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Analysis of Volcanic Thermohaline Fluctuations of Tagoro Submarine Volcano (El Hierro Island, Canary Islands, Spain)

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Analysis of Volcanic Thermohaline Fluctuations of Tagoro Submarine Volcano (El Hierro Island, Canary Islands, Spain) geosciences Article Analysis of Volcanic Thermohaline Fluctuations of Tagoro Submarine Volcano (El Hierro Island, Canary Islands, Spain) Anna Olivé Abelló 1,2 , Beatriz Vinha 2, Francisco Machín 3, Francesco Zerbetto 4, Evangelos Bakalis 4,* and Eugenio Fraile-Nuez 2,* 1 Departament d’Oceanografia Física i Tecnològica, Institut de Ciències del Mar, CSIC, 08003 Barcelona, Spain; [email protected] 2 Centro Oceanográfico de Canarias, Instituto Español de Oceanografía (IEO), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), 38180 Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Spain; [email protected] 3 Departamento de Física, Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, 35017 Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain; [email protected] 4 Dipartimento di Chimica “G. Ciamician”, Università di Bologna, 40126 Bologna, Italy; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected] (E.B.); [email protected] (E.F.-N.) Abstract: Temperature and conductivity fluctuations caused by the hydrothermal emissions released during the degasification stage of the Tagoro submarine volcano (Canary Islands, Spain) have been analysed as a robust proxy for characterising and forecasting the activity of the system. A total of 21 conductivity-temperature-depth time series were gathered on a regular high-resolution grid over the main crater of Tagoro volcano. Temperature and conductivity time series, as manifestations of stochastic events, were investigated in terms of variance and analysed by the Generalised Moments Citation: Olivé Abelló, A.; Vinha, B.; Method (GMM). GMM provides the statistical moments, the structure functions of a process whose Machín, F.; Zerbetto, F.; Bakalis, E.; shape is an indicator of the underlying stochastic mechanisms and the state of activity of the subma- Fraile-Nuez, E. Analysis of Volcanic rine volcano. Our findings confirm an active hydrothermal process in the submarine volcano with a Thermohaline Fluctuations of Tagoro Submarine Volcano (El Hierro Island, sub-normal behaviour resulting from anti-persistent fluctuations in time. Its hydrothermal emissions Canary Islands, Spain). Geosciences are classified as multifractal processes whose structure functions present a crossover between two 2021, 11, 374. https://doi.org/ time scales. In the shorter time scale, findings point to the multiplicative action of two random 10.3390/geosciences11090374 processes, hydrothermal vents, which carries those fluctuations driving the circulation over the crater, and the overlying aquatic environment. Given that both temperature and conductivity fluctuations Academic Editors: Riccardo De Ritis, are nonstationary, Tagoro submarine volcano can be characterised as an open system exchanging Salvatore Passaro, Alessandra Pensa energy to its surroundings. and Jesus Martinez-Frias Keywords: Tagoro submarine volcano; time series; volcanic activity; generalised moments method; Received: 29 June 2021 stochastic processes Accepted: 28 August 2021 Published: 4 September 2021 Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral 1. Introduction with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affil- Hydrothermal vents, found in submarine volcanic islands, release important emis- iations. sions of hot fluids that rise in a buoyant turbulent plume over the source [1]. Those hydrothermal emissions range from intense high-temperature plumes to diffuse low tem- perature diluted discharges emanating directly from the seafloor [2]. The fluids mix with the surrounding seawater and rise to a level where their density matches the water outside the plume being able to alter the temperature and salinity fields specific to the vertical Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. seawater structure [3]. These vertical motions generate a horizontal flow, resulting in an This article is an open access article anticyclonic vortex of sufficient magnitude to trap water, minerals, tracers, and organisms distributed under the terms and in a local recirculation [4]. As a result, temperature and conductivity fields may fluctuate, conditions of the Creative Commons influencing the local circulation. At the same time, fluctuations are the outcome of random Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// perturbations acting on a field, noise sources caused by the short-term circulation over the creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ volcano [5]. Decoding fluctuations with stochastic analysis tools can shed light and benefit 4.0/). understanding the complexity of hydrothermal emissions [6–8]. Geosciences 2021, 11, 374. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences11090374 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/geosciences Geosciences 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 16 Geosciences 2021, 11, 374 2 of 16 the volcano [5]. Decoding fluctuations with stochastic analysis tools can shed light and benefit understanding the complexity of hydrothermal emissions [6–8]. In the Mediterranean, a newly developed mathematical technique was applied to the time Inseries the Mediterranean,of temperature aand newly conductivity developed fluctuations, mathematical recorded technique by remotely was applied operated to the timevehicles series (ROV), of temperature to understand and the conductivity nature of the fluctuations, stochastic recordedprocesses bythat remotely drive the operated activity vehiclesof volcanoes (ROV), [6,7]. to understandThese studies the suggest nature ofthat the temperature stochastic processes fluctuations that can drive be theused activity as an ofindicator volcanoes to determine [6,7]. These whether studies the suggest volcano that operates temperature as an open fluctuations or closed can system, be used i.e., as if an it indicatorexchanges to energy determine with whether the surroundings the volcano or operatesnot. Open as stands an open for or nonstationary closed system, tempera- i.e., if it exchangesture time series energy and with closed thesurroundings for stationary or ones. not. On Open the stands other hand, for nonstationary conductivity, temperature the ability timeof a water series sample and closed to conduct for stationary an electrical ones. current, On the fluctuations other hand, can conductivity, provide information the ability ofabout a water its current sample state to conduct of activity. an electricalDuring unrest current, (active) fluctuations degassing can periods, provide conductivity information aboutand temperature its current statefollow of a activity. universal During multifractal unrest (active)behaviour, degassing i.e., a multiplicative periods, conductivity action of andrandom temperature processes, follow with acontinuous universal multifractalenergy dissipation. behaviour, Otherwise, i.e., a multiplicative conductivityaction behaves of randomas a universal processes, multifractal with continuous but with a energy stationary dissipation. pattern [6,7]. Otherwise, conductivity behaves as a universalEl Hierro multifractalis the youngest but withand asouthwesternmost stationary pattern island [6,7]. of the Canary Archipelago characterisedEl Hierro by is thea three-armed youngest and rift southwesternmost system and originated island by of hotspot the Canary volcanism Archipelago [9,10] characterised(Figure 1). On by10 October a three-armed 2011, a rift submarine system andvolcano originated eruption by took hotspot place volcanism 1.8 km south [9,10 of] (Figurethe coast1). of On El 10Hierro October Island, 2011, forming a submarine the shallow volcano submarine eruption volcano took place Tagoro, 1.8 kmlocated south at of the coast of El Hierro Island, forming the shallow submarine volcano Tagoro, located 27° 37.1160′ N, 017° 59.4660′ W [11]. When the eruption finished in March 2012, hydro- at 27◦37.11600 N, 017◦59.46600 W[11]. When the eruption finished in March 2012, hy- thermal manifestations were characterised by the release of hot fluids, gases, inorganic drothermal manifestations were characterised by the release of hot fluids, gases, inorganic nutrients and metals as a result of the new degasification phase of the post-eruptive stage nutrients and metals as a result of the new degasification phase of the post-eruptive stage of the Tagoro submarine volcano [12]. This degasification process is exclusively associated of the Tagoro submarine volcano [12]. This degasification process is exclusively associ- with hydrothermalism linked with shallow submarine volcanoes, resulting in water prop- ated with hydrothermalism linked with shallow submarine volcanoes, resulting in water erties changes [13,14]. properties changes [13,14]. Figure 1. (a) Map of El Hierro Island with the triple rift system marked (dashed line) and the location of Tagoro submarine volcanovolcano (red triangle). (b (b) )Location Location of of El El Hierro Hierro Island Island (red (red square square box) box) in the in theCanary Canary Islands Islands Archipelago. Archipelago. (c) High-reso- (c) High- resolutionlution bathymetric bathymetric map map of the of Tagoro the Tagoro submarine submarine volcano volcano with with the location the location of the of main the main crater crater of 15 of m 15 in m diameter in diameter (red dot), the reference profiles (grey dots) and (d) the distribution of the 21 CTD time series recorded along the crest of the (red dot), the reference profiles (grey dots) and (d) the distribution of the 21 CTD time series recorded along the crest of seamount. the seamount. Since 2011, the Tagoro submarine volcano has been deeply monitored by more than 28 different multidisciplinary cruises in order to understand submarine volcanic processes better and how the volcano
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