COUNTRY REPORT 2021/06 REPORT ON MARCH 2021 CITIZENSHIP LAW: BAHR AIN AUTHORED BY ZEINEB ALSABEEHG © Zeineb Alsabeehg, 2021 This text may be downloaded only for personal research purposes. Additional reproduction for other purposes, whether in hard copies or electronically, requires the consent of the authors. If cited or quoted, reference should be made to the full name of the author(s), editor(s), the title, the year and the publisher. Requests should be addressed to [email protected]. Views expressed in this publication reflect the opinion of individual authors and not those of the European University Institute. Global Citizenship Observatory (GLOBALCIT) Robert Schuman Centre for Advanced Studies in collaboration with Edinburgh University Law School Report on Citizenship Law: Bahrain RSCAS/GLOBALCIT-CR 2021/6 March 2021 © Zeineb Alsabeehg, 2021 Printed in Italy European University Institute Badia Fiesolana I – 50014 San Domenico di Fiesole (FI) www.eui.eu/RSCAS/Publications/ cadmus.eui.eu Robert Schuman Centre for Advanced Studies The Robert Schuman Centre for Advanced Studies, created in 1992 and currently directed by Professor Brigid Laffan, aims to develop inter-disciplinary and comparative research on the major issues facing the process of European integration, European societies and Europe’s place in 21st century global politics. The Centre is home to a large post-doctoral programme and hosts major research programmes, projects and data sets, in addition to a range of working groups and ad hoc initiatives. The research agenda is organised around a set of core themes and is continuously evolving, reflecting the changing agenda of European integration, the expanding membership of the European Union, developments in Europe’s neighbourhood and the wider world. For more information: http://eui.eu/rscas The EUI and the Robert Schuman Centre are not responsible for the opinions expressed by the author(s). GLOBALCIT The Global Citizenship Observatory (GLOBALCIT) is an online observatory and research network committed to fact-based and non-partisan analysis of citizenship laws and electoral rights around the globe. GLOBALCIT addresses the need to understand the varieties of citizenship laws and policies in a globalised world. It provides reliable and comparative data on the content, causes and consequences of the laws that govern the acquisition and loss of citizenship and the franchise. It enables scholars, policy- makers, and the general public to critically analyse how citizenship connects people across international borders. GLOBALCIT publishes databases, analyses, indicators and debates on citizenship status and electoral rights. It relies on a large international network of country experts Its user-friendly interactive tools enable the comparison of data across countries and over time. Research for the current GLOBALCIT Reports has been supported by the European University Institute’s Global Governance Programme, and the British Academy Research Project CITMODES (co- directed by the EUI and the University of Edinburgh). For more information see: www.globalcit.eu Report on Citizenship Law Bahrain Zeineb Alsabeehg 1. Introduction Bahrain’s current law on citizenship is from 1963. The law, which is called Bahraini Citizenship Act of 1963, has been amended several times since it was first issued.1 This report describes how persons can acquire Bahraini citizenship and in which ways they can lose it, according to the law. In addition to examining the current citizenship regime (chapter 3), the report gives insight into the historical background of the amendments to the modes of acquisition and loss of citizenship in Bahrain since the country got its first citizenship act in 1937 (chapter 2). The country has one of the smallest populations in the Middle East with approximately 1,5 million inhabitants of whom less than half are Bahraini citizens.2 Bahrain is an island state located in the Persian Gulf. It is one of the Arab Gulf countries, being a member state of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) along with Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Oman, United Arab Emirates and Qatar. The country is ruled by the Al-Khalifa royal family. The monarchy has from 2002 had a two-chambered legislature with same number of members in each chamber. Elections have been held regularly since then to one of the chambers, while the members to the other legislative chamber are directly appointed by the king. The government is also appointed by the king and consists to a large extent of members from the Al-Khalifa family. The king has supreme powers according to the Constitution from 2002.3 Bahrain has a long history of oppositional movements that has campaigned against the political system and to acquire greater space for political participation by the citizenry. This has influenced some of the amendments to the Bahraini Citizenship Act and the practical-political ways the government has handled citizenship issues. In particular, the uprising that Bahrain experienced in 2011 as part of the so-called “Arab Spring” paved the way to amendments to the regulation on deprivation of citizenship and hundreds of cases of revocation of citizenship of individuals predominantly linked to the opposition. The government has in the period post- 2011 restricted the activities of political and civil societies, including by suspending opposition groups that had earlier run for election and denaturalising some of their members. At least 990 individuals had their citizenship revoked between 2012 and 2019. available with its amendments at ,( نﻮﻧﺎﻗ ﺔﯿﺴﻨﺠﻟا ﺔﯿﻨﯾﺮﺤﺒﻟا مﺎﻌﻟ Bahraini Citizenship Act of 1963 (original title: 1963 1 the Global Nationality Laws Database: https://globalcit.eu/national-citizenship-laws/ (accessed 10 January 2021). 2 ‘Bahrain: Population crosses 1.5 million, of which 52.6% are expats’, Gulf Insider, 13 October 2020 https://www.gulf-insider.com/bahrain-population-crosses-1-5-million-of-which-52-6-are-expats/ (accessed 10 January 2021). 3 ‘Bahrain: Constitution of the Kingdom of Bahrain’, 14 February 2002, available at: https://www.refworld.org/docid/48b54f262.html (accessed 10 January 2021). RSCAS/GLOBALCIT-CR 2021/6 - © 2021 Author(s) 1 Zeineb Alsabeehg This report sheds light on peculiar features of Bahrain’s citizenship regime that includes citizenship revocations, but also politically motivated naturalisations of foreigners and gender discrimination against female citizens’ right to transfer citizenship to their children and spouses. Political debates and campaigns on these features are discussed in the report, showing that there have been some changes on individual cases, but that there is no clear political will to reform the citizenship regime on a structural level (chapter 4). The concluding chapter (chapter 5) sums up the findings of the report. 2. Historical Background Bahrain has had two citizenship laws: one from 1937 and the current one from 1963. The Al- Khalifa rulers have been dominant actors in their drafting and amendments, even though Bahrain was under British protectorate when these two laws were enacted and has had a partly elected legislative assembly since the beginning of the 21th century. The amendments to the current Bahraini Citizenship Act from 1963 have changed some rules regarding acquisition and loss of citizenship in the law since it was first issued. 2.1 The Al-Khalifa rule since 1783, the British protectorate until 1971 and the Period after Independence Bahrain has been ruled by the same clan for over 200 years. The Al-Khalifa conquered the country in 1783 and has since had the power over the territory. For over 100 years, this was with the direct support of Great Britain. Bahrain was a British protectorate from 1861 until 1971 when Bahrain became independent. Bahrain – along with some other Gulf states such as the United Arab Emirates and Qatar – thus gained its independence relatively recently. The Al- Khalifa clan has as the rulers of the country, had great impact on the drafting, enactment and implementation of laws. For most of Bahrain’s history, including the period after independence, Bahrain has not had an elected legislative assembly. A first attempt was made right after independence, when Bahrain held its first national election in 1972 and set up a parliament in 1973. However, after only two years in function, the Al-Khalifa ruler suspended the parliament as it proved that it could stop bills from the government. The government was directly appointed by the Emir from Al-Khalifa. Still today, the government is appointed by the Al-Khalifa ruler who today is called the king. The parliament was restored, since 2002, but still with practically no ability to challenge the supreme power of the king which is embodied in the Constitution. Even before Bahrain’s independence in 1971, the Al-Khalifa had the authority to pass legislation as long as it did not derive from the directives of the British administration.4 Bahrain’s two citizenship laws were issued by the rulers from Al-Khalifa under the British protectorate. The first in 1937 was issued by Hamad bin Issa Al-Khalifa, the great-grandfather of the current king who has the same name. The second law from 1963, which replaced the former, was issued by Issa bin Salman Al-Khalifa, the father of the current king and ruler of Bahrain. Opinion on some articles of the Bahraini] يأر ﻲﻓ ﺾﻌﺑ ﻮﻣ ا د نﻮﻧﺎﻗ ﺔﯿﺴﻨﺠﻟا ﺔﯿﻨﯾﺮﺤﺒﻟا مﺎﻌﻟ 1963 ﮫﺗﻼﯾﺪﻌﺗو ‘ ,Yacoob Seyadi 4 Citizenship Act of 1963 and its amendments]’, Al-Wasat, 2 September 2014, http://www.alwasatnews.com/news/917323.html (accessed 2 January 2021). 2 RSCAS/GLOBALCIT-CR 2021/6- © 2021 Author(s) Report on Citizenship LAw: BAhrAin 2.2 Former Law: Bahraini Citizenship Act of 1937 Bahrain got its first law on citizenship on 8 May 1937. From that date, the state began registering subjects under its jurisdiction: firstly, the citizens who were born in Bahrain and, secondly, the citizens by descent who were residing either in Bahrain or abroad in neighbouring countries and even countries farther away such as India.