, skills enhances the opportunity for nor on recognisable sites. Lifelong students to become self-directed, learning is perhaps more appropriately lifelong learners. The technologies are thought of as a long-term planning not only the tools, but also things to be strategy rather than as a ready-made, learnt in their own right, and this is likely implementable alternative or extension to be a lifelong task, especially given the to the present education and training rate at which sophisticated approaches system. The key policy objectives for are being developed. schools with regard to this strategy are to ensure that all individuals Implications for schools • are motivated to continue learning; Concentration Most schools will rightly feel on just ‘the that they are already meeting • have the skills and knowledge to basics’ may be a the requirements for their continue learning on a self-directed trap. pupils’ acquisition and basis; management of information. In others, • have access to the necessary radical change may be required. opportunities to develop, refine and Concentration on just the basics may hone essential skills; and itself be a trap. There is also a possibility that ‘forward thinking’ schools may • have appropriate incentives to regress, as Longworth and Davies (1996) participate in the preliminary stages of warn: the strategy. in times of stress and change, society As Henri (1999) points out, to help retreats backwards into the old students become information literate, certainties, back to the basics, which schools will need to help them work themselves have changed and towards expanded so much that the old • using the practical and conceptual basics are no longer relevant or tools of information technology; appropriate. Schools are pressured to adopt ever more rigid structures and • understanding form, formats, location curricula more appropriate to a full- and access methods; employment, industrial, mid-20th (or • identifying how data are situated and even 19th) century environment, produced; rather than to the new and urgent • formatting and publishing in textual paradigm of change, information and multimedia formats; and technology, lifelong learning and the Page post-industrial order. (p. 40) • adopting emerging technologies. 11 If a school is to become an information are taught in context. The same applies literate community then any approach to information and communication needs to be a whole school approach technologies. Teachers may find that the which is documented in school following steps will help students to The school policies and actively supported by develop information literacy. needs to the school community. The school support both needs to support both teachers Assessment of information literacy teachers and students to and students to develop their skills develop their information literacy skills. School The assessment practices which support information curriculum documentation, such the development of information literacy literacy skills. as course outlines, need to make skills are those which enable students to explicit that information literacy is reflect on how effectively they are using a desired outcome for students. and controlling the information they use, Information literacy is not an ‘add-on’ but and to pinpoint areas that students can a competency which needs to be further develop so that they can integrated and valued in all aspects of consolidate their learning. These the curriculum; information literacy skills practices are concerned with information
THE ‘BIG 6’ COMPONENTS OF INFORMATION LITERACY Tools for teaching and learning activities should be designed explicitly to assist students to develop skills in the following areas: • Task definition – defining the information problem and identifying the information needed in order to complete the task (that is, to solve the information problem); • Information seeking strategies – determining or brainstorming the range of possible sources and then evaluating and prioritising the different sources so that the best will be selected; • Location and access – locating the sources (intellectually and physically) and then finding information within the sources; recording these discoveries; • Use of information – engaging with the information (whether through reading, hearing, viewing, or touching) and then extracting the relevant information from each source; keeping a record of these extractions; • Synthesis – organising the information from the multiple sources and then presenting the information either in summary or in full, depending on its importance within the task; • Evaluation – judging the product (its effectiveness) and making a judgement about the information problem-solving process itself (efficiency), as a record for next time. Page from Eisenberg & Johnson, 1996 12 accessed both in and out of school. students participate in a dialogue about Assessment tasks should be authentic; the process of information gathering and that is, an active assessment by the evaluation. teacher, peers or the students of their Teachers need to provide a systematic skills in real-life information gathering and integrated introduction to particular exercises, not merely pen and paper fields of study. It is important that tests on the theory of information students be encouraged to develop gathering. contextualised frameworks in which to The types of assessment which best help develop their understanding. The students to demonstrate their opportunity for making connections may understanding will be those which are be achieved by teachers working with able to probe more deeply into the their colleagues to develop themes of student’s understanding of both content learning across subject areas. For and processes. Whether assessed by the example, teaching about nuclear power teacher, peers or themselves, the type of may involve a range of subject areas assessment should enable the students including science, politics and history. to demonstrate higher order thinking Cross-curricular planning, aiming for skills, particularly in regard to processes, connectedness between learning and provide feedback on the extent to activities, encourages both a broader and which they are able to do this. deeper understanding of content where the subject areas become vehicles which The overcrowded curriculum enable students to develop their generic, It is important that schools have an higher order thinking skills. institutional commitment to support teachers and students in developing the concept of themselves as lifelong learners. Course documentation, school policies, and a curriculum which is not overloaded and which enables students progressively to build on knowledge and establish connections between fields of knowledge, take time to develop and to support. However, in practice teachers and students are often faced with a crowded Cross-curricular and compartmentalised planning, aiming curriculum, particularly in for relation to examination connectedness demands, and particularly at between learning senior year levels. In these activities, instances, teachers can still encourages both try to be explicit about the a broader and processes they used to gather deeper understanding information, and they can set Page of content up exercises whereby 13 QUESTIONING, REASONING AND EVALUATING
As noted in the previous section, lifelong ethical or intellectual grounds. learners will have developed competence Students who have developed the with a range of print and electronic media capacity to question, reason and evaluate and are able to engage effectively with can be typified as: their available range of learning opportunities. They are ‘information • being continualy aware of change and literate’: that is, they are able to recognise variety; the need for information; they can use • being aware that not all change and available technologies with confidence; variety is necessarily positive in intent they know how to access specific and or outcome; relevant information sources through these technologies; and they know how to • never being satisfied with the status organise all the stuff once it is obtained. quo but constantly on the lookout for novelty, innovation and new ways of It is important to But more importantly, they are able doing things; be able to to synthesise, analyse and (above evaluate • continually wanting to improve critically the all) evaluate this raw information. sources of The type of knowledge base of the procedure and processes, and update information. lifelong learner may be skills as well as information; and characterised by its breadth and • being as critical of their own views as depth. They will have developed a sound they are of the views of others. general knowledge, various bodies of specialised knowledge according to their A lifelong learning focus is not just about interests, as well as a clear sense of the increasing access to information and interconnectedness of fields of information services, but the depth of knowledge. Candy refers to this as a learning which such activity promotes. ‘breadth of vision’. They are able to make Longworth (1999) contends that much connections between learning in school current education does not go far beyond and out of school and aim for a deep the information level. Questioning and understanding in as many relevant fields reasoning are key inputs in making the as possible. A lifelong learner has ‘strategic jumps from one level to the one higher, foresight’– the ability to read patterns and shown by the model of ‘The Learning trends so as to be pre-emptive about the Ladder’ (Longworth, 1999). skills and information needed in an environment of constant change. They will start by asking questions: ‘What Wisdom needs to be learnt? What more could be Insight learnt? What is the most effective and economical way of going about this Understanding The learning process, and delivering the Knowledge learner required product?’ Linked to this is the need to be able to evaluate critically the Information sources of their information and to be Data Page willing to reject those sources that they 14 find insufficient or unworthy on logical, Schools that develop questioning, acquisition. Learning theory tells us that reasoning and evaluative skills in their individuals learn best when learning students will activities are made explicit and there is an appropriate level of support through • provide, in advance, the criteria for modelling and scaffolding. Activities that assessment of the outcomes of the simply involve the reproduction of learning; and knowledge do not allow students to • model good questioning, enquiry and develop skills in handling presentational skills by teachers information, let alone achieving Individuals learn best when themselves; and the wisdom it could provide. learning • constantly practise the art of selection Activities which allow students to activities are made explicit and evaluation of learning resources. go off searching for information without having been shown how and there is an Theories and facts need to be subject to appropriate level to identify the questions inherent of support. constant testing against received or in the information they are novel models. A teacher who searching for do not allow the students demonstrates this openness and to develop these foundation skills. willingness, as well as modelling, aids the
VALUES, DISPOSITIONS AND ATTITUDES
We have tried to define the ‘information a more cognitive one: to be able to apply literate’ individual and how schools can insights and knowledge gained by means develop these characteristics in their of the adaptable, flexible approach and students. We shall now attempt a similar the learning this has resulted in. process with the expressions ‘learning identity’ and ‘learner self-concept’. Implications for the individual Between the two sections, however, there Lifelong learners need to face change should be some consideration of what with confidence, indeed value change for the ‘information literate’ person does its possible positive outcomes. They with the information he or she has readily adapt to new situations and tasks gained in order to make full and positive in learning, whether in school or Lifelong learners use of it, enlarge the sense of ‘identity’ workplace, and become used to are ready to and heighten the ‘self-concept’. doing so. Further, they are ready to change personal direction, when Some key expressions, commonly change personal direction, when new and interesting arenas for new and encountered in the literature, are interesting adaptability, flexibility and the ability to learning emerge from their arenas for apply new knowledge in practice. Much curiosity, or when they need to learning emerge keep a job, go for promotion, or from their use is made of these terms and ideas in curiosity. describing the desired attributes of seek a change in occupation or employees in modern workplaces. But lifestyle. Lifelong learners not only cope they also clearly relate to the lifelong with but thrive on change and are able to learner. They are a combination of predict the kinds of skills and information needed for the new attitudinal attributes – willingness to Page adapt, readiness to be flexible – as well as situations they encounter. 15 The modern citizen (not just the modern There is much that schools can do (and worker) needs a knowledge base with indeed already do) to foster those breadth, depth and connectedness. The attitudes and dispositions, and the sense of connectedness is hard to abilities that accompany them, which will achieve: much harder than it once was. equip students for variety, change and The explosion of information and the flux of an increasingly complex knowledge, along with the recognition world. Seeing the connection between that students face uncertain futures, theory and practice can be promoted by particularly with respect to employment, departing from the last vestiges of rote has led to a general recognition of the learning and standardised assessment, need to move away from fixed bodies of into explorations of many kinds. Fluid knowledge. However, effective rather than linear thinking can be engagement in learning beyond encouraged so that students are not schooling requires a broad knowledge constrained to work within traditional base which has been progressively built paradigms or recognised subject on throughout schooling. boundaries. The act of transferring knowledge into action, adapting The extent to which the learner is able to knowledge from one field to another, or develop a depth of knowledge in attempting a holistic or more particular areas enables them to exhibit integrated treatment of a other key characteristics of the lifelong Changes can be particular aspect of learning learner, including critical thinking and celebrated, can be modelled and rather than left what Candy et al. (1994) have called promoted by teachers and as threatening ‘helicopter vision’, where the learner is events. schools more generally. able to make connections across bodies of knowledge. The broader and deeper the knowledge base, the more room to move, change, and be flexible, and the greater the repertoire of known possibilities when such knowledge needs to be translated into new action or put into practice.
Page 16 SKILL SETS BEYOND THE ‘BASIC’
Two skill sets deserve some separate ability to think critically about attention. ‘Problem-solving’ has attracted available information rather than a large literature, both about theory and remain defensive about their practice by individuals. In schools, what technical shortcomings. (Fiske, 1992) is sometimes called ‘enquiry method’ or It was mentioned above that students ‘discovery learning’ often comes to have need to be led to seeing the a strong problem-solving component. connectedness between fields or bodies The students may either respond to a of knowledge. Often the problem-solving given problem or initiate their own, and trajectory is best tackled by looking then go about the process of working around and about the specific problem, through it, either alone or in concert for clues, cues or strategies which might with other students. In the latter case, a be followed towards a solution. range of communication skills come into Experiential teaching strategies such as play. Beyond schooling, in a lifelong role plays, work experience, field trips learning context, problem-solving is and clinical practice can promote this often linked to attributes such as type of connectedness. They encourage creativity and innovation. Here the spur students to develop a framework which to the intellectual activity is much more places their learning in a context, and likely to be self-initiated. enables them to establish its relevance to Problem-solving skills life beyond schools. Also important are resource-based and problem-based It is useful if The role of teachers is learning tasks and activities where teachers can important in exposing, offering teachers and students pose problems model both the experience, and giving from practice to provide a stimulus for willingness to judgments about problem- experiment and learning. Much of this problem-solving explore solving operations. In this, as activity may be of a reactive nature, where problems, and with other issues raised in this students explore problems generated by ways of doing paper, modelling both the others while guided by a teacher. But it is so. willingness to experiment and important that students work in a climate explore problems, and ways of doing so, is where they are encouraged to innovate crucial, especially as an encouraging and create, thereby generating problems example to the tentative learner. that are directly relevant to them. More generally, with the explosion of It is important to consider the information in many fields, teachers issue of transition from ‘teacher Many teachers may no longer be able to maintain control’ to ‘learner control’, which who are used to their positions as being the ultimate controlling operates on a number of students’ authority or fount of knowledge on a dimension as outlined in the box learning will find particular subject: they can, however, below. Many teachers who are it difficult to assume the role of a lifelong learning used to controlling students’ become ‘facilitators’. model for students, demonstrating learning will find this difficult. For that they have learning skills, respect example, a teacher who is a content knowledge and its context and share expert – used to telling students what he information on how to find and or she knows – may well not have skills Page utilize sources, thus conveying their as a counsellor, guide and evaluator. 17 • How flexible is each instructional process with regard to the FOUR DIMENSIONS OF requirements of the learner? ‘LEARNER CONTROL’ • How, and by whom, are the usefulness PACE – times and places at which a and quality of learning judged? learner finds it most convenient and appropriate to learn Communication skills CHOICE – choice of what to study The issue of communication, teamwork and co-operative learning is a rather METHOD – selecting modes and vexed question in the context of a texts discussion of lifelong learning. There are CONTENT – choosing precisely what those who point out that much learning, to learn depending on one’s personal and many moments of inspiration and goals and interests insight, take place when the learner is alone, and that there are many examples Candy, 1991, p. 208 of deep learners who never need to, or choose not to, work closely with others. Problem based learning approaches are Nevertheless, schooling and most increasingly being adopted in both occupational training imply contact and graduate and professional education communication. In group situations programs. The main aim of this approach where learning is taking place it is just is to integrate learning of content and not economical to mount totally the process of learning. The following individualised programs – nor is it questions may help to identify the extent desirable given that so much learning to which secondary school students are arises from interacting with others. moving towards control of their learning Perhaps an old teachers’ saying Communication and developing capacity for independent puts it clearly: ‘no one of us skills that are problem-solving (Candy, 1991, p. 209): needed include knows it all, but between us we expressing • Is learning self-initiated and self- know an awful lot’. This acts as oneself clearly, motivated? a motto for much cooperative listening to and shared learning, where others, making • Who identifies goals and objectives appropriate communication skills do and selects problems for study? contributions, become important. It is and being able • Who determines the pace, the supported at the policy/theory to persuade sequence and the methods of level by documents such as the others. information gathering? Mayer Key Competencies, with its • What provision is there for the argument that ‘working with others and development of learners’ ideas and for in teams’ is an important element of an creative solutions to problems? educational specification. • Is the emphasis on gathering People undoubtedly learn. The research information, or judgments about its literature on paired communication and appropriateness, external to the its powerful role in fostering second language learning can be extrapolated to Page learner? 18 many other learning situations where people ‘get stuff done together’ and learn more powerfully than they would To gain this reflective interdependence otherwise. In such situations, young young people need to have close people relationships with groups of adults and peers. The adults may take on roles as • receive information and knowledge; mentors; they may be family members; • share information and knowledge; they are often teachers; but they could • participate in goal-setting; and be other significant people in a young person’s life such as a librarian, an • work towards achieving common goals. employer or a sports coach. Skills of this kind include Communication skills are both exercised and further developed in such • expressing oneself clearly orally and circumstances. Even when considering verbally in formal and informal an issue such as what it means to be, or situations; develop into, an autonomous learner, • listening to others and making some competencies imply a measure of appropriate contributions to joint interaction and communication. learning occasions; and Candy (1991) has developed a profile of an • being able to persuade others that autonomous learner, which puts together one’s point is a reasonable one. over 100 competencies that studies have shown to be linked with autonomous Implications for students learning. Some of the competencies Although the benefits of learning which seem relevant to developing a through collaboration are given a lot of positive learner identity at secondary emphasis, it is also recognised that school, and thereby encouraging learning reserved, even withdrawn, individuals later in life, involve being able to learn as well. A major challenge for • clarify one’s own values and establish schools is to achieve a balance, whereby goals consistent with these values; inspiring the confidence to learn with • critically examine the roles and values others involves equipping the student to of others, and make comment on learn with confidence when he or she is them; alone. Relationships with others are deemed to be very important, and the • work cooperatively with others, but chance is offered for new interpersonal also enjoy working on one’s own; experiences to be melded or harmonised • relate appropriately and collaboratively with all of those that have been acquired to peers as resources and even as previously. Out of these interactions the mentors; students develop what has been termed ‘reflective interdependence’ (Nixon et al., • relate well to teachers as facilitators; 1996, p. 53) through •‘stick to’ a position; Students develop conversing with people and ‘reflective • be ‘different’; interdependence’ gradually building around by interacting them a richer and broader • disagree; and with their peers community which assists the and conversing • relate to others without depending on development of their Page with a range of them. people. sensitivity and judgment. 19 Implications for schools • having mutual trust, respect and care; The role of teachers as mentors and • building and growing together; and models is central to the development of • feeling that the classroom is a ‘safe’ young people as lifelong learners. place to take risks. Teachers in learner-centred classrooms observe individuals and groups of In such a community, the teacher’s role is students as they interact and learn. They described as ‘strong’, but the teacher is can intervene, when necessary, to assist seen as a guide, manager, director, students by modelling appropriate model, provoker (devil’s advocate) and The role of teachers as behaviours and problem-solving questioner. This suggests that the mentors and strategies, asking higher order experience is far from a ‘free-for-all’; the models is central questions, and identifying teacher helps students achieve goals that to the additional or more appropriate have been set in a collaborative fashion, development of lifelong learners resources. If students find the and interpersonal communication is level of content difficult, these constant. teachers find ways of relating the new Researchers such as Aspin and Chapman material to students’ present knowledge (2000) recommend that schools and (Wang et al., 1998). One way of achieving teachers explicitly recognise, value and the kind of learning climate that has encourage learning which takes place been outlined is to consider the outside the school. Schools should classroom as a community of learning. actively attempt to break down barriers Classrooms that function as learning between themselves and the community, communities have the following and to pursue partnerships with characteristics (Nuthall, 1999): community groups, other learning institutions, the business community •transparent goals that relate to the classroom as cultural and artistic institutions and a community of students’ interests and students’ families. learning motivations; An increasing number of schools are • a spirit of inquiry that draws on the integrating school, work and training. This cultural and social contexts which combination of experiences is proving to students experience; be of great value to many students and is • activities that take both social and able to enhance their understanding of cognitive process into account; particular areas and give meaning Integrating and context to their academic • tasks that enhance relationships school, work learning. Examples of this type of and training is of between students; and community and cross-school great value to • tasks that involve a wide range of collaboration are increasingly many students different kinds of activities. seen in school clusters organised to Splitter and Sharp (1995) describe setting develop vocational education and training up a ‘community of inquiry’ in in programs that include structured work- classrooms to teach a wide range of place learning components. Within these thinking skills in such terms as clusters, schools, employers, community members and training providers work in Page • working cooperatively; collaboration to design and provide 20 • having a sense of common purpose; learning experiences for students that combine academic and applied learning Organisational changes that are now within the context of a learning pathway under way in secondary schools include which is relevant to and valued by the ‘block’ timetabling to facilitate workplace students and their local communities experience, school-based enterprises, (Malley et al., 1999). The importance of longer opening hours, part-time organisational reforms to help students enrolments, shared programs with TAFE have more effective combinations of work and other providers, and re-entry to and learning cannot be underestimated. schooling.
ONE’S SELF AND ONE’S LEARNING
Research tells us that learning which ‘enhancing self-concept’ and that occurs later in adult lives is closely teachers have an implicit understanding associated with individual motivation, of how to do this. opportunity, and the individual’s learner Terms such as self-esteem and self- identity, their perception of themselves concept are widely and often as a learner. So it is with students. The interchangeably used. Strictly speaking, importance of ‘learner identity’ appears ‘self-concept’ is descriptive whereas ‘self- in many contexts in this paper. esteem’ is evaluative. While popular use People with what is sometimes called a of the former term usually refers to a ‘positive learner identity’ are aware of the general self-concept, researchers such as need for and value of learning, and are Marsh and Craven (1997) stress that self- able to see the relationship between concept is multidimensional. Individuals learning opportunities and their ‘real life’. have distinct self-concepts for their They then go on to take responsibility for ‘academic self’ and their ‘non-academic their learning and display a high degree self’. And there are further levels to of confidence in their ability to manage which these can be broken down: their learning, or at least a sense that academic self-concept is made up of a they know how to go about the task. person’s verbal self-concept, mathematical self-concept (which can be Developing a strong learner quite unrelated to verbal) and a general self-concept school self-concept. As students grow The development of a positive self- older they increasingly differentiate self- concept or high self-esteem in students concepts for different subject areas, thus is an important educational goal in itself. they may feel more positive about A positive self-concept can enhance themselves in some areas than others. students’ motivation, persistence and Aspects of self-concept are formed attitude towards learning, and their through social interaction and social achievement. The relationship between comparison. It is more difficult to self-concept and achievement is a develop a positive self-concept in a reciprocal one; experience of academic highly competitive environment where success enhances self-concept. However, the main point of reference for students there is an assumption that we all know is to rank themselves against the Page what we mean when we talk about achievement of other students. Research 21 Aspects of self- suggests that while a competitive Assessment and self-concept concept are environment may increase the One sure way of turning off people’s formed through average achievement of a class, it social interaction interest in learning is setting up a does not enhance the average self- and social situation where they see themselves as concept of a class in relation to comparison. failures. Assessment procedures such as any particular subject. In this type examinations which sort and classify of environment, there are few winners students are likely to do this, particularly and lots of losers. However, a co- for those who are not high achievers in operative learning environment can such contexts. Students tend to perform enhance both achievement and self- according to the expectations of others. concepts in relation to a subject area. If a teacher has low expectations of a While social comparison by individuals student’s performance, the student is in any environment is inevitable and part unlikely to perform well. This happens of human nature, schools can attempt to when students are ‘sorted’ and labelled reduce the negative effects of an as ‘low achievers’. overemphasis on social comparison by Strategies that are less threatening and providing assessments and feedback to more inclusive are forms of self- students which are based on externally assessment, discussion portfolios, set criteria. Individual feedback should personal reflection and learning diaries. focus on the students’ own personal This kind of formative improvement. To be credible, feedback assessment is generally more Formative or should be used specifically and useful to the learner, ongoing contingent upon performance. It is particularly when it puts assessment puts important to emphasise and value the students in students in touch with accomplishments of each student. touch with Feedback should themselves by indicating their themselves by Students should also be be related to a strengths and weaknesses, indicating their encouraged to pursue their own student’s and allows them to develop strengths and learning, rather individual projects of interest to weaknesses. free from the fear of failure. than random them as opposed to standardised praise or a (NBEET 1996) general ‘feel tests which rank them. good’ If the aim is to encourage a reinforcement. positive academic self-concept, then feedback should be related to a student’s learning, rather than random praise or a general ‘feel good’ reinforcement. Importantly, in the long term, students need to be encouraged to internalise this reinforcement, to learn to be able to assess their own learning so that they are able to engage in self- reinforcement.
Page 22 LEARNING HOW TO LEARN
As an introduction to this section, consider the material in the following list:
Skilled learners • take responsibility for their learning and generally adopt an active role; • distinguish between things they have to memorise, things they need to understand, and things that are best learnt by doing; • do not fall back on trying to memorise things they should be trying to understand; • consider different ways of learning, and choose between them according to the material to be learnt; • make conscious decisions on how they will learn something; • realise that difficulties in learning are not always a lack in their own capacity to learn, but frequently lie in inadequacies in the delivery of their learning or training; • make sure that they learn whatever their perceptions of the quality of the teaching they are given; • ask more questions, and ask particular kinds of questions, to ensure that they learn properly; • seek feedback on their own performance, both immediate and long-term; and • are confident to take on new learning opportunities.
Being a skilled learner is not something relevant to this section as well, in that comes naturally to most students. particular the following, where learners They need to be explicitly taught how to • cherish the habit of learning; use a range of learning strategies which will enable them to achieve their • know their own learning styles; learning goals, including basic cognitive • are open to new learning techniques strategies which assist them to and new knowledge; remember information (repetition, paraphrasing, summarising information), • want to learn with self-confidence; metacognitive strategies (planning, • set realistic personal targets for their monitoring, evaluating learning) and learning; and other study skills such as time management. • recognise the gap between the current status of their learning and the target, In the preceding parts of this paper we and understand how to fill it. have canvassed a wide range of issues and strategies that concern schools and In these ways, they become what are Page the young people they teach. Many are sometimes called ‘deep learners’. 23 Encouraging deep learning There are various theories about why students make an effort to achieve One way people become ‘deep learners’ particular goals. Some students perceive is by modelling. This is seen as school tasks as opportunities to learn, particularly important at the primary and and look to the learning situation to secondary school level where young build up their competence and people are learning how to learn. confidence, whereas others see the tasks Students will learn from the model Students will as opportunities to demonstrate their of what the teacher does, or what model what the ability – these students are likely to have they believe the teacher expects of teacher does or a defensive approach in order to protect what they them. If it is accepted that their egos. Research has shown that this believe the mistakes can be made and if the teacher expects latter group of students is less likely to classroom is a ‘warm’ one that of them. engage in tasks at a deep level. encourages student interaction, students are more likely to feel free to Developing metacognitive skills explore issues and relate them to their own frameworks for behaviour or action, If we consider ‘learning to learn’ in terms rather than to some extrinsically set of encouraging the development of framework. It is very difficult to cross-curricular competencies, then the encourage deep learning when the main kinds of competencies stressed will be interaction between the students and interpersonal and communication skills, teacher is limited to students responding those with a ‘problem solving’ ‘yes’ or ‘no’ to closed questions posed by orientation. But the autonomy – the the teacher (Biggs, 1987, p. 25). idiosyncrasies – of the learner need to be respected as well. Students need Learning is essentially active. To to construct undertake ‘deep’ learning students It is thought that students learn best if their own need to construct their own they are reflective learners. This view knowledge. knowledge. Piaget demonstrated stems from the ancient Greek Thinking about that children learn powerfully from first- belief that it is important to how you learn hand experience – discovering things for ‘know thyself’. These days the and monitoring term ‘metacognition’ is used. your own themselves. Each individual needs to learning is an explore and to relate what is found to This includes thinking about essential part of their accumulated experience. Associated how you learn and monitoring lifelong learning. with this is problem-solving – building the learning: deciding on goals one’s own new knowledge through and working out strategies to achieve inquisitiveness. It is therefore unlikely them, deciding what further knowledge that students will learn in a ‘deep’ way on and resources are needed, evaluating and demand (as is necessary when covering a asking ‘Am I going in the right direction?’ syllabus for a competitive test) because One useful way to sum up how young enquiring and searching for meaning will people learn how to learn might be to involve a somewhat different route for look at the process in terms of four stages each student. Each individual structures of growth from dependence to his or her own knowledge into a unique interdependence. A person’s view of pattern, making connections in a knowledge changes from one where Page subjective and often highly idiosyncratic knowledge is certain to one where it 24 way (Wilson & Daviss, 1994). becomes increasingly uncertain. The view of one’s teachers changes from one where students. The project showed the teacher is seen as someone with ‘all significantly lowered school leaving the right answers’ to one where their rates, improved attendance rates and expertise may be merely in one particular increased rates of achievement. Some of field, and maybe in possession of only a the processes used are outlined below. small percentage of the knowledge one needs from that field. A ‘learner’ changes from being a person who must ‘memorise facts and accept authority’ to one who LEARNING MENTORS: THE ‘evaluates and seeks the most adequate ADVOCACY PROJECT response’. This is an organic process that cannot be rushed. There is a sense that Processes learning is always in a state of growth. It is • The teacher builds a personal also important to remember that learning relationship with the student, is instinctive to all human It is useful to helping them with personal, social remember that beings. Everyone can learn – and family issues. learning is and learn how to learn – instinctive to all providing that they have the • They also help with study human beings. motivation, confidence and a timetables, work requirement good example to follow. (Ball, 1991, cited in deadlines and learning plans. Candy et al., 1994, p. 48) • Students are helped to learn more In summary, learning how to learn about themselves as learners. involves • Students are helped with short- • knowing one’s own strengths and and long-term goal setting, study weaknesses and preferred learning timetables, time management style; skills, ‘chunking’ – breaking a large sequence of work into more • having a broad and deep range of manageable pieces. operating strategies for learning, in whatever context one finds oneself Qualities required by teachers (with a teacher, another learner, or by who were advocates include oneself); and skills in • having developed an understanding of • counselling the differences between surface and deep level learning, and the power to • problem solving judge, evaluate and use the results of • teaching by example that learning. • listening and interviewing One project that has recently looked at Teachers also needed to demonstrate ways of strengthening students’ learner flexibility, concern for equality and self-concepts is the Advocacy Project, non-judgmental attitudes. which involved three Victorian secondary schools. Teachers were given a four- (Ocean and Caulley, 1999) period-per-week time allowance to enable them to develop supportive Page 25 mentoring relationships with fifteen Helping young people construct implication here is that rather than their own knowledge having complete freedom – to set any goals, to come up with any decisions – As suggested above, people are more students need to be guided towards likely to be motivated to learn in a ‘deep’ managing and making informed choices way if they can construct their own about their learning. knowledge, and this in turn is more likely to happen if a teacher is a Research suggests that some people are facilitator and mentor rather than an ‘naturally’ good at organising themselves, authoritarian dispenser of knowledge. but schools can assist their students to This idea of teachers being facilitators is set up strategies for their own by no means new, but when they are (or organisation, such as the keeping of when they feel) obliged to ‘get through’ a work diaries. In a study investigating the set curriculum – as is often the case in role of cross-curricular competencies in senior classes – it is sometimes difficult the Arts, one secondary school music to fully take up that role. teacher included planning and using a work diary as an integral part of the Even in senior classes, perceived to be music program. This helped students to syllabus-dominated, teachers can fit practice time into their schedules and encourage students to manage their own also stressed the importance of learning by punctuality and preparedness for music • establishing and developing students’ rehearsals (Bryce et al., 1996, p. 61). own personal goals; Providing an engaging context for • establishing their own priorities; learning • exploring their own personal Context has a very significant influence on processes. learning. Here we need to go back to a point made at the very start of this paper. Self organisation One aspect of developing control skills will help involves developing self- The context provided by a school is very students to have organisational skills. Establishing important, and even in secondary schools control of their goals plays an important role in the notion of ‘play’ can be learning. ‘Play’ can be controlling and organising one’s harnessed to make important used to provide learning. These goals may be to do with learning discoveries and a more getting a task done (such as time leaven a context which all too appropriate often at the moment is context for some management) or they may be more students’ generally to do with development of a dominated by the seriousness learning. sense of personal agency (concerning, of externally ordained for example, educational hurdles and curricular course work. Some students can relationships with others). The extent to engage comfortably with the context which a person develops realistic provided by their school where they are positive goals and plans to attain them active and constructive learners, will depend upon their belief that they challenging, questioning, talking with are likely to attain these goals, and this teachers and involved in school activities, likelihood of being successful, linking to whereas those with a lack of engagement
Page their sense of agency, or positive self- will tend to be destructive or passive, with 26 concept, discussed above. The a mistrust of school and teachers, casual misuse of the environment and place for students if the attitudes of all its indifference to their own identities as members are caring and respectful of learners. How often do we come across a each other. Most communities require student who is disaffected by the school rules of some kind and even where environment, but who can learn very well students are constructing their own in another environment – for example, learning, this needs to be guided by a when on work experience? curriculum. Students need to be actively involved in issues that concern them – Vocational education and training (VET) such as the development of the experience provides one way of making curriculum and rules and policies – and learning more relevant for students, there should be clashes and struggles. especially those who are motivated by a This reinforces the notion, within learning, workplace context, or by relating their that many seeming truths and facts do not learning to the ‘outside’ world of work. In go uncontested, and that sides are taken some cases it has been found that in academic argument as well as the ‘real’ workplace-based contexts may lead world of society and politics. people to participate in other learning activities that are not work-related Implications for schools (Candy, 1991). We might repeat a comment made earlier about the Schools have an important role to play in importance of organisational patterns providing this safe, but engaging, which facilitate re-entry to schooling and environment in which young people can allow combinations of work and learning test their ideas and develop a perception opportunities to suit individuals. of how they fit into the world. A part of this requires respect, both from peers A school needs Other students will want to and from teachers, and a part involves to have a close relate their knowledge to the each individual having the opportunity connection with ‘outside’ world, but it may of providing a contribution to the the local not be the world of VET, or of community learning environment, and feeling that forming what work. It is particularly their contribution is valued by teachers has been important for a school to and peers. It can be very difficult to have described as ‘a have a close connection with ‘high expectations’ and to value seamless web’ of the local community, forming connections. contributions from students who are what has been described as ‘a constantly disruptive, but if teachers can seamless web’ of connections. Much of have high expectations for all students, the learning at school can be grounded there is more likely to be general in local circumstances, concerns and engagement in learning and interests. It must not be forgotten that development of a community that is students themselves are sources of supportive of all its members. knowledge. Recognition of prior learning often occurs in a formal way at upper Self-organisation is an important part of secondary and tertiary levels, but this learning how to learn. To enhance their can also happen informally in more self-organisational skills students can be junior classrooms where the ‘prior encouraged to learning’ may be experiences that have • exercise self-discipline;
taken place outside school. Page • develop individual plans for achieving 27 The school itself becomes an engaging goals; • plan learning an appropriate time in Lifelong learners have a number of advance; learning skills which enable them to identify what it is they need to do to • make effective use of time; successfully engage in a learning task • establish priorities; and to transfer what they have learnt to • maintain detailed and accurate records other situations. These types of skills of learning; include learning to learn skills, higher order thinking, organisational skills and • recognise when help is needed; metacognition. When the learner is using • diagnose learning needs with help these skills, learning becomes a from teachers and peers; systematic process over which they have control. These skills have been outlined • stick to plans – modifying as necessary; by Weinstein and Hume (1998) as and • knowledge about learning strategies • be self regulating and systematic. for both deep and surface learning – Candy (1991) the learner knows about a range of strategies to enhance their knowledge
PROJECT FOR ENHANCING EFFECTIVE LEARNING (PEEL) Year 9 students from a low socio-economic area were engaged in a project to enhance their learning. Students were encouraged to take control of their learning and to reflect and question. After the project many students had a ‘deeper’ approach to learning. Students’ views of learning before participating in PEEL: ‘reading about things’ and ‘remembering’. Students’ views of learning after participating in PEEL: ‘thinking about what I am doing’ and ‘relating different parts of the topic together’. Assumption: People are more likely to ‘put effort’ into a task if they can see the point of it. Some activities: • students were encouraged to develop their own questions around a topic (rather than questions mainly coming from the teacher); • questions developed were classified as ‘fact’ and ‘thinking’ (e.g. questions that begin with ‘what if’ are ‘thinking’); • historical topics were related to present-day situations (e.g. parallels were drawn between Norse sagas and television soap operas).
Page PEEL Project: http://www.education.monash.edu.au/projects/peel/ 28 acquisition, to integrate what they have learnt with other knowledge and to transfer this learning to other situations; • self-knowledge – their likes, abilities, ways they like to learn and their own learning strategies and styles; • task knowledge – about the nature of academic tasks and what is required; • content knowledge – so that they can build on existing knowledge, using the connections which best help them build meaning; • context knowledge – context is about social setting, about learning constraints and supports, and expectations by teachers and peers. It is stressed, however, that this kind of approach to learning cannot simply be transplanted, but has to be ‘grown through’. Teachers who have considered themselves primarily as Teachers need to subject experts cannot be be aware of their own strengths expected to change overnight and weaknesses. to being facilitators and mentors. Indeed, it has been found that a learning environment that encourages self-direction and learning to learn can be self-defeating if it is not handled sensitively. Teachers do need to be willing to help students and to be accessible. Teachers need to be aware of their own strengths and weaknesses (not just their students’). This requires a great deal of commitment from teachers and a considerable period of transition (Candy et al., 1994, p. 275).
Page 29 CONCLUSION AND SUMMARY TABLES In this paper we have stressed that taking How can schools assess their up a lifelong learning approach in a progress towards lifelong learning? school needs to involve long-term planning. An orientation towards lifelong Lifelong learning is a boundless concept learning cannot readily be and one towards which a person or an Teachers need to ‘transplanted’ for a number of organisation needs to continually strive. be lifelong We do not wish to suggest therefore that learners. reasons. The most important of these is that teachers in a school it consists of discrete variables that can need to be lifelong learners themselves be ‘ticked off’ on a check list, but the and to have a lifelong orientation as a points in the following boxes may basis for their own models of what it provide a useful set of indicators against means to be a teacher. Also, young which a school can assess its progress people come to school with particular towards becoming a community that expectations, largely gained from their produces lifelong learners. families. Many young people have A meeting of a school community, to already developed a negative concept of discuss the school’s status in regard to themselves as learners and a picture of being a ‘lifelong learning’ centre, might schools as dispensers of an obscure find the following useful to structure body of knowledge which is remote reflection and discussion. from their immediate needs. The challenge is to find ways of gradually altering these perceptions. For most schools the kind of approach suggested will not require substantial increases in material resources but will require a process of reorientation, particularly in relation to the notion of what it means to be a teacher and what it means to be a learner.
Page 30 AT OUR SCHOOL • our mission statement notes our commitment towards lifelong learning; • course documentation makes explicit the aim of developing lifelong learning characteristics in students; • the curriculum is developed in terms of what is core/essential knowledge (in light of the ‘knowledge explosion’ and rapidity with which knowledge becomes outdated); • the curriculum is structured so that knowledge is built on progressively; • the curriculum is structured so that it is easy to make connections from one field of study to another; • the curriculum recognises the importance of information literacy skills in all learning areas; • assessment policies recognise student learning which takes place out of school; • the assessment policy identifies the 'learning to learn' competencies and information literacy competencies expected of students at key points during their schooling; • the assessment policy makes explicit the importance of formative assessment processes; • continued development of its information services is supported; • teachers are supported and encouraged to be lifelong learners, including through professional development and further study; • there are established partnerships with local community groups which are drawn on to support student learning; • we survey ex-students to find out what they are doing, and use that information to modify our school program.
Page 31 The points in the next two boxes could be used as a focus for professional development activities, after some basic decisions are made based on the box above.
TEACHERS AT OUR SCHOOL • are themselves lifelong learners; • see themselves as facilitators, mentors and ‘models’ rather than ‘dispensers of knowledge’; • encourage young people to explore a wide range of rich sources of information; • build on young people’s questions and ideas; • encourage young people to explore various ways of handling information and extracting relevant information from sources; • have high expectations of all students; • encourage reflection and higher order thinking rather than rote learning; • report on student achievement in ways which focus on how students are maturing learners; • have opportunities and are encouraged to develop their own information literacy skills; • provide varied learning contexts and involve students in meaningful use of a wide range of information resources; • develop learning themes in collaboration with each other, with specialist teachers, librarians, and with input from students and local community groups; • use teaching strategies which support young people to take control of their own learning and provide regular feedback to students on their attempts to do this; • encourage student collaboration in many aspects of their learning; • engage in professional development activities which enhance their understanding of the learning process; • are as interested in drafts and other working documents as they are in the final piece of work.
Page 32 Students themselves, as part of their self-evaluation training or activities, may also find the points in this box a useful checklist.
STUDENTS AT OUR SCHOOL • work in an environment where they feel safe to discuss and question; • are encouraged to make use of the community outside school as a source of knowledge; • explore various ways of communicating their knowledge and understanding; • are encouraged to examine their own learning processes – to become familiar with the processes and approaches that suit them; • use aids to self organisation – such as keeping a work diary; • reflect on the modes of learning that best suit them; • evaluate the extent to which they achieve their goals; • set their own achievable goals and are able to formulate questions/problems related to these goals; • work collaboratively and are encouraged to draw on their particular cultural or specialist knowledge and experiences; • recognise that their teachers are learning as well as teaching; • maintain logs or other records of their learning – the successes and challenges – and are involved in self-assessment; • understand that the process of learning from information – of constructing knowledge – is always paramount.
Page 33 THE JOURNEY TO LIFELONG LEARNING
Three features of lifelong learning are ‘learning to learn’ as an essential considered to distinguish it from earlier foundation for learning that continues concepts such as recurrent education throughout life; and (OECD, 1998): • a long-term view that encompasses the • the centrality of the learner and learner life cycle. needs, reflected in an orientation The following diagram is adapted from towards the demand side of education Longworth (1999). It is intended to and training; provide a summary of the major points • an emphasis on self-directed learning, presented in this paper. and the associated requirement of
The Journey to Lifelong Learning
Ownership of the need to learn and its As far as possible ownership of the need to content is with the teacher learn and its content is given to individuals
Education is compartmentalised according Learning is lifelong in concept and content, to age providing links vertically and horizontally between age groups
Learning is about what to think Learning is about how to think
Learning is based on the needs of the Learning is based on the desires of the organisation, nation or society individual and the need of organisations and nations to develop their human potential
Authority decides where, why, when and how Learner is empowered to decide where, why, when and how
Failures are separated from successes Emphasis is on progress and encouragement of further learning
Reactive — meets identified needs of Proactive — encourages each sector of the organisations and some people community to cooperate
Educates and trains for employment and Educates for employability in the long-term short-term need
Work-based Life-based
Inward looking to satisfy specified needs Outward-looking — to open minds, encourage broader horizons and promote understanding of others
Learning satisfies the present Learning prepares for the future
Learning is a difficult chore and is about Learning is fun, participative and involving received wisdom
Education purely as a financial investment of Learning as a social, personal and financial
Page organisations and nations investment in and by people for the benefit 34 of nations, organisations and society REFERENCES
Aspin, D. & Chapman, J. (2000). Lifelong Jones, B. (1982). Sleepers, wake! learning: concepts and conceptions, Technology and the future of work. International Journal of Lifelong Melbourne: Oxford University Press. Education, 19, 1, February 2000, 2–19 Longworth, N. (1999). Making lifelong Biggs, J. B. (1987). Student approaches to learning work: Learning cities for a learning and studying. Melbourne: learning century. London: Kogan Page. Australian Council for Educational Longworth, N. & Davies, W. K. (1996). Research. Lifelong Learning: New Vision – New Bryce, J., Harvey-Beavis, A., Livermore, J. Implications – New Roles for People, & O'Toole, J. (1996). The Mayer Key Organisations, Nations and Communities Competencies and arts education. for the 21st Century. London: Kogan Page. Melbourne: Australian Council for Malley, J., Frigo, T. & Robinson, L. (1999). Educational Research. Case Studies of Australian School- Candy, P. C. (1991). Self-direction for Industry Programs. Sydney: Australian lifelong learning: a comprehensive guide Student Traineeship Foundation. to theory and practice. San Francisco, Marsh, H. W. & Craven, R. (1997). California: Jossey-Bass. Academic Self-Concept: Beyond the Candy, P. C., Crebert, G., & O’Leary, L. J. Dustbowl. In G. Phye (ed) Handbook of (1994). Developing lifelong learners Classroom Assessment: Learning through undergraduate education. Achievement, and Adjustment. Orlando, Canberra: Australian Government Academic Press. Publishing Service. Ministerial Council on Education, Eisenberg, M. B. & Johnson, D. (1996). Employment, Training and Youth Affairs Computer skills for information problem- (1999). National Goals for Australian solving: Learning and teaching Schooling in the Twenty-First Century. technology in context. ERIC Digest, ERIC Melbourne: MCEETYA. Clearinghouse on Science & Technology. National Board of Employment Education Available: http://ericir.syr.edu/ithome/ and Training (1996). Lifelong learning: key digests/computerskills.html issues. Canberra: Australian Government European Commission (1995). Learning Publishing Service. and training: Towards the learning New London Group (1996). A pedagogy society. Brussels: European Commission of multiliteracies: Designing social Fiske, E. B. (1992). Smart Schools, Smart futures. Harvard Educational Review, Kids. Why do some schools work? Simon 66(1), 60–92. & Schuster: New York Nixon, J., Martin, J., McKeown, P. & Henri, J. (1999) The Information Literate Ranson, S. (1996). Encouraging Learning: School Community: Not Just a Pretty Towards a Theory of the Learning School. Face. In Henri, J. & Bonanno, K. (eds) The UK: Open University Press, 1996. Information Literate School Community:
Best Practice. Centre for Information Page Studies: Charles Sturt University 35 Nuthall, G. (1999). Learning how to learn: WEBSITES The evolution of students’ minds through the social processes and culture Centre for Lifelong Learning and of the classroom. International Journal of Educational Research, 31(3), 141–256. Development The Centre is located at Flinders Ocean, J. & Caulley, D. (1999). Advocacy University and aims to motivate and Project 1999: An Evaluation. Melbourne: inspire individuals to experience the Department of School Education. value of lifelong learning. It is involved in OECD (1996). Lifelong learning for all a range of research and development Paris: OECD. projects, holds seminars, and distributes information and publications about OECD (1997). Lifelong Learning to lifelong learning and working in Maintain Employability Paper prepared partnership with the education, business, for the Meeting of OECD Labour government and community sectors. Ministers, DEELSA/ELSA(97)4REV2 www.premcab.sa.gov.au/lifelong-learning (drafted by G. Wurzburg & P. McKenzie) Paris: OECD. Vocational Education Community OECD (1998). Lifelong learning: a Online monitoring framework and trends in This website houses a collection of participation, Chapter 1 in Education Internet based projects, activities and Policy Analysis 1998 Paris: CERI/OECD. resources, building online communities OECD (2000). From initial education to for those involved in VET in Schools working life. Making transitions work. programs in Australia, especially Paris: OECD. structured workplace learning program coordinators. Initiated by the Australian Robinson, C. (2000). New directions in Student Traineeship Foundation (ASTF) Australia’s skill formation: Lifelong in 1997, VECO is run in partnership with learning is the key Leabrook, South Aussie SchoolHouse. Australia: National Centre for Vocational http://www.veco.ash.org.au/about Education Research Ltd. Splitter, L. & Sharp, A. (1995). Teaching for The Australian Student Traineeship better thinking: The classroom community Foundation of inquiry Melbourne: Australian Council The ASTF is an independent body for Educational Research. established by the Federal Government Wang, M., Geneva, H. & Walberg, H. to develop and support school industry (1998). Educational Resilience. LSS and community partnerships, which Publication Series, No. 11. provide structured workplace learning opportunities for senior secondary Weinstein, C. E. & Hume, L. M. (1998) students. Study Strategies for Lifelong Learning. www.astf.com.au Washington DC: American Psychological Society. Wilson, K. & Daviss, B. (1994). Redesigning Page 36 education New York: H. Holt. LifeLong Learning Network : understanding statistics. The website University of Canberra includes links to online resources on subjects including research methods and Established in December 1998, the teamwork. LifeLong Learning Network promotes www.bell.uts.edu.au policy research on post-compulsory education and training. Harvard's Active Learning Project http://lllnetwork.canberra.edu.au ‘Active Learning Practices’ for Schools – The Educational Network of includes information on teaching tools, Australia activities and research regarding active learning processes; and ‘Education with EdNA Online is a vast resource New Technologies’– is designed to help contributed to and used by the educators develop, enact, and access education community. It houses and effective ways of using new links to thousands of educational technologies. resources in Australia and overseas, http://learnweb.harvard.edu fosters collaboration and communication among the education sectors and plays The Big 6 website an essential role in progressing IT in Provides educators with resources and education and training in Australia. teaching ideas to support the www.edna.edu.au/EdNA development of each of these aspects of PEEL Project information literacy. This project began as a two-year Teaching information skills: professional collaborative action research project at development package: A CD-ROM Laverton Secondary College in 1985, developed by the Australian School involving a group of teachers and two Libraries Association which invites the academics from Monash University and user to explore, discuss and learn about Melbourne University. The project set implementing the information process, out to address concerns the teachers collaborative planning and teaching, already had about passive learning, and resource based teaching and learning, aimed to promote more purposeful and and assigning levels of information skills active learning. The project has development. Case studies from schools continued to develop since then – there around Australia are included. are over thirty schools in Victoria that www.big6.com/overview.htm have active PEEL groups. Learning Mentors www.education.monash.edu.au/projects/ peel/ The UK Department for Education and Employment will appoint about 800 BELL Program: Being an Effective learning mentors in inner city schools in Lifelong Learner: England to support secondary age students who are at risk of The University of Sydney has an online underachieving. This plan is explored on resource designed to support students the informal education website at to develop study and work skills in areas www.infed.org/learningmentors/lrn- such as computer use, research, writing Page ment.htm 37 and speaking, organising projects and ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors are responsible for the views expressed in the paper. They are grateful for advice and assistance provided by members of the project’s Reference Group: Professor Judith Chapman, Dean, Faculty of Education, Australian Catholic University Mr Wayne Craig, Principal, Box Hill Senior Secondary College, Victoria Professor Denis Ralph, Executive Director, Centre for Lifelong Learning and Development, Flinders University Ms Jennifer Stehn, Executive Director Curriculum, Curriculum Education Centre, South Australia Mr Michael Taylor, Manager of VET in Schools, Department of Education, Employment and Training, Victoria
Further helpful comments were provided by: Ms Michele Smith, Curriculum Education Centre, South Australia
Page 38 This era of lifelong learning is a time when knowledge is increasing and changing rapidly in every sphere of life so that today’s young people need to be flexible and adaptable to meet the frequently changing challenges they will face in their lives after school. This paper considers the implications the era has for schools, and how a lifelong learning orientation may transform what schools currently do. Focusing on both the implications for individuals and the implications for schools, the paper addresses issues such as: the need for information literacy; the need to develop a questioning, reasoning and evaluating approach to learning; appropriate generic competencies; and the importance of identity and learning how to learn. It is suggested that becoming a lifelong learning school is a process of gradual reorientation. Material provided may help school communities consider the extent to which this reorientation is occurring for them.
ISBN 0-86431-375-6
PRESS
9 780864 313751