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Løvlie, Designing

Designing The Journal of Innovations 3.2 (2016), 72–87. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5617/jmi.v3i2.2486 Anders Sundnes Løvlie © Anders Sundnes Løvlie 2016. IT University of Copenhagen [email protected]

Abstract Keywords Communication design; genre; innovation; ; developing new inventions to the point where they Innovating in the field of genres re- media design; research through design; de- can successfully be implemented as new products quires methods for producing that can sign; ideation; NABC; lifecycle model. or services and be used outside the research con- succeed in being disseminated and used outside of text. If innovation is “the implementation of [an] labs. This article uses the author’s invention in a market or a social setting” (Storsul experiences with the development of university Introduction & Krumsvik, 2013, p. 14), then a central challenge courses in communication design to address the for genre innovation must be to develop methods research question: How can we design courses to Many media scholars have argued for the need for for bridging the gap between inventing new media give students the competencies they need to work constructive research in media and communica- products or services, and implementing them. This as of new media? Based on existing ap- tion, to guide or spearhead the development of new entails seeing the form of design that is discussed proaches from UX design and other fields, I pres- media under concepts such as “communication de- here as not just a form of research, but also as a ent a model that has demonstrated its usefulness sign” (Morrison, 2011; Skjulstad, 2008; Storkerson professional activity aimed at creating value for in the development of commercial products and & Firedman, 2006), “media design” (Lunenfeld, users and stakeholders. This article reports on a services. The model emphasises rapid techniques 2004; Nyre, 2014), “new media design” (Martinec practical effort to develop this profession through for and ideation; genre analysis; & van Leeuwen, 2009), “intervention” (Moulthrop, the development of a master’s- specialisation use of pitching and storytelling as a form of proto- 2005), “aesthetic design” (Bolter, Engberg, & Ma- course in communication design, addressing the typing; and humanist methods for evaluation and cIntyre, 2013) and “genre design” (Liestøl 2010). following research question: how can we design critique. However, these contributions tend to frame design courses to give students the competences they need as a research activity, with little or no interest in to work as designers of new media?

The Journal of Media Innovations 3.2 (2016) 72 Løvlie, Designing Communication Design

As noted by Donald Schön (1987), the introduc- both in the industry and in education in journal- sential to have methods for identifying these needs tion of a “reflective practicum” can be treated as a ism. However, when developing new media, ma- and for developing designs that meet the needs design problem (see also Simon, 1967). In other nipulation of code and data is only one part of the of the intended audience. The main contribution words, this article involves design on two levels, picture. Attention must also be given to developing of this article is to offer a general, methodologi- both as the object of study and the method for the new designs that become meaningful for users and cal model for conducting genre innovation, which study itself. I report on the iterative development give them modes of participation that satisfy their is fit for use not only by researchers in academia, of university-level courses as a practical, research needs (cf. Fagerjord, 2012). These are the kinds of but also by students, designers and media profes- through design investigation (Zimmerman, et al., problems designers address, and new media jour- sionals outside academia. This model also has the 2007) into the future of communication as a disci- nalism will need to be able to incorporate design- advantage that it has demonstrated its usefulness pline and profession. ers’ competencies in order to succeed. in practice for the development of both commercial Why is this a worthwhile endeavour? Let’s con- Third, for society at large, media serve impor- and public products and services. sider the main stakeholders and their needs: em- tant functions for democracy and public discourse, ployers, students, society, and academia. First, the and it is important to search for ways to improve most important group of employers is found in the the functioning of the media (cf. Nyre, 2009, 2014). Communication design in research and media industries, who are currently undergoing a Fourth, for academic researchers in particular, higher education crisis. It is widely acknowledged that the need for new may open up fresh avenues innovation in the industry is great (Krumsvik & for research into the possibilities inherent in new The concept “communication design” is sometimes Storsul, 2013; Svarre, 2011), which implies a need media that is interesting simply for its used as shorthand for “ de- for graduates with the necessary competences to potential to bring about new knowledge, whether sign”, a term closely related to “” lead the development of new media products and framed as investigations into (Bolter et (Frascara, 2004; Yates & Price, 2015). In this con- services. al., 2013), (Buchanan, 1985; Liestøl 2013), text, however, I use the term more broadly, to speak Second, for students who wish to work in the or similar areas. about the design and development of new media media industries, there is a need to seek out com- In this special issue, these latter types of en- products or services based on research and com- petences that meet the new demands of the media deavours are referred to as “genre innovation”. As petences drawn (at least in part) from media and industries. Some argue that journalists need to un- Carolyn Miller has demonstrated, genres arise from . This includes the work derstand code (Stavelin, 2015), and data-support- social practices related to communicative needs of numerous scholars who use design as a mode ed journalism seems to receive growing attention (1984). When conducting genre innovation, it is es- of -based media research (Bratteteig,

The Journal of Media Innovations 3.2 (2016) 73 Løvlie, Designing Communication Design

Wagner, Morrison, Stuedahl, & Mörtberg, 2010; cant audience unless users perceive the new medi- munication studies, such as user (audience) eth- Fagerjord, 2015; Liestøl, 2009; Løvlie, 2011b; um as understandable, meaningful and desirable. nography, storytelling and aesthetics. The field of Nyre, 2014), but it also includes work with media Increased attention to user-centric design methods emotional design (Forlizzi, Disalvo, & Hanington, innovation and development outside of academia, would benefit also approaches driven by media and 2003; Ho & Siu, 2012) explores how to design for in particular in the media industries. . emotional reactions, mimicking a central concern Scholars in this field have sometimes reported In the design field, many scholars have de- for many media professions (cf. Hassenzahl, 2010). on experiments conducted as part of university scribed design in various ways as a method for Given this ever-widening array of approaches to courses (Morrison, 2008; Nyre, 2015; Nyre, Bjør- producing knowledge: as a form of (Simon, design, one might ask whether there is a need for a nestad, Tessem, & Øie, 2012), but usually with- 1969), a way of thinking (Rowe, 1987) or knowing new approach. What is special about communica- out offering general models that can be applied (Cross, 2006), a “reflective with the tion design? Could we simply view it as UX design outside of the specific research programme which situation” (Schön, 1983), a process of - applied to a particular domain, that of the (new) they serve. With the exception of Andrew Mor- making and a fundamental part of what it is to be media? I argue that there are at least three central rison (2001), existing discussions about design as human (Krippendorff, 2006; Nelson & Stolterman, characteristics of media that set this field apart a research method for have largely 2003). Looking more specifically at design educa- from the IT industries in general, and complicate avoided addressing knowledge and methods from tion, both Simon (1967) and Schön (1987) have their use of established design methods: 1) tempo, neighbouring fields such as , user treated the development of practice-oriented edu- 2) need for novelty and 3) relationship with the us- experience (UX) design, human-computer interac- cation as a design problem in and of itself. More ers (audience). tion (HCI) and design. Neither Lars Nyre’s recently, Dalsgaard et al. (2013) have proposed a The tempo of production in parts of the media proposed “media design method” (2014), Gunnar model for “design argumentation” to the di- industries, in particular the news media, can be Liestøl’s “genre design” (2013), Martinec & van vide between practice-based design teaching and extreme. While typical IT development processes Leeuwen’s language-based models (2009) nor Jay theoretical academic traditions. deal with systems that are developed over months Bolter et al.’s “aesthetic design” (2013) give much Commonly used textbooks in fields like inter- or even years, a news journalist’s process from idea room for user involvement, contradicting much of action design (Löwgren & Stolterman, 2007), UX generation to final product might be measured in the consensus in contemporary design research. design (Hartson & Pyla, 2012) and hours or minutes. As remarked by some practitio- This seems rather counter-productive. Whatever (Stickdorn & Schneider, 2011) have promoted ho- ners, this is a significant challenge when journal- the benefits of the new designs proposed by these listic approaches which include consideration of ists are trying to collaborate with designers and IT researchers, those benefits will not reach a signifi- many issues that overlap with media and com- professionals. For instance, the cross-disciplinary

The Journal of Media Innovations 3.2 (2016) 74 Løvlie, Designing Communication Design department for editorial development in the Dan- to design practices like co-creation and participa- tains a set of conventions that could both be seen ish broadcaster TV2 has developed a five-tempo tory design are hard to find. As shown by Fager- as a collection of “design patterns” for the produc- model for classifying data-driven journalistic proj- jord (2015), it may be problematic to directly apply ers that represent known solutions to typical prob- ects according to their production time: from “hy- methods for user-testing from other design fields. lems, and also as a set of audience expectations that per mega fast” (minutes or hours) through “really Carlson & Wilmot (2006) and Hedemann (2010) are available to the producers to use as guidance fast” (tomorrow), “fast’” (days or weeks), “not so provide accounts of growing realisations among for their production (cf. Miller, 1984; Müller 2013). fast” (weeks) to “this is a job for the CMS depart- media industry leaders about the need to improve Genre knowledge fills a function for media produc- ment” (weeks or months) (Bjerg, 2015). A recent their understanding of their audiences. Hedemann ers that in some ways parallels the function of user study of Norwegian data journalists support the describes how the Norwegian public broadcaster research and contextual inquiry in UX design. It is view that time is one of the most problematic fac- NRK based the preparations for the 2010 Eurovi- therefore not surprising that much work in the area tors for cross-disciplinary work involving editorial sion Song Contest Finale, a production aiming to of new media design, including this special issue, staff and IT developers (Karlsen & Stavelin, 2014, reach more than 125 million viewers all over Eu- focuses on genre (Fagerjord, 2010; Liestøl 2013; p. 39). rope, on an interview with one single viewer (Hede- Løvlie, 2011a). Another characteristic of the media industries is mann, 2010, pp. 50). This example is a striking The arguments above indicate a need for new the fact that many media products are consumed demonstration of some media organisations’ need methods and approaches to deal with the unique only once, or a few times. Films, TV shows, books, for rapid and nimble methods for incorporating challenges involved in designing for media. In the news items and any other product that takes the user research with the particular logic and tempo following sections, I will show how we have at- form of a “story”, are perishables whose value relies of media production. tempted to meet these challenges through the itera- on being new and unknown to the audience. Even The one-off character of many media products, tive development of university courses in this field. more “reusable” formats like series, music and combined with the high tempo and the lack of good games often rely on their novelty for interest. This methods for audience involvement, poses a signifi- complicates the possibilities of user involvement in cant problem for the development of new media, Method: research through design media production, in particular for products with and contributes to the high-risk character of media high production tempo. production. One of the media industry’s strategies This article reports on the development of uni- While focus groups and test audiences are wide- for reducing this risk and balancing the need for versity courses as a design process producing a ly used in film and TV production, approaches with novelty with the need for comprehension and pre- knowledge contribution, understood as a research a higher degree of audience involvement similar dictability is by strategic use of genre. A genre con- through design approach (for a discussion of re-

The Journal of Media Innovations 3.2 (2016) 75 Løvlie, Designing Communication Design search through design approaches in media stud- Schön describes the practice of design as a “re- The relevance criterion states that design re- ies, see Løvlie, 2011b, pp. 27–49). According to flective conversation with the situation”, proceed- searchers must “articulate the preferred state their Zimmerman et al. (2007), a research through de- ing through a pragmatic process he terms “reflect- design attempts to achieve” (Zimmerman et al., sign approach should be judged along four dimen- ing-in-action” (Schön 1983, 1987). The process 2007, p. 500). In the case of university courses, sions, of which two merit particular attention here: with developing the courses discussed here can be this is a contentious question. How do we decide process and relevance. described in a similar way. The process started with whether a course is good? University administra- The process is one which is not usually thought some initial ideas arising from research and the pro- tors might be inclined to point to measurable out- of as design, but rather as part of the pedagogical fessional competences of my colleagues and myself, comes, such as scores in evaluation surveys among everyday practice of university teachers: and proceeded from there through iterations in- students or even, as in the Danish education sys- and revising study programmes, course descrip- volving analysis (of needs and connections within tem, to employment statistics for recent graduates. tions and syllabi; planning and teaching courses; the study programs, of relevant course materials, Many university teachers, on the other hand, often preparing and grading exams; and so forth. In de- of potential students, etc.), ideation and sketch- point to more qualitative ideals such as stimulating scribing this as a design process I am building on ing (of course descriptions, syllabi, assignments interest and critical reflection. broad definitions of design such as those discussed and exercises, etc.), implementation in practice, While most of the courses mentioned here have in the previous section, succinctly summarised and evaluation (formal and informal, by students, in fact been rated well by students, and increasingly by Nelson and Stolterman’s concept “intentional censors, administrators and faculty). Paraphrasing so, student satisfaction is a poor indicator of qual- change” (2003). The process has been iterative and Schön, this is a complex design situation with many ity (among other reasons: student satisfaction may spans teaching over five years in five different in- variables where any may have both correlate negatively with the level of challenges stitutions (see Table 1 below). Given the nature and intended and unintended consequences: The de- in the course). Instead, the main corrective to the constraints of higher education, this has been an signer “shapes the situation, (...) the situation ‘talks teaching methods has been the student’s success exploratory process where choices have been made back,’ and he responds to the situation’s back-talk” in achieving the intended learning outcomes of the and solutions tried out that have been based on (Schön, 1983, p. 79). When courses are evaluated, courses, as judged by teachers and censors. When our best available knowledge and creative explora- revised and repeated, this sets up an iterative pro- all or most of the students perform a given task tion of the opportunities available, as well as our cess in which approaches can be tried out and ei- poorly in assignments and exams, most likely there analysis and judgment as educators of what com- ther discarded or refined along the way, building is something wrong in the teaching. If we change petences our students would need to succeed in the up a cumulated set of experiences and knowledge things around, and next semester’s students per- job market. about productive solutions. form better, most likely we have done something

The Journal of Media Innovations 3.2 (2016) 76 Løvlie, Designing Communication Design right. Relying on these forms of experiences sets up a pragmatic and qualitative process guided by re- Table 1. flection-in-action. This process has the significant benefit of producing insights that are relevant and Overview of the courses on which this article is based. applicable in practice. However, in order to supple- ment the author’s own judgments with an external Course Program1 Students Semester corrective, the discussion below will also include Multimodal Design B.A. Media Studies (UiO) ca. 50 Spring 2011 some data from evaluations by students and exter- Mobile Media Design M.A. Media Studies (UiO) 13 Fall 2011 nal partners. Capstone Web Projects III B.Sc. Web Development (GUC) 8 Fall 2012 Design Methods2 B.Sc. Web Development (GUC) 40 Fall 2013 Design, and M.Sc. Interaction Design (GUC) 2013: 8 Fall 2013 Teaching communication design Innovation2 2014: 38 Fall 2014 2015: 26 Fall 2015 There is no room here for a complete chronologi- Web Project I B.Sc. Web Development (GUC) 20 Spring 2014 cal account of the process described above, but a Mobile Communication II M.Sc. Digital Design and Communication (ITU) 9 Fall 2014 brief outline is necessary. My work with develop- Communication Design I3 M.Sc. Digital Design and Communication (ITU) 55 Spring 2015 ing courses in the area of communication design Communication Design II4 M.Sc. Digital Design and Communication (ITU) 33 Fall 2015 started after having finished my PhD research in that same area (Løvlie, 2011b). Starting out with 1 UiO = University of Oslo, GUC = Gjøvik University College, ITU = IT University of Copenhagen. teaching a cross-disciplinary course in media stud- 2 Co-taught with Anders Fagerjord. ies-based design (see overview of courses in Table 1 3 Co-taught with Janne Aagaard. below), it quickly became clear to me that we were 4 Co-taught with Janne Aagaard and Martina Mahnke. sorely lacking in methodology for this topic. After having spent three years in research arguing for the value in applying media and theory to the design of new media, I found myself face-to-face with students asking: how, specifically,

The Journal of Media Innovations 3.2 (2016) 77 Løvlie, Designing Communication Design do we do that? Somewhat to my surprise, I found The specialisation was offered for the first time in The Communication Design model that the answers that my colleagues and I had to the spring semester 2015, aimed at “students who offer were disappointingly vague. I therefore made wish to work with the challenges of creating inno- I will now first present the process leading to the it a priority to search for methods from other dis- vative new media products, either in the media in- overall model for our course, after which I will ciplines that could be applied in this context, pri- dustries or in communication roles in other types discuss each of the main elements in the model in marily from development and interaction of organisations.” In its first year, the specialisation some greater detail. When I first taught this topic, design. As I moved on to teaching students with a received the second largest number of students in I had no clear model for the process, something background closer to computer science, the chal- the programme and good student evaluations (see which frustrated both the students and myself as it lenge shifted due to the students’ knowledge of below). was difficult to communicate clearly to the students methods from software development and interac- In the second course of the specialisation, stu- what precisely was expected of them, and what cri- tion design, but the core problem remained: what dents worked with external partners from the me- teria their achievements would be judged against. are the specific methods that students of communi- dia industries to develop new concepts and designs Not surprisingly, the students’ achievements in cation design should master? to meet the particular needs of the partner organ- their exams varied widely, and may have reflected Through the work with the courses listed in isations. Based on the arguments presented above, more closely their individual talents than the learn- Table 1 above, and extensive collaboration with the outcomes of these processes could be seen as ing my colleagues and I had tried to convey. co-teachers and other colleagues (see acknowl- a test of the value of the approach presented here: In the next few courses I taught, I used the soft- edgments), I have collected some approaches that If the students were able to develop designs that ware development methodology Scrum (Schwaber answer this question, and assembled them in a the external partners deemed as valuable enough & Beedle, 2002) as a template for the process, using provisional model. This model is implemented in for them that they would develop them further into some imaginative re-interpretation to make it pos- the two courses I currently teach, which are the commercial products or services, this would be an sible for design tasks to be sorted into “user stories” two modules of a specialisation called “Commu- indication that our model at least goes some way to be prioritised in “product backlogs” and “sprint nication Design” in a cross-disciplinary M.Sc. pro- towards meeting the needs of both students and backlogs”. This was a significant improvement, and gramme in Digital Design and Communication.1 industry. worked fairly well for students with technical back- grounds. However, in spite of our re-interpretation 1 See about the program at http://en.itu.dk/Pro- it quickly became clear that design tasks do not fit grammes/MSc-Programmes/Digital-Design-and-Communica- elegantly into Scrum: the agile mantra of “running tion. code” has no obvious correspondence in design, and

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semester 2013, we opted instead to use Hartson lens through which to examine ideas for new de- and Pyla’s (2012) “Lifecycle model” as our main signs at a very early stage and discuss weaknesses approach. As shown in Figure 1: “The Lifecycle and strengths long before any prototyping or even Model” (Hartson & Pyla, 2012, p. 53) above, this sketching has begun. The model is a large improve- model suggests a cyclical iteration through four ment over previous alternatives, and it has the main elements: analysis, design, implementation significant advantage of being used in some large and evaluation. media organisations (Hedemann, 2010). Using this This model made it significantly easier to com- model, students in our courses have been able to municate to the students which activities they not only develop innovative concepts for new me- should prioritise and how they should plan their dia applications, but also - as will be shown below – Figure 1: “The Lifecycle Model” (Hartson & Pyla, 2012, projects. The resulting exams showed significant they have been able to convince partners p. 53). improvement over earlier courses (and inciden- to implement these concepts as commercial prod- tally, student satisfaction increased as well). How- ucts and services. ever, the Lifecycle model also has shortcomings for Figure 2 illustrates our combined NABC/Life- our purposes. It puts little emphasis on ideation cycle model approach. For greater conceptual clar- the logic of user research, analysis and hermeneutic (organised under the opaque category “design”), ity, I have renamed Hartson and Pyla’s categories processes involved in understanding user needs is which is problematic given our emphasis on the ‘design’’ and ‘implement’ as ‘ideation’ and ‘pro- hard to divide into smaller tasks that can be easily media industry’s need for novelty, as described totyping’. Under each main category are several re-prioritised and evaluated against a “definition of above. Further, the model tends to overemphasise keywords that point to specific techniques we have done” as demanded by the Scrum model. Although work on testing, which is always impor- learned to be essential for students in this process. hybrid models exist for incorporating designers in tant but has little meaning if it is not combined Below I discuss each of the four main categories in Scrum-like processes (Beyer, 2010; Rogers, Sharp, with a productive ideation process. further detail. & Preece, 2011), they have little meaning when pro- Therefore, from the fall semester of 2014, gramming tasks are mostly (or wholly) absent from we have used a modified version of the Lifecycle the process, as in most of our courses. model, combined with the NABC model (Carlson When given the chance to develop two new & Wilmot, 2006) for innovation, as described in courses in design methods from scratch in the fall further detail below. The NABC model provides a

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least one actual user early in the process, who can which would be best suited to solve a serve as a provisional persona. This method must given problem, to a more designerly problem-set- be combined with careful desk research to identify ting approach, in which one prioritises reaching a and adjust to user needs in the broader population. deeper understanding of the problem and the ways However, as described by Carlson and Wilmot in which the users are trying to satisfy their needs (2006), understanding the user is only a small part by existing means. This requires students to work of innovation; one must also understand the land- hard to understand the role of different media and scape of existing media - the competition. This is technologies in people’s everyday lives - in other also a big challenge for students, and one which words, to adopt a core concern of media and com- foregrounds the relevance of media and communi- munication studies. In particular, students need to cation competence. Carlson and Wilmot point out be able to combine the quite concrete and practical how newcomers to the NABC method (see below) know-how about how to construct new media, with tend to focus too much on their own idea, and too the more abstract analytical skills required to un- Figure 2: A “lifecycle model” for communication design. little on the many alternatives that compete for the derstand what meaning a given solution may have users’ attention. We see the same tendency in our for users, and whether this meaning entails some- Analysis: Understanding the users, students, and often this appears as a form of “tech- thing genuinely novel and valuable compared to understanding the genre nology blindness”: students propose an idea for a existing alternatives. new solution that utilises one specific technology, I argued above that for media professionals, As in any other design discipline, understanding and observing (often too optimistically) that no one their knowledge and practical mastery of media the user is essential - and a significant challenge else has used that same technology for that particu- genres help them understand and relate to the for students. One of the main challenges students lar purpose, they conclude that there is no compe- expectations of audiences. In particular, under- encounter is in combining an analysis of user needs tition. However, if one broadens the perspective, it standing genre is a good tool for understanding with the creative process needed to develop novel often becomes clear that users’ needs may already the competition, and positioning a new idea as an designs. In order to help students with this chal- be met by other solutions, often ones that employ alternative to existing products. Hedemann (2010) lenge, we have employed the “lasso toss” tech- older technologies or simpler solutions. Part of the tells the stories of a wide variety of development nique described by Hedemann (2010, pp. 50–78), challenge seems to be to shift the students away processes, where new concepts often are positioned to ensure that students come face-to-face with at from an engineer’s mind-set, in which one asks as variations over existing genres. However, under-

The Journal of Media Innovations 3.2 (2016) 80 Løvlie, Designing Communication Design standing of genre is complicated when the medium Through the iterations of our courses we have critical feedback as fast as possible. Like Silicon itself is unstable and under ever-changing, rapid seen that one of the largest challenges for the stu- Valley entrepreneurs, students need to fail early development, as is the case with most of the phe- dents is to produce ideas that are different and new, and fail often. nomena known as new media. As Müller points which innovate on the level of the meaning and role out, it may even be hard to identify when some- the design should have for the user. In other words: thing is a new media genre, and when it is a new how can one invent designs that do new things, not Prototyping: Pitching and medium in its own right, as illustrated by scholarly just doing the same things in a slightly improved storytelling debates about blogging (Müller, 2013, p. 255). This manner? Given the importance of novelty for the points to a need for developing better methods media industries, these are problems of particular The importance of being able to pitch a new idea for genre analysis, which combine the rigor and importance for communication design. for stakeholders is one of the strong connections analytical power needed to understand genres that Furthermore, it is important to work iteratively between the design disciplines and practical me- cross modes, platforms and technologies, with the and fast because it is difficult for students to grasp dia production. Just as scriptwriters and directors speed and ease needed to be able to support rapid what it entails to work with idea development. Any- in film and TV need to be able to pitch their ideas ideation processes. This should be an important one can fill in the blanks in the NABC model with for new productions, and newspaper journalists concern for future research and development. some bullet points in a few minutes, and hey! You need to know how to sell a story in a few sentences have yourself a new media concept. For an inex- to their editors, colleagues (and ultimately, their perienced reader, it is not always easy to see how readers), pitching is essential for designers who Ideation: Rapid techniques much work has gone into a well-developed value want their ideas to be realised. A pitch, as any other proposition based on months of research, precisely presentation, can be seen as a form of storytelling To address the need for speed and novelty when de- because a good concept should be possible to con- (Abela, 2013; Arola, Sheppard, & Ball, 2014; Carl- veloping new media products, we have developed a vey with just a few sentences. Therefore, it is easy son & Wilmot, 2006; Hedemann, 2010). It can also strong focus in our courses on idea generation and for students to underestimate the amount of work be regarded as a , in the sense of the word concept development in fast, iterative processes. that needs to be done: user research, analysis, pro- used by Houde and Hill (1997); one that is typically We use design games intended to help the students totyping and testing in iterative loops, taking into focused on the “role” of the design rather than its rapidly expand their view of the of possibili- account expanding knowledge and shifting focus “look and feel” or implementation. Creating a pitch ties (Gray, Brown, & Macanufo, 2010), in combina- throughout the process. We have found that stu- which needs to be delivered within strict time con- tion with the NABC model mentioned above. dents need to gain practical experience and receive straints forces students to prioritise their material

The Journal of Media Innovations 3.2 (2016) 81 Løvlie, Designing Communication Design and focus on that which is most important, in order model prescribes a framework for this, called “wa- A/B tests” and expert evaluation. However, more to show that they have identified an important user tering holes”. In our courses this usually takes the work is needed here, in particular with a view to de- need for which they can deliver a unique solution. form of group supervision, where we gather two or veloping a repertoire of methods which can be used In the first course of the Communication Design three groups and ask them to pitch their ideas and for different types of products, and accommodating specialisation, the students go through several it- receive criticism from each other and the teach- the need for a high-paced process. erations of developing a concept, and a pitch to be ers. As a teacher, one must find a balance between delivered in a competition with the rest of the class. encouraging and motivating students, and critiqu- Practicing their pitches in front of other students ing their work. The students must learn to adapt a Evaluations of the teaching gives them a very direct experience with what sto- similar balance: creating an open and inclusive at- rytelling techniques work well for this kind of pur- mosphere for , but also making sure Above I have described many of the challenges pose. It forces students to think about their designs to include moments of critical inspection of their that students face and our solutions for overcom- in terms of what Krippendorff calls “paths from the own ideas and designs. We find that student groups ing them, based on our own judgments about what present toward desirable futures” (Krippendorff, tend to have a harder time with the latter than the the students need and which solutions help them 2006, sec. 1.4.2.), and how to convey those paths former, perhaps because of group dynamics lead- achieve good results. The students have also been to stakeholders and users. As Krippendorff shows, ing to group think. Watering holes is a tool to com- able to voice their opinions about our courses developing designs through stories is central for bat this tendency. through course evaluations, typically one or several many forms of design. Given the importance of sto- As projects move from the early idea stages to informal evaluations conducted by the teachers rytelling in the media industries, storytelling will more advanced stages where sketches and pro- early in the semester and one formal, anonymous be of particular importance for communication de- totypes are produced, it becomes important to evaluation towards the end of the semester. sign. There is a need for more research into effec- test concepts on users. As described by Fagerjord For the two courses in communication design at tive methods for prototyping through storytelling. (2015), methods for user testing from other design the IT University, student evaluations are publicly fields can be used to evaluate certain aspects of a available from the university’s website.2 When stu- design, but there is also a need for more specific dents in the 2015 cohort were asked to rate their Evaluation methods in evaluating the meaning of a text (or a agreement with the statement “I am happy about genre prototype) for a user. Fagerjord suggests a Students need to quickly reach the point where set of “humanist evaluation methods”, including 2 See http://en.itu.dk/About-ITU/Organisation/Facts-and-Figures/ their ideas can be examined critically. The NABC Krippendorff’s semantic analysis, “within-subject Quality-and-Educational-Environment/Course-Evaluation.

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this course” on a scale from 1-6 (where 6 indicat- partner (the online news magazine Zetland) public- ed total agreement) the spring course received a ly announced their plans for developing an online Table 2. score of 4,72 (response rate: 40/55), and the fall comments feature similar to the kind proposed by course 4,31 (response rate: 13/33). For the state- students (Korsgaard, 2016). Answers to other ques- Answers from external partners to the question: ment “I think the course is relevant for my future tions and free-text comments in the survey were “Have you chosen to move forward with the stu- job profile”, the score was 4,90 and 4,77, respec- overwhelmingly positive. dents’ ideas/projects in your organisation?” tively. While these figures show encouraging levels Several of our master’s thesis students have of student satisfaction for a specialisation in its first also used elements of the model described here to Answer Frequency iteration at this university, we do not hold student develop designs for external partners. At least two “Yes, we are moving forward” 0 satisfaction as the best indicator of course quality. of these projects are currently being developed “Yes, we will move forward with 2 For the Fall 2015 course, we conducted a sim- for commercial implementation by these external parts of the project” ple evaluation survey among the 6 business part- partners (the Mofibo e-book service, as well as Co- “We are considering whether to 4 ners for whom students worked during the course. penhagen Airport in partnership with the city of move forward” The survey was conducted using the online service Copenhagen). “No, we are not moving forward” 0 surveymonkey.com 1-2 weeks after the students “Other” 0 had presented their final designs. Responses were Total 6 anonymous and the response rate was 6/6. Asked Concluding remarks whether they would move forward to implement (N=6). All quotes from this survey are my translations from the students’ designs, 2 partners at this early date The preceding discussion has outlined a set of Danish. answered partially affirmative and 4 said they were methods and techniques that are particularly use- still considering it (see Table 2). One partner (the ful for communication design, summarised as a house and gardening magazine Idényt) announced combination of the NABC model and Hartson and already at the student presentation that they had Pyla’s Lifecycle model. The model shown in Fig- concrete plans for a commercial implementation ure 2: A “lifecycle model” for communication de- of the students’ project, with a deadline set ca. 6 sign. (above) is greatly simplified and is far from months after the end of the course (May 2016). a complete toolbox for prospective communication Shortly before the deadline for this article another designers. However, it is my hope that it can serve

The Journal of Media Innovations 3.2 (2016) 83 Løvlie, Designing Communication Design as a starting point for a process towards developing in a wider public. In other words, the transforma- of this model will succeed not only as design proj- communication design to a design sub-discipline tion a new media design must go through in order ects, but as real-world innovations, and ultimately which meets the needs of both the media indus- to become a genre parallels the transformation of as new media genres. try, students, society and media research. The fact an invention into an innovation: It must be im- that students in our courses have been able to use plemented and disseminated and used by people this model to develop designs that are being imple- outside the context of the invention. However, the Acknowledgements mented as commercial products and services by ex- word “genre’” indicates a level of ambition higher ternal partners gives an indication that the model than “innovation”: a new design may be considered Above I have often used first person singular, be- is effective. an innovation as soon as it is being disseminated cause the argument in this article (and any short- An important task for future research should and used sufficiently widely, whereas it is nota comings in it) is my responsibility. However, much be to increase our knowledge of the design work genre until other designs are made that imitate the of the course development, the teaching and the that takes place in the media industries. The media first. No separate method can be devised for reach- ideas that have resulted in this article have come industries are well aware of the need to innovate, ing this highest level of ambition, since it depends about through extensive collaboration with good and the work being done through collaborations on the actions of others who are not connected colleagues, in particular Anders Fagerjord, to- between designers, media and IT professionals on with the designers of the original. However, one gether with whom I developed and taught several a daily basis is an important source of knowledge may reasonably assume that successful designs are courses in the period 2010-2016; as well as Janne about how to best design new media products, and likely to be imitated; so even if we leave aside the Aagaard, who has co-taught and co-developed the thereby, to conduct genre innovation. Therefore, discussion of whether it would be meaningful at all Communication Design specialisation with me at empirical studies of work practices and methods to talk about a methodology for ‘genre innovation’, the IT University of Copenhagen from 2014 and in design and development departments of media we can safely assume that in order to effect this onwards. Great thanks also go to the rest of my col- organisations should be an important focus for re- kind of innovation one needs to do communication leagues at the IT University of Copenhagen and the search in communication design. design well. The model presented in this article is Norwegian University of Science and Technology So far, communication design. What is the one suggestion for how to achieve this goal, and the at Gjøvik, who have contributed in countless ways. relevance of this approach for genre innovation? experiences of teachers and students in the courses One does not design genres; one designs artefacts described provide some evidence for the viability of (e.g., new media systems or “texts”), which become the model. Further research and practical experi- genres only if and when they are used and imitated ences may tell us if the designs that are made by use

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