Interest Group in Special Group in Coaching Psychology

International Coaching Psychology Review

Volume 1 No 1 April 2006

ISSN: 1750-2764 International Coaching Psychology Review

Editorial Board

Co-ordinating Editors

United Kingdom Stephen Palmer, PhD, Coaching Psychology Unit, Department of Psychology, City University, London, UK.

Australia Michael Cavanagh, PhD, Coaching Psychology Unit, School of Psychology, Sydney University, Australia.

Co-Editors

Anthony M. Grant, PhD, Coaching Psychology Unit, School of Psychology, Sydney University, Australia. Travis Kemp, PhD, International Graduate School of Business, University of South Australia, Australia. David Lane, PhD, Middlesex University, London, UK. Alex Linley, PhD, School of Psychology, University of Leicester, UK. Alison Whybrow, PhD, Manchester University, UK.

International Editorial Board

Tatiana Bachkirova, PhD, Oxford Brookes University, UK. Richard Nelson Jones, PhD, Cognitive Humanistic Institute, Thailand. Michael Carroll, PhD, University of Bristol, UK. James Pawelski, PhD, Center, Cary Cooper, PhD, Lancaster University, UK. University of Pennsylvania, USA. Stephen Joseph, PhD, University of Warwick, UK. Ernesto Spinelli, PhD, Regent’s College, UK. Carol Kauffman, PhD, Harvard Medical School, USA. Dianne Stober, PhD, Fielding University, USA. Roy Moodley, PhD, University of Toronto, Canada. Mary Watts, PhD, City University, London, UK.

Subscriptions International Coaching Psychology Review is published bi-annually. It is distributed free of charge to the British Psychological Society Special Group in Coaching Psychology and the Australian Psychological Society Interest Group in Coaching Psychology members. It is available to non-members (Individuals £20 per volume; Institutions £30 per volume) from: The British Psychological Society, SGCP, St. Andrews House, 48 Princess Road East, Leicester LE1 7DR. UK.

Notes for Contributors

International Coaching Psychology Review (ICPR) is an international publication with a focus on the theory, practice and research in the field of coaching psychology. Submission of academic articles, systematic reviews and other research reports which support evidence-based practice are welcomed. The ICPR may also publish conference reports and papers given at the British Psychological Society Special Group in Coaching Psychology (BPS SGCP) and Australian Psychological Society Interest Group in Coaching Psychology (APS IGCP) conferences, notices and items of news relevant to the International Coaching Psychology Community.

Case studies and book reviews will be considered.

The ICPR is published by the BPS SGCP in association with the APS IGCP.

1. Circulation The circulation of the ICPR is worldwide. It is available in hardcopy and PDF format. Papers are invited and encouraged from authors throughout the world. It is available free in paper and PDF format to members of the BPS SGCP, and free PDF format to APS IGCP members as a part of their annual membership.

2. Length Papers should normally be no more than 6000 words, although the Co-Editors retain discretion to publish papers beyond this length in cases where the clear and concise expression of the scientific content requires greater length.

3. Reviewing The journal operates a policy of anonymous peer review. Papers will normally be scrutinised and commented on by at least two independent expert referees (in addition to the relevant Co-Editor) although the Co-Editor may process a paper at his or her discretion. The referees will not be aware of the identity of the author. All information about authorship including personal acknowledgements and institutional affiliations should be confined to the title page (and the text should be free of such clues as identifiable self-citations, e.g. ‘In our earlier work…’).

Continued on inside back cover. Editorial – Coaching Psychology: Its time has finally come Stephen Palmer & Michael Cavanagh

T IS WITH MUCH EXCITEMENT THAT standing of ; ; we write this, the first editorial in the first systems theory; personal and organisational Iissue of the International Coaching growth; adaptation of therapeutic models to Psychology Review (ICPR), and we feel the field of coaching; research into effective- honoured to be the founding Co-ordinating ness, resilience and positive psychology. Editors. When we first discussed the possi- However, up until now, there has not been bility of setting up an international journal an international publication specifically for in 2004 with our colleague, Dr Alison coaching to share their under- Whybrow, we were all excited that the collab- standing and research with colleagues. orative joint venture between the proposed Our intention is that the ICPR will have a British Psychological Society Special Group focus on the theory, practice and research in in Coaching Psychology (BPS SGCP) and the the field of coaching psychology. Any issue of Australian Psychological Society Interest relevance to coaching is welcomed: from Group in Coaching Psychology (APS IGCP) theoretical and empirical research into would bring our two coaching psychology theories, models and measures, to practical communities together. At that time, in the application issues such as ethics and the UK, we were still attempting to form an offi- reporting of cases. We welcome the submis- cial sub-system within the British Psycho- sion of academic articles, systematic reviews, logical Society. Nevertheless, the Coaching brief reports and research reports which Psychology Forum, (the forerunner of the support evidence-based practice. We intend Special Group) and the APS IGCP could see publishing conference reports and papers the mutual benefits of working together on given at the British Psychological Society this project. Special Group in Coaching Psychology and Coaching psychologists are at the fore- Australian Psychological Society Interest in front of developments in the coaching field. Group Coaching Psychology conferences. We now have many research and applied This is important as BPS SGCP and APS psychologists working in Australia, the UK, IGCP members may not always be able to Europe and America, and benefiting both attend each other’s annual conferences but organisations and individuals who are will still want to read the papers given. We purchasers or users of coaching. University are also interested in notices and items of psychology departments in Australia and the news relevant to the International Coaching UK have set up units to focus specifically on Psychology Community such as coaching coaching psychology and not just coaching. psychology conferences. But what do coaching psychologists bring The ICPR has Co-editors who are recog- to the burgeoning field of coaching? We nised as experts in their particular field of bring more than just a framework for a coaching psychology. In addition, the Inter- conversation with a client, such as the national Editorial Board consists of experts famous GROW model. We bring a host of in coaching psychology and related areas psychological theories and models that that inform coaching psychology theory and underpin, and bring depth to, the coaching practice. We are pleased to be working with a relationship. These include an under- well-known international team and we thank

International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 1 © The British Psychological Society 2006 – ISSN: 1750-2764 Stephen Palmer & Michael Cavanagh them for all of the support they have given us This ‘bumper’ inaugural issue has eight so far. However, this journal needs you too: papers ranging from historical to theo- your research, your theories, your ideas and retical, empirical, quantitative and qualita- your contributions. tive research, practical issues and opinion The circulation of the ICPR is worldwide. pieces. The first paper is a largely historical It is available in hardcopy and PDF format. It piece by Stephen Palmer and Alison is available free in paper and PDF format to Whybrow, the Co-proposers of the BPS members of the BPS SGCP, and free PDF Special Group in Coaching Psychology. They format to APS IGCP members as a part of provide a brief history of the formation of their annual membership. Papers should the BPS Special Group. (A similar history of normally be no more than 6000 words, the formation of the APS Interest Group will although the Co-Editors retain discretion to appear in the next edition – due out later publish papers beyond this length in cases this year.) It takes much effort and much where the clear and concise expression of generosity on the part of many people to the scientific or theoretical content requires successfully establish groups such as the greater length. SGCP and IGCP. We felt it appropriate that Papers should first be submitted by e- the early editions of the ICPR recognise and mail to the Co-ordinating Editor in either thank those involved for their efforts. the UK or Australia who will focus on We have seven papers which discuss processing papers from their own coun- substantive theoretical, research and prac- tries. Papers from outside the UK or tical issues facing coaching. Anthony Grant Australia can be submitted to either Co- leads off with his personal perspective on ordinating Editor. The journal operates a professional coaching and the development policy of anonymous peer review. Papers of coaching psychology. He suggests that as will normally be scrutinised and coaching psychology continues to grow its commented on by at least two independent challenges will include the issue of distin- expert referees (in addition to the relevant guishing the work and professional practices Co-Editor) although the Co-Editor may of coaching psychologists from coaches who process a paper at his or her discretion. The are not psychologists. He believes that the referees will not be aware of the identity of emergence of coaching psychology can the author. All information about author- make psychology more accessible and ship including personal acknowledgements acceptable to the public. and institutional affiliations should be Annette Fillery-Travis and David Lane confined to the title page (and the text boldly launch into the difficult waters of should be free of such clues as identifiable measuring return on investment in self-citations, e.g. ‘In our earlier work…’). coaching. Along with their review of the Full details are in our Notes for Contribu- practitioner and academic literature on this tors. Structured abstracts are recommended subject, they present a framework for under- for research papers. standing the varied purposes of coaching. We hope that the ICPR will be the first They argue that before we ask ‘does place coaching psychologists, academics, coaching work?’ we should be asking what is researchers and practitioners from other it being used for, and then design our associated disciplines will consider submit- measures accordingly. ting relevant papers. Few new academic and Alex Linley and Susan Harrington take practitioner journals start with over 2500 us on a journey into coaching from the subscribers who are members of the SGCP perspective of psychological strengths. After and IGCP. The readership will be much considering the history of psychological larger especially after six months as the ICPR strengths in the wider psychological litera- will be freely available online. ture, they present a theory of strengths based

2 International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 Editorial on a conception of the human person as The final paper in this inaugural edition both capable and inherently motivated reports on the qualitative study conducted toward the development of the self. They by Gyllensten and Palmer. Qualitative data is argue for this conception as a foundation for often very rich data. They investigated the coaching. impact of coaching on stress and provide us Stephen Joseph’s article also considers with an opportunity to reflect on the the foundational models within which comments and experiences reported by coaching is situated. He takes a person- coaching clients. centred perspective on coaching psychology. These papers, and this issue of the ICPR, He argues that because coaching psychology is a beginning. Already we can see a wide has emerged in relation to other profes- range of approaches and opinions, and we sional branches of psychology which do hope to be able to publish an even wider adopt the medical model, it has as a conse- range! As coaching psychologists, we have quence implicitly adopted the values of the the privilege of working in a fantastically rich medical model. He believes that coaching and exciting field. As several of the authors psychology should adopt the person-centred in this issue point out, there is continuing meta-theoretical perspective instead. growth and real engagement with coaching As a counterpoint to the papers by Linley in the workplace and in the wider commu- and Harrington and Joseph, Whybrow and nity. Coaching in general, and coaching Palmer present some interesting empirical psychology in particular, has the potential to research on the shape of coaching make an effective and lasting contribution to psychology in the UK. They investigate, people’s lives and to our world. among other things, the backgrounds and It is our hope that the ICPR will come to theoretical orientations of those involved in play a part in this great enterprise by being a coaching psychology. They examine the level forum that stimulates thinking, comment and type of engagement ’s have and research in coaching psychology. As in coaching, and the range of attitudes editors, we look forward with great enthu- expressed by coaches towards issues such as siasm, to receiving and publishing your supervision, training, and ongoing profes- contributions! sional development. This research also looks at how coaching psychology is changing in Stephen Palmer terms of these important features over time. Coaching Psychology Unit, In a similar vein, Spence, Cavanagh and Department of Psychology, Grant report on a survey of Australian life City University, and executive coaches. Their data focuses London, UK. aspects of coaching related to the duty of E-mail: [email protected] care in an unregulated coaching industry. They note that previous Australian studies Michael Cavanagh have suggested that many coaching clients Coaching Psychology Unit, may be using coaching as a socially accept- Department of Psychology, able form of meeting their therapeutic Sydney University, needs. This highlights the need for coaches Sydney, Australia. to have competencies that adequately safe- E-mail: [email protected] guard clients’ mental health and well-being. A key question that the paper raises is whether or not coaches can reliably identify and then refer clients with mental health issues?

International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 3 The best psychology, to your inbox - free!

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4 International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 The coaching psychology movement and its development within the British Psychological Society Stephen Palmer & Alison Whybrow

To many members of the British Psychological Society (BPS) it may appear that the BPS Special Group in Coaching Psychology (SGCP) has come from nowhere to somewhere in a short space of time. It held its inaugural meeting on 15 December 2004 and by March 2005, it had become the third largest BPS subsystem with over 1600 Founder Members and by December 2005, it had almost 2000 members. Its path through the BPS bureaucracy helped to shape it into an inclusive branch of . This paper will cover the history of the coaching psychology movement within the BPS. Keywords: coaching psychology, coaching, British Psychological Society, Special Group.

History of the UK coaching psychology as a full member. (Their members can movement become chartered in specific areas such NE OF THE LEADING PIONEERS as occupational, clinical, counselling or of coaching psychology, Dr Anthony .) OGrant, based at the Coaching G Special Groups exist to represent groups Psychology Unit, Sydney, Australia, had of members working in a particular field. given various papers in the UK which The members of a Special Group all have increased awareness of his ideas. He and some defining characteristics that are less Stephen Palmer at the Centre for Coaching, rigorous than that required for a London, had been in e-mail contact Division. regarding coaching psychology. This contact G Sections exist where members have acted as the UK catalyst which finally decided to pool and exchange scientific galvanised action. In parallel with this interest and knowledge. Any member process there were many UK psychologists may belong to a Section. working in the field of coaching research Usually the simplest way to establish an and practice who were also interested in the interest group would be to set up a Special psychology of coaching. Interest Group (SIG) or Faculty within a Initially Palmer received advice and Division. At this time, as one of Palmer’s key support from the British Psychological interests was in the adaptation of therapeutic Society (BPS) office about taking coaching approaches to the field of coaching it psychology forward and there were a seemed that the ideal place to set up a number of options. The BPS has three key coaching psychology SIG was within the Divi- types of subsystems: Divisions, Special sion of Counselling Psychology (DCoP). The Groups and Sections. The BPS website process seemed relatively straightforward. describes the subsystems as below. With the agreement of the 2001–2002 G Divisions exist where there is a clear DCoP Chair, at the British Psychological professional grouping and professional Society, Division of Counselling Psychology training. Divisions’ main work is in 2002 Annual Conference, Palmer raised the pursuing and enhancing professional issue of setting up a coaching psychology SIG practice. Only those who have completed at the Annual General Meeting. He was then an approved training may join a Division given the go-ahead to run a workshop on

International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 5 © The British Psychological Society 2006 – ISSN: 1750-2764 Stephen Palmer & Alison Whybrow coaching psychology at the conference and tional delay for setting up of SIGs within facilitated the possible setting up of a DCoP DCoP had unintentionally created a new SIG. A working definition of coaching problem. Should the CPF take into account psychology was used at the workshop that all of its new members, their diverse psycho- Grant and Palmer were developing for an logical backgrounds and their memberships article. Of the 29 BPS members who of different Divisions? attended the workshop, 28 were interested Further advice was sought from the BPS in forming a Coaching Psychology SIG office and at a CPF seminar (Palmer, 2003) within the DCoP. E-mail addresses were and meeting held in London on 21 February exchanged and an internet discussion 2003, it was decided to submit a proposal to forum, called the Coaching Psychology the BPS for the setting up of a Special Group Forum (CPF) was set up for use of these in Coaching Psychology. At that time, a Divi- members to maintain contact and thereby sion would have been premature as coaching further the field of coaching psychology. At psychology is a relatively new professional this stage, most members were counselling area of practice for psychologists, and a psychologists. Section did not reflect the professional Unfortunately, it was later discovered that practice aspect of coaching psychology. in 2002 DCoP did not have a constitution Meanwhile CPF ran a number of that allowed the formation of a SIG. This successful and profitable conferences and vexing problem later became part of the workshops at the BPS offices in London on solution as the delay provided new opportu- different aspects of coaching psychology. nities. The BPS agreed to bank the fees on our As CPF already existed as an internet behalf. Also, the CPF had representatives forum, it was decided to keep it going, but liaising with other professional coaching still restricting the membership to BPS bodies including the Association for members only, as they would have to abide Coaching and the European Mentoring and by the BPS Codes of Conduct and would Coaching Council and provided input for a support the fledgling UK coaching Chartered Institute of Personnel and Devel- psychology movement. Non-BPS applicants opment publication (see Jarvis, 2004). who wished to join CPF had to become (Further information about these three members or affiliates of the BPS; otherwise organisations is beyond the scope of this they were not permitted to join. article. However, details about them are Ho Law (2002), an occupational psychol- available from their websites.) CPF’s website ogist who had attended the first workshop at (CPF 2004) included an online journal, the conference, wrote an article about The Coaching Psychologist. coaching psychology and CPF which was The Occupational Psychologist had a special published in The Occupational Psychologist, issue on coaching psychology (edited by newsletter of the BPS Division of Occupa- Chapman, 2003). In the following year, Selec- tional Psychology. This generated a further tion & Development Review had a special issue surge in membership specifically by occupa- on coaching (edited by Hines, 2004). Both tional psychologists. During 2002, about 70 special issues were largely written by CPF BPS members from different BPS sub- members and both were instrumental in systems joined the internet CPF. This promoting support within the BPS for the breadth of membership meant that if a SIG SGCP proposal. was finally set up within any one BPS Division, many members would be alienated, Passage to Utopia i.e. would not be allowed full membership of The passage of the proposal through the BPS the SIG unless they were also full members did take some time as various committees of the said BPS Division. The initial constitu- either approved it or commented on it. Some

6 International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 The coaching psychology movement… committees agreed to have a presentation 1200 gave their support. This level of given by the co-proposers to help answer support was higher than expected. their queries. The summary below illustrates G Then finally a vote for or against the its progress (Palmer & Whybrow, 2004a). proposal by the entire BPS membership G Professional Practice Board (PPB): was necessary. The vote declared in 6 June 2003. Presentation to Board by favour of proposal on the 16 October co-proposers Palmer and Whybrow. 2004. Some challenging feedback was received G Inaugural meeting and oversubscribed from a couple of members. There was a inaugural conference held on 15 concern about the proposed Special December 2004 at City University, Group later becoming a Division. The London, UK. Over 250 members turned meeting was a transparent process where up for the meeting. The invited keynote co-proposers were allowed to stay to speaker from Australia was Dr Anthony witness the outcome. Grant. G Membership and Professional Training G In 2005 the draft rules of the SGCP were Board (MPTB): 20 June 2003. No revised. However, the BPS Board of presentation to the Board. Trustees did not approve the proposed G Board of Trustees: 5 September 2003. revised rules for the SGCP. In particular, No presentation to the Board. they suggested that its rules should be G BPS Council: 18 October 2003. more appropriate to its Special Group Presentation to Council by Palmer and status or it should apply for Divisional Whybrow. In the light of the discussions, status in the usual manner. Two key Palmer and Whybrow reassured the concerns were that the proposed rules Council that they personally had no included were the setting up of Special intention of wanting to set up a Division Interest Groups (SIG) (as supported by at a later date. The caveat being that they the membership in attendance at the could not predict what other colleagues inaugural meeting), and the proposed may want to do in the future. rules invited one graduate member in G PPB and MPTB representatives were training to become a member of the appointed to provide input on revising SGCP committee. The SGCP committee the proposed draft rules for the Special members were overworked as the Group. existing draft rules would not allow the G Coaching Psychology Forum AGM appointment of the number of additional 2 February, 2004. Feedback to members members they required. For expediency about progress. the rules were revised again dropping the G After receiving constructive feedback SIG and trainee elements. The Board of from the PPB and MPTB representatives, Trustees accepted the final revisions and the proposal was revised and then these were approved by the membership. returned to BPS Board of Trustees The key lessons we learnt from this process (7 May) in 2004 for approval and then was to stay focused on the task and listen to the BPS Council as part of the all the feedback given by BPS staff and the consultative process (8 May). After the relevant BPS committees. meeting, Chair’s action was required by During this whole process the Australian the Council Chair otherwise there could Psychological Society Interest Group have been a delay until the following Coaching Psychology, were supportive of the Council meeting. proposal. In addition to e-mail contact, in G Support sought from BPS members. 2003 Ray Elliot, their National Convenor, Needed 400 (approximately one per cent had a meeting in London with Palmer and of BPS Membership). By 31 August over Whybrow to discuss collaboration. In 2004,

International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 7 Stephen Palmer & Alison Whybrow

Dr Michael Cavanagh, the new National Coaching Psychology definition. The UK Convenor, held a meeting in Ide Hill, Kent, definition went through a developmental with Palmer and Whybrow to discuss the process which is still on-going. development of the International Coaching Psychology Review as well as other relevant The application of coaching psychology issues. The following examples of the application of coaching psychology are intended to illus- Definition of coaching psychology trate areas of practice; they are not exhaus- Definitions or descriptions of coaching illus- tive and include: trate the difference between coaching and G Supporting people to develop effective coaching psychology: strategies for dealing with concerns G Coaching – Directly concerned with the about specific areas of performance, for immediate improvement of performance example, giving presentations. and development of skills by a form of G Providing one-to-one support to facilitate tutoring or instruction – an instructional people in achieving their life and/or approach (Parsloe, 1995). work goals. G Coaching – The art of facilitating the G Facilitating the achievement of group performance, learning and development goals. of another – a facilitation approach G Supporting the development of effective (Downey, 1999). coaching programmes in organisations. Whereas the initial CPF coaching psychology G Supervising psychologists and non- definition focused on the adaptation of ther- psychologists in practice as coaching apeutic approaches to coaching: psychologists or as coaches. G Coaching psychology is for enhancing G Running training programmes in performance in work and personal life coaching psychology, the psychology of domains with normal, non-clinical coaching and coaching. populations, underpinned by models of G Undertaking research into the coaching grounded in established effectiveness of coaching. therapeutic approaches (Grant & Palmer, Figure 1 highlights the focus of coaching 2002). psychology practice taken from a 2004 survey Since the workshop in May 2002, the defini- of 109 CPF members (Palmer & Whybrow, tion of coaching psychology gradually 2004b). It illustrates that coaching evolved, influenced by BPS committees and psychology practice is being applied to both psychologists from different BPS sub-systems business and personal arenas. The high becoming involved with the CPF. Although percentage scores show that many partici- the two main groups were occupational and pants work in more than one specific area. counselling psychologists, others such as health, and clinical were CPF members Aims and Membership too. The final working definition used in the The key aims of the SGCP are: last draft of the SGCP proposal was: G Development of coaching psychology; G Coaching psychology is for enhancing G Foster research and study of coaching well-being and performance in personal psychology; life and work domains underpinned by G Promote standards and guidelines; models of coaching grounded in G Facilitate workshops and conferences; established learning or psycho- G Develop public awareness; logical approaches (adapted Grant & G Working within the BPS and liaising with Palmer, 2002). external groups. However, this differs from the Australian Currently the membership criterion is Psychological Society Interest Group in straightforward. Full membership is avail-

8 International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 The coaching psychology movement… Figure 1: Focus of coaching psychology practice (Palmer & Whyrow, 2004b).

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able to BPS members who hold the Graduate two issues of The Coaching Psychologist in hard- Basis for Registration (GBR). Thus, the copy format and placed a PDF copy on the majority of BPS members are eligible for full Coaching Psychology website. In 2006, after membership. Students or affiliates of the 18 months of planning the International BPS join as affiliates. About 50 per cent of Coaching Psychology Review has been launched the members are already chartered psycho- in association with the APS IGCP. The SGCP logists. ran a successful workshop programme in 2005 which culminated in the SGCP 2nd Adaptation of therapeutic approaches Annual National Coaching Psychology used in coaching psychology Conference held on 19 to 20 December. Psychologists have adapted a number of ther- Dr Michael Cavanagh, the current Australian apeutic approaches to the field of coaching Psychological Society Interest Group psychology including solution focused brief Coaching Psychology National Convenor therapy, cognitive behavioural therapy, gave a keynote paper and ran a workshop. rational emotive behaviour therapy, multi- In 2005, the CPF website was transferred modal therapy (e.g. Greene & Grant, 2003; to the main BPS website and two e-mail Lee, 2003; Neenan & Palmer, 2001; Palmer, groups were set up to aid communication Cooper & Thomas, 2003; Peltier, B. 2001; and discussion for members. A membership Richards, J.T. 1999. Also, see Grant’s seminal pack was developed for members providing work, 2001). Figure 2 (overleaf) highlights advice and guidance on a number of rele- the most popular approaches used by UK vant issues. At a professional level, SGCP has coaching psychologists although other held roundtable discussions with the other approaches are also practised to a lesser main coaching-related professional bodies. extent (scores in percentages). This was Coaching psychology competencies are taken from a survey of CPF members (Palmer being developed and this is likely to & Whybrow, 2004b). continue for sometime. It is worth noting that the BPS monthly Recent progress and developments Appointments Memorandum carried its first job Coaching psychology in the UK had a great advertisement for coaching psychologists in start with the newly formed SGCP having April 2005 (see page 54). In December 2005, over 1600 founding members. At the begin- the UK’s first university-based Coaching ning of 2006, the SGCP had almost 2000 Psychology Unit was set up in the Depart- members. During 2005, the SGCP published ment of Psychology at City University,

International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 9 Stephen Palmer & Alison Whybrow Figure 2: Coaching approaches (Palmer & Whyrow, 2004b).

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London, focusing on coaching psychology ences with well known overseas speakers. research through MPhil, PhD and DPsych Gradually psychologists in other countries programmes. In 2006, information about are likely to become interested in coaching coaching psychology will be included in the psychology too and this is already reflected Directory of Chartered Psychologists which will in the international editorial board of this help the public secure appropriate services publication. The future is bright and we from SGCP chartered members. predict that the SGCP will go from strength During 2005, membership was free and to strength. in 2006, it was raised to £3.50 p.a. The SGCP income from its successful workshop series Correspondence and conferences contribute largely towards Professor Stephen Palmer, PhD, is Honorary its overheads. Professor of Psychology at the Coaching Psychology Unit, City University, and Conclusion Director of the Centre for Coaching, Coaching psychology has seen a rapid London. He was Chair of the SGCP in 2005 growth in interest within the British Psycho- and is now Past Chair. He is on the National logical Society since 2004. From a small Executive of the SGCP. He was formerly a group of 28 interested BPS members in 2002 Co-proposer of the SGCP with Dr Alison it has made great progress. Realistically Whybrow. membership of the SGCP is likely to plateau during 2006 although this is hard to predict Dr Alison Whybrow is Treasurer of the SGCP as the SGCP has an appeal to non-psycholo- and was formerly a Co-proposer. She is on gists who have joined as affiliates and the National Executive of the SGCP. psychologists who do not feel they have a home elsewhere in the BPS. The interna- Correspondence address: tional standing of the BPS SGCP is likely to Professor Stephen Palmer be enhanced by publishing the International Coaching Psychology Unit, Coaching Psychology Review, its good working Department of Psychology, relationship with the Australian Psycholog- City University, Northampton Square, ical Society Interest Group Coaching London, EC1V 0HB, United Kingdom. Psychology, and running successful confer- E-mail: [email protected]

10 International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 The coaching psychology movement…

References Chapman, M. (Ed.) (2003). Special issue: Coaching Neenan, M. & Palmer, S. (2001). Cognitive behav- Psychology. The Occupational Psychologist, 49, ioural coaching. Stress News, 13(3), 15–18. August, 3–33. Palmer, S. (2003). The development of coaching CPF (2004). Coaching Psychology Forum website. psychology in the UK. Coaching Psychology Forum http://www.coachingpsychologyforum.org.uk seminar held on 21 February in London. Downey, M. (1999). Effective coaching. London: Orion Palmer, S., Cooper, C, & Thomas, K. (2003). Creating Business Books. a balance: Managing stress. London: British Grant, A.M. (2001). Towards a psychology of coaching. Library. Sydney: Coaching Psychology Unit, University of Palmer, S. & Whybrow, A. (2004a). The brief history of Sydney. the UK BPS Coaching Psychology Movement: From Grant, A.M. & Palmer, S. (2002). Coaching Psychology. Acorns to Oak Trees! Paper at the BPS Special Workshop and meeting held at the Annual Group in Coaching Psychology Inaugural Conference of the Division of Counselling Conference, held at City University, London, on Psychology, British Psychological Society, 15 December. Torquay, 18 May. Palmer, S. & Whybrow, A. (2004b). Coaching psychology Greene, J. & Grant, A.M. (2003). Solution-focused survey: Taking stock. Paper at the BPS Special coaching: Managing people in a world. Group in Coaching Psychology Inaugural Harlow: Pearson . Conference, held at City University, London, on Hine, P. (Ed.) (2004). Special Edition: Coaching. 15 December. Selection & Development Review, 20(4), August, Parsloe, E. (1995). Coaching, mentoring and assessing: 3–30. A practical guide to developing competence. New York: Jarvis, J. (2004). Coaching and buying coaching services: Kogan Page. A guide. London: CIPD. Peltier, B. (2001). The psychology of executive coaching: Law, H. (2002). Coaching Psychology Special Group: Theory and application. New York: Brunner- An introduction. The Occupational Psychologist, 47, Routledge. December. Richard, J.T. (1999). Multimodal Therapy: A useful Lee, G. (2003). Leadership coaching: From personal insight model for the executive coach. Consulting to organisational performance. London: CIPD. Psychology Journal, 51(1), 24–30.

Websites BPS SGCP http://www.coachingpsychologyforum.org.uk Association for Coaching www.associationforcoaching.com European Mentoring and Coaching Council www.emccouncil.org/ Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development www.cipd.co.uk

International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 11 A personal perspective on professional coaching and the development of coaching psychology Anthony M. Grant

Coaching psychology can be understood as being the systematic application of behavioural science to the enhancement of life experience, work performance and well-being for individuals, groups and organisations who do not have clinically significant mental heath issues or abnormal levels of distress. Although psychologists have long acted as coaches, coaching psychology has only recently emerged as an applied and academic sub-discipline. As coaching psychology continues to grow there will be some exciting challenges from both within and outside of the profession of psychology. First among these there will be the issue of distinguishing the work and professional practices of coaching psychologists from coaches who are not psychologists. Secondly, will be the place of coaching psychology relative to other psychological sub- disciplines, and thirdly will be the development of a research and practice agenda for coaching psychology. Keywords: coaching, coaching psychology, professional practice, non-psychologist coaches, positive psychology.

OW CAN WE, AS PSYCHOLOGISTS, standing of the structure of personality, and better work with our clients to help where would be we be without the zonule of Hthem to increase their performance, Zinn! development, skill sets and levels of well- Many of us were frustrated that there was being? How can we best facilitate the growth so little taught about the normal, well-func- and development of normal, non-clinical tioning adult person, and even less about clients? How can we help them reach goals how to apply theory to practice, and it was in their personal and work lives? How we can frustrations such as these which gave design and implement real-life interventions impetus to the emergence of coaching that allow us understand the psychological psychology. mechanisms of human change and develop- Psychologists have been involved in ment? coaching for many years (e.g. Filippi, 1968). When many of us began to study The 1996 special edition of , we thought that these were some Psychology Journal: Research and Practice dedi- of the essential questions that would be cated to executive coaching and consultation covered in our undergraduate and graduate was a landmark publication on coaching in psychology degrees. Yet many of us were the psychological academic literature. The disappointed by the taught material. To be roots of coaching psychology stretch back to sure, the neuro-psychological aspects of our the humanistic traditions of psychology (e.g. degrees were fascinating. Milgram’s studies Maslow, 1968), and are related to the factors were thought-provoking. The building underpinning the emergence of the Positive blocks of learning processes, as demon- Psychology movement (e.g. Seligman & strated in animal research on classical condi- Csikszentmihalyi, 2000; Snyder & McCul- tioning and associative learning gave us lough, 2000). However, contemporary insights into our own learning processes. coaching psychology as a specific academic The wide range of perspectives on person- sub-discipline can be considered to have ality theory and measurement gave us under- come into being with the establishment of

12 International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 © The British Psychological Society 2006 – ISSN: 1750-2764 Development of coaching psychology the Coaching Psychology Unit at the Univer- should be evidence-based, and incorporate sity of Sydney in 2000 and the offering of the ethical professional practice. first postgraduate degree in coaching Contemporary professional coaching is a psychology. The recent (2005) establishment cross–disciplinary methodology for fostering of a Coaching Psychology Unit at City Univer- individual and organisational change, and sity, London, has been another important comprises both personal or ‘life’ coaching, step in further developing the academic and workplace coaching with staff, managers underpinnings of coaching psychology. and executives. There are no entry barriers As coaching psychology continues to to becoming a coach. In a study of 2529 grow there will be some exciting challenges, professional coaches Grant and Zackon from both within and outside of the profes- (2004) found that coaches had come to sion of psychology. First among these there coaching from a wide variety of prior profes- will be the issue of distinguishing the work sional backgrounds (in order of magnitude) and professional practices of coaching consultants (40.8 per cent), managers (30.8 psychologists from coaches who are not per cent), executives (30.2 per cent), psychologists. Secondly, will be the place of teachers (15.7 per cent) and salespeople coaching psychology relative to other (13.8 per cent). Interestingly, in that sample psychological sub-disciplines, and thirdly will only 4.8 per cent of respondents had a back- be the development of a research and ground in psychology (note percentages are practice agenda for coaching psychology. not accumulative). This paper presents a personal perspective Such diversity is both strength and a on these issues and development of liability. The diversity of prior professional coaching psychology. backgrounds means that the coaching industry draws on wide range of method- The nature of contemporary ological approaches to coaching, and a wide professional coaching range of educational disciplines inform It may be useful to firstly discuss the nature coaching practice. On the other hand, due of general professional coaching before to the diversity and sheer number of individ- exploring aspects of coaching psychology. uals offering coaching services, there is a Definitions of coaching vary considerably lack of clarity as to what professional (Palmer & Whybrow, 2005) and have been coaching really is and what makes for an the subject of much debate (e.g. D’Abate, effective or reputable coach (Sherman & Eddy & Tannenbaum, 2003; Kilburg, 1996; Freas, 2004). Mace, 1950), but central to most definitions This diversity also means that there may are the assumptions of an absence of serious be a wide range of perspectives about what mental health problems in the client constitutes best ethical and professional (Bluckert, 2005), the notion that the client is practice, and what is the proper focus of resourceful (Berg & Szabo, 2005), willing to coaching. Most coaches do not have a back- engage in finding solutions (Hudson, 1999), ground in behavioural science and, most and that coaching is on outcome-focused commercial coach training programmes are activity which seeks to foster self-directed short courses based on proprietary models of learning through collaborative goal setting, coaching with little or no theoretical brainstorming and action planning (Greene grounding, and finish with the granting of & Grant, 2003). In this way coaches help some kind of coaching ‘certification’. clients enhance aspects of both their Not surprisingly, there have been personal and professional lives. Coaching is concerns expressed that inappropriately thus, collaborative, individualised, solution- trained coaches tend to conduct atheoretical focused, results orientated, systematic, one-size-fits-all coaching interventions stretching, fosters self-directed learning, and (Kauffman & Scoular, 2004) and may cause

International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 13 Anthony M. Grant harm to clients, particularly those who have titles to guide them in their selection of a unrecognised mental health problems coach. Because coaching is an industry and (Berglas, 2002; Cavanagh, 2005; Naughton, not a profession, there are no barriers to 2002). Although coaching is aimed at non- entry, no regulation, no government-sanc- clinical populations it may be that some tioned accreditation or qualification process individuals seek coaching as a more socially- and no clear authority to be a coach; anyone acceptable form of therapy. Indeed, recent can call themselves a ‘Master Coach’. World- studies have found that between 25 per cent wide there is a veritable industry offering a and 50 per cent of individuals presenting for range of ‘coach certification’ programmes. life coaching met clinical mental health Some of these commercial coach training criteria (Green, Oades & Grant, 2005; organisations appear to be little more than Spence & Grant, 2005). coach ‘credentialing mills’ where, following However, it is hard to find actual reports a few days training and the payment of a suit- of such damage beyond occasional news- able fee, one can become a ‘Certified Master paper articles about the impact of failed Life Coach’. Unfortunately, it sometimes therapy or counselling (e.g. Pyror, 2005) or seems as if every man and his dog offer a social commentary articles decrying the rise coach certification programme, and the of the self-help or coaching culture (e.g. value of such certifications is highly ques- Furedi, 2005). How are we to understand tionable. Indeed, it may be that the majority this? At present, because there is no registra- of money made within the coaching industry tion or licensing requirements for coaches is being made by commercial coach training who are not psychologists, there is no acces- organisations rather than through actual sible body for disgruntled members of the coaching by coaching practitioners. public to complain to. If such damage is in Of course, organisations such as the Asso- fact occurring then one assumes that reports ciation for Coaching (AC), the European of such harm will surface in time. Alterna- Mentoring and Coaching Council (EMCC) tively, it may be that coaching clients are and the International Coach Federation highly resilient and in fact little harm is (ICF), have put considerable effort into being done by non-psychologist coaches. establishing credentialing processes and Interestingly, more common are newspaper have done important work in beginning to reports of inadequately trained business define coaching competencies, and the coaches or the inappropriate franchising of recent establishment of the Australian coach businesses as ‘lifestyle and wealth- Psychological Society Interest Group in creation opportunities’ or the promotion of Coaching Psychology and the British Psycho- coach ‘certification’ programmes (Walker, logical Society Special Group in Coaching 2004). Psychology are very welcome and vital moves in the development of professional coaching Coaching credentialing and the as well as coaching psychology. credibility of coaches However, the credibility and profession- An area of concern that has not as yet been alism of coaching is still tenuous. There are discussed in the academic literature, increasing media reports which question the concerns the hunger for credibility and credibility of unqualified life coaches who credentialing by some sections of the appear to have the lowest perceived levels of coaching industry. This is an important issue. credibility (e.g. Salerno, 2005). In contrast, The general public are not well-educated as psychologists who are coaches are viewed in to the worth of various psychological qualifi- a far more credible light and this is particu- cations and accreditations (Lancaster & larly the case for executive developmental Smith, 2002) let alone coaching qualifica- coaching (Seligman, 2005). tions, and may rely on impressive sounding

14 International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 Development of coaching psychology

Raising the bar for the coaching sure to present themselves in a more industry academic or professional light. As the coaching market matures, the corpo- The temptation for these people is to rations who are the main consumers of inappropriately leverage affiliations and/or coaching are demanding higher standards of qualifications which are only tenuously qualifications from the coaches they employ, connected to coaching practice. An example and postgraduate qualification in behav- here might be the individual who holds a ioural science are a key selection criteria for PhD in physics presenting themselves as executive coaching (Corporate Leadership holding doctoral qualifications relevant to Council, 2003). Psychologists have increas- coaching, or the unqualified part-time ingly and more publicly become involved in instructor in a university-based continuing the coaching industry. The entry into the education programme presenting them- coaching arena by psychology, with its atten- selves as an ‘adjunct professor’. The issue dant rigorous educational programmes and here is that the general public, when professional ethos and qualifications has, presented with impressive sounding qualifi- I believe, noticeably raised the bar for the cations and affiliations, may well attribute a coaching industry in general. level of credibility which is not warranted. In In contrast to the commercial training an applied area of practice such as coaching, programmes that dominated the coaching this can be seriously problematic. And this is market during the late 1990s and early particular of a concern given that there is no 2000s, there are now a number of universi- one central regulating body to which dissat- ties that offer postgraduate programmes in isfied clients can complain about unethical coaching. As of December 2005, there are practices. three Australian universities offering coach- Psychologists have several important specific education as part of postgraduate factors which enhance both their suitability degree programmes. All of these are offered for coaching and their credibility as profes- by Schools of Psychology. At least seven UK sional coaches. Psychology is a recognised universities offer coaching degree profession with established academic qualifi- programmes. Most of those are not offered cations and rigorous training, enforceable by Psychology Departments, rather they are ethical codes and barriers to entry, and have offered by Business Schools or from within government-sanctioned organisations which Faculties of Education. In the US seven are in a position to police the profession. universities offer coach degree programmes Further, psychologists bring to coaching a and in Canada there are two postgraduate solid understanding of the psychology of programmes in coaching. The majority of human change, and the ability to develop the North American programmes are coaching interventions based on theoreti- offered from within Business Schools rather cally-grounded case conceptualisations using than Schools of Psychology. These clearly are evidence-based processes and techniques. welcome changes, and the involvement of Unfortunately, in the past psychologists graduate schools and universities will raise have not been represented in the media as the standard of the general coaching being uniquely competent coaching practi- industry. tioners (Garman, Whiston & Zlatoper, However, as the bar gets raised within an 2000). Yet psychology has a genuine and increasingly demanding market, and in the important contribution to make to profes- quest for credibility and the subsequent sional coaching in terms of adapting and commercial advantage, there has been a validating existing therapeutic models for shake-up in the market. Coaches who do not use with normal populations and evaluating have proper training in coaching or commercialised approaches to personal psychology are beginning to feel the pres- development to ensure consumer protection

International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 15 Anthony M. Grant and inform consumer choice (Grant, 2001; clients frequently find such an on-going Starker, 1990). I believe that the emergence performance-enhancing relationship to be of a sub-discipline of coaching psychology highly beneficial. can make psychology more accessible and Paradoxically, such observations also attractive to the public. argue for the formal establishment of coaching psychology. The fact that some What is the place of coaching psychologists are already shifting to a psychology? coaching style once therapeutic aims have Coaching psychology can be understood as been met, suggests that there is a client being the systematic application of behav- demand for coaching by psychologists, and ioural science to the enhancement of life that clients value a coaching relationship experience, work performance and well- with a psychologist that is focused on goal being for individuals, groups and organisa- attainment and well-being, rather than being tions who do not have clinically significant curative. Further, as Kauffman and Scoular mental heath issues or abnormal levels of (2004) note, the vast majority of individuals distress. presenting for executive coaching are not In broad terms, coaching psychology sits remedial clients, but are seeking support in at the intersection of sports, counselling, stretching and development. Thus interven- clinical, and organisational and health tions and helping relationships based on a psychology. Where clinical and counselling clinical or medical model may be highly psychologists tend to work with the client inappropriate. who is distressed and/or dysfunctional, Unfortunately in the public’s mind, coaching psychologists work with well-func- psychologists are often confused with psychi- tioning clients, using theoretically grounded atrists and have long been seen by the public and scientifically validated techniques to as being focused on therapy and clinical help them to reach goals in their personal work (Webb & Speer, 1986), rather than and business lives. Coaching is a robust and being proactive facilitators of human or challenging intervention, is results-driven, organisational change. There is a clear need delivers tangible added value, is typically a for psychologists to present their skills in a short-term or intermittent engagement, and way that the public finds attractive and acces- enables the attainment of high standards or sible (Coleman, 2003). Further, many goals. psychologists find coaching to be an It may be argued that psychology does appealing and personally rewarding alterna- not need another delineated sub-discipline, tive to therapeutic practice (Naughton, and that the work of coaching is already 2002). being conducted by psychologists. Indeed, Thus, rather than act as a coach, it makes there is evidence that there is considerable more sense for psychologists to actually be a overlap between both the training and the coach, to develop coaching skills and psycho- actual practices of different established logical frameworks that go beyond existing psychology sub-disciplines. For example, clinical or counselling frameworks and appli- Cobb et al. (2004) found that training cations. programmes across three areas, clinical, One challenge for an emerging sub- counselling and , were discipline of coaching psychology will be to more similar than different. Further, many develop coaching interventions that utilise applied, clinical and counselling psycholo- existing theory and technique, but do so in a gists already consider themselves to be acting way that is relevant and engaging for non-clin- as ‘coaches’ and continue to work with clin- ical populations. If we can rise to this chal- ical clients long after their initial treatment lenge I believe that coaching psychology has objectives have been met. This is because tremendous potential to be a major force for

16 International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 Development of coaching psychology the promotion of well-being, productivity and in the research focus of applied psychology performance enhancement for the indi- away from . Positive vidual, for organisations and corporations psychology can be understood a ‘the scien- and for the broader community as a whole. tific study of optimal functioning, focusing Further, coaching psychology can speed the on aspects of the human condition that lead development of established and emerging to happiness, fulfilment, and flourishing’ psychological approaches by acting as a real- (Linley & Harrington, 2005, p.13). life experimental platform from which to There has been considerable progress further develop our knowledge of the psycho- made by positive psychologists in developing logical processes involved in purposeful theoretical frameworks for understanding change in normal, non-clinical populations. human strengths (Snyder & Lopez, 2002). However, most of the work thus far within Coaching psychology and positive the positive psychology arena has been about psychology investigating correlational relationships Regardless of preferred theoretical orienta- between various constructs (Lazarus, 2003), tion (systemic, cognitive, psychodynamic, for example, the relationship between self- etc.) psychology as an applied helping concordance, well-being, goal attainment profession has traditionally focused on and goal satisfaction (Sheldon & Elliot, ameliorating distress and repairing dysfunc- 1999), the measurement of constructs such tionality rather than enhancing the well- as well-being (Ryff & Keyes, 1996) or a being and goal attainment of normal, taxonomy of human strengths (Peterson & well-functioning . Seligman, 2004) as an alternative to the DSM There have been long-standing calls for diagnostic (APA, 2000). psychology to broaden its relevance to Despite recent publications on the appli- society in ways that would help the general cation of positive psychology (e.g. Linley & public to use psychology in a positive Joseph, 2004), to date there has been rela- manner in their daily lives (Miller, 1969). tively little work within the positive Indeed, the general public and business psychology arena about how best to opera- organisations have a thirst for techniques tionalise positive psychology constructs. that enhance life experience and perform- Further, there have been concerns that over- ance. The worldwide market for personal enthusiasm for positive psychology may lead development material has grown signifi- to ideological enmeshment, and that an cantly since the 1950s (Fried, 1994) and over-simplistic dichotomous thinking about continues to grow. The American personal ‘the positive’ or ‘the negative’ is not helpful development and self-help book market or accurate (Lazarus, 2003). We need to alone is worth over $US600 million dollars bring the promise of a positive psychology annually (Wyld, 2001). However, traditional into fruition (see Ryff, 2003). One way to psychology as a research discipline and an further develop the emerging field of posi- applied profession has not risen to the chal- tive psychology is to extend past cross- lenge of meeting the needs of consumers in sectional or correlation work by designing the normal adult population (Fox, 1996; interventions which to use coaching as an Laungani, 1999). experimental framework, and this may be an Recently there has been considerable important role for coaching psychologists. interest in a positive psychology that focuses on developing human strengths and compe- Coaching psychology is inclusive tencies (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000; theoretically and sophisticated Snyder & McCullough, 2000). The emer- technically gence of positive psychology is to be Although the links between positive applauded and welcomed, and marks a shift psychology and coaching psychology are

International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 17 Anthony M. Grant clear, coaching psychologists employ a wide Firstly, in order to become skilled in the range of theoretical perspectives in their use of a specific theoretical modality, practi- work, not just positive psychological frame- tioners tend to integrate the key tenants of works. These include psychodynamic and the psychological framework into their systemic (Kilburg, 2000), developmental personal world view, and in a sense, they (Laske, 1999), cognitive-behavioural personally embody the core facets of their (Ducharme, 2004), solution-focused (Greene preferred theoretical approach in their own & Grant, 2003), and behavioural (Skiffington lived experience (Binder, 2004). Indeed, it & Zeus, 2003); also see Peltier (2001) for a has been argued that integration of one’s useful overview of a range of theoretical sense of self with one’s theoretical approach approaches to executive coaching. is essential in order to be a truly effective The relative value and efficacy of therapist (Norcross & Halgin, 2005). Thus, different theoretical approaches has been for example, the psychologist trained in a debated long and hard in the clinical litera- cognitive-behavioural approach will tend to ture. It is generally accepted that a key factor make sense of the world, both personally in therapeutic outcome is the quality of the and professionally, using cognitive-behav- working alliance (Horvath & Symonds, ioural concepts. In order to be flexible in 1991), and the alliance is as important as the working with different theoretical perspec- specific theoretical orientation employed tives, as best suits specific coaching clients, (Howgego et al., 2003). Every theoretical the coach needs view the presenting issues framework emphasises a different under- from a range of theoretical perspectives and standing and formulation of the presenting this may well be very challenging personally. issue, and suggests different interventions. Secondly, coaches need to be highly Rather than try to fit a specific theoretical skilled in dealing with mental health issues. approach to the client, as is frequently the It has been my experience that coaching case in clinical work within the is sometimes regarded somewhat model, coaching should be collaborative and disdainfully by some clinicians, as if it is a soft client-centred. For some developmental version of ‘real’ . In fact I coaching clients who are seeking in-depth argue that the contrary is the case. Clinical explanations this will mean coaching based clients frequently present for therapy with on a psychodynamic model. For others, who specific symptoms and an expectation of are seeking a more psycho-mechanical treatment. Coaching psychologists’ clients approach, a cognitive-behavioural formula- on the other hand may not know that they tion and intervention will be more appro- have a mental health problem (if indeed priate. Similarly, for those with a defensive they do have such problems), and may far pessimism personality style, an over- less willing to engage in a therapeutic rela- emphasis on aspects of positive psychology tionship (if indeed they do need treatment). may not be helpful (Norem & Hang, 2002). The coach thus needs finely attuned diag- Coaching psychology needs to be theo- nostic skills, maybe even more so than the retically inclusive and I believe that the clinician, and the ability to consider professional coaching psychologist should psychopathological issues whilst engaging in be able to draw on a range of theoretical the type of goal-focused fast-paced relation- frameworks, using client-congruent, theoret- ship that characterises coaching. ically-grounded techniques in order to best Thirdly, the dynamics of the coaching help the client reach their coaching goals. relationship differ from the often overtly Such client-centred theoretical flexibility hierarchical relationship that is associated brings with it significant challenges in terms with consulting, clinical or counselling work. of the coach’s training and personal and Applied and therapeutic psychologists tend professional development. to work from the position of being the

18 International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 Development of coaching psychology expert who has access to a privileged knowl- give expert-based authoritative or specialised edge position from which they diagnose information. problems and prescribe interventions or The challenge for many applied psychol- treatment (Carlson & Erickson, 2001). ogists is to master such flexibility in working Clearly, psychologists do have skilled with coaching clients. Coaching requires a expertise and expert knowledge about the sophisticated skill set and the ability to be psychology of coaching that their clients do able to draw on expert knowledge, whilst at not have, otherwise there would be little the same time facilitating the self-directed reason for the client to employ them. Also, learning which lies at the core of the in addition to the expert knowledge that a coaching enterprise. coach holds about the psychology of coaching, it is important for coaches to have Future directions for coaching a good understanding of the clients’ issues psychology and context. What is the future for coaching psychology? The issue here is about the role of expert It will be useful to have detailed competen- knowledge in coaching, and how expert cies and practices that mark coaching knowledge can be best utilised within the psychology from counselling, clinical and coaching relationship. There are various other applied psychological practices. approaches to the use of expert knowledge However, this will not be an easy enterprise. in coaching. Expert knowledge in coaching Boundaries between and definition of can be understood as highly specialised or existing sub-disciplines are vague as they technical knowledge held by the coach, in an stand (Cobb et al., 2004). Although compe- area where the coachee has less expertise tencies and practices are useful heuristics to than the coach, and where such knowledge define the core functions of a sub-disciple, is related to the coachee’s goals. The notion they tell us little about the overlap between of the ‘coach as expert advice-giver’ is some- various sub-disciple practice. Perhaps more what controversial, and there is some differ- important, as a future research agenda, may ence of opinion as to the appropriate role of be the development and validation of psycho- expert knowledge in coaching. For example, logically-based coaching methodologies that John Whitmore’s (1992) work emphasises a are effective and engaging for non-clinical non-directional ask-not-tell approach, and populations and the emergence of specific this stands in contrast to the more directive areas of coaching psychology practice. approach of Marshal Goldsmith (2000) Although executive coaching, workplace which emphasises robust feedback and coaching and life coaching have received the advice-giving. most media coverage to date, an important The issue is not which of these emerging trend for coaching psychologists approaches is right and which is wrong, but to be aware of is health-related coaching. rather which best helps the client reach their Examination of the academic literature indi- goals, and which is the most apt at particular cates that health coaching is emerging as the points in any specific coaching conversation. fastest growing area of coaching, and the In essence this issue is about striking the coaching outcome research that is published right balance between process facilitation in the medical press (e.g. Medline) tends to and content or information delivery, and this be of better quality than the outcome balance varies at different points in the research published in the psychology press overall coaching engagement and within (e.g. PsycINFO) or the business press (e.g. individual coaching sessions. The skilful and Business Source Premier). Much of the health- experienced coach knows when to move related coaching is being conducted by dieti- across the ask-tell dimension, and knows cians, nurses and other health professionals when to promote self-discovery and when to rather than psychologists, yet there is a clear

International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 19 Anthony M. Grant role for coaching psychologists who have a Correspondence background in the health sciences. Positive Anthony M. Grant psychology will prove to be an important Coaching Psychology Unit, theoretical basis for many coaching psychol- School of Psychology, ogists, and this may particularly be the case University of Sydney, in relation to health coaching, where the Australia NSW 2006. focus is on both physical and psychological E-mail: [email protected] well-being. Of course, the development of BPS- and APS-accredited postgraduate Note: This article was based on Dr Grant’s programmes, including conversion courses keynote address at the 1st Annual Conference of for practicing psychologists who wish to work the BPS SGCP in London, December, 2004. as coaches will be important and such moves will further develop the professionalism, credibility and reputation of coaching psychologists. However, perhaps the most vital factor in the development of coaching psychology will be that we do outstanding work with our clients. After all, they are what this is all about.

Conclusion Coaching psychology has the potential to be a major force for the promotion of well- being and performance enhancement for the individual, for organisations and society as a whole. The emergence of a sub-disci- pline of coaching psychology can make psychology more accessible and acceptable to the public. Further, through virtue of their training and professionalism, psycholo- gists are ideally placed to provide coaching services. In addition, coaching psychology can contribute to the development of estab- lished and emerging psychological approaches by providing a methodology with which to further develop our knowledge of the psychological processes involved in purposeful change in normal, non-clinical populations.

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Lancaster, S. & Smith, D.I. (2002). What's in a name? Ryff, C.D. & Keyes, C.L.M. (1996). The structure of The identity of clinical psychology as a specialty. psychological well-being revisited. Journal of Australian Psychologist 37(1), 48–51 Personality and , 96(4), 719–727. Laske, O. E. (1999). An integrated model of devel- Salerno, S. (2005). Qualifications needed to be a life opmental coaching. Consulting Psychology Journal: coach: er...none. [Electronic Version]. Times On Practice & Research, 51(3), 139–159. Line. Retrieved 19 December 2005 from Laungani, P. (1999). Danger! Psychotherapists at http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/ work. Counselling Psychology Quarterly, 12(2), 0,,7-1726677,00.html. 117–131. Seligman, M. (2005). The corporate chill pill. Lazarus, R.S. (2003). Does the positive psychology New Zealand Management, 52(6), 64–66. movement have legs? Psychological Inquiry, 14(2), Seligman, M.E. & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). 93–109. Positive psychology: An introduction. American Linley, P.A. & Harrington, S. (2005). Positive Psychologist, 55(1), 5–14. psychology and coaching psychology: Perspec- Sheldon, K.M. & Elliot, A.J. (1999). Goal striving, tives on intergration. The Coaching Psychologist, 1 need satisfaction and longitudinal well-being: (July), 13–14. The self-concordance model. Journal of Personality Linley, P.A. & Joseph, S. (2004). Positive psychology in & Social Psychology, 76(3), 482–497. practice. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Sherman, S. & Freas, A. (2004). The Wild West of Mace, M.L. (1950). The growth and development of exec- executive coaching. Harvard Business Review, utives. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School, 82(11), 82–90. Division of Research. Skiffington, S. & Zeus, P. (2003). Behavioural coaching. Sydney: McGraw-Hill. Maslow, A.H. (1968). Towards a psychology of being. Snyder, C.R. & Lopez, S.J. (Eds.) (2002). Handbook of New York: Wiley. positive psychology. London: Oxford University Miller, G. (1969). Psychology as a means of Press. promoting human welfare. American Psychologist, Snyder, C.R. & McCullough, M.E. (2000). A positive 24, 1063–1075. psychology field of dreams: ‘If you build it, they Naughton, J. (2002). The coaching boom: Is it the will come…’ Journal of Social & Clinical Psychology, long-awaited alternative to the medical model? 19(1), 151–160. Psychotherapy Networker, 42, July/August, 1–10. Spence, G.B. & Grant, A.M. (2005). Individual and Norcross, J.C. & Halgin, R.P. (2005). Training in group life-coaching: Initial findings from a psychotherapy integration. In J.C. Norcross & randomised, controlled trial. In M. Cavanagh, M.R. Goldfried (Eds.), Handbook of psychotherapy A.M. Grant & T. Kemp (Eds.), Evidence-based integration (2nd ed.) (pp.439–458). New York: Coaching (Vol. 1): Theory, research and practice from Oxford University Press. the behavioural sciences (pp.143–158). Queensland: Norem, J.K. & Hang, E.C. (2002). The positive Australian Academic Press. psychology of negative thinking. Journal of Starker, S. (1990). Self-help books: Ubiquitous agents Clinical Psychology, 58, 993–1001. of health care. Medical Psychotherapy: An Inter- Palmer, S. & Whybrow, A. (2005). The proposal to national Journal, 3, 187–194. establish a Special Group in Coaching Walker, J. (2004). Business-class coaches. Business Psychology. The Coaching Psychologist, 1, July, 5–11. Review Weekly, 1 July, 15–18. Peltier, B. (2001). The psychology of executive coaching: Walter, J.L. & Peller, J.E. (1996). Rethinking our Theory and application. New York: Brunner- assumptions: Assuming anew in a postmodern Routledge. world. In S.C. Miller, M.A. Hubble & B.L. Peterson, C. & Seligman, M.E.P. (2004). Character Duncan (Eds.), Handbook of solution-focused brief strengths and virtues. A handbook and classification. therapy (pp.9–27). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Washington, DC: American Psychological Asso- Webb, A.R. & Speer, J.R. (1986). Prototype of a ciation. profession: Psychology's public image. Professional Pyror, L. (2005). Call to end free rein for therapists. Psychology: Research and Practice, 17(1), 5–9. Sydney Morning Herald, 19 September, 22. Whitmore, J. (1992). Coaching for performance. Ryff, C.D. (2003). Corners of myopia in the positive London: Nicholas Brealey. psychology parade. Psychological Inquiry, 14(2), Wyld, B. (2001). Expert push. Sydney Morning Herald, 153–159. 15 August, 4.

22 International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 Does coaching work or are we asking the wrong question? Annette Fillery-Travis & David Lane

Within the context of an expanding market for coaching in all its forms organisations are asking the questions ‘Does coaching work?’ They seek evidence of a return on investment. We argue within this paper that this is the wrong question. Before we can ask whether coaching works we must ask how is it being used, is a coherent framework of practice and finally is it perceived or quantified as being effective within that framework? We review the practitioner and academic literature as well as our own research to address each of these questions in turn. We posit a framework of practice based upon the coaching agenda identify by coachee and coach within the contracting phase of the engagement. This encompasses the coaching mode and role as well as the supervisory relationships which exist. The research literature is then considered in the context of the framework. Keywords: coaching, evidence, review, return on investment, external, internal, manager.

UCCESSFUL ORGANISATIONS IN As identified by Dr Michael Cavanagh in the emerging knowledge economy his keynote address at the 2nd Annual Sinnovate continually to maintain their Conference of the Special Group in place in such a dynamic marketplace. But it Coaching Psychology at the BPS, ‘coaching is the individual employee who must develop has been around too long to be a management fad.’ the flexibility and creativity needed to effec- It is an established part of the develop- tively drive growth and deliver appropriate ment portfolio available to the executive. results. They expect (and are expected) to The market is still growing and recent constantly upgrade their technical and lead- estimates put its size as $2bn per year. In this ership skills. Whilst individuals view this context, it is not surprising that the question professional development as predominantly being raised by buyers of coaching is ‘Does it their own responsibility, they look to their work?’ organisation to partner them in accessing In other words does coaching provide a and resourcing it (Lane et al., 2000). The return on its investment in driving perform- challenge for the employer is how to achieve ance up and impacting on the bottom line? this within the constraints of efficient time We argue here that this is the wrong ques- and financial resource management. tion. In facing this challenge organisations are Before we can ask whether coaching turning away from the traditional training works we must ask what it is being used for. Is initiatives with the implied ethos of one size all coaching addressing similar aims which fits all. Flexibility and speed of response are can be quantified by a standard method or is imperative and thus development has there a number of purposes to the coaching? become more person-centred and tailored If the latter, then we need to consider if to the individual. In this environment it is, these purposes are coherent and form part therefore, unsurprising that coaching has of a framework of practice for the profession grown in popularity as an option to meet the or whether the aims are too disparate to emerging needs of organisations and as such formalise. has become widespread and well accepted. We have looked to the academic and practitioner literatures to address this issue

International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 23 © The British Psychological Society 2006 – ISSN: 1750-2764 Annette Fillery-Travis & David Lane as well as our own research. It is clear that 2. Is there a coherent framework of practice coaching practice has evolved almost a across the identified modes of coaching? quickly as it has grown and there are now a 3. Is it perceived or quantified as being range of roles, coaching models and frame- effective? works of practice. At first sight there seems to The consideration of these questions struc- be a diversity of practice where few estab- tures the rest of this paper. Within it we iden- lished norms can be assumed. tify the coaching agenda or purpose to be an It can be argued that such diversity is to underpinning concept which allows us to be welcomed, and indeed expected, as develop a framework of practice which coaches respond to the individual needs of encompasses both coaching mode and role. the client. We would agree if we were consid- It is against this framework that the question ering the process of coaching only, i.e. the can then be asked ‘Does it work?’ nature and description of the coaching rela- tionship. But within this paper we are 1. How is coaching being used within an looking at how coaching is being used, its organisation? purpose, and if it is considered effective by its The School of Coaching survey (Kubicek, clients and their sponsoring organisations. 2002) last year provided data on which Therefore, as a review document this work coaching modes are being used within does not fully expand upon underpinning organisations: issues such as the emergence and develop- G 51 per cent used external coaches; ment of learning organisations nor does it G 41 per cent trained internal coaches; and explicitly cite the psychology literature G 79 per cent manager coaches. which underpins the process of coaching. We will consider each of these in turn and Instead we have reviewed the academic also briefly mention team coaches. literature on the efficacy of coaching published between 1990–2004 although External coaches where there is insufficient work some refer- Various surveys have been undertaken in ences are cited from 1930s. Similarly we have recent years to investigate the use of this type identified the general trend of the practi- of coaching within the UK; the Coaching tioner publications (both articles and books) Study (2004) published by UCE (a survey of to identify the focus of practice. We will also 1153 organisations across the UK) and The draw upon our own research into the experi- Institute of Employment Studies (IES) ence of over 30 HR directors or buyers of report (Carter, 2001) are but two of them. coaching (Jarvis, Lane & Fillery-Travis, 2006). Each sought to identify what coaches were The first point of note is that in common being commissioned to do within organisa- with previous reviewers (Kampa & White, tions. Considering this information together 2002) we have found that the evidence base with the journal and research literature we for coaching has not increased at the same can group the potential functions for an rate as practice. Research into the efficacy of external coach under two main headings: coaching has lagged behind and it has only 1. The coaching of a senior executive to started to develop seriously over the last five their own agenda; years. As identified by Grant (Grant, 2003) 2. The coaching of managers after training the literature is at the point of expansion in to consolidate knowledge acquisition and response to the practice development. work with the individual to support and We have focussed our interest on the facilitate resulting behaviour change in following questions: relation to a specific organisational 1. How is coaching being used within agenda. organisations and who is doing it?

24 International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 Does coaching work or are we asking the wrong question?

The tasks associated with the first function or the HR department. Within our own included; supporting the induction of a research HR directors were increasingly senior manager, supporting particular indi- requiring their external coaches to undergo viduals identified as high potential or as a familiarisation process covering the targets for extra support, and acting as a company’s culture and ethos and to under- critical friend or sounding board for a senior take to keep within a proscribed agenda. manager where mentors are not appropriate The issues identified within the coaching or practical. It is also clear that coaching is agenda will, in general, be diverse and the being seen as a reward for senior managers external coach can be working at a variety of and part of a retention package. Indeed it levels of engagement. Categorisation of has been noted within the IES (Carter, 2001) these levels of engagement has been devel- study that the phenomenon of ‘coaching oping within the literature for some time. envy’ is a reality for the members of its Grant and Cavanagh (2004) identify three research forum. As cited by (Hall, Otazo & generic levels: Hollenbeck, 1999), ‘Executives like the confi- G Skills coaching which can be of short dentiality and personal attention: they also like duration and which requires the coach to what coaching does for their careers.’ focus on specific behaviours; So once coaching is introduced to a G Performance coaching which will focus company other executives within the on the process by which the coachee can company want a coach. set goals, overcome obstacles, and Traditionally within this first option the evaluate and monitor their performance; coaching agenda is totally free and defined and finally only by the coachee. It is not even G Developmental coaching which takes a constrained to the work role but allows broader more holistic view often dealing exploration of any issues that the coachee with more intimate, personal and identifies as interesting. In our previous professional questions. This can involve study on the efficacy of coaching (Jarvis, the creation of a personal reflective space Lane & Fillery-Travis, 2006) we found that rather like what they call ‘therapy for the organisations were increasingly aware of the people who don’t need therapy’. potential difficulties for an organisation of Other categorisations have been also been ‘free agenda’ coaching. These include a developed, for example, Witherspoon and perceived ‘lack of control’ with the potential White (1996) identify four distinct roles for for distraction of the coachee from the the coach: coaching for skills, for perform- primary task and also the lack of a defined ance, for development and for the execu- return on investment. In addition there is tive’s agenda. For Peterson (1996) there are the real possibility that the coachee may be three different types: targeted, intensive and ‘coached out of a job’. executive. At the present time there are no Organisations react to this latter issue in universally identified definitions of these one of two ways: either by acknowledging roles. But it is clear that the level of compe- that the coaching is revealing a hidden tence and skill required of the coach problem thereby creating an opportunity to increases with the level of engagement and manage it effectively, or by reducing the at the highest level it is generally acknow- potential for this type of crisis to occur by ledged that a mastery of practice is needed. restricting the agenda of the coaching at the Defining what ‘mastery’ of practice means in start of the contract. this context has been the work of profes- In the latter strategy the sponsoring sional bodies in recent years and the inter- organisation will seek to have a more direct ested reader is referred to their websites and involvement in the contracting phase usually publications for further information. through involvement with the line manager

International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 25 Annette Fillery-Travis & David Lane

It is whilst considering these levels that manager coaches and the supervision of the concepts of professional practice, i.e. internal coaches. We will deal with those in specified body of knowledge, accreditation, due course. ethical basis of practice, are brought into focus (Garman, Whiston & Zlatoper, 2000). Manager coaches As Lane (2006) points out, ‘This is not Although current research has focussed on proposed as an argument that only psychologists the coach as an external consultant, there is should coach but rather that those who work as a literature dating back to the 1930s on coaches to address complex personal and profes- manager coaches (Grant, 2003). Graham, sional development should adopt the hallmarks of Wedman and Garvin-Kester (1993) reported a profession and work to an evidence based agenda an evaluation of a coaching skills pro- rather than promote untested propriety models built gramme for 13 sales managers with a total of on ideas drawn from sources both spurious and 87 account representative reporting to them. credible.’ Although this focus for research has Primary to this goal is the supervision of declined in the last couple of decades it is the coach. The various coaching profes- still an active and distinct modality of sional bodies are currently developing coaching particularly given the recent frameworks of professionalism and accredi- emphasis on the learning organisation. tation of coaching and coaches. Central to Quoting again from the recent survey by the the majority of these is the supervision of the School of Coaching – Is coaching being coach. For example, the European abused? (Kubicek, 2002) – ‘Most organisa- Mentoring and Coaching Council (EMCC) tions will say ‘yes our managers are coaching’ states in its code of ethics, ‘A coach/mentor and ‘yes we support it’. must maintain a relationship with a suitably This survey of 179 senior HR managers in qualified supervisor, who will regularly assess the UK during February 2002: found that their competence and support their devel- most organisations in the sample (79 per opment.’ The external coach will be cent) were providing coaching by line expected to be under supervision but may managers to their direct reports. Middle also provide supervision for others. We will managers were the most likely group of deal with this in more detail later. employees to be receiving coaching (74 per This free agenda coaching engagement is cent). It was interesting that only 38 per cent in stark contrast to the second option for the of organisations had an initiative in place to executive coach – training consolidation develop their managers coaching skills and (Smither et al., 2003) It is now widely these were primarily for middle managers. accepted that sustained behaviour change Most of the respondents (70 per cent) had after training can only be achieved through coaching as part of their development monitoring and consolidation activities strategy with 40 per cent mentioning which continue after the training itself. In performance measures and 37 per cent a the past this has been in the form of ‘follow competency framework. on workshops’, etc., but external coaches are An in-depth example of the use of now taking a role in providing one-to-one mentoring and coaching within a human assessment and feedback on the learning resource strategy is provided by Coca-Cola undertaken. This is obviously limited in Foods (Veale & Wachtel, 1996). Here duration, typically one or two sessions, and coaching is viewed in its widest description there is a highly constrained agenda defined which includes instruction and problem by the training event or focus, with an solving but the cohesiveness of the approach outcome of facilitating behaviour change to is worth investigation. affect the required response. One area A study by Ellinger and Bostrum (1998) where it is highly used is in the training of has attempted to define, through a qualita-

26 International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 Does coaching work or are we asking the wrong question? tive critical incident study, the ways exem- to develop their coaching skills and that 67 plary managers facilitate their employee per cent of companies had no policy/ learning. They describe a range of behav- strategy/vision with regard to the use of iours and the interested reader is referred to coaching (a strategy was more likely the this paper as well as the range of literature bigger the organisation). As identified by on learning organisations which can inform Gebber (1992) the task of coaching for the our training and development of the manager is, ‘the most difficult one to perform and manager coach. requires the biggest paradigm shift of any new The coaching agenda for managers is system.’ usually solely concerned with the require- We should expect managers to need ments of the organisation and is focused support to attain competence in this role. It explicitly on the achievement of work goals. is, therefore, not surprising that, as we indi- It does not have the open agenda commonly cated previously, external coaches are used by external coaches and, it is set for the contracted to provide some of this support mutual benefit of manager and coachee. and help consolidate behaviour change. The manager needs the output from the Alternatively this support can also be employee and seeks to develop it. The supplied by internal coaches whom we will employee needs to satisfy the requirements consider next. of the post and needs the help and advice of the manager in achieving this. This mutu- Internal coaches ality sets the focus for the engagement and The coach manager is not the only form of has an impact both on the learning needs internal coach. As discussed in ‘The the coaching can address and on the emerging role of the Internal Coach’ training and supervision required for the (Frisch, 2001), ‘Coaching is now seen as an coach. investment in the organisation’s future. Perhaps The benefits of this coaching are clear – concurrent with this has been the emergence of the the coach is on- the- spot with a clear identi- internal coach.’ fication of organisational culture and an When used in the remedial role it can be assessment of the coaching needs of the indi- argued that the external coach’s separate- vidual. There is minimal time delay between ness is essential to reduce defensiveness on identification of need and coaching inter- the coachee’s part and allow focus on their vention. As one of our case studies identified development. However, in the senior devel- ‘the business environment is changing too opment role the trained colleague or fast so we cannot continually retrain internal coach’s knowledge of the organisa- everyone – we need to use coaching to tion and immediate availability can be constantly update and upgrade’. beneficial. It is unlikely and probably unethical for It can be argued that HR professionals the coaching to be at the developmental have always undertaken some coaching level where disclosure of personal and inti- within their job descriptions but it was mate information is required. But it will ‘informal and normally transactional’. certainly address skills and probably Internal coaches are now identified and performance levels. Thus the level of skill acknowledged by their organisations and and competence required of the manager Coaching Professional Bodies. Frisch defines coach is significantly lower then that of the internal coaching as: ‘a one-to-one develop- external coach. However, some level of mental intervention supported by the organisation competence is still necessary. In the School and provided by a colleague of those coached who of Coaching Study (Kubicek, 2002) concern is trusted to shape and deliver a program yielding was raised that on average the manager individual professional growth’. coaches received only three days of training

International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 27 Annette Fillery-Travis & David Lane

There are several points arising from this 2. A framework of practice? definition In summary, current practice, as identified 1. The internal coach is outside line within our review, can be characterised by management, i.e. distinct from the the agreed coaching agenda and the role manager coach. level employed. Coaching is practiced within 2. (S)he will not always use standard three modes; external, internal and assessment as external coaches as (s)he manager. The breadth and freedom of the will already know significant background coaching agenda will increase as indicated in information and have access to the Figure 1 and the coach will employ a level of results of organisational assessment. intervention appropriate to the agenda. 3. Multiply interventions are assumed – it is These, in turn, will impact upon the not a single informal discussion but an outputs that are expected. For instance a ongoing programme. restricted coaching agenda is unlikely to This interaction was identified as different impact upon the development of the from the many other training and advice- coachee at the personal level. It may, type engagements, e.g. discussion with HR, however, address very specific skill enhance- training, etc., as these are organisationally ments which can be quantified by, for focused as opposed to the individual focus of example, comparing sales figures before and the internal coaching relationship. The after coaching in relationship building. Simi- advantages were seen to be the ability to see larly external coaching with a broad agenda the coachee within their role and knowledge in which the coach is acting within a devel- of the environment within which the opment role will address issues such as coachee is working. The emergence of the purpose and self for the coachee. Measure- internal coach can be seen as ‘a tangible ment of the impact of the coachee’s devel- manifestation of the learning organisation’. opment may be difficult to quantify. We have shown previously (Jarvis et al., 2006) that the tasks associated with this role An aside are: Before we consider the efficacy of coaching G Coaching individuals where manager there are several points upon which we coaches are not fully used; would like to comment. From the G Providers of coach training to managers; ‘Is coaching being abused?’ survey there is G Supervision of manager coaches also a that manager coaching is providing support and further skills as good for middle managers but not for those and when required; at the top. This has led to a lack of integra- G Specialist coaches for senior managers. tion within the corporate strategies. Within The coaching agenda within this mode is still this survey 63 per cent used coaching at well focused upon organisational objectives senior manger level, 74 per cent and 69 per but it has a broader vision to that observed cent at junior and middle managers level. with the manager coach. There will be an Blackman-Sheppard (2004) argues convinc- element of mutual benefit although it can be ingly that ‘executive’ coaching should be a considered ‘indirect’ as with external resource to available for all employees. coaching. The coaching agenda can explore There is an interesting question which has the underpinning aspects of the behaviour not been addressed within the literature as or change required although it will still be yet – Does the mode of coaching on offer restricted to some extent by the organisa- depend upon your seniority within the tional framework. As indicated previously organisation? supervision of internal coaches is necessary Another critical point is that coaching is and is often sub contracted to external not being confined to individuals – team coaches. coaching has started to be the subject of

28 International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 Does coaching work or are we asking the wrong question? Figure 1: Coaching role, agenda and supervision.

both discussion and research publications. 3. Does it work? Diedrich (2001) discusses the lessons As with all human interactions there are a learned from practice and identifies a multiplicity of factors which will impact on number of principles of practice. Within his the whether the interaction has the desired practice he does NOT identify team effect. Indeed, when considering coaching coaching with team building or team devel- there will even be a variety of criteria for opment. what is constitutes an ‘effect’. For instance, is ‘The coaching of a team is a process where the it sufficient that the coachee perceives consulting psychologist has an ongoing, coaching to have enabled him/her to helping relationship with both the team and achieve an identified goal? Or does the the individual executives; that is he or she has output have to percolate down to the time for the team as well as one-to-one coaching bottom-line in terms of a quantifiable contacts with the team members over time. performance measure for the organisation? Coaching a team is an iterative process for both To date there is only two studies prepared the team and the individual that is to quote a return on investment, i.e. identify developmentally orientated as opposed to being an impact upon the bottom-line. Both of a problem-centred quick fix for the team.’ these are concerned with external coaching. Within the literature there is not complete The most frequently cited was carried out by agreement with this view and some team Right Management Consultants and coaches positively rule out coaching of indi- published in the Manchester Review vidual members except for specific tasks. (McGovern et al., 2001). The quoted figure Coaching at the Top (Kralj, 2001) is a case for ROI was 5.7 in terms of ‘tangible’ or study of an intervention to enable a quantifiable outputs such as increased company to redesign their organisation. All productivity. There is a difficulty with this the interventions were kept to a systems or study in terms of reliability as it surveyed the team level. The authors make a case that clients of the consultancy where the author coaching should be expanded to include was based and the results were based upon such team engagements. the coachee’s own estimates. However, it

International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 29 Annette Fillery-Travis & David Lane does identify how the clients perceived 360 degree feedback are well established coaching had impacted upon their behav- in that it provides information on how iour and hence the perceived ROI. In partic- the coachee is perceived by others; on ular it is of note that the frequency of impact what should be improved and obtains was higher for the intangible impacts (e.g. these ratings from a variety of groups. improving relationships (77 per cent) and However, as Smither et al. (2003) identify, team work (73 per cent)) then for the there can be major problems in working tangible impacts (e.g. productivity 53 per with this information; there can be an cent) and quality (48 per cent)). The other overwhelming amount of information, study is provided by the Philips ROI institute the difference between self and others’ (Philips, 2004) quoting a figure of 2.21, ratings can be difficult to reconcile and however, to date this study has not been there is often a need for guidance and published and is only available from their help to figure out next step. Locke and website. Lathan (1990) have shown that feedback Generally published investigations have alone is not the cause of behaviour concentrated on the self-reporting of change, it is the goals that people set in improvement by the coachee but some response to feedback which promotes studies have looked at assessment (of change. The question asked by this study improvement) by colleagues and reports. was: Could coaching facilitate this goal Several seek to quantify improvement of setting with appropriate follow-through performance of the coachee’s department or and hence enhanced performance? team but as we shall see these have so far The subjects of the study were 1361 delivered only tentative results. For all senior managers in a global corporation studies identified the satisfaction of the who received multi-source feedback in coachee was good or high and where self- autumn 1999. After feedback, 404 of the reporting was used then the coaching was managers received coaching (five to identified as having impact on the develop- seven hours covering review of feedback ment of the individual. Where the studies within two to three individual sessions) use quantifiable performance measures, and then responded to a brief online other then multisource feedback, the effec- questionnaire. In the autumn of 2000 tiveness is less well evidenced. another multi-source feedback pro- For ease of reading we have classified the gramme was carried out in which 88.3 studies into those addressing external per cent of managers from the initial coaching, internal coaching, manager survey received feedback. In July 2002 a coaching and team coaching. brief survey was carried out in which raters evaluated the progress of the External coaching manager towards the goals set by the The most researched task of the external manager himself, based on the initial coach has been supporting the impact of feedback. multi-source feedback and promoting Managers who worked with a coach improvement in performance. We will were more likely to set specific (rather consider three such studies. than vague) goals (d=0.16) and to solicit a. The only study to date which compares ideas for improvement from their the performance of coached and non- supervisors (d=0.36). They had a higher coached individuals is that by Smither, performance improvement in terms of London et al. (2003). They also go direct report and supervisor ratings, beyond self reporting of improvement however, the effect size (d=0.17) was and compare 360 degree feedback pre- small. and post-intervention. The advantages of It should be noted that the multi-

30 International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 Does coaching work or are we asking the wrong question?

source feedback was being used within as the factor of second importance. the appraisal system in a high c. On a smaller scale but with a similar accountability culture, e.g. salary and remit Luthans and Peterson (2003) again resources were all linked to the results so used multi-source assessment in the effect of the coach might be masked conjunction with coaching. They by this driver for change. Also this was a identified that there is usually a very short intervention with 55 per cent discrepancy between the self-rating and of the managers having three or more that of others. This is lessened by conversations, 29.4 per cent having two increasing the self-awareness of the and 15.6 per cent having just one. coachee. Their proposition was that 360 b. On a similar vein Thatch (2002) also degree programmes should not seek to investigated the quantitative impact of deal with this by lowering self-rating but coaching and 360 degree feedback on by raising performance to the level of the the leadership effectiveness of 281 initial self-rating. executives within a single company. The authors conducted a study Within the first phase of the research a involving all 20 managers in a small firm pilot programme with 57 executives was to determine how effective coaching was run in which the coaching concentrated at facilitating this improvement. At the on one to three development actions start of the study, and again three months arising from a 360 degree assessment. later, 360 degree ratings were collected. After feedback from participants of phase After the initial assessment the managers one the programme was launched in were met for a coaching session to phase two with 168 executives over one analyse the results. All managers met the year. The participants received four same coach and followed the same coaching sessions in all before a mini 360 process. The feedback was confidential to degree and participant survey. This was the client and the coaching was run the next year in phase three for a developmental not assessment further 113 participants. There was no orientated. The process was structured choice of coach and the duration of around: what are the discrepancies, why coaching was short although it was noted they were present; what can be done; many paid for further sessions from their with the final part of the session own funds. However, the 360 degree was concentrating on the responsibility of the not linked to appraisal and hence the individual to make the changes. Follow- impact of the coaching intervention up checks were then carried out should have been more clearly defined. randomly and qualitative data collected Unfortunately no comparison was made on whether the coachees had made the with non-coached executives. changes discussed. The overall percentage increase in Given the short time-scale of the study leadership effectiveness was 55 per cent and the short duration of the coaching it in phase two and 60 per cent in phase is perhaps surprising that the initial three. The coaching impact was also discrepancy between self- and others assessed through the average number of rating was eliminated in all three factors times met with coach (3.6) and it was tested, i.e. behavioural competency, noted that there was a trend towards interpersonal competency and personal higher contacts giving higher scores. responsibility. The reduction in From the qualitative feedback from the discrepancy was brought about through participants the factor of greatest impact the elevation of the others rating not the was the relationships with the coach reduction in the coachee’s ratings. There themselves with the 360 degree feedback was an improvement in both the

International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 31 Annette Fillery-Travis & David Lane

managers and their employees work study the overall satisfaction of the attitudes with a significant increase in job coachees was 4.6 on a scale of 5. One satisfaction with the work itself, point of note was that significant change supervision and co-workers. Organisa- was apparent at six months but this rate tional commitment also increased. of improvement was not sustained at 12 Thus it is suggested that coaching has a months. part to play in getting the most from b. A doctoral thesis from the US (Dawdy, feedback to obtain benefits such as positive 2004) provides a comparative design attitude to work and reduced turnover. exploring the perceived effectiveness of The authors also found evidence of an coaching and methods. The design of the improvement in organisational perfor- study was to identify whether ‘one size fits mance, e.g. in sales figures (seasonally all’. Does executive coaching suit adjusted) following coaching and everyone? The criterion used to group feedback. However, as they are systems the executives was personality type. level indicators they were not deemed Sixty-two participants took part in the sufficiently controlled to link directly with study, all from a large engineering firm. the individual coaching intervention. They were all white males between 40 Other studies have concentrated upon the and 50 years of age. They had perception of impact by clients after a participated in a coaching programme coaching programme. Generally groups of for at least six months and completed it. clients are surveyed after completion of the The coaching was provided by a single coaching programme. In general these have firm using the in-house framework provided a universally positive response from although little detail is given. A survey of the clients and researchers have sought to the participants was conducted and 90 dissect the positive impact into its per cent of them considered coaching to constituent parts by asking ‘what worked?’ be effective. Ninety-one per cent thought These have been less successful and indicate it was valuable to their relationships alternative research designs will be necessary outside work whilst 75 per cent thought it to go beyond the first order question. was valuable to their relationships within a. A study which didn’t include multi- work. On the question of whether it had source feedback was conducted by facilitated behaviour change on a scale 1 Harder & Company Community not met to 7 met far beyond expectations Research in the US (2003). In this design the mean was 4.34 SE0.15. There was no 24 executives from various organisations effect of personality type. were coached for 40 hours over 13 There was no significant difference in months and three peer round-table perception of the success of various events were also included for the sharing coaching tools, e.g. interviews, feedback, of experience and support. The etc., although 88 per cent of those who executive were given a choice of coach had experience 360 degree rated it as from a pool of 12 coaches recruited for positive or neutral. A similar result was their diversity of background and found for communication with the coach interest. The coachees had less then four (82 per cent agreed), acquiring new years’ experience at the executive level skills (74 per cent) and coach’s but no prior experience of coaching. encouragement (87 per cent). Thus this A learning contract was drawn up for study agrees with the norm – people like all coachees and the research design was to be coached and people perceive that a survey (before, middle and end), semi- they have changed behaviours as a result. structure interviews (over phone for 20) But it goes not further. and case studies of five. At the end of the c. Another thesis from the US (Dingman,

32 International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 Does coaching work or are we asking the wrong question?

2004) asked the question ‘How does the of the relationship was positive for self- extent and quality of participation in an efficacy but negative for job satisfaction. executive coaching experience affect This may have been because the levels of self-efficacy and job-related executives were being coached out of attitudes in job satisfaction, organisa- their jobs or alternatively there may be tional commitment and the conflict some aspect of relationship which was between work and family?’ not tested and hence skewed results. The design used sought to identify The author goes further in the the quality of the coaching experienced analysis and identifies that the process for each individual, i.e. whether generic and quality of coaching impact on self- elements of the coaching process had efficacy of the coachee and mediate job been implemented and the perception of related attitudes. the coaching relationship. These were There was no support for the then related to the change in self efficacy relationship between coaching and and job related attitudes of the coachee. life/work conflict or organisational The assumption implicit in the work is commitment but we are not given any that positive job-related attitudes information as to whether these are correlate with high job performance and considered within the particular thus job-related attitudes indicative of coaching model used. more quantifiable outputs, e.g. specific d. A very extensively cited study concerns the measure of tasks completed. use of a specific tool within a coaching The author had chosen to take context (Foster & Lendl, 1996). Eye investigation of the relationship between movement desensitisation and repro- coach and coachee a stage further and cessing (EMDR) was integrated into an ask the executive to rate their coach in executive coaching programme and four terms of three specific behaviours which case studies are reported. Participants illustrate their relation, i.e. interpersonal received one to 10 hours of coaching in skills, communication style and which EMDR was used to desensitise an instrumental support. upsetting event which was standing in the All coachees were coached using the way of the coachee’s performance. The same programme to control some intervention was successful in all cases and variables but this does restrict the each coachee progressed well towards their generality of the results. The author identified goals. However, the study tests looked at the evidence for executive the use of EMDR within a coaching context coaching efficacy at each point using and not the coaching interaction itself. Kirkpatrick’s (1983) training evaluation criteria. Internal coaching The research instrument was an on- The first reported attempt at examining line survey distributed to the clients of effects of coaching in a public sector munic- one coaching centre. Response rate was ipal agency was undertaken by Olivero, Bane 52 per cent, 82 per cent of clients were and Kopelman (1997). Although they male with an average age was 42. describe the mode of coaching used as exec- A number of coaches were used with 53 utive coaching, within the definitions we are per cent of them having a postgraduate using here their study investigated the effec- degree. tiveness of internal coaching. The hypotheses tested were that there Their interest was in the effectiveness of was a significant relationship between the using coaching as a means to translate coaching process/quality and job training into behaviour change. It is known satisfaction and self-efficacy. The quality that two of the most dominant factors which

International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 33 Annette Fillery-Travis & David Lane influenced this process are the opportunity high performers and consistently poor for practice and constructive feedback performers (18 superb teams and 15 poor (Anderson & Wexley, 1983). They used an teams). Multiple measures of team design action research methodology to determine if and manager coaching were identified coaching could provide this support. Thirty- through structured interviews and a survey of one managers underwent a conventional the participants. These were then used to managerial training programme. Then eight assess the teams. Quantitative measures of of the managers underwent a coach training performance were obtained from the organi- programme and coached their peers, every sation and these related to bottom line quan- week for two months, as they undertook a tities such as response rate, parts expenses, real life project. A knowledge inventory was machine reliability, etc. The data analysis was completed before and after the workshop. rigorous and large effects were seen. The productivity of each of the managers The hypothesis that well-designed teams was measured after training and after exhibit more self-management and are more coaching. The measures chosen were appro- effective then teams with design flaws was priate to the specific work of the manager, supported as expected. The hypothesis that were quantifiably and of benefit to the well coached teams exhibit more self- organisation. The result was a 22.4 per cent management but NOT higher task perform- increase in productivity after the manage- ance was also supported. ment training but an 88 per cent increase There was a negative coaching aspect and after coaching. a positive coaching aspect. Negative aspects Although these figures seem clear cut, were for behaviours such as identifying team there are a number of issues which have to problems and task intervention whilst posi- be born in mind. By their very nature the tive was providing cues, informal rewards, projects undertaken whilst the managers and problem-solving consultancy. There was were being coached would also have no support for the hypothesis that coaching contributed to enhanced productivity. It is alone influenced the bottom line factors. also unclear whether the intervention was The hypothesis that coaching and design coaching or action research facilitation. The interacted positively was supported for self- authors themselves are clear that this study management but not for performance or design cannot address all the issues but the satisfaction. Overall positive coaching output does provide scare information on worked best for well designed teams and how coaching can affect the bottom line. negative coaching impacted more on poorly designed teams. Manager coach Graham et al. (1993) identified that A rare study looking at effectiveness of training could develop manager coaching leaders as coaches and the performance of skills, at least within a sales environment, teams was conducted in 2001 (Wageman, through a study of 87 account representa- 2001). The basis of the study was the genera- tives who worked for 13 sales managers. tion of self-managing teams. It is suggested Seventy per cent of account representatives that the principal reason for their failure is a indicated that they had observed a positive lack of motivation and the inability of the change in their managers. This was most manager to create the right conditions for shown by those who had worked for their them to thrive. managers for two years whereas for lesser or In this field study of the company Xerox more time with the same boss the two factors are investigated: the design of the percentage decreased. team and the coaching by the manager. Thirty-four teams of between three to nine Summary members were used, split between consistent 3. Does coaching work?

34 International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 Does coaching work or are we asking the wrong question?

In all the studies undertaken, investigating agenda found with internal and manager whatever mode of coaching, the conclusion coaching then the research studies are, by was the same – everyone likes to be coached definition, more closely focussed on and perceives that it impacts positively upon ‘tangible’, bottom-line outputs. The study by their effectiveness. Thus, to the first order Olivero et al. (1997) is of particular note. the answer is ‘Yes it does’. The design used productivity as the factor to But, if we consider the question within be measured before and after coaching and the context of our suggested framework of this was also the case with the study at Xerox. practice, we can start to develop a more Both of these studies show significant structured and useful answer particularly in improvement in bottom-line measures after terms of ROI. the coaching intervention. For external or executive coaching where It is clear from this analysis that when we the coaching agenda is broad and, by defini- ask ‘Does coaching work?’ we must first iden- tion, unconstrained then the identified tify where within the framework of practice outputs will be of both direct and indirect the coaching is actually placed, how impact to the bottom-line. This is well illus- constrained is the coaching agenda and trated within the two studies specifically whether a tangible or intangible output is aimed at producing a ROI. Both of these being sought. Only then can we identify if studies identified that the outputs of the the evidence is available to answer the ques- coaching would have ‘tangible’ and ‘intan- tion as posed. gible’ elements. Tangible elements such as productivity and sales figures are relatively Correspondence easy to measure and correct for external Annette Fillery-Travis and David Lane factors. The ‘intangible’ elements such as Professional Development Foundation, leadership or relationship handling can be 21 Limehouse Cut, identified and even quantified but their rela- 46 Morris Road, tive impact upon the bottom-line must, by London, E14 6NQ, UK. definition, be considered on an individual E-mail: basis. Any study seeking to address this must [email protected] specifically design in this issue at the start of [email protected] the investigation. To date studies of external coaching have concentrated on quantifying the ‘intangi- bles’ and assuming these will impact favourably upon the bottom-line. The improvement in coachee behaviours, etc. post-coaching was consistent across all studies, whether the coachees self-reported or the quantification was through 360 degree feedback. If we now consider the more restricted and organisationally focussed coaching

International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 35 Annette Fillery-Travis & David Lane

References Anderson, J.P. & Wexley, A. (1983). Application- Kampa, S. & White, R.P. (2002). The effectiveness of based management development: a method to executive coaching: What we know and what we promote practical application of managerial and still need to know. In R.L. Lowman (Ed.), The supervisory training. Personnel Administrator, 28, California School of Organisational Studies: Handbook 39–43. of organisational consulting psychology: A comprehen- Blackman-Sheppard, G. (2004). Executive coaching. sive guide to theory, skills, and techniques Industrial and Commercial Training, 36, 5–8(4). (pp.139–158). San Francisco: Jossey Bass. Carter, A. (2001). Executive coaching: Inspiring perform- Kralj, M.M. (2001). Coaching at the top: Assisting a ance at work (Vol. Report 379). London: The Insti- chief executive and his team. Consulting Psychology tute for Employment Studies. Journal: Practice and Research, 53, 108–116. Dawdy, G.N. (2004). Executive coaching: A comparative Kubicek, M. (2002). Is coaching being abused? design exploring the percieved effectiveness of coaching Training, May, 12–14. and methods. Unpublished Doctorate, School of Lane, D., Puri, A., Cleverly, P., Wylie, R. & Rajan, A. Education, Capella University. (2000). Employability: Bridging the gap between rhet- Diedrich, R.C. (2001). Lessons learned in – and oric and reality. London: Professional Develop- guidelines for – coaching executive teams. ment Foundation. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, Locke, E.A. & Latham, G.P. (1990). A theory of goal 53, 238–239. setting and task performance. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Dingman, M.E. (2004). The effects of executive coaching Prentice Hall. on job-related attitudes. School of Leadership Luthans, F. & Peterson, S.J. (2003). 360 degree feed- Development, Regent University. back with systematic coaching: Empirical analysis Ellinger, A. & Bostrom, R. (1998). Managerial suggests a winning combination. Human Resource coaching behaviours in learning organisations. Management, 42, 243–256. Journal of Management Development, 18. McGovern, J., Lindemann, M., Vergara, M., Murphy, Foster, S. & Lendl, J. (1996). Eye movement desensi- S., Barker, L. & Warrenfeltz, R. (2001). tisation and reprocessing: Four case studies of a Maximising the impact of executive coaching. new tool for executive coaching and restoring Manchester Review, 6, 1–9. employee performance after setbacks. Consulting Olivero, G., Bane, K. & Kopelman, R.E. (1997). Exec- Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 48, utive coaching as a transfer of training tool: 155–161. Effects on productivity in a public agency. Public Frisch, M.H. (2001). The emerging role of the Personnel Management, 26, 461–469. internal coach. Consulting Psychology Journal: Peterson, D.B. (1996). Executive coaching at work: Practice and Research, 53, 240–250. The art of one-on-one change. Consulting Garman, A.N., Whiston, D.L. & Zlatoper, K.W. 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36 International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 Strengths Coaching: A potential-guided approach to coaching psychology P. Alex Linley & Susan Harrington

As unlikely as it might seem, strengths have been a much neglected topic in psychology until relatively recently. In this article, we provide an historical context for the study of psychological strengths before going on to consider three approaches to understanding strengths. We locate a psychological understanding of strengths in the context of an assumption about human nature that is characterised by a constructive developmental tendency within people, showing how this assumption is consistent with theory and research about psychological strengths, and how it is consistent with the theoretical approach of coaching psychology. We then begin to examine what strengths coaching might look like in practice, together with considering some caveats and future research directions for the strengths coaching approach. Keywords: strengths, fundamental assumptions, positive psychology.

‘…one cannot build on weakness. To achieve overcoming your weaknesses more than results, one has to use all the available strengths… maximising your strengths’ (Smart, 1999, These strengths are the true opportunities’ p.138). But does all this really hold true? (Drucker, 1967, p.60). In this article, we will argue that strengths have been neglected for too long in both RITTEN ALMOST 40 YEARS AGO, research and practice, yet the modern zeit- management guru Peter Drucker’s geist of coaching psychology and positive Wwords might now seem to have an psychology suggests they are due for a almost prophetic quality. Yet it is equally revival. We will begin by defining strengths, difficult to believe that – at least as far as and examining the small amount of work strengths are concerned – so relatively little that has been dedicated to understanding has been achieved in the intervening four strengths to date at a broad conceptual level. decades. Why could this be? One answer is We will then examine the implications of this that with regard to psychological research at knowledge of strengths for coaching least, strengths were largely defined out of psychology, showing why we believe that the personality lexicon (Cawley, Martin & strengths represent an inner capacity that Johnson, 2000). A second answer is that can be facilitated and harnessed through the there is an undeniable ‘negativity bias’ coaching relationship. We then explore the (Rozin & Royzman, 2001), because the implications of this approach for practice, prevailing view is – and much evidence and provide some early suggestions as to the attests – that ‘bad is stronger than good’ approach and practice of strengths (Baumeister et al., 2001). That is to say – in coaching, while also addressing some of the contrast to Drucker – many people believe criticisms that might be levelled against a that weakness will always undo strength. This strengths-based approach to coaching leads to a third answer, that the . ethos is that strengths take care of them- selves, but weaknesses result in risk and asso- What is ‘Strength’? ciated costs for organisations. On this basis, A traditional approach to strengths might the argument follows, weaknesses need to be have used the arm dynamometer as its assess- managed or they will undo our good work ment metric. The arm dynamometer was a elsewhere. As we are so often told: ‘Work on device for assessing the physical strength in

International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 37 © The British Psychological Society 2006 – ISSN: 1750-2764 P. Alex Linley & Susan Harrington the arm of candidates for steelwork (Arnold storming with senior figures in the field; and et al., 1982), and is a tongue-in-cheek means discussions with numerous conference of highlighting that in this article we are not participants (Peterson & Seligman, 2004). concerned with physical strengths, but rather Of course, this is not to say that strengths with psychological strengths. were entirely excluded from the map of The history of the psychology of strengths psychological research, for indeed strengths is relatively short. In large part this is because research had continued for years (McCul- strengths might be considered under the lough & Snyder, 2000). However, the funda- rubric of personality, and when Allport mental distinction is that strengths are now (1937) proffered his seminal definition of being understood as pieces of a much larger, personality, he explicitly defined out ‘char- integrated picture of positive human func- acter’ as being in the realm of ethics and tioning, rather than as isolated constructs philosophy: ‘Character is personality evalu- (e.g. optimism, creativity, gratitude) being ated, and personality is character devalu- researched as individual fragments of ated. Since character is an unnecessary psychological knowledge. That is to say, we concept for psychology, the term will not are now moving towards understanding a appear again in this volume…’ (Allport, more holistic psychology of strengths that 1937, p.52). This exclusion of character locates strengths within our assumptions from definitions of personality was decisive about human nature and our broader knowl- (Nicholson, 1998), and had the effect of edge of human functioning, thus painting a excluding a psychology of strengths from the much fuller picture of positive psychological personality lexicon because ‘strengths’ were health. considered value-laden – and hence part of character, which was of concern to ethicists Defining strength and philosophers, rather than psychologists This renewed interest in the concept of (Cawley et al., 2000). ‘strength’ prompts us to consider exactly However, Allport notwithstanding, the what a ‘strength’ is. Clifton used the term concept of strengths did appear within the talent to refer to ‘a naturally recurring business literature, first with Peter Drucker pattern of thought, feeling, or behaviour (1967), as above, and subsequently through that can be productively applied’ (Clifton & the vision of Donald O. Clifton of The Anderson, 2002, p.6), while strength referred Gallup Organization (e.g. Buckingham & to ‘the ability to provide consistent, near- Clifton, 2001; Clifton & Anderson, 2002; perfect performance in a given activity’ Clifton & Nelson, 1992). The advent of posi- (Clifton & Anderson, 2002, p.8). Under- tive psychology (Seligman & Csikszentmi- stood in this way, strengths are produced halyi, 2000) promoted the need for a larger through the refinement of talents with conceptual understanding of strengths, and knowledge and skill (Clifton & Anderson, led to the development of the VIA Classifica- 2002), and the only value-label applied to a tion of Strengths. This is a framework of 24 strength is that it ‘can be productively character strengths, organised loosely under applied.’ six virtues. The 24 strengths are believed to In contrast, Peterson and Seligman be universal (rank order correlations across (2004) adopt a more explicit virtue ethics 42 different countries produced a mean approach in their definition of strengths as Spearman’s rho=0.75; Seligman, 2005). They ‘the psychological ingredients – processes or were identified through extensive literature mechanisms – that define the virtues. Said searches in psychology, psychiatry, philos- another way, they are distinguishable routes ophy, and youth development; reviewing to displaying one or another of the virtues’ historical lists of strengths and virtues from (Peterson & Seligman, 2004, p.13). As such, moral studies and religious works; brain- to be included as a strength within the

38 International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 Strengths coaching

Peterson and Seligman (2004) classification, change your assumptions about people’ a construct must facilitate the display of (Buckingham & Clifton, 2001, p.8). virtue, which in turn is considered to lead to Buckingham and Clifton (2001) go on to a ‘good life.’ This definition of strength is argue that the two most prevalent assump- imbued with a moral valence that goes tions about people are: (a) that each person beyond the positive valence that is typically can learn to be competent in almost associated with ‘strength.’ anything; and (b) that each person’s greatest Building on both of these definitions, room for achievement is in their area of and recognising that – in our view at least – greatest weakness. Stated like this, coaching strengths need not always be morally psychologists might disagree, and argue that imbued, but should be defined in a way that much of what they do is already focused on specifies both the process and the outcome working with people’s strengths rather than of using a strength, in an earlier article fixing their weaknesses. If this is the case for (Linley & Harrington, 2006, p.88), we you, we applaud you and your work, and defined a strength as ‘a natural capacity for offer the language, concepts and theory of behaving, thinking, or feeling in a way that strengths psychology as a foundation on allows optimal functioning and performance which you can build and expand your in the pursuit of valued outcomes.’ This defi- strengths-based practice further. nition effectively broadens the potential However, when working as a coach in remit of strengths much wider, and opens organisations, it is also often found that the door to the consideration of capacities there are multiple and conflicting agendas that may be tremendously productive, yet in organisations that do not always allow the which do not carry an inherent moral value. coach to do as much as they might wish to This is arguably a more pragmatic definition, play to the strengths of their coaching client. capturing the phenomena likely of interest For example, consider these questions in the in real world applications, such as coaching context of your coaching, while also thinking psychology, and as such is the definition we about the conflicts you may be facing shall use throughout this article when we talk between the agenda of the organisation and about ‘strengths.’ the agenda of the coaching client. Do the organisations you work with A theory of strengths employ you to ‘round the edges’ of your How we think about strengths is inevitably client, addressing the things that they aren’t shaped by how we think about human too good at and that might be perceived to nature, and how we answer the question of be holding them back or costing the organi- what it means to be human. Within sation in some way? psychology – and especially therapeutic Or do the organisations you work with psychology, the legacy of Freud has been the employ you to sharpen and hone their ‘ghost in the machine’ that haunts much, if employee’s strengths, building on the quali- not everything, of what we do (Hubble & ties that have already got them this far? Miller, 2004). The unwritten view is that Do they employ you to plug the gaps in human beings cannot be trusted, and as such employee’s skills and competencies, working should be controlled and directed. However, with them in their ‘areas for development’ just as positive psychology more generally (read: weaknesses)? has challenged us to reconsider our funda- And if you work with individuals outside mental assumptions (Linley & Joseph, 2004), of an organisational context, do the individ- so has strengths psychology specifically uals you work with typically retain you to ‘fix raised this issue: ‘To break out of this weak- their problems’ or ‘harness their strengths’? ness spiral and to launch the strengths revo- Very often, with an organisational lution in your own organisation, you must contract – and even with a coaching contract

International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 39 P. Alex Linley & Susan Harrington with an individual – the implicit specification 2004) argued that inherent within people may be to fix weakness, because weakness is are socially constructive forces that guide believed to result in risk and cost. Yet the people towards realising their potentialities. agenda of the coaching client might often be When people’s tendency toward self-realisa- more concerned about how they can play to tion is allowed expression, Horney argued: their strengths. This is a difficult contractual ‘…we become free to grow ourselves, we also dynamic, and one that might place the coach free ourselves to love and to feel concern for in a situation where their own aspiration is to other people…the ideal is the liberation and help the client to play to their strengths, but cultivation of the forces which lead to self- the organisational agenda (of the ultimately realisation’ (Horney, 1951, pp.15–16). paying client) is one of weakness mitigation, Rogers also believed that human beings are risk reduction, and damage limitation – organismically motivated toward developing which, so the organisational mindset goes, to their full potential, and are striving to are all best achieved by dealing with weak- become all that they can be, a directional ness rather than playing to strength. force of becoming that he referred to as the An answer as to the efficacy of dealing actualising tendency: ‘This is the inherent with weakness is often found with the benefit tendency of the organism to develop all its of organisational experience, where the capacities in ways which serve to maintain or most crushing question is usually this: What enhance the organism’ (Rogers, 1959, are the issues that come up each year at an p.196). Rogers was conceptualising the actu- employee’s annual review – the same issues alising tendency as the basic drive toward the that were supposed to have been addressed development of our capacities: ‘It is the urge last year (or the year before, or the year which is evident in all organic and human before that)? Many people recognise this as life – to expand, extend, to become the developmental treadmill, running ever autonomous, develop, mature – the faster but going nowhere, because, as we tendency to express and activate all the quoted Peter Drucker (1967, p.60) at the capacities of the organism, to the extent that beginning of this article, ‘one cannot build such activation enhances the organism or on weakness.’ the self’ (Rogers, 1961, p.35). As coaching psychologists, however, we The central theme that runs throughout need more than the rhetoric of business these fundamental assumptions about books to convince us that our assumptions human nature is that human beings have a might need to be challenged. As such, we go natural tendency to want to develop their on to present a theory of strengths that draws capacities, to exploit their natural potential, from the assumptions about human nature to become all that they can be. Of course, it shared by Karen Horney and , is only too evident that this does not always that there is an innate developmental happen, since this directional force can be tendency within each of us to actualise our thwarted and distorted through external potentialities, to become what we are capable influences that disengage us from ourselves. of becoming – in strengths psychology parl- Organisationally, employees are continually ance, to play to one’s strengths. We will first encouraged to focus on and address their outline the key assumptions of this approach weaknesses, a message that is often rein- to human nature, and then demonstrate how forced via HR processes such as perform- this approach accounts for both existing ance appraisal and pay/reward schemes. In theories – and data – about the psychology of general, individuals are not encouraged to strengths. develop and capitalise on their strengths and In essence, both Karen Horney and Carl what they do best. Rogers (among many others, including As a result, people may often find it very Aristotle and ; see Joseph & Linley, difficult to actually know what their strengths

40 International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 Strengths coaching are (Hill, 2001). This being so, it is arguably within you…They are among the most real a large part of coaching and coaching and most authentic parts of your person- psychology to strive to re-engage the indi- hood…There is a direct connection between vidual with their natural self, to help them to your talents and your achievements. Your identify, value and celebrate their inner talents empower you. They make it possible capacities and strengths, to help them for you to move to higher levels of excel- understand why sometimes they feel ‘in their lence and to fulfil your potential.’ From this element’ at work, and at other times they basis, ‘strengths are produced when talents feel tired, disengaged and de-motivated. are refined with knowledge and skill’ (original Adopting a strengths approach allows italics; Clifton & Anderson, 2002, p.8). people to engage with themselves in what Second, consider how Peterson and they do best, and to begin to discover the Seligman (2004) describe possible criteria power within them that coaching so often for a signature strength. They suggest, sets out to release. among other things, that a signature It is notable that this is a central theme strength conveys a sense of ownership and throughout many of the leading books in the authenticity (‘this is the real me’); a sense of field. For example, Whitmore (2002, p.8) yearning to act in accordance with the describes coaching as ‘unlocking a person’s strength, and a feeling of inevitability in potential to maximise their own perform- doing so; and that there is a powerful ance. It is helping them to learn rather than intrinsic motivation to use the strength teaching them.’ Gallwey (2002, p.177) (Peterson & Seligman, 2004, p.18). describes the Inner Game approach to Third, the definition provided by Linley coaching as ‘the art of creating an environ- and Harrington (2006). A strength is ment, through conversation and a way of ‘a natural capacity for behaving, thinking, or being, that facilitates the process by which a feeling in a way that allows optimal func- person can move toward desired goals in a tioning and performance in the pursuit of fulfilling manner.’ More importantly, valued outcomes.’ perhaps, Gallwey (2002, p.215) goes on to In each case, there is a strong emphasis describe the most important lesson of the on the fact that strengths are natural, they Inner Game: ‘It all begins with desire’ (original come from within, and we are urged to use italics). Desire is the force that motivates us them, develop them, and play to them by an to achieve, yet where does desire come from? inner, energising desire. Further, that when This is where Horney and Rogers would we use our strengths, we feel good about argue that the tendency toward self-realisa- ourselves, we are better able to achieve tion, or actualising tendency, is felt: in things, and we are working toward fulfilling desire, as the force that drives us on, as a our potential. Consider the definition of natural, self-generating ambition. coaching psychology provided by (Palmer & How do these assumptions about human Whybrow, 2005, p.7; adapted from Grant & nature – and the assumptions about people Palmer, 2002) as being ‘for enhancing well- that have informed some of the most influ- being and performance in personal life and ential coaching models – sit with what we work domains underpinned by models of know about strengths? The short answer is coaching grounded in established adult ‘very well.’ First, consider how Clifton and learning or psychological approaches’, and it Anderson (2002, p.6) present talents, which becomes clear that a strengths-based they believe to be the underpinning founda- approach to coaching psychology offers tion of strengths: ‘A talent is a naturally significant added value. recurring pattern of thought, feeling, or Playing to our strengths enhances well- behaviour that can be productively applied. being because we are doing what we naturally A great number of talents naturally exist do best (Park, Peterson & Seligman, 2005),

International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 41 P. Alex Linley & Susan Harrington and generating feelings of autonomy, compe- in light of the point above that many people tence, confidence, and self-esteem there find it difficult to recognise their own from. Playing to our strengths enhances strengths (Hill, 2001). There is obviously a performance because we are going with our strong argument that if strengths are charac- own , rather than struggling upriver terised by an intrinsic yearning to use them against the currents of our natural capacities. and a feeling of inevitability in doing so, and And most fundamentally, a strengths-based they are a natural part of us, that they will approach is solidly grounded in established shine through under most circumstances. learning and psychological approaches that This view accords very closely with the non- have a lineage back to Aristotle, through Carl directive approach of person-centred Jung, Karen Horney, and Carl Rogers, to the therapy, and is that adopted by our colleague modern coaching approaches of Whitmore Stephen Joseph (see Joseph & Linley, in and Gallwey, integrating finally with the defi- press). Within this approach, the coach is a nition of coaching psychology that now keen observer of the ebb and flow of the underpins the further development and coaching conversation, being finely attuned direction of this new discipline. As we hope to the subtle nuances of language and to have shown, a strengths-based approach to that might indicate the presence of coaching psychology is one that is built on a strength. The coach might then choose to firm psychological principles which guide us reflect these observations back to the client, in facilitating our clients to harness their own working with them to identify and celebrate natural abilities in the fulfilment of their the strength, to raise the strength within potential, resulting in significant benefit for their consciousness, and to explore, develop, individuals, family units, organisations and refine and apply the strength. societies. In the next section, we will give However, this approach assumes that the some consideration as to what a strengths coaching conversation would provide a suit- coaching approach might look like in ably conducive environment for the natural practice. display of strengths, and that the coach is then able to detect and identify these Strengths coaching in practice strengths. Our approach adopts what we Is the concept of strengths coaching new? To believe to be a more pragmatic standpoint, psychology and coaching psychology it may that is, that the coaching conversation does be, but in athletics ‘strength coaches’ have not, of necessity, always allow this to happen long been employed to help athletes assess – and for at least one very good reason. their strengths and build on them, and in Some strengths are contextual, being social work, the strengths coaching perspec- dependent upon the context for their tive has a worthy tradition (Noble, Perkins & display, and if the coaching conversation – Fatout, 2000; Saleebey, 1992). In each case, without being at fault – does not provide this the emphasis is upon a focus on human context, the strength is unlikely to shine potential and positive client attributes as the through (consider, for example, the diffi- foundation stones of any success. While it is culty in identifying the emotional flexibility recognised that the identification and of a call centre worker or the insight of a top understanding of problems and obstacles salesperson through a coaching conversa- can be important, this is counterbalanced tion). For these reasons, we subscribe to a with an equal, if not greater recognition that more pragmatic assessment approach to the identification of, and playing to, client strengths, believing that strengths assess- strengths is the goal that should guide both ments can provide the context for a depth assessment and intervention. and breadth of coaching conversations that It remains an open question as to how would not otherwise be possible – but always, one might best identify strengths, especially we are at pains to point out, being predi-

42 International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 Strengths coaching cated on the basis that this strengths assess- academic groundwork (as described above, ment is being driven by the client’s agenda, see also Peterson & Seligman, 2004). rather than the agenda of the coach. Relative to existing personality assess- If one were to adopt this pragmatic ment approaches, strengths assessments do approach to strengths assessment, there are arguably advance the agenda of personality two explicit strengths measures, at present, assessment – but it is still very early days, and that merit consideration. The Clifton much work remains to be done. Of existing StrengthsFinder (www.strengthsfinder.com) personality assessments, those which might was developed by Donald O. Clifton and his be considered most closely allied with the colleagues at The Gallup Organization. strengths approach are the personality type Based on more than 30 years of research, it indicators, such as the MBTI® and the Type is predicated on Clifton’s belief that ‘to Dynamics Indicator (TDI). The approach produce excellence, you must study excel- taken by type assessments of personality is lence.’ The StrengthsFinder assesses 34 very much one that can be used to identify themes of talent, primarily within applied the strengths of each personality type, but we occupational settings, and provides a feed- would caution again that the universe of back report that documents one’s top five strengths is much broader than could be themes of talent, based on an ipsative captured purely by an assessment of person- scoring method that compares your ality type. response to each theme of talent with your Overall, though, the crux of the strengths response to each other theme of talent. The perspective is that it changes the nature of measure is atheoretical, with the 34 themes the questions one asks as a coach from being having been retained as those which were diagnostic and problem-focused to potential- the most prevalent from a larger pool of guided and solution-focused (Linley, several hundred themes that were identified Harrington & Hill, 2005). Consider the through structured interviews with excellent following examples of a strengths-based performers across different occupations, approach to the coaching conversation: countries, and cultures (Buckingham & What are the things that you do best? Clifton, 2001). How do you know when you are at your The Values-in-Action (VIA) Strengths best? Questionnaire (www.viastrengths.org) was What are the key strengths and resources developed by Christopher Peterson and that you can draw upon to find a solution . It was one of the major to this situation? early initiatives of the positive psychology Tell me about a time when you were movement, designed to provide a classifica- successful at doing this before…. tion of strength and virtue just as the Diag- Who do you know who has done this nostic and Statistical Manual provides a successfully? How did they do it? classification of mental disorder and disease What do you feel is the answer that is (Peterson & Seligman, 2004). The VIA Ques- coming from inside you? tionnaire measures 24 signature strengths, While, of course, the specific question is which are loosely organised under six virtues always shaped by the client and their (wisdom and knowledge, courage, humanity, context, we hope that the above examples justice, temperance, and transcendence). will serve to provoke a re-evaluation of the The feedback reports again provide the traditional approach that one might take as respondent with a brief description of their a coaching psychologist, and facilitate the five signature strengths, based on an ipsative exploration of what a strengths-based scoring approach. The VIA Questionnaire is approach might look like, how it works, and broadly theoretically-based, having been why it works. These are fundamentally developed on the basis of extensive important questions that we are only at the

International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 43 P. Alex Linley & Susan Harrington beginning of trying to answer, and there is paragon of emotional , it might clearly a broad research and practice agenda well do enough to limit the damage that he in front of us as coaching psychology or she would otherwise inflict. This having researchers and practitioners. been achieved, he or she should then be free Some of the more important research to focus on what they are best at and play to questions may be: How do strengths their strengths. contribute to the achievement of goals? This is where coaching psychologists can What are the effects on well-being and provide a uniquely valuable input, since as an performance of playing to one’s strengths? independent and objective sounding board What are the effects on stress and burnout of for the client, removed from the agendas and playing to people’s strengths? Does playing preconceptions that might be found within to one’s strengths influence people’s motiva- the organisation, the coaching psychologist tion? How best can we, as coaching psychol- can deliver difficult feedback but within a ogists, identify and/or assess people’s supportive and facilitative environment. And strengths? How best can we, as coaching when this feedback is delivered in a way that psychologists, adopt a strengths coaching is potential-guided, being focused on future model within our practice? How does a achievement on the basis of past success, strengths coaching approach compare in building on the foundations of what the terms of effectiveness and efficacy with other client does well and the successes that have coaching psychology models? And is there a propelled him or her this far, then the whole downside to playing to one’s strengths? nature of the coaching conversation changes. This last question provides a useful From being defensive, closed, and insular, caveat. Some people might consider that we clients become engaged, open, and recep- do not need any help to do what we’re best tive. They leave the coaching session feeling at – that it should come naturally – but what celebrated, valued, and appreciated, with a we do need is help to overcome our weak- re-engaged enthusiasm, energy, and motiva- nesses. For many, this is the prevailing tion, being keen to get back to work, or life, cultural ethos laid down to managers and and perform even better. the mindset adopted by many employees, as This should be the hallmark of good shown with the quote from Brad Smart coaching psychology, we suggest, not least above. The underlying theme of this because again it is premised on sound approach is that if we do not manage weak- psychological models. As Fredrickson’s work ness, then it will undo the best efforts of any on positive has shown, the experi- strength. However, here we must be careful ence of positive emotions serves to broaden to consider the nature of the weakness, and our thought-action repertoires (increasing whether it is actually integral to successful creativity and stimulating mental flexibility), performance. Often, when we take a second and build cognitive resources that act as look, it would be possible to redefine roles buffers against subsequent negative events and positions to accommodate weakness and (Fredrickson, 1998; Fredrickson & Branigan, play to strength, so the real issue may lie in 2005; Fredrickson et al., 2003), as well as the organisational culture and climate. being integral to human flourishing On the other hand, there may be situa- (Fredrickson & Losada, 2005). This being tions where there is a very real level of the case, it should arguably be the role of the minimum competence that it is necessary for coaching psychologist to facilitate the posi- one to possess. For example, if a manager tive emotions of their clients, not least unintentionally alienates his staff, emotional because positive emotional experience has intelligence training might help (Salovey, been shown to predict performance success Caruso & Mayer, 2004). While the training (Losada & Heaphy, 2004). We suggest that will never develop the manager into a strengths coaching is an exemplary and

44 International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 Strengths coaching sustainable way of facilitating positive ences of positive emotion which research has emotion in clients through harnessing their shown engender increased creativity, mental natural capacities, and allowing them to do flexibility, resilience, and enhanced more of what they do best, predicated as it is performance. As such, we suggest that the upon an understanding of the constructive strengths coaching approach is a model of developmental tendencies that we believe coaching psychology, with a solid theoretical exist in all of us. and empirical grounding, that harnesses the inner potential of people, thereby facili- Conclusion tating their optimal performance and well- In this article we have introduced the field of being. It is yet another example of the strengths psychology, examining the small powerful integration of coaching psychology literature available to date and suggesting and positive psychology. how a psychology of strengths can be under- stood within the context of a fundamental Correspondence assumption about human nature that posits Correspondence concerning this article a constructive developmental tendency should be addressed to either: toward the fulfilment of one’s capacities and P. Alex Linley the fulfilment of one’s potentials. We have School of Psychology, explored how adopting a strengths approach Henry Wellcome Building, to coaching psychology leads to a shift in the University of Leicester, perspective of the questions we might ask, Lancaster Road, Leicester, LE1 9HN, UK. changing them from being diagnostic and E-mail: [email protected] problem-focused to potential-guided and or solution-focused. We have argued that a Susan Harrington strengths coaching approach identifies and Potenthos Ltd., capitalises on people’s natural capacities, University of Warwick Science Park, helping them to understand where their Barclays Venture Centre, capacities may be and building on the Sir William Lyons Road, resources they already have, and leads to Coventry, CV4 7EZ, UK. increased engagement, energy and motiva- www.potenthos.com tion. In turn, these create greater experi- E-mail: [email protected]

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Fredrickson, B.L., Tugade, M.M., Waugh, C.E. & Nicholson, I.A.M. (1998). , character, Larkin, G. (2003). What good are positive and the ‘culture of personality’: 1897–1937. emotions in crises? A prospective study of , 1, 52–68. resilience and emotions following the terrorist Noble, D.N., Perkins, K. & Fatout, M. (2000). On attacks on the United States of September 11th, being a strength coach: Child welfare and the 2001. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, strengths model. Child and Adolescent Social Work 84, 365–376. Journal, 17, 141–153. Gallwey, T. (2002). The inner game of work: Overcoming Palmer, S. & Whybrow, A. (2005). The proposal to mental obstacles for maximum performance. New establish a Special Group in Coaching York: Texere. Psychology. The Coaching Psychologist, 1, 5–12. Grant, A.M. & Palmer, S. (2002, May 18). Coaching Park, N., Peterson, C. & Seligman, M.E.P. (2004). Psychology. Meeting held at the Annual Confer- Strengths of character and well-being. Journal of ence of the Division of Counselling Psychology, Social and Clinical Psychology, 23, 603–619. British Psychological Society, Torquay, England. Peterson, C. & Seligman, M.E.P. (2004). Character Hill, J. (2001). How well do we know our strengths? strengths and virtues: A handbook and classification. Paper presented at the British Psychological Washington, DC: American Psychological Associ- Society Centenary Conference (April), Glasgow, ation. Scotland. Rogers, C.R. (1959). A theory of therapy, personality Horney, K. (1951). Neurosis and human growth: The and interpersonal relationships, as developed in struggle toward self-realisation. London: Routledge the client-centered framework. In S. Koch (Ed.), & Kegan Paul Ltd. Psychology: A study of a science, Vol. 3: Formulations Hubble, M.A. & Miller, S.D. (2004). The client: of the person and the social context (pp.184-256). Psychotherapy’s missing link for promoting a New York: McGraw Hill. positive psychology. In P.A. Linley & S. Joseph Rogers, C.R. (1961). On becoming a person. Boston, (Eds.), Positive psychology in practice (pp.335–353). MA: Houghton Mifflin. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Rozin, P. & Royzman, E.B. (2001). Negativity bias, Joseph, S. & Linley, P.A. (in press). Positive therapy. negativity dominance, and contagion. Personality London: Routledge. and Social Psychology Review, 5, 296–320. Joseph, S. & Linley, P.A. (2004). Positive therapy: Saleebey, D. (Ed.). (1992). The strengths perspective in A positive psychological theory of therapeutic social work practice. New York: Longman. practice. In P.A. Linley & S. Joseph (Eds.), Salovey, P., Caruso, D. & Mayer, J.D. (2004). Positive psychology in practice (pp.354–368). Emotional intelligence in practice. In P.A. Linley Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. & S. Joseph (Eds.), Positive psychology in practice Linley, P.A. & Harrington, S. (2006). Playing to your (pp.447–463). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. strengths. The Psychologist, 19, 86–89. Seligman, M.E.P. (2005). Positive interventions (and Linley, P.A., Harrington, S. & Hill, J.R.W. (2005). other new stuff). Paper presented at the Fourth Selection and development: A new perspective International Positive Psychology Summit, on some old problems. Selection and Development October, Washington, DC. Review, 21(5), 3–6. Seligman, M.E.P. & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Posi- Linley, P.A. & Joseph, S. (2004). Toward a theoretical tive psychology: An introduction. American foundation for positive psychology in practice. Psychologist, 55, 5–14. In P.A. Linley & S. Joseph (Eds.), Positive Smart, B. (1999). Topgrading. Paramus, NJ: Prentice psychology in practice (pp.713–731). Hoboken, NJ: Hall Press. Wiley. Whitmore, Sir J. (2002). Coaching for performance Losada, M. & Heaphy, E. (2004). The role of posi- (3rd ed.). London: Nicholas Brealey. tivity and connectivity in the performance of business teams: A non-linear dynamics model. American Behavioral Scientist, 47, 740–765. McCullough, M.E. & Snyder, C.R. (2000). Classical sources of human strength: Revisiting an old home and building a new one. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 19, 1–10.

46 International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 Person-centred coaching psychology: A meta-theoretical perspective Stephen Joseph

Coaching psychology provides a new professional arena for thinking about psychological practice. Many will recognise the ethos of coaching psychology as different from the medical model and many coaching psychologists would not recognise a description of the profession as grounded in the medical model. It will be argued, however, that because coaching psychology has emerged in relation to other professional branches of psychology which do adopt the medical model, it has as a consequence implicitly adopted the values of the medical model. The implication of the medical model is the view that we ourselves are the expert on our client’s life. This stands in contrast to the person-centred model view which is that our client is their own best expert. It will be argued that coaching psychology should reject the medical model and instead adopt the person-centred meta-theoretical perspective.

HE PROFESSION OF COACHING model. It will be argued that the meta-theo- psychology provides a new professional retical perspective of the person-centred Tarena for thinking about psychological approach (i.e. that people are intrinsically practice and the facilitation of well-being motivated towards well-being and optimal and optimal functioning in various life functioning) is more congruent with the domains. It is in the interest of any newly- ethos of coaching psychology. Finally, the emerged professional group to demarcate its practical implications of the person-centred territory and many commentators in the new model for coaching psychology and how field of coaching psychology have distin- these differ to those of the medical model guished the practice of coaching psychology will be discussed. from that of clinical and counselling psychology. The argument that advocates of Person-centred approach coaching psychology make is that whereas The idea that we should focus on developing clinical and counselling psychologists work potential is not a new one. In psychology, it with people at the lower end of the psycho- is an idea that can be traced back to the logical functioning spectrum, coaching person-centred approach originally devel- psychologists work with people at the higher oped by the psychologist Carl Rogers (1951, end of the spectrum (Grant, 2001). Thus, 1961). But although Rogers was concerned instead of working to alleviate distress and with the facilitation of optimal functioning, dysfunction, coaches work to facilitate well- he is rarely acknowledged in the context of being and optimal functioning. But this coaching because he did not use the term distinction in practice belies a more compli- coaching. Rogers adopted the term coun- cated conceptualisation. In this paper, which selling, but he might equally well have used is an elaboration of a previous discussion on the term coaching, because in person- this topic (Joseph, 2005), it will be argued centred practice, the terms are interchange- that because counselling and clinical able. Unlike other therapeutic approaches, psychology have adopted the medical model person-centred practice was never as their underlying meta-theory, coaching concerned with ‘repairing’ or ‘curing’ psychology in defining itself in relation to dysfunctionality, and never adopted the counselling and clinical psychology, has ‘diagnostic’ stance of the medical model in inadvertently also adopted the medical which the therapist is the expert. This is not

International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 47 © The British Psychological Society 2006 – ISSN: 1750-2764 Stephen Joseph to say that person-centred practitioners foundation that it is the client and not the don’t work with distressed and dysfunctional therapist who knows best. This serves as the people. They do, but their focus, no matter guiding principle for client-centred practice, where the client lies on the spectrum of which in essence, is simply the principled psychological functioning is to facilitate the stance of respecting the self-determination self-determination of the client so that they of others (B. Grant, 2004). can move toward more optimal functioning. Applications of the person-centred The person-centred approach is a meta- approach have been not only to therapy, but theoretical approach to working with to education, parenting, group learning, people, be they in one to one settings, in conflict resolution, and peace processes (see, small groups, in community settings, or as Barrett-Lennard, 1998), all based on the same applied to social policy. It is not a set of ther- philosophical stance that people are their apeutic techniques but an attitude based on own best experts, and have within themselves the theoretical stance that people are their the potential to develop, and to grow. When own best experts (Joseph, 2003). this inner potential is released the person In brief, Carl Rogers proposed the meta- moves toward becoming more autonomous theoretical perspective that human beings and socially constructive. These ideas have have an inherent tendency toward growth, taken root in many contexts, but often the development, and optimal functioning, work of Carl Rogers goes unrecognised and which he termed the actualising tendency (see, unacknowledged. But they are ideas which Rogers, 1959, 1963). But these do not will be easily recognisable to coaching happen automatically. For people to self- psychologists (e.g. Whitmore, 1996). actualise their inherent optimal nature they What might be less familiar is that the require the right social environment. Rogers person-centred way of working does not proposed that the right social environment make a distinction between people in terms was one in which the person feels under- of their level of psychological functioning, stood, valued, and accepted for who they are. because the process of alleviating distress In such an environment, Rogers reasoned, and dysfunction is the same as that for facili- people are inclined to self-actualise in a way tating well-being and optimal functioning. that is congruent with their intrinsic actual- Both ends of the spectrum of functioning ising tendency, resulting in well-being and are defined in relation to the extent to which optimal functioning. But when people don’t self-actualisation is congruent with the actu- feel understood, valued, or accepted for who alising tendency (Ford, 1991). When there is they are, but only feel valued for being the greater congruence, greater well-being and person they perceive someone else wants more optimal functioning results. But when them to be, then they self-actualise in a way there is less congruence, greater distress and that is incongruent with their intrinsic actual- dysfunction results (see Wilkins, 2005). ising tendency, resulting in distress and Thus, the person-centred approach dysfunction. offers a genuinely positive psychological The person-centred meta-theoretical perspective on mental health because of its perspective is an established psychological unified and holistic focus on both the nega- tradition supported by over 50 years of tive and the positive aspects of human func- research and theory (see, Barrett-Lennard, tioning (Joseph & Worsley, 2005). Coaching 1998), as well as recent developments in psychology would be the same activity positive psychology (see, e.g. Joseph & requiring the same theoretical base, and the Linley, 2004, 2005, in press). This assump- same practical skills, as required for working tion that human beings have an inherent with people who are distressed and dysfunc- tendency toward growth, development, and tional. A person-centred coaching optimal functioning provides the , in contrast to one underpinned

48 International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 Person-centred coaching psychology by the medical model, would view under- coaching psychology would be a different standing and enhancing optimal func- activity requiring a different knowledge base tioning and the alleviation of maladaptive and different skills than required for functioning as a unitary task, as opposed to working with people who are distressed and two separate tasks as is the case when viewed dysfunctional. through the lens of the medical model. Person-centred versus the medical The medical model model Maddux, Snyder and Lopez (2004) have It should be clear from the above, that the argued that the adoption of the medical person-centred model and the medical model in psychology can be traced back to the model are mutually exclusive. The former origins of the discipline and the influence of views understanding and enhancing optimal , and the fact that prac- functioning and the alleviation of maladap- titioner training typically occurred in psychi- tive functioning as a unitary task. The latter atric hospitals and clinics, where clinical views understanding and enhancing optimal psychologists worked primarily as psycho- functioning as two separate tasks. Insofar as diagnosticians under the direction of psychia- coaching psychologists have viewed the alle- trists trained in medicine and psychoanalysis. viation of distress and dysfunction and the This led clinical psychologists to adopt the facilitation of well-being and optimal func- methods and assumptions of their psychiatrist tioning as two separate tasks, therefore, they counterparts, who were themselves trained have implicitly adopted the medical model. specifically in the medical model. It will be argued that coaching psychology There were three implication of this. should take a stance of opposition to the First, psychologists began to think in terms medical model. of dichotomies between normal and The alternative is the person-centred abnormal behaviours, between clinical and model. Terms like coaching, counselling, non-clinical problems, and between clinical and psychotherapy are interchangeable in populations and non-clinical populations. person-centred practice because they all Second, it locates human maladjustment refer to the practice of respecting the self- inside the person, rather than in the determination of others. Thus it would be person’s interactions with the environment possible to talk of any arena of professional and their encounters with sociocultural psychology as person-centred, if it adopted values and social institutions. Third, it the meta-theoretical perspective that human portrays people who seek help as victims of beings have an inherent tendency toward intrapsychic and biological forces beyond growth, development, and optimal func- their control, and thus leaves them as passive tioning. We could equally well talk of person- recipients of an expert’s care. These three centred counselling psychology or implications stand in contrast to the person- person-centred clinical psychology. However, centred model which views well-being as these arenas of professional psychology have continuous, emphasises the role of the social not adopted the person-centred model, but environment, and the self-determination of rather the medical model. If clinical and the person. counselling psychology had adopted the Thus, the medical model refers to the person-centred meta-theory as opposed to premise that there is discontinuity between the medical model, there would now be no psychopathological functioning and optimal need for coaching psychology, because clin- functioning so that understanding and alle- ical and counselling psychology would viating distress and dysfunction is a separate already be concerned with the full spectrum task from facilitating well-being and optimal of human functioning! functioning. Thus, a medical model

International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 49 Stephen Joseph

The fact that clinical and counselling Vision and mission psychology have chosen to ground their But, times are changing and with the advent practice in the medical model as opposed to of the positive psychology movement our the person-centred model does not mean fundamental meta-theoretical assumptions that this is also the best way for coaching are once again the topic of reflection (see, psychologists to view human nature. Indeed, Joseph & Linley, 2004, 2005; in press; Linley the medical model in psychology is now & Joseph, 2004). In discussing the future for subject to so much criticism (see, Albee, clinical psychology, Maddux et al. (2004, 1998; Bentall, 2004; Maddux, 2002; Maddux, p.332) conclude: ‘The major change for Snyder & Lopez, 2004; Sanders, 2005) that it clinical psychology, however, is not a matter would seem questionable to also adopt the of strategy and tactic, but a matter of vision medical model for coaching psychology. and mission.’ I would argue that historically, clinical Coaching psychology can be at the fore- psychology adopted the medical model in front of these changes. As already indicated, the first instance for reasons of securing how we define the territory of coaching power and status in a professional arena psychology is bound up in our meta-theoret- dominated by psychiatry (see also, Proctor, ical assumptions. We are now in a position to 2005). Ironically, counselling psychology has take stock of the history of psychology, the come to adopt the medical model (albeit not criticisms of the medical model, and to to the extent of clinical psychology) because reflect on the person-centred perspective as the professional arena when it was first devel- an alternative meta-theoretical underpin- oping was dominated by clinical psychology. ning for the profession of coaching Counselling psychology began to emerge psychology. as a distinct profession from clinical The medical model disempowers people psychology in the late 1980s, with an explicit as it is the coach who is the expert, whereas emphasis on the coaching psychology, Palmer and Whybrow and the full spectrum of functioning, (2005) say, is ‘grounded in values that aim to elements largely lacking in clinical empower those who use their services’ (p.8). psychology at the time. But, over the past two As individual practitioners we may indeed decades, counselling psychology has moved hold true to the values of empowerment, but closer towards the values of traditional the profession of coaching psychology is not clinical psychology with its emphasis on yet well grounded in these values sufficiently, understanding psychological problems as if because it has emerged out of medical they were discrete medical conditions model thinking applied to psychological requiring specific treatments. Thus, coun- practice. selling psychology has become more about Most coaching psychologists are probably therapeutic technique (at the expense of the in agreement that the medical model is not relationship), and about psychopathology the path they want to pursue. Various alter- (at the expense of understanding the full native models (e.g. Greene & Grant, 2003; spectrum of human functioning). This has Whitworth, Kimsey-House & Sandahl, 1998) been the result of market forces in an arena which embrace the idea that the coachee is dominated by the values of clinical an equal partner who has the answers within psychology. The very emergence of coaching themselves have been proposed as alterna- psychology at the beginning of the 21st tives to the medical model (see, Kauffman & century can in some ways be seen as the Scoular, 2004), without always recognising result of the failure of counselling that this is in essence the person-centred psychology to stand its ground and maintain meta-theoretical perspective, as developed its principles as an alternative way of by Rogers (1959). thinking to that of clinical psychology.

50 International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 Person-centred coaching psychology

Implications for training and practice that they become healthier, this same But what are the practical implications of help should be available to healthy coaching psychology adopting the person- people who are less than fully centred meta-theory as opposed to the functioning. If we ever turn towards medical model? There are four key areas to positive goals of health, we will care less discuss: who we work with, what we train to do, about where the person begins, and what we do in practice, and who we work for. more about how to achieve the desired endpoint of the positive goals’ (Shlien, 1. Client group 2003, p.26). What we call ourselves professionally deter- Depth and duration of training and experi- mines who we work with, and to that extent ence are the only issues, therefore, in deter- coaches and therapists work with different mining where on the spectrum of populations (Grant, 2001). But, to define psychological functioning a person-centred the profession in this way is to belie a more coaching psychologist is able to work. There complicated picture and to implicitly are also other practical issues, such as the condone the medical model view. As already assessment of self-harm, which a competent emphasised, the person-centred perspective practitioner must be aware of. But the theo- provides a unitary way of working with clients retical principle that coaching psychology is along the spectrum of functioning. Theoret- applicable across the spectrum of psycholog- ically, a person-centred coaching psychology ical functioning stands in contrast to the is applicable to the range of clinical and medical model view that coaching health care settings, constrained only by the psychology would only be applicable to non depth and duration of experience and clinical and relatively highly functioning training of the practitioner, rather than any populations. arbitrary discontinuity between well-being and psychopathology. 2. Training If coaching psychology adopts the meta- There are implications for training. Training theoretical perspective of person-centred programmes that are influenced by the theory it may come into conflict with other medical model will emphasise the develop- divisions of professional psychology who view ment of intellectual knowledge so that the maladaptive functioning as their domain. coach can take on the role of expert. But the possibility of conflict should not Training programmes that are influenced by stand in the way of developing a theory led person-centred principles will emphasise the profession if the dichotomous thinking of development of the self-awareness of the the medical model is simply incorrect and coaching psychologist and their interper- unhelpful. Certainly, coaching is not about sonal and emotional literacy skills, and in the alleviation of distress and dysfunction per learning how to facilitate self-determination se, but it is about the facilitation of well-being in others. Training in person-centred and optimal functioning. However, the ques- practice is very different to what most tion is whether these are in reality a unitary psychologists learn in their training. Groom task rather than two separate tasks? (2005) in writing about how his practice has Within the person-centred perspective, it developed, says: does not matter where the person starts, ‘Most of my coaching time is spent coaching can be valuable to all. As Shlien, one tripping over myself. I can hardly wait to of the founders of person-centred psychology, explore the coachee’s issues before I am said in a talk originally given in 1956: rushing in to get them ready to set goals, ‘…if the skills developed in psychological or to analyse their lifestyle imbalance, do counselling can release the constructive a cognitive checklist or evaluate their own capacities of malfunctioning people so self-care strategies. I am learning to slow

International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 51 Stephen Joseph

down…I am arguing here for a fuller, coaching, counselling, or clinical psycholo- deeper kind of listening ….nowadays I gist, but at the practical level of content the follow more and lead less…that we bring sessions would be different, simply because ourselves fully into the relationship’ clients will bring different material to coun- (Groom, 2005, pp.21–22). selling compared to coaching. This quote from Groom (2005) exemplifies The person-centred approach does not the shift in thinking that comes with a move prescribe techniques of practice, but allows away from the medical model toward the for a diversity of practice methods, insofar as person-centred model. Training would practice is securely grounded in the meta- involve learning to slow down, to listen, and theoretical assumption that people have an to be able to follow the client’s direction and inherent tendency toward growth, develop- not one’s own. This shift in emphasis does ment, and optimal functioning, and that this not exclude more traditional aspects of tendency is facilitated by the right social envi- training. There are a variety of ways of ronment (Rogers, 1959, 1963). Thus, the working that may be classified as person- person-centred coaching psychologist can centred (see, Sanders, 2004). Person-centred draw on various cognitive-behavioural, multi- work does not rule out setting goals, model, solution-focused and systems theory checking strategies, and so on, but it empha- approaches (see Kauffman & Scoular, 2004). sises the client’s role in taking the lead and There is no prohibition of the use of tech- the coach’s ability to follow, whereas the niques per se. What is different about the medical model emphasises the coach’s role person-centred way of working is that the in taking the lead and the client’s ability to techniques become an expression of the follow. meta-theoretical assumptions of person- centred theory rather than an expression of 3. Practice the meta-theoretical assumptions of the In terms of person-centred coaching medical model. It is not the fact that the psychology practice, the task of the coach is coach uses a particular technique or assess- to nurture a social relationship which is ment tool that is the issue, but how they use it. experienced as authentic by the coachee and Cognitive-behavioural psychology, for one in which they feel accepted and under- example, offers a wealth of techniques that stood. But although the therapeutic process can be helpful to people in learning about is the same as that in counselling, the fact themselves and in exploring the relationship that we have developed these different between our thoughts and our feelings, how professional arenas based on the medical we make sense of reality, and what we say to model creates difference in content. What ourselves which can hold us back from terms we use will determine what clients we achieving our goals (Neenan & Palmer, work with. The public understanding is that 2001). But two different therapists, or two counselling is about looking back in life at different coaches, can employ the same tech- what has gone wrong, whereas coaching is niques in very different ways, one taking the about looking forward to what can go right. lead as expert, the other assuming that the If we offer counselling we will get clients who client is the expert and following their lead. want to look back, and if we offer coaching we will get clients who want to look forward. 4. Clients’ agenda The task of the person-centred therapist or This takes me to the final and most impor- coach is the same in either case, to stay with tant implication of the person-centred the person and to facilitate the person’s self model, and that is the question of whose determination. Thus, at a theoretical process agenda the coaching psychology is working level, the person-centred psychologist’s task to. In person-centred psychology, the task is is always the same, be they employed as a always to facilitate more optimal functioning

52 International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 Person-centred coaching psychology in the sense that the person moves towards Conclusion greater self-determination. Often this is at At the meta-theoretical level, either we hold odds with the needs of the wider social envi- ourselves as the expert on our client’s life ronment (Joseph & Linley, 2004, 2005, in and take the lead, or we hold our client as press; Linley & Joseph, 2004). The medical their own best expert and it is they who take model with the coach as expert who takes the lead. As the new profession of coaching the lead can direct the coachee in a variety of psychology emerges it is appropriate that we directions, not all of which may be facilitative reflect on the fundamental assumptions that of the client’s self-determination. It might be are shaping the direction of its development. said that clinical and counselling psycholo- gists have already sold themselves to the Correspondence agenda of the National Health Service at the Stephen Joseph expense of the self-determination of their Department of Psychology, clients (Proctor, 2005). If coaching University of Warwick, psychology adopts the medical model it too Coventry, CV4 7AL, UK. is in danger of becoming a force for control- Tel: +44 2476 528182 ling people rather than for facilitating their Fax: +44 2476 524225 self-direction. E-mail: [email protected]

References Albee, G.W. (1998). Fifty years of clinical psychology: Joseph, S. & Linley, P.A. (in press). Positive therapy: Selling our soul to the devil. Applied and Preventive A meta-theory for positive psychological practice. Psychology, 7, 189–194. London: Routledge. Barrett-Lennard, G.T. (1998). Carl Rogers’ helping Joseph, S. & Worsley, R. (2005). A positive psychology system: Journey and substance. London: Sage. of mental health: The person-centred perspec- Bentall, R. (2003). Madness explained: Psychosis and tive. In S. Joseph & R. Worsley, (Eds.), Person- human nature. London: Allen Lane. centred psychopathology: A positive psychology of mental Ford, J.G. (1991). Rogerian self-actualisation: A clari- health (pp.348-357). Ross-on-Wye: PCCS Books. fication of . Journal of Humanistic Kauffman, C. & Scoular, A. (2004). Toward a positive Psychology, 31, 101–111. psychology of executive coaching. In P.A. Linley Grant, A.M. (2001). Towards a psychology of coaching. Sydney: Coaching Psychology Unit, University of & S. Joseph (Eds.), Positive psychology in practice Sydney. (pp.287–302). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Grant, B. (2004). The imperative of ethical justifica- Linley, P.A. & Joseph, S. (2004). Toward a theoretical tion in psychotherapy: The special case of client- foundation for positive psychology in practice. centered therapy. Person-Centered and Experiential In P.A. Linley & S. Joseph (Eds.), Positive , 3, 152–165. psychology in practice. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Greene, J. & Grant, A. (2003). Solution focused Maddux, J.E. (2002). Stopping the ‘madness’: coaching. Essex, UK: Pearson Education. Positive psychology and the deconstruction of Groom, J. (2005). Effective listening. The Coaching the illness ideology and the DSM. In C.R. Snyder Psychologist, 1, 21–22. & S.J. Lopez (Eds.), Handbook of positive psychology Joseph, S. (2005). Person-centred coaching (pp.13–25). New York: Oxford University Press. psychology. The Coaching Psychologist, 1, 3–5. Maddux, J.E., Snyder, C.R. & Lopez, S.J. (2004). Joseph, S. (2003). Client-centred psychotherapy: Toward a positive clinical psychology: Decon- Why the client knows best. The Psychologist, 16, structing the illness ideology and constructing an 304–307. ideology of human strengths and potential. In Joseph, S. & Linley, P.A. (2004). Positive therapy: A positive psychological theory of therapeutic P.A. Linley & S. Joseph (Eds.), Positive psychology practice. In P.A. Linley & S. Joseph (Eds.), in practice (pp.320–334). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Positive psychology in practice (pp.354–368). Neenan, M. & Palmer, S. (2001). Cognitive Behav- Hoboken: Wiley. ioural Coaching. Stress News, 13, 15–18. Joseph, S. & Linley, P.A. (2005). Positive psycho- Palmer, S. & Whybrow, A. (2005). The proposal to logical approaches to therapy. Counselling and establish a special group in coaching psychology. Psychotherapy Research, 5, 5–10. The Coaching Psychologist, 1, 5–12.

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Proctor, G. (2005). Clinical psychology and the Sanders, P. (2005). Principled and strategic opposi- person-centred approach: An uncomfortable fit. tion to the medicalisation of distress and all of its In S. Joseph & R. Worsley (Eds.), Person-centred apparatus. In S. Joseph & R. Worsley (Eds.), psychopatholgy: A positive psychology of mental health Person-centred psychopatholgy: A positive psychology of (pp.276–292). Ross-on-Wye: PCCS Books. mental health (pp.21–42). Ross-on-Wye: PCCS Rogers, C.R. (1951). Client-centred therapy: It’s current Books. practice, implications and theory. Boston, MA: Shlien, J.M. (2003). Creativity and psychological Houghton Mifflin. health. In P. Sanders (Ed.), To lead an honourable Rogers, C.R. (1959). A theory of therapy, personality, life: Invitations to think about client-centered therapy and interpersonal relationships as developed in and the person-centered approach (pp.19–29). Ross- the client-centered framework. In S. Koch (Ed.), on-Wye: PCCS Books. Psychology: A study of a science, Vol. 3: Formulations Whitmore, J. (1996). Coaching for performance of the person and the social context (pp.184–256). (2nd ed.) London: Nicholas Brearley. New York: McGraw-Hill. Whitworth, L., Kimsey-House, H. & Sandahl, P. Rogers, C.R. (1961). On becoming a person. Boston, (1998). Co-active coaching: New skills for coaching MA: Houghton Mifflin. people toward success in work and life. Palo Alto, CA: Rogers, C.R. (1963). The actualising tendency in Davies-Black Publishing. relation to ‘motives’ and to consciousness. In Wilkins, P. (2005). Person-centred theory and M.R. Jones (Ed.), Nebraska Symposium on Motiva- ‘mental illness’. In S. Joseph & R. Worsley (Eds.), tion, Vol. 11 (pp.1–24). Lincoln, NE: University of Person-centred psychopatholgy: A positive psychology of Nebraska Press. mental health (pp.43–59). Ross-on-Wye: PCCS Sanders, P. (2004). The tribes of the person-centred nation: Books. An introduction to the schools of therapy related to the person-centred approach. Ross-on-Wye: PCCS Books.

54 International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 CALL FOR PAPERS Special Section POSITIVE COACHING PSYCHOLOGY: INTEGRATING THE SCIENCE OF POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY WITH THE PRACTICE OF COACHING PSYCHOLOGY

In 2007, the International Coaching Psychology Review will include a special section, Positive Coaching Psychology: Integrating the Science of Positive Psychology with the Practice of Coaching Psychology. Relevant topics include, but are not limited to: G Applying positive psychology principles in coaching psychology; G Strengths-based coaching psychology; G Coaching for happiness and well-being; G Performance enhancement through positive psychology; G Integrating coaching psychology and positive psychology.

All submissions will be peer-reviewed, and should follow the ‘Notes for Contributors’ given in the International Coaching Psychology Review. Priority will be given to empirical reports, but theoretical papers, review papers, and case studies that significantly advance our knowledge of coaching psychology and positive psychology are also welcome.

The deadline for submissions is 31 July, 2006. Electronic submissions are encouraged. Correspondence and submissions should be directed to the Guest Editors of the Special Section:

P. Alex Linley Carol Kauffman School of Psychology Harvard Medical School Henry Wellcome Building 22 Mill Street, Suite 405 University of Leicester Arlington, MA 02476 Lancaster Road United States. Leicester, LE1 9HN United Kingdom. E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected]

International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 55 Taking stock: A survey of Coaching Psychologists’ practices and perspectives Alison Whybrow & Stephen Palmer

Objectives: This paper presents the findings of two surveys exploring the practices and perspectives of the membership of the Coaching Psychology Forum (CPF), the precursor to the Special Group in Coaching Psychology. Design: The study was cross-sectional in design Method: The two surveys were conducted 12 months apart. The surveys focused on psychologists’ practice as coaches and their views on a number of relevant issues such as required training and experience to practise as a coaching psychologist. Results: The membership of the CPF consists of psychologists with diverse applied psychological backgrounds, who practice coaching in a variety of settings from a range of psychological developmental perspectives. Issues around training and development for coaching psychologists emerged, highlighting the need for an understanding of the underpinning competencies of the domain and how these fit with existing applied psychological domains. Additionally, important research questions were raised. Conclusions: The outcome of the surveys highlights the diversity in practice and perspectives of the membership of the CPF and the energy and enthusiasm for the development of the profession of coaching psychology. Keywords: coaching psychology, professional practice, supervision, continuing professional development, British Psychological Society.

Overview performance and well being of people in work HE SPECIAL GROUP IN COACHING and non work situations. There are few surveys PSYCHOLOGY (SGCP) came into exis- of coaches and their practice, indeed Grant Ttence in October 2004 and almost and Zackon (2004) provide a useful overview overnight became the third largest of work done in this area to date. Even less is subsystem within the British Psychological known about the characteristics and views of Society (BPS). Once the pathway had been coaching psychologists in particular. cleared for the BPS membership to express We recognise that issues discussed here their views there was a resounding ‘yes’ vote, will be relevant both to psychologists and the strength of which was somewhat of a non-psychologists practising as coaches, surprise even to the SGCP founders. however, we focus specifically on psycholo- The overwhelming interest in the area of gists throughout this paper. coaching psychology and continued growth of the SGCP demonstrates the energy and Introduction enthusiasm of psychologists to explore and As the profile of the coaching profession has understand the scope of coaching psychology risen, the recognition and practice of and its fit within the broader applied psycho- coaching has proliferated among psycholo- logical as well as coaching arena. gists. However, psychologists were finding This paper is concerned with under- themselves practicing as coaches in a rather standing the current profile and practice of mixed up and confused market place. In psychologists working as coaches, the implica- recognition of the current state of the tions of this and how coaching psychology coaching arena, the Coaching Psychology specifically is being applied to maximise the Forum (CPF) and subsequently, the SGCP

56 International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 © The British Psychological Society 2006 – ISSN: 1750-2764 Taking stock was set up with the purpose of providing a Method clear focus on the psychological underpin- Members of the CPF were invited to nings of coaching and a consistent focus on complete the surveys by general e-mail at quality and ethical practice. each iteration. A total of 90 members of the Psychologists have been practising in the CPF participated in the survey in 2003 (T1). area of maximising individual well being and A similar survey was repeated 12 months performance in work and personal lives for later in 2004 (T2) when 109 members of the decades (e.g. Parkes, 1955). Indeed, long CPF took part. Data were collected online before the popular concept of coaching as it using www.surveymonkey.com as the survey is now perceived, existed. Despite this, the platform. The survey took between five and profession of psychology has taken a long 10 minutes to complete. Respondents had time to establish itself formally within the the opportunity to record their views quanti- coaching space and recognise the need for a tatively, by choosing one or more options in specific focus on coaching psychology. response to the questions, and/or qualita- This tardiness might be understood more tively, by expressing their personal perspec- easily if psychologists believed coaching to tive in response to each question. Where be something so inherent to the practice of questions were repeated in the two surveys, psychology, to their existing repertoire of direct comparisons can be drawn between skills, that there was no need to identify it as the two samples. Additional data, such as a separate domain of enquiry. The tremen- membership data was gathered from the dous energy underpinning the formation of membership records of the CPF and subse- the SGCP suggests that whilst psychologist quently the SGCP. might believe coaching to be inherent to their role as psychologists, rather than Results and Discussion assuming they already have the necessary Membership understanding, psychologists are very keen The profile of membership has changed to explore and understand this domain. during the lifetime of the CPF and the SGCP, The diversity of membership of the SGCP, partly as a result of development of the group the variety of psychological frameworks that which is outlined in Palmer and Whybrow inform individual coaching practice and the (this issue). The two largest groups at T1 range of views on professional issues suggest were counselling and occupational psycholo- that there is a lot of shared learning, explo- gists, with occupational psychologists being ration and discussion to come. This rich much the larger group by the T2 survey. background to the SGCP is brought to life in Once the membership of the Special the responses to two cross-sectional surveys Group was promoted more openly across the that were conducted 12 months apart of what entire BPS membership, a more diverse set was then, the CPF membership. These of applied psychologists from across the full surveys were designed to illustrate: range of BPS subsystems became involved. In G Which applied psychologists are working addition, a large number of psychologists as coaches; who did not belong to a specific subsystem G What approaches are being used; became part of the SGCP. G What psychologist’s expectations are The main subgroups that comprised the about specialist training as coaches; SGCP in December 2004 are detailed in G What views there are around the issue of Figure 1. Interestingly, the largest sub group supervision; are those psychologists with GBR status, who G Where coaching psychology is being as yet have not taken their formal profes- applied; sional development to the level of Chartered G What psychologists want in terms of Psychologist status. The reasons for the ongoing development. prevalence of this group of psychologists

International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 57 Alison Whybrow & Stephen Palmer Figure 1: Membership across BPS subsystems.

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GBR = Graduate basis for registration; CCoP = Chartered Counselling Psychologists; COP = Chartered Occupational Psychologists; CEP = Chartered Educational Psychologists; Chartered = Chartered Psychologists with no affiliation; CFP = Chartered Forensic Psychologists; CClin = Chartered Clinical Psychologists; CHP = Chartered Health Psychologists.

could be that the SGCP provides a profes- reported that they were members of the CPF sional home that they have not yet found because they worked part-time as a coach within an existing subsystem. Similarly, this (48.9 per cent). This outcome was repeated also suggests that coaching psychology is in the T2 responses shown in Figure 2. area of psychological interest and practice Relatively few psychologists report that really is not covered sufficiently by any working as a full time coach (11.1 per cent one existing subsystem alone. T1; 11.9 per cent T2). With the further devel- Whilst psychologists may believe that opment of coaching psychology as an applied coaching is something they do, or should be area of psychology, more psychologists may doing within their area of professional have an opportunity to work in this area on a practice, it is likely that it is being full-time basis. This in itself will have a recip- approached very differently across the rocal impact on the development of the different applied domains of psychology. profession as psychologists’ expertise in the Thus, the diversity of subsystems in the SGCP area of coaching deepens and enriches the suggests there is a great opportunity for learning and research in this area. shared learning. Indeed. exploring these Reviewing the qualitative comments that different perspectives and approaches is people provided at T1, many were members likely to enhance psychological practice of the CPF because they were interested in more broadly, not just the understanding developing their coaching skills, networking and practice of coaching psychology. with other coaches and improving their practice, by T2, it seems members were Why are psychologists members of the concerned with the development of the CPF/SGCP? CPF/SGCP as a professional body, specific In discussion, many psychologists see comments included: coaching as a subset of their repertoire as G A desire to maintain the emphasis on the applied psychologists, combining coaching professional development of the field of skills and other areas of skill and expertise in coaching across the UK. their day to day work. This is reflected in the G A body that works with the broader responses to this particular question. The coaching arena rather than controlling largest group of people who responded at T1 what non-psychologist coaches do.

58 International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 Taking stock Figure 2: Time spent working as a Coaching Psychologist (T2).

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G The integration of coaching skills and How well does the BPS meet members’ application as a subset of a broader role coaching psychology needs? as an applied psychologist. The overwhelming support for the develop- G The appropriate use of the descriptor ment of the SGCP was assisted by a feeling coaching psychologist by psychologists among psychologists that the BPS did not using coaching skills. meet their needs or interests in the area of The integration of coaching skills as a subset coaching practice. At T1, more than 85 per of a broader role as an applied psychologist is cent of respondents felt the BPS did not supported by the fact that coaching is a part meet their coaching needs. time activity for many members of the SGCP. Interestingly, many psychologists joined Together, these provide some momentum to other professional coaching bodies, such as the idea of accrediting competencies that the Association for Coaching, and the Euro- span divisional boundaries. Indeed, the pean Mentoring and Coaching Council as a ongoing diversity of the SGCP will depend in means of furthering their professional part, on maintaining the inclusive and open interest in coaching. Although seen as moder- relationships across BPS subsystems. Thus, it ately useful in meeting psychologists’ needs in may be that the SGCP can provide a different this area, other professional bodies were model for the development of an applied described as limited to the extent that they area of psychology than typically exists within referenced psychological models or provided the BPS. a research basis for coaching practice. The The shift from the CPF being seen as extent to which the SGCP fills these gaps will more of an interest group to one which is be useful to monitor as it develops. fulfilling a role as a professional body reflects not only the development of the CPF, but Where are psychologists applying parallel developments taking place within coaching? the broader coaching space. In moving The growth in coaching has taken place in forward, the SGCP would benefit from personal and work domains. In the business continuing to ensure that it engages effec- arena, coaching has proliferated as organisa- tively as a subsystem within the BPS, and also tions have grasped the promise of main- as a leading professional body in the general taining and enhancing their competitive coaching arena. advantage through the effective develop-

International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 59 Alison Whybrow & Stephen Palmer Figure 3: BPS meets members’ needs (T2).

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ment of their human capital. Specifically, the Given the growth in coaching opportuni- sporting analogies have resonated, with the ties, it is not surprising that most respon- concept of the coach enabling the develop- dents at T1 describe themselves as working ment of ‘corporate athlete’ appealing to in more business related fields such as exec- senior executives. The personal coach for utive, leadership, team, business, and career the board member has been widely coaching, with fewer describing themselves embraced and seen as a part of the package as working in personal/life, health and for those at senior levels. sports domains (see Figures 4 & 5). A second development within organisa- The coaching practice reflected in both tions is the idea of coaching skills being a profiles may reflect the composition of subset of the line manager’s skills. Many of respondents at the time, the majority of the alternatives to the Tayloristic command whom were occupational psychologists, and control model of working have continued to therefore may reasonably be expected to be be developed under the banner of coaching, focusing their coaching practice within the potentially enabling every line manager to business arena. have appropriate coaching skills at their The profile may also reflect the fact that finger tips in order to get the best out of many different ‘types’ of psychologist are themselves and those that they work with. practicing within organisations, and that the Developmental coaching is perhaps a professional subdivisions within the BPS third area for the practice of coaching within merely reflect the professional training and business, enabling coaching to be focused at not necessarily the area of professional assisting the development of a specific skill practice of many psychologists. set within employees. Alongside the growth This seems an appropriate point to raise of coaching opportunities within business, two particular questions. First, what is the the concept of having a personal coach has boundary between coaching and other gained credence to assist people in achieving forms of applied psychology such as coun- their overall life goals. selling or occupational psychology? The focus of coaching practice was In any coaching relationship the similar at T1 and T2 (see Figures 4 & 5). boundary between ‘coaching’ and ‘coun- Slight differences in the profiles may reflect selling’ is a potential issue, where practi- the fact that further variations of coaching tioners are working in the personal and life focus were included in the survey at T2. coaching domains, this becomes more

60 International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 Taking stock Figure 4: Focus of coaching psychology practice (T1).

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Life Stress Team Career Sports Health Business Personal Executive Leadership Mentoring Performance CoachingExcellence for management apparent. Interestingly, reviewing respon- Given the predominance of coaching dent’s qualitative responses people used practice in organisational settings, a similar descriptors such as ‘relationship coach’ and argument may arise regarding occupational ‘rehabilitation coach’ among others. When and coaching psychology domains. Greater therefore, does coaching become coun- understanding between psychologists of the selling, and indeed, when does counselling areas of competence across the domain of become coaching? Is this a useful distinction applied psychology would be useful. to make? Second, how do the coaching skills used It appears that the boundary of the differ across the range of coaching contexts coaching/counselling skill set is not clear, as indicated in Figures 4 and 5? What is the the skill sets across the different applied competence required to work as an execu- areas of psychology are not clearly differenti- tive coaching psychologist compared to a ated. A useful concept is competence to health coaching psychologist? Is there in fact work with a particular presenting issue or set any qualitative difference between psycholo- of issues, when is it more appropriate to be gists working in these different areas? ‘coached’, when is it more appropriate to be It is likely that there are more similarities ‘counselled’ and when and how do psychol- than differences between coaching psycholo- ogists refer to other more appropriately gists working in difference contexts, but qualified colleagues? (Summerfield, 2002) importantly, small differences between the

International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 61 Alison Whybrow & Stephen Palmer application of skills and competence are The qualitative comments revealed a going to be significant in terms of individual further rich seam of approaches not impact. Similarly, tools and techniques may captured here, including Existential/ vary between the contexts as each area starts Gestalt, Personal Construct Psychology, and to develop its own a subset of expertise and Positive Psychology experience. The range of frameworks applied goes This variety in focus of coaching from behavioural, cognitive behavioural, psychology underlines the need for transactional to psychodynamic, gestalt, and continued dialogue and shared learning rational emotive behavioural approaches. opportunities whether through conferences, At T2, a similar diverse range of psycho- workshops and publications. logical frameworks were being applied by coaching psychologists. Some additional What psychological frameworks and approaches were emerging in the ‘other’ approaches are used? responses such as Motivational Interviewing, The profession of psychology brings with it a Psychosynthesis and Hypnosis. large number of developmental frameworks It is interesting to consider why the most that attempt to explain how and why humans popular frameworks that psychologists are behave as they do. From work by Peltier using in their coaching work are Cognitive (2001) we see that a good range of psycho- Behavioural, Person-Centred and Solution logical therapeutic frameworks are being or Goal Focused. adapted for application in the coaching It could be because these approaches are context. Which of these frameworks are more effective at generating positive psychologists using in the coaching outcomes for coaches. To date there is very psychology arena? The responses from our limited research that has looked at the effec- members are given in Figures 6 to 9 below. tiveness of different coaching approaches At T1 the majority of respondents (Grant, 2001a). Much is inconclusive. described themselves as using a facilitative However, there is some specific evidence for approach to their practice, within a Cogni- the effectiveness of Cognitive Behavioural tive, Behavioural and/or Solution Focused techniques. framework. Many other diverse frameworks A second reason is that the use of were also being used by coaching psycholo- different psychological frameworks may be gists, including Psychodynamic, Rational more to do with familiarity and expertise Emotive Behavioural Coaching, Humanistic rather than the demonstrated utility of such and Transactional among others. frameworks.

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62 International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 Taking stock Figure 7: More approaches used (T1).

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International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 63 Alison Whybrow & Stephen Palmer

Maybe coaching psychologists have in the coaching space may be better under- limited access to the required knowledge of stood. a broader set of developmental frameworks and how these might usefully be applied Continuing Professional Development within the coaching space. A diverse range of applied psychologists Further, people may be working with make up the membership of the SGCP with these approaches differently. Are they the largest subgroup being non-chartered applying them in a ‘pure’ sense, or members of the BPS with the Graduate Basis combining frameworks to create their own for Registration. All are looking to further coaching model? their understanding or practice in coaching Research in to the effectiveness of psychology. As coaching psychology is both a different approaches within different new area, and at the same time consists of an coaching contexts is needed (Grant, 2001a) established skill and knowledge base that is to enable us to ensure we are using the most dissipated across the areas of applied effective approach or combination of psychology, Continuing Professional Devel- approaches within particular situations. For opment (CPD) is of key interest to members. example, how effective is the facilitation or Through CPD, some understanding may be instructional model of coaching? How does reached as to how individuals’ existing skill the effectiveness of the approach change sets and knowledge base fits within the during individual transition? Another inter- domain of coaching psychology, and what esting area relates to intervention adherence psychologists need to do to enhance their or compliance in executive coaching as coaching practice. A substantial majority of there are hardly any papers published on respondents thought that ongoing CPD was this topic (Kilburg, 2001). important (78 per cent). The use of therapeutic approaches Respondents expressed interest in a adapted to coaching within personal, group, variety of CPD activities (see Figures 10 & 11). organisational and training contexts opens The most popular CPD activities at T1 were up new and important areas of research. For workshops, closely followed by conferences example, although the theory and practice of and seminars. Interestingly more were inter- the cognitive-behavioural, problem-solving, ested in short certificated courses, rather than and multimodal coaching approaches have short courses alone suggesting an interest for been illustrated (see, Neenan & Palmer, some form of coaching accreditation. 2001; Neenan & Dryden, 2002; Palmer, The qualitative comments confirmed Cooper & Thomas, 2003; Richard, 1999) that members were keen for their ongoing more research is needed into their effective- training as coaches to be recognised by the ness with non-clinical populations. However, BPS or accredited in some way. One of the the existing research has been very encour- reasons for this appreciation of a sign of aging (e.g. Grant, 2001b). In addition, the competence or quality is likely to be due to North American-based Cognitive Coachingsm, the very chaotic market place where which is a variation of cognitive behavioural coaching providers and coaching buyers find coaching as practised in the UK, has much that demonstration of coaching competence published research (e.g. Edwards & Newton, is a key issue. 1994; Foster, 1989). At T2, seminars superseded conferences Part of the remit of the SGCP is to as the second most popular activity. promote research into coaching psychology. A number of respondents expressed an However, it is unlikely that research will interest in doing a Doctorate specifically in provide simple answers, but through the Coaching. The qualitative comments process of research the theory, skills and revealed further ideas about relevant CPD techniques of coaching psychology applied activities including:

64 International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 Taking stock Figure 10: CPD activities (T1). 90

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G Online networks for experience sharing; What qualifications and experience are G Publication of e-newsletters to enhance needed for coaching psychologists? coaching practice; Psychologists have asked: What is coaching G Local action learning sets and CPD psychology? What are the competencies activities. required? The beliefs of the membership What is required in terms of the areas of about qualifications and experience are competence to be an effective coach or outlined in Figures 12 and 13 overleaf. coaching psychologist has yet to be defined. Qualifications that respondents believed However, the range of psychological frame- were necessary to be a ‘coaching psycholo- works being applied in by coaching psychol- gist’ ranged from a psychology degree to a ogists, suggests there is much shared full doctorate in coaching or coaching learning to be gained from both formal and psychology with a variety of levels in between. informal CPD activities. Interestingly, a number of people believed

International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 65 Alison Whybrow & Stephen Palmer Figure 12: Training requirements (T2).

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that no degree in psychology was necessary to What then does a degree in psychology practice as a coaching psychologist. provide, and why is this important? One Certainly, to practise as a coach, a degree perspective is that if someone has a degree in in psychology is not necessary. Psychology is psychology they have an established body of not the only profession to bring a relevant knowledge underpinning their practice. knowledge base and set of frameworks of This body of knowledge is extremely relevant development to the coaching arena. Thus, to the practice of coaching and therefore the coach without a psychology degree may provides one appropriate level of differentia- still have the same or more expertise in their tion. However, as the respondents to the field compared with a coaching psychologist. survey suggest, whilst a degree in psychology The question of individual competency as a is agreed as necessary by the vast majority, coach is one that is much broader than the it is not sufficient training to qualify profession of psychology alone. individuals as coaching psychologists.

66 International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 Taking stock

The qualitative comments provide Members of the SGCP, nearly half of further insight into respondents’ perspec- whom are chartered psychologists (albeit tives about the development of competence from a range of divisions) are keen to under- as a coaching psychologist: stand the domain of practice of coaching G Respondents expressed the need for psychology. Without this, as indicated by the counselling skills to be an integral part of comments received, they have limited under- any coaching qualification. standing of what it is their aiming for in G There should be recognition that there terms of the competence required to are various routes to gaining the skills practice in their chosen field of work. and experience necessary to be a Relatively crude indicators such as a coaching psychologist. degree in psychology, experience, chartered G That criteria should be set and all those psychological status clearly do not demon- using the term coaching psychologist to strate whether a person has the necessary describe themselves need to demonstrate skills, specific experience and rounded they have achieved these standards. knowledge base required to practise effec- There should not be an automatic ‘in’ for tively in the coaching domain. people just because they are members of We have an opportunity through the the SGCP. SGCP and IGCP in Australia to raise our G That formal qualifications do not understanding of the competence base necessarily deliver the competent coach. underpinning effective coaching psychology G That we can’t be definite about what practice. By establishing the psychological qualifications and experience are theory underpinning the practice of required beyond GBR as a minimum coaching, and creating standards for study until coaching psychology is more clearly and practice, psychologists, clients and the defined. public in general will be more informed as to G That an understanding of valid, reliable what constitutes good coaching from a measurement such as at least BPS psychological perspective. full Level B certification where the The question of accrediting psychologists coaching psychologist is working in an as coaching psychologists is not one that is organisation. within the remit of the SGCP, but is one that is G There should be more emphasis on frequently raised by members. Currently there experience and pragmatic application is no process for achieving this within the BPS. than formal qualifications and The question of accrediting cross-divisional theoretical/academic understanding. competencies is once again raised in order to In addition to the recognised educational further the practice of coaching psychology. levels, further experience in coaching was also considered necessary. Three years’ What are the supervision requirements coaching experience in addition to the for coaching psychologists? psychology degree was considered necessary Supervision is a key issue within the SGCP, by 28 per cent to practise as a coaching and this issue is mirrored in other profes- psychologist, where as 39 per cent thought sional coaching bodies such as the Associa- chartered psychologist status should be the tion for Coaching (AC) and the Association recognised qualification level. for Professional Executive Coaching and Relatively few people (10 per cent) Supervision (APECS). On the one hand, thought that five years’ experience as a coach supervision is presented as a means of under- in addition to a degree in psychology was pinning the professional status of coaching, necessary and less than five per cent thought it also has a huge potential in maintaining as that accreditation through the two main coun- well as raising the quality of practice of selling professional bodies was important. coaches generally.

International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 67 Alison Whybrow & Stephen Palmer Figure 14: Views on Supervision (T2). 70

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There are different models for supervi- control sion for applied psychologists within the If we consider the nature of the coaching rela- BPS, clinical and counselling psychologists tionship between the coaching psychologist are required to undertake personal supervi- and the coachee, it is likely the relationship is sion as part of their conditions of registra- more often 1:1 than 1:many. Merely as a prece- tion. Occupational psychologists are not yet dent then, existing models of supervision required to take part in any further personal within subsystems where psychologists work supervision once qualified. mainly on a 1:1 basis would seem relevant. The views of respondents are outlined in If we consider the nature of how psychol- Figure 14. The majority thought supervision ogists work, with many coaching psycholo- during training was necessary, and 39 per gists working independently, or at least often cent thought ongoing supervision of experi- at some distance from other psychologists. enced coaching psychologists was necessary This potential isolation would indicate the (with only 14 per cent feeling it was not value of some form of supervision. necessary). The qualitative comments point Most importantly, having regular struc- to a range of views on supervision: tured, shared reviews of our professional G There are different models of activities and planned approaches with our supervision in practice that need to be clients, with a fellow professional is considered. immensely powerful, promoting openness G Reflective practice is a must, practitioners and learning as well as a source of insight should have self knowledge and insight and input that we would otherwise be to know when to access supervision denied. rather than a formal framework being The question of coaching normal, non- imposed. clinical populations rather than working G Supervision requirements need to take with clinical populations does not necessarily account of the other supervision that the excuse coaching psychologists from the individual is already involved in perhaps requirement for supervision of their as part of their membership of another practice. The complexity of individuals is subsystem. such that a simplistic clinical/non-clinical G Because coaching is not working with dichotomy is too crude to be meaningful as psychologically disturbed people, so an indicator of the level of risk and vulnera- supervision along the lines of clinical and bility of the potential client population. counselling models is unnecessary There are various models of supervision,

68 International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 Taking stock such as peer supervision, co-coaching, super- SGCP, is that of defining competencies and vision from within the same area of applied standards that transcend prior subsystem psychology, supervision from someone with a allegiances and ideologies. Indeed, different applied psychological background, harnessing the diversity within coaching etc. There is no requirement to engage in psychology practice is likely to enhance the only one form of supervision. profession more broadly. As one respondent highlighted, a require- In terms of practical application, a ment for supervision can be seen from a further remit of the SGCP is to increase number of perspectives, one of which is as a coaching psychologists’ understanding of form of unnecessary control. Supervision is the effective application of a diversity of indeed a form of control, but not one that approaches. Something that can be would be considered unnecessary even by the supported through maintaining a focus on most experienced coaches and coaching CPD activities for members. psychologists. Not only can supervision serve There are several process implications as a safeguard for both the coach and from the survey that the SGCP need to take coachee, but also enhance the quality of the on board. First, that no particular subgroup work of coaching psychologists and, there- of psychologists is dominant on the SGCP fore, the quality of output for our clients. committee. Such dominance would poten- tially skew the development of the SGCP and Conclusions may limit its continued attraction to the full From the surveys conducted, we can see that range of subsystem members, thus limiting coaching practice for BPS members is a the richness of the development of coaching uniquely cross-disciplinary activity, involving psychology as a whole. a diverse range of applied psychologists. This Second, as a member-driven organisa- difference is something that is likely to tion, it is important that the subgroups enliven and enhance the development of within the SGCP are represented through coaching psychology and psychology more the activities of the group. For example, generally, as psychologists come together to those already working as coaches and those share, learn and discuss their approaches to interested in the area of coaching would a common area of practice. need a balance between the developing Primarily described as only part of the expertise as an applied profession and open- work that applied psychologists are involved, ness to psychologists not actively practising coaching psychology may be a means in the area. The continued effectiveness of through which the BPS develops a more the SGCP at meeting members’ needs radical approach to the professional devel- should be regularly reviewed. opment of applied psychologists. It seems that continued dialogue and The outcome of the surveys provide some shared learning is key within the SGCP itself. important areas of investigation for the BPS However, it must also be remembered that and the SGCP specifically. First, to under- the SGCP provides a focal point within the stand the boundaries of coaching psychology BPS for engaging external coaching bodies and to manage the boundary issues around and the public in general who are interested coaching psychology practice. Second, to in coaching. Additionally, the SGCP provides gain insight into the effectiveness of various a vehicle psychologists can use to influence approaches in different coaching situations. the development of coaching beyond the A critical area of development, high- BPS. The influential voice that the SGCP has lighted by Grant and Zackon (2004) in rela- had to date is important to maintain in tion to their study and no less relevant to the moving forward.

International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 69 Alison Whybrow & Stephen Palmer

Correspondence Professor Stephen Palmer, PhD, is Director Dr Alison Whybrow is Treasurer of the SGCP of the Coaching Psychology Unit, City and was formerly a Co-proposer. She is on University, and Director of the Centre for the National Executive of the SGCP. Coaching, London. He was Chair of the SGCP in 2005 and is now Past Chair. He is on Correspondence should be addressed to: the National Executive of the SGCP. He was Professor Stephen Palmer formerly a Co-proposer of the SGCP with Dr Coaching Psychology Unit, Alison Whybrow. Department of Psychology, City University, Northampton Square,

References Edwards, J.L. & Newton, R.R. (1994). The effects of Neenan, M. & Dryden, W. (2002). Life Coaching: Cognitive Coachingsm on teacher efficacy and empower- A cognitive-behavioural approach. Hove: Brunner- ment. Research Report No. 1994–1, February. Routledge Evergreen, CO: Authors. Neenan, M. & Palmer, S. (2001). Cognitive behav- Foster, N.J. (1989). The impact of Cognitive Coach- ioural coaching. Stress News, 13(3) 15–18. ingsm on teachers’ thought processes as perceived Palmer, S., Cooper, C. & Thomas, K. (2003). Creating by cognitively coached teachers in the Plymouth- a balance: Managing stress. London: British Canton Community School District. Doctoral Library. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1989. Palmer, S. & Whybrow, A. (2006). The coaching Dissertation Abstracts International, 27, 54381. psychology movement and its development Grant, A.M. (2001a). Towards a psychology of coaching. within the British Psychological Society. Interna- Sydney: Coaching Psychology Unit, University of tional Coaching Psychology Review, 1(1), 2–9. Sydney. Parkes, R.C. (1955). We use seven guides to help Grant, A.M. (2001b). Coaching for enhanced executives develop. Personal Journal, 33, 326-328 performance: Comparing cognitive and behavioural Peltier, B. (2001). The psychology of executive coaching: approaches to coaching. Paper presented at the 3rd Theory and application. New York: Brunner- International Spearman Seminar: Extending Routledge. Intelligence: Enhancement and New Constructs, Richard, J.T. (1999). Multimodal therapy: A useful Sydney. model for the executive coach. Consulting Grant, A.M. & Zackon, R. (2004). Executive, work- Psychology Journal, 51(1), 24–30. place and life-coaching: Findings from a large- Summerfield, J. (2002). Walking the thin line: scale survey of International Coach Federation Coaching or Counselling? Training Journal, members. International Journal of Evidence-Based November, 36–39. Coaching and Mentoring, 2(2), 1–15. Kilburg, R.R. (2001). Facilitating intervention adher- ence in executive coaching: A model and methods. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 53(4), 251–267.

70 International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 Duty of care in an unregulated industry: Initial findings on the diversity and practices of Australian coaches Gordon B. Spence, Michael J. Cavanagh & Anthony M. Grant

Little has been reported about the skills, experience and training of coaches in the Australian context, yet these are critical factors in the ethical practice of coaching. Previous research and experience suggests that formal coach training varies considerably in terms of curricula and quality. At the same time, data is emerging that suggests a significant number of coaching clients may be using coaching as a socially- acceptable form of meeting therapeutic needs. This raises questions about the duty of care coaches owe to their clients in safeguarding their mental health and well-being. Similarly, it raises questions about the degree to which current industry training assists coaches discharge that duty of care. In order to explore these issues empirically, a total of 148 Australian coaches answered a questionnaire covering three areas: (i) current coaching practice; (ii) background experience and coach training (iii) ethics and professional affiliations. A minority of respondents reported a background in psychology or counselling, yet more than 10 per cent of respondents indicated that they regularly coached clients in relation to issues commonly associated with serious psychological distress (e.g. fears about personal loss, life crises, social isolation and self esteem). The preliminary data presented here indicate that there is need to identify the range and depth of issues presented in coaching, the training needed for coaches to effectively identify and refer clients with mental health issues, and the limits and responsibilities of our duty of care as coaches.

LTHOUGH COACHING HAS BEEN are adequately equipped to address mental described as a ‘boom’ industry health issues when they happen to emerge in A (Naughton, 2002), very little is coaching engagements. known about the composition of the coaching industry in Australia. Whilst the Two strands of coaching research unregulated nature of coaching has Profiling the Australian coaching industry. prompted recommendations relating to the The current study was designed to investi- formal preparation of coaches (Garman, gate characteristics of Australian coaching Whiston & Zlatoper, 2000) and the need for practitioners. Whilst we expect the findings standards of competence (Brotman, Liberi from this study to complement earlier find- & Wasylyshyn, 1998), acting on these recom- ings by Clegg, Rhodes and Kornberger mendations becomes difficult whilst the (2003), the present study extends the scope characteristics of the industry remain of the research by asking respondents to hidden. As such, this paper has two principle outline the particulars of their experience, aims. The first is to begin building a profile education and training, ethical practices and of the Australian coaching industry by professional affiliations. reporting the findings from a survey into the Such information has importance for the characteristics and practices of Australian professionalisation of the industry. For coaches, in particular the breadth of skills, example, if the march towards profession- experience and training that currently exists alism is to include some degree of standard- among practicing coaches. Second, we will isation in coach education (as has been discuss the implications of these findings suggested by Grant, 2003), then it will be and question the degree to which coaches necessary to accurately assess the areas in

International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 71 © The British Psychological Society 2006 – ISSN: 1750-2764 Gordon B. Spence, Michael J. Cavanagh & Anthony M. Grant which ‘knowledge gaps’ most obviously exist. Specifically, we will examine what legal obli- In this paper, mental health issues will be gations exist for coaching practitioners in an presented as one such area. unregulated industry, before questioning the degree to which existing ethical frameworks Mental health issues and coaching assist coaches discharge their legal duty of This discussion is prompted by two recent care. coaching studies (Green, Oades & Grant, 2005; Spence & Grant, 2005) that suggest life The Australian coaching industry: coaching may be attracting individuals who What we know and what we don’t know wish to address an array of mental health Although little is known about the profile of issues (e.g. depression, social anxiety) the Australian coaching industry, anecdotal without the stigma often associated with evidence suggests that it is populated by a therapy and counselling. This raises the diverse range of practitioners whose ‘stock in possibility that life coaching may be publicly trade’ is the experience derived from a wide perceived as a socially acceptable form of variety of professional and non-professional therapy (Cavanagh, 2005) and, if so, it is backgrounds. Beyond that, however, little pertinent to ask: ‘How well equipped are can be said with certainty, as research on the Australian coaches for dealing with the Australian industry appears to be limited to a mental health issues that may emerge in solitary working paper focused specifically coaching?’ Whilst anecdotal evidence on business coaching (Clegg, Rhodes & suggests that depression, anxiety, personality Kornberger, 2003). disorders and suicidality are all the most In this study, Clegg and colleagues common mental health issues found in assessed the structure and characteristics of coaching, open discussion of such matters is the Australian business coaching industry by rare within the industry. surveying 42 coaching firms. They sought to Given that there are no barriers to ascertain: (i) the basic contours of the entering the industry, it may be that few business coaching industry; (ii) the charac- coaches possess the requisite skills or confi- teristics that distinguish one firm from dence to deal with such issues. If so, then another; and (iii) perceptions of the compet- coaching engagements have the potential to itive environment. Based on their data they be counterproductive for clients when drew three conclusions. First, business mental health issues are salient to the goals coaching firms in Australia ‘tend to be young of coaching (Berglas, 2002; Cavanagh, and small’ (p.8), with 65 per cent of firms in 2005). For the unwary or uninformed coach, business for less than five years, 86 per cent such a situation may have legal ramifications. employing less than five people and more It is not the intention of this article to than 50 per cent of businesses working out of create undue anxiety about what might home offices. happen in coaching, or even to suggest that Second, most firms appeared to see them- a majority of coaches currently act unethi- selves as generalists, with only 12 per cent cally. Indeed we are unaware of any cases in dedicated to business coaching, whilst 51 per which an Australian coach has been sued for cent of firms offered business coaching and negligence arising from a coaching relation- at least two other types of coaching related ship. Rather, this article seeks to raise aware- service (either executive coaching, life ness about the obligations of coaching coaching, consulting, training or coach practitioners, by exploring the potential training). Lastly, firms in the industry appear links between coaching, mental health issues to have a poor appreciation of the competi- and the law. Given that litigation is currently tive environment in which they work, with on the rise in Australia (Betts, 2004) this over half the respondents unable to identify a issue appears to be ripe for discussion. single competitor by name.

72 International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 Duty of care and coaching

Whilst this study provides some useful week do you coach?’ (i) <5 hours; (ii) 5–10 initial insights into the Australian industry, hours; (iii) 11–20 hours; (iv) >20 hours). In particularly in respect of its maturity, there addition, in order to gain more detailed are many areas of interest that have yet to be information, a small number of free explored. For example, little is known about response items were included (e.g. ‘In your the diversity of coaching-related skills, experience, what are the three most training and experience amongst Australian common issues that lead clients to seek coaches. Given that coaching has rapidly coaching?). emerged in the past decade (Naughton, The final questionnaire consisted of 25 2002), two questions can be posed about the items arranged in three areas of general industry. Firstly, what experience do coaches interest: (i) current coaching practice; (ii) draw upon in coaching, and secondly, what background experience and coach training; specific coach training have they had? and (iii) ethics and professional affiliations. In addition, the unregulated nature of Items were designed to assess the following the industry invariably prompts questions information: general demographic data (e.g. about ethical standards and practices within age, sex), coaching status, modes of the industry. For example, do coaches coaching, niche specialisation, industry discuss ethical issues with their clients? If so, background, coach specific training, how do they do this? What are the bound- coaching related experience, professional aries of confidentiality and disclosure within affiliation and endorsement of a recognised the coaching relationship? What profes- ethical code. sional affiliations do coaches hold? What evidentiary bases do coaches draw on to Procedure. The questionnaire was printed on support their claims of efficacy? one (double-sided) A4 page and included a This study seeks to examine some of short participant information statement and these questions, by presenting the findings consent clause. Conference delegates were from a survey of practicing coaches and introduced to the surveys via a series of discussing the implications of these for announcements made throughout the future research and training needs. conference. To assist, conference organisers agreed to include the questionnaires in Survey of Australian Life Coaches and approximately 400 conference information Executive Coaches satchels, with respondents asked to complete The survey was conducted during the First the questionnaires and place them in a International Coach Federation Australasian sealed collection box located in the confer- Conference held in Sydney during August ence foyer. The survey took between five to 2002. It should be noted that the results 10 minutes to complete. reported here represent initial findings only and a three-year follow-up is planned, for the Participants purpose of detecting change across the Respondents were Australian coaches who industry during the research timeframe. were practicing at the time of the survey. From the initial pool of 155 respondents, Method seven surveys were excluded on the basis that Instrument. To ensure the highest possible they were not practicing coaches. Thus, the response rate, it was decided that the ques- final sample became 148, representing a tionnaire should be brief and easy to response rate of 37 per cent. complete. For this reason, the survey The sample consisted of 110 females (74 consisted primarily of forced choice items, per cent) and 38 males (26 per cent), with a with respondents selecting from a range of mean age of 43.5 years (females = 42.7 years, possible responses (e.g. ‘How many hours a males = 46 years). Not surprisingly, 88 per

International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 73 Gordon B. Spence, Michael J. Cavanagh & Anthony M. Grant cent of the respondents were located on proportion of the respondents appear to be Australia’s eastern sea board (New South early-career coaches, with 38 per cent of Wales 55 per cent, Queensland 10 per cent, coaches having coached fewer than 10 and Victoria 23 per cent) however, as this clients, 22 per cent reporting less than 50 survey was conducted in Sydney, the result hours total coaching experience and 41 per should not be viewed as an accurate reflec- cent reporting that they coach less than five tion of the geographical distribution of hours per week. coaches in Australia. This data also suggests that the industry may include a core of highly experienced Results coaches, as 26 per cent of respondents have Current coaching practice coached a total of more than 50 clients and Here practitioners were asked about the 38 per cent report that their total coaching depth of their coaching experience, where experience amounts to greater than 200 and how they did their coaching, most hours. Finally, 70 per cent of coaches commonly encountered coaching issues, reported that they coach for less than 10 and niche specialisation (if any). hours per week.

Coaching status. First, to assess the current Modes of coaching. Next, respondents were level of engagement in coaching practice, asked to indicate: (i) where they conducted practitioners indicated whether coaching was most of their coaching sessions; and (ii) what a full-time or part-time occupation. As seen in percentage of the time was spent coaching Table 1, over half the sample confirmed that using face-to-face, e-mail or telephonic coaching was their main occupation (58 per means. Over half the respondents (56 per cent) and, of these, 69 per cent indicated it cent) reported conducting most of their had been their main occupation for less than sessions from home, while 16 per cent two years. Only 12 per cent reported greater coached at work, 13 per cent from a rented than five years experience. When considered office and 15 per cent coached from the regardless of occupation status, approxi- client’s office. mately a third of the sample (31 per cent) In addition, face-to-face coaching was reported total coaching experience of less reported as more usual than technology than one year, with more than half the total assisted coaching (i.e. telephone, e-mail, on- sample possessing less than two years’ experi- line chat). As can be seen in Figure 2, 36 per ence (55 per cent). cent of respondents reported that their In addition, respondents were asked to coaching was always conducted face-to-face quantify their coaching experience (in terms (with 27 per cent reporting mostly), whilst of total clients and numbers of hours only 12 per cent always coached by tele- coached) and indicate their weekly activity phone (with 10 per cent reporting mostly). levels. As shown in Figure 1, a sizeable In addition, 73 per cent reported on use of

Table 1: Coaching status and experience.

Response item N <1 year 1–2 years 2–5 years >5 years How long has coaching been your main 87 41% 28% 19% 12% occupation? How long have you 148 31% 24% 25% 20% been coaching?

74 International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 Duty of care and coaching Figure 1: Total coaching experience and activity levels.

Total Coaching Clients Total Coaching Hours Hours per Week (N=148) (N=148) (N=148) 40 40 50

40 30 30 30 % 20 % 20 % 20 10 10 10

0 0 0 <10 11–25 26–50 >50 <50 50–100 101–200 >200 <5 5–10 11–20 >20 Clients Hours Hours

Figure 2: Predominant modes of coaching delivery.

80

60

% 40

20

0 Never Rarely Sometimes Mostly Always

E-mail Face-to-face Phone

e-mail in their coaching (with only 27 per Common coaching issues. Respondents indi- cent reporting rarely). Only one respondent cated that the ‘three most common issues’ indicated that they sometimes used on-line they encounter in coaching are chat to conduct coaching sessions. career/business related issues, relation- ships/interpersonal skills, and direction/ Niche specialisation. Over half the coaches goal setting issues (see Table 2 overleaf). surveyed (55 per cent) confirmed that they When considered along with data just had some sort of a niche specialisation. Of reviewed on niche specialisations, these those, 71 per cent reported an interest in results are not overly surprising although executive/corporate coaching, with the financial and health/fitness issues may have remainder (29 per cent) reflecting more of a been expected to feature more prominently life/personal coaching orientation. Whilst in the results. Interestingly, the data also these proportions are not surprising given a revealed the presence of several issues that coaching literature dominated by executive may indicate clinical or sub-clinical mental and workplace coaching (e.g. Brotman et al., health concerns. For example, approxi- 1998; Garman et al., 2000; Kampa-Kokesch & mately 10 per cent of the coaches surveyed Anderson, 2001), it should be noted that 45 indicated that they commonly coach clients per cent of all respondents did not name a in relation to issues that include self-esteem, specialisation. This suggests that a significant self-worth, personal loss, life crises, social portion of the coaching community perceive isolation and distress. themselves as generalists and are willing to While such issues do not with certainty coach in multiple domains and, presumably, indicate the presence of mental health across a broad range of issues. issues, our experience suggests such a link, particularly in cases where distress is great

International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 75 Gordon B. Spence, Michael J. Cavanagh & Anthony M. Grant Table 2: Most common coaching issues.

Coaching Issue Description Freq. (N=136) Career/Business Includes career management and transitions, business generation, 43 time management, professional development and strategic development issues Relationships/ Includes leadership and interpersonal skills development, 40 Interpersonal team building and conflict management Life Direction/ Includes need to find direction, life purpose, goal clarification, 40 Goal Setting resolving ambivalence, exploring options and assistance setting goals Work/Life Balance Includes developing stress reduction strategies, more family time, 25 exploring new interests, finding hobbies and reduced hours in office Mental Health Includes issues related to developing self-esteem, negative life 15 events, social isolation and distress Financial Includes debt reduction, increasing savings, financial and 12 retirement planning Health & Fitness Includes increasing exercise levels, improved dietary habits, 11 more sleep, weight reduction and more holiday time

enough to motivate clients to seek assistance. consulting and other corporate sector As we shall soon show, recent evidence groups (particularly human resources and suggests that serious mental health issues are trainers) was surprising, as was the small being taken into coaching engagements. number of human service professionals (e.g. However, given that few coach training counsellors, psychologists, social workers) programmes offer any formal training in the who, when taken together, accounted for recognition or referral of mental health only 20 per cent of the sample. Other issues, it is unlikely that practitioners are industry groups accounted for seven per adequately equipped to deal with such situa- cent of responses and included the armed tions (Grant & Zackon, 2004). services, information technology, and recreation, tourism and the dramatic arts. Of Background experience and coach training course, caution should be exercised in inter- In this section, participants were asked to preting these results, as the location for the indicate: (i) which industry they spent most survey (the ICFA conference) most likely did time working in prior to becoming a coach; not attract a representative sample of practi- (ii) what sort of coach specific training they tioners from the broader coaching commu- had received; and (iii) what forms of nity, rather a disproportionate number of coaching-related experience they had coaches affiliated to the ICFA. acquired. Coach specific training. Over 90 per cent of Industry background. As can be seen in Table coaches in this sample reported having 3, the industry group most well represented completed some form of training. These in this sample was consulting. Whilst this was included training within a coach training not unexpected, the disparity between school (62 per cent), tertiary study in a

76 International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 Duty of care and coaching coaching related field (such as psychology or Ethics and professional affiliations social work) (20 per cent) or training in a Participants were also asked to confirm how helping-related methodology (e.g. in-house they informed their clients about ethical stan- workshops) or Neuro-Linguistic Program- dards in coaching practice. In this regard, 89 ming (NLP) (13 per cent). Of this training, per cent of the coaches confirmed that they 68 per cent of qualifications were obtained provided their clients with some form of within the last five years, with 84 per cent ethical instruction, whilst 11 per cent did not. obtained within the last 10 years. Encourag- Of those that did, 40 per cent gave a verbal ingly, only five per cent of respondents explanation, 11 per cent provided a written reported having no coach-specific training at hand-out and 49 per cent provided both. all and only two per cent had received some Only 23 per cent of respondents form of short in-house training or intensive reported no professional affiliations. Of the workshop. remainder, many of the coaches held multiple affiliations, with the International Coaching-related experience. Finally, respon- Coach Federation (ICF; 57 per cent) most dents reported on background experience strongly represented. Coaches also reported that could broadly be defined as ‘coaching’ affiliations with Coachville (30 per cent), the because these experiences either developed Australian Psychological Society (12 per or broadened core coaching skills. Most cent), the Psychologists Registration Board popular amongst these were training (57 per (10 per cent) and a number of other institu- cent), consulting (41 per cent), counselling tions (13 per cent) such as the Australian (48 per cent) and natural therapies (33 per Institute of Management and the Australian cent). Less frequently reported experience Association of Career Counsellors. included psychology (31 per cent), medita- tion (10 per cent), social work (nine per Discussion of survey results cent), youth work and sport (both eight per As reported earlier, there has been at least cent). Interestingly, while 31 per cent of one other attempt to sketch the contours of respondents claim an experiential back- the Australian coaching industry, albeit one ground in psychology, less than 20 per cent segment of the industry: business coaching indicated any formal tertiary level study in firms (Clegg et al., 2003). In contrast, the behavioural science. This may indicate a lack current study has been broader in its scope, of clarity over the boundaries between focusing on individual practitioners (rather practice in psychology and other forms of than firms) and without segmenting the helping relationship. industry according to niche specialisations

Table 3: Background experience and coach training.

Industry Sector % Type of Coach Training % Consulting 24 Coach Training School 62 Human Resources 14 Tertiary Institution 20 Counselling/Psychology 14 Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP) 11 Training 13 No formal training 5 Education 11 Other 2 Marketing 8 Finance 5 Social Work 4 Others 7

International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 77 Gordon B. Spence, Michael J. Cavanagh & Anthony M. Grant

(e.g. business coaching). Whilst these studies entry. It is not difficult to become a coach. might appear to be qualitatively different, we The Australian coaching industry is free would argue these differences are only from any form of regulation. One has only to superficial and that these two studies are decide that they will become a coach and entirely complementary. secure their first client to begin coaching. For example, although the Clegg study Just as significantly, getting started requires focused on business coaching ‘firms’, the only a small investment of capital and has majority of these entities operated with less few overheads. Hence, with no barriers to than two people (of which 48 per cent were entry and little financial outlay, a career in one-person practices) and only 12 per cent coaching may appear very accessible, finan- of respondents reported an exclusive focus cially viable and immediate. on business coaching. Indeed, data from For some, diversity might be perceived as both studies suggests that the Australian a major strength of the coaching industry, coaching industry is not yet mature enough with consumers able to choose from a to allow meaningful segmentations of the greater range of practitioners and industry. That is, the Clegg study found that approaches than would be available if the 51 per cent of respondents reported offering industry were regulated. Of course, this at least two other types of coaching service, presupposes that consumers know what they whilst no niche specialisation was reported are looking for in coaching services and are by 45 per cent of coaches in our sample. thus capable of making informed decisions. Yet, as evidence we are about to present will A diverse industry. Apart from validating many suggest, the general public may not under- of Clegg et al.’s (2003) earlier findings, this stand the nature of coaching or the coaching study also extends them. Most notably, the industry and, if so, they are likely to find the findings have shown the great diversity that industry difficult to navigate. exists within the Australian coaching Of greater significance to the present industry. Despite the existence of a small discussion, however, is the observation that core of highly experienced practitioners, the relatively few respondents (20 per cent) vast majority of coaches appear to have little reported any formal training in psychology coaching experience and report a great or the helping professions (e.g. counselling, diversity in skills and experience. social work, nursing). Given that these There are at least two reasons why the professions dedicate themselves to the industry might reflect such diversity. First, mental and physical health needs of individ- coaching is a ‘feel good’ industry and rightly uals, this result was somewhat surprising. promoted as a dynamic, future-focused and Even more surprising was the finding that a strengths-based form of human helping. As much larger proportion of respondents (31 such, it has obvious and wide-ranging per cent) claimed an experiential back- appeal. After all, what could be more satis- ground in psychology. The precise nature of fying than assisting another to scale the self- this psychological experience is unclear. actualised heights of their Maslovian However, it seems that for a significant pyramid? Increasingly, coaching appears to proportion of respondents, experience in be attracting the attention of people in psychology is not linked with formal established occupations who seek either a training. This may reflect a very broad defi- more meaningful career (e.g. a management nition of psychology, such as used in the consultant who wants to become an execu- /self-help genre, or it tive coach) or an expanded practice (e.g. may indicate a bias toward using personal clinical psychologist and life coach). development efforts as a basis for creden- Second, the diversity of the coaching tialing. At any rate, it is an issue that warrants industry may reflect the lack of barriers to further investigation, and suggests psycholo-

78 International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 Duty of care and coaching gists need to have a stronger presence in concerns, which may invalidate the ‘free coaching. coaching’ explanation. For these reasons, Indeed, the call for psychologists to our claims can only be advanced tentatively become more involved in coaching has (as these studies did not set out to directly existed for sometime (Brotman et al., 1998; investigate the public perception of Garman et al., 2000; Kampa-Kokesch & coaching), however, it does seem plausible Anderson, 2001) and there is increasing that coaching may be attracting a subset of evidence that these calls have not gone people with clinical concerns (e.g. depres- unheeded (Cavanagh, Grant & Kemp, 2005; sion) who wish to avoid the stigma attached Green et al., 2005; Spence & Grant, 2005). to therapy or counselling. Nevertheless, a lack of clarity around psycho- logical services in the minds of coaches is Mental health issues in coaching: worrying given the findings of two recent Importance and impact studies in the area of life coaching (Green et While coaching seeks to assist people to al., 2005; Spence & Grant, 2005). enact change, it is often carried out under These studies examined the efficacy of the assumption that one is dealing with indi- individuals and group-based life coaching viduals who are not suffering from clinical programs. Given the distinction that is regu- levels of distress. This assumption justifies larly made between coaching and coaches in taking a direct and robust and psychotherapy (i.e. ‘coaching is not challenging approach with clients. Hence, therapy’), these studies both screened the the presence of significant levels of distress initial pool of participants for high levels of and/or psychopathology may be of major psychopathology using a mental health importance to well-being of the coachee and screening tool, the Brief Symptoms Inven- success of the coaching project. For tory (BSI, Derogatis, 1993). Interestingly, example, a person suffering from unrecog- this screening procedure detected the pres- nised depression may willingly and eagerly ence of unexpectedly high levels of psycho- identify stretching goals in the hope that logical distress in both samples. With the BSI their attainment may help ‘make things criterion set at two standard deviations above better’. Unfortunately, the impact of depres- the mean, both studies reported that 52 per sion on energy and motivation may mean cent and 24 per cent of their initial samples that the person is unable to rise to, or main- met (or exceeded) these levels. In both cases tain the goal-directed behaviour required by these participants were excluded from such a ‘challenging’ coaching process further participation and offered a clinical (Cavanagh, 2005). What ensues may be a referral. These findings are important as pattern of regular non-completion of set they say something about the likelihood that coaching actions, followed by (at best) disen- clinical concerns will emerge in coaching gagement from the coaching process. More engagements. likely, however, for such a person, coaching Whilst it is tempting to suggest that the may be experienced as yet another in a series results of Green et al. (2005) and Spence and of failures, i.e. yet more evidence that they Grant (2005) reflect a publicly held percep- are unable to measure up to what they see as tion of coaching as ‘socially acceptable the legitimate demands of life. This negative therapy’, it should be acknowledged that the ruminative cycle is likely to worsen a depres- studies in question were offering free life sive episode and may even give rise to poten- coaching and may have attracted partici- tially dangerous levels of hopelessness and pants for many different reasons. However, suicidal ideation. these initial participants must also have Despite the considerable diversity that perceived coaching to be a plausible option exists in the coaching industry, most coaches for addressing their deeper psychological appear to unite around at least one common

International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 79 Gordon B. Spence, Michael J. Cavanagh & Anthony M. Grant understanding: coaching is not therapy. mental health issues with minimal guidance Indeed, most coaching engagements are (if they do so at all). usually prefaced by an explanation that One form of guidance freely available to coaching is not concerned with treating deep practicing coaches are the ethical guidelines personal problems (the aim of therapy and of industry bodies. According to the data counselling), but rather to assist healthy presented earlier, 57 per cent of respondents people unlock more of their potential and were members of the ICF and 89 per cent of become more effective (Cavanagh & Grant, the total sample provided their clients with 2004; Peltier, 2001; Williams, 2004). some form of ethical instruction. As such, it Given this focus, it might be expected that would appear that a large number of a large number of coaches have little or no Australian coaches are ‘bound’ by the ethical training or experience in dealing with mental guidelines and standards of conduct health issues. The preliminary findings of our advanced by that organisation. study are consistent with this expectation. However, a review of the ICF Code of Less than 20 per cent of the sample indicated Ethics (ICF, 2005) reveals no mention of a background in the helping professions mental health issues and only vague refer- (such as psychology, counselling or social ences to scenarios where mental health issues work). At least superficially, there would might be inferred. For example, whilst provi- appear to be a significant lack of mental sions 18, 19, 20 and 21 (see Table 4) are health specific knowledge and training. As a designed to ensure that coaches act in the result, it is doubtful whether many coaches best interests of clients, there was little or no are well equipped to effectively recognise readily available information regarding mental health issues in their clients, or to referral procedures at the time of writing (e.g. assess their own capacity to assist clients whose types of alternative assistance, how to psychological status (e.g. mental health issues, approach a referral conversation, or building personality styles) make them challenging a referral network). Encouragingly, we note individuals to coach (Cavanagh, 2005). that some mental health related guidelines This is concerning given the earlier have been developed elsewhere by the ICF reviewed evidence that suggests coaches are (i.e. ‘Top Ten Indicators to Refer to a Mental almost certain to encounter significant Health Professional’). While a welcome devel- mental health issues at some point in their opment, these guidelines may encourage an coaching practice. Indeed, as Table 2 indi- overly simplistic approach to mental health cates, over 10 per cent of coaches indicate issues as they only list of the common symp- that they regularly deal with issues often asso- toms of major depression. There is no ciated with mental health problems. As such, mention of anxiety disorders, personality it seems appropriate that further research disorders, or any other forms of mental distur- address two important questions: bance likely to be seen in coaching. In sum, it appears that the majority of Question 1: What guidance do coaches receive in the coaches may have little knowledge, experi- appropriate handling of mental health issues? ence or guidance for dealing with mental A recent review of courses offered by coach health issues that may arise during the training providers revealed that mental health course of a coaching engagement. training is not currently represented in the vast majority of course descriptions (Grant & Question 2: In an unregulated industry, what duty Zackon, 2004). The majority of the coaches of care does a coach owe their client? The ICF is (62 per cent) reported here received their one of the few coaching organisations to have training from a coach training school. One articulated a framework for ethical practice. must conclude that most coaches are left to Anecdotal reports suggest that these princi- develop their own approach to addressing ples have also been adopted by many coaches

80 International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 Duty of care and coaching Table 4: ICF standards for professional conduct with clients.

Standard Description # 18 I will respect the client’s right to terminate coaching at any point during the process. I will be alert to indications that the client is no longer benefiting from our coaching relationship. # 19 If I believe the client would be better served by another coach, or by another resource, I will encourage the client to make a change. # 20 I will suggest that my clients seek the services of other professionals when deemed necessary. # 21 I will take all reasonable steps to notify the appropriate authorities in the event a client discloses an intention to endanger self or others.

not affiliated with the ICF. Whilst this is A client with a history of depression undoubtedly a good thing, one wonders presents for career coaching. After whether these guidelines are adequate for agreeing the desired coaching outcome discharging the legal and moral obligations (e.g. career transition), the client and coaches have towards their clients. coach set some intermediate (sub) goals From a legal standpoint, the absence of and plan a course of action. Before too any Australian case law means that legal deter- long, however, the client begins to minations have not yet been passed down for experience difficulties, fails to meet the guidance of coaching practitioners. agreed targets and starts to feel Whilst it is possible that such determinations inadequate. Despite the coach’s best may never be made, it seems more likely attempts to support the client with (given that Australia is becoming increasingly encouragement and revised goals, the litigious – see Betts, 2004) that the activities of client continues to under-perform, the coaching industry may be subject to legal begins missing sessions and finally scrutiny at some point in the future. As such it discontinues coaching amid feelings of is worth briefly considering what conditions worthlessness. The coach, whilst puzzled would contribute to a determination of negli- by the client’s behaviour, has no gence in a coaching engagement. knowledge of the client’s clinical history According to Katter (1999), any claim of and does not offer a clinical referral. negligence must first prove the existence of Meanwhile, the client experiences a a duty of care between two persons. For this, it depressive episode and attempts to would be necessary to show that: (i) a coach commit suicide. Upon recovering the could reasonably foresee that the coachee client files a motion and sues for would be harmed by action or inaction on negligence, arguing that the coach had a their part; (ii) a close, causal relationship duty to investigate the client’s history of existed (proximity); and (iii) it is fair, just mental health and to refer to an and reasonable for the law to impose that appropriate mental health professional. duty on a coach (Katter, 1999). Given this set In this scenario, according to Katter’s of conditions, it is quite conceivable that a criteria, it might be argued that a coach, as a legal duty of care could be demonstrated to paid ‘expert’ in human behaviour, is obli- exist in a coaching relationship. The gated to take action to determine what is following hypothetical outlines a reasonably foreseeable (the first requirement) set of circumstances in which such a deter- in a coaching engagement (including asking mination might be made: about any history of mental illness), and that

International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 81 Gordon B. Spence, Michael J. Cavanagh & Anthony M. Grant the personal nature of a coaching setting their reasons for not responding. More amply provides for such enquiries. In addi- importantly, in distributing the survey at an tion, the client might argue that coaching industry conference, it is highly likely that relationships, with its focus on personal sample was biased and non-representative of accountability for inaction, helped to cause the broader coaching community. As such, it the depressive episode that led to the self- is difficult to make generalisations about the harm (the second requirement). If (i) and Australian coaching industry from the avail- (ii) are successfully argued then, according able data. to Katter’s guidelines, it may be considered In addition, some items in the survey fair, just and reasonable (the third require- questionnaire may have been too open to ment) to impose a duty of care on the coach. interpretation and not permitted an accu- Although somewhat simplistic, we believe rate assessment of individual characteristics. that this example demonstrates how a legal For example, whilst the item: ‘What forms of duty of care might be determined, and that coaching-related experience have you had?’ existing frameworks of ethical coaching was designed to tap into experiences that practice do not adequately guide practi- either developed or broadened core tioners in how to discharge such duties. coaching skills (e.g. counselling), it may be that respondents were biased towards Limitations of the present study reporting greater levels of experience by This paper set out to draw together two incorporating experience only tangentially strands of coaching research. On one hand it related to coaching (e.g. interactions with considered survey data indicating a consid- children). erable degree of diversity of skills, experi- Finally, whilst the life coaching data ence and training within the Australian presented in this paper has been presented coaching industry, and on the other, empir- as evidence for a public misperception of ical data suggesting that coaching is coaching as ‘socially acceptable therapy’, this attracting individuals who may wish to cannot be firmly concluded as this was not address an array of mental health issues directly investigated by either Green et al. without the stigma often associated with (2005) or Spence and Grant (2005). As such, therapy or counselling. In doing so, we have the field would be enhanced by an investiga- sought to promote discussion about the tion of publicly held perceptions, both about emergence of mental health issues in the nature of coaching and attitudes towards coaching, outlined the legal duty of care the coaching industry. Some further recom- owed by a coach to a client, and questioned mendations will now be made for the benefit whether coaches possess the requisite knowl- of future researchers. edge and skills to adequately discharge these responsibilities. Directions for future research Whilst the synthesis of these research Whilst this paper has provided a first step in findings has been an important step in developing a detailed profile of the addressing questions of importance for the Australian coaching industry, several issues professionalisation of the coaching industry, are worthy of consideration by future it would be premature to draw any firm researchers. In our view, the issue of greatest conclusions from the data given certain limi- importance relates to the mental health tations of these studies. For example, we are needs of clients and several questions are not able to report a response rate for our posed to help guide future efforts. survey. Whilst we do know that 148 out of 400 delegates (37 per cent) did complete the When a mental health issue arises in coaching, how survey, we know nothing about the charac- does it emerge? While mental health issues may teristics of the non-respondents, including be indicated by a range of obvious signs of

82 International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 Duty of care and coaching distress or disorientation (e.g. crying), experi- What mental health training does the industry ence suggests that may clients with mental provide? Having identified mental health health issues present at coaching in ways that issues as an area of importance to practicing may mask the presence of mental health coaches, it would be useful to examine what issues, or at least make them more difficult to level of mental health training is currently detect. For example, the socially anxious provided within the industry. As such, a client may present with goals around of the various curriculum enhancing presentation skills rather than a offered by coach training providers would be frank admission of debilitating anxiety in helpful for both identifying whether a social settings. Seriously depressed clients may training need exists in the preparation of present seeking assistance with time manage- Australian coaches and for making recom- ment, procrastination, career change, or even mendations about appropriate syllabus. attaining unrealistic stretch goals. While some research does exist linking Some general comments. Ultimately the longevity the type of personal goals adopted by indi- of the coaching industry will be governed by viduals to the development of negative affect its ability to deliver value in an ethical and and vulnerability to depression (Emmons, professional manner to individuals, groups, 1992; Street, 2002), there is no research to organisations and the broader community. date investigating the relationship between Whilst Cavanagh and Grant (2004) have goals and mental health in coaching clients. suggested that this is best achieved by ‘devel- As personal goals are the usual starting point oping a widespread standard of practice that in any coaching relationship, one avenue for incorporates theoretically guided and empiri- future research would be to study the cally tested models and techniques’ (p.13), presenting issues of coaching clients only a small amount of empirical work has yet (expressed as personal goals) and correlate been conducted and little is known about the these with well-established measures of theoretical perspectives that inform coaching psychopathology. practice in Australia. Aside from those important considera- How do coaches define ‘mental health issues’? tions, the ability of the coaching industry to Do they recognise them when they arise? Approxi- ‘deliver value’ is tied to the ability of those mately 10 per cent of coaches in this survey within the industry to uphold their duty of reported that self-esteem, negative life events, care towards clients. We hope that the social isolation and distress were all issues that current longitudinal study will assist the both they commonly encountered in coaching. consumer of coaching services, coach Such issues may reflect deeper psychological training providers and coaches by providing distress and, hence, may indicate the presence a better understanding of profile of the of mental health concerns. The current coaching community and identifying where research does not indicate whether respon- some critical training needs exist. dents make any substantial distinction between issues such as ‘improve my career Conclusion prospects’ and ‘improve my self-esteem’, nor Whilst ‘coaching is not therapy’ has become whether they are likely to investigate for poten- a catch-cry throughout the coaching tial mental health difficulties. Thus, another industry (Cavanagh & Grant, 2004), avenue for research could be to assess evidence suggests that coaching may be coaches’ perceptions of issues that are inap- perceived somewhat differently by potential propriate for coaching, and to determine how consumers (Green et al., 2005: Spence & adept coaches are at recognising the presence Grant,2005). It seems highly probable that, of underlying psychological issues and imple- for a subset of people with clinical issues menting appropriate referral procedures. (such as anxiety and depression), coaching

International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 83 Gordon B. Spence, Michael J. Cavanagh & Anthony M. Grant may be seen an alternative to therapy or coaches to demonstrate to clients that they counselling, one that is stripped of its social offer a sophisticated and differentiated stigma and negative stereotypes. service to the market – one which adds real This evidence suggests important mental value to the client by ensuring the most health issues are likely to arise in coaching. appropriate intervention is selected. Thus, In our view this presents coaches with a in developing an informed and professional number of challenges and opportunities. strategy for dealing with mental health Coaches face the challenges of making issues, coaches will be working towards judgements about the nature of the client’s discharging both a legal and ethical duty of issues and limits of their competence, and care owed to their client, and moving the then presenting their concerns to the client coaching industry toward a more profes- and referring appropriately where necessary. sional footing. In this, coaches have to tread the fine line between identifying when pathology needs Correspondence to be addressed and pathologising the client Gordon B. Spence, Michael J. Cavanagh & (Maddux, 2002). This challenge introduces Anthony M. Grant added complexity to the coaching engage- Coaching Psychology Unit, ment for which coaches need to be trained. School of Psychology, Furthermore, the process of referral is University of Sydney, Australia. not an intrinsically attractive one. Many E-mail: coaches may fear clients will become Gordon B.Spence: confused or angry when referral is [email protected] attempted. In addition, referring clients Michael J. Cavanagh: away from coaching results in an immediate [email protected] loss of income. Whilst these difficulties are Anthony M. Grant: undoubtedly trumped by a coach’s duty of [email protected] care, they also present as opportunities for

References Berglas, S. (2002). The very real dangers of executive Cavanagh, M., Grant, A.M. & Kemp, T. (Eds.). coaching. Harvard Business Review, June, 87–92. (2005). Evidence-based coaching: Theory, research Betts, J. (2004). Are we becoming more American? and practice from the behavioural sciences (Vol. 1). Class action litigation – Australia v United States. Brisbane: Australian Academic Press. Retrieved 13 August 2005, from Clegg, S., Rhodes, C. & Kornberger, M. (2003). http://www.freehills.com.au/publications/ An overview of the business coaching industry in publications_1582.asp Australia (Working Paper). Sydney: The Brotman, L.E., Liberi, W.P. & Wasylyshyn, K.M. Australian Centre for Organisational, Vocational and Adult Learning. (1998). Executive coaching: The need for stan- Derogatis, L.R. (1993). BSI Brief Symptom Inventory: dards of competence. Consulting Psychology Administration, scoring, and procedures manual Journal: Practice and Research, 50(1), 40–46. (4th ed.). Minneapolis, MN: National Computer Cavanagh, M. (2005). Mental health issues and chal- Systems. lenging clients in executive coaching. In M. Emmons, R.A. (1992). Abstract versus concrete goals: Cavanagh, A.M. Grant & T. Kemp (Eds.), personal striving level, physical illness, and Evidence-based coaching: Theory, research and practice psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and from the behavioural sciences (Vol. 1, pp.21–36). Social Psychology, 62(2), 292–300. Brisbane: Australian Academic Press. Garman, A.N., Whiston, D.L. & Zlatoper, K.W. Cavanagh, M. & Grant, A.M. (2004). Executive (2000). Media perceptions of executive coaching coaching in organisations: The personal is the and the formal preparation of coaches. professional. International Journal of Coaching in Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, Organisations, 2(2), 6–15. 52(3), 201–205.

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Grant, A.M. (2003). Keeping up with the cheese! Research Maddux, J.E. (2002). Stopping the ‘madness’: as a foundation for professional coaching. Paper Positive psychology and the deconstruction of presented at the First International Coach Feder- the illness ideology and the DSM. In C.R.S.S.J. ation Research Symposium, November, Lopez (Ed.), Handbook of positive psychology Denver, US. (pp.13–25). New York: Oxford University Press. Grant, A.M. & Zackon, R. (2004). Executive, work- Naughton, J. (2002). The coaching boom: Is it the place and life coaching: Findings from a large- long-awaited alternative to the medical model? scale survey of international coach federation The Psychotherapy Networker, 42, July/August, 1–10. members. International Journal of Evidenced-Based Peltier, B. (2001). The psychology of executive coaching. Coaching and Mentoring, 2(2), 1–15. New York: Brunner-Routledge. Green, L.S., Oades, L.G. & Grant, A.M. (2005). An Spence, G.B. & Grant, A.M. (2005). Individual and evaluation of a life-coaching group programme: group life coaching: initial findings from a Initial findings from a waitlist control study. randomised, controlled trial. In M. Cavanagh, A. In M. Cavanagh, A.M. Grant & T. Kemp (Eds.), M. Grant & T. Kemp (Eds.), Evidenced-based Evidenced-based coaching: Theory, research and coaching: Theory, research and practice from the behav- practice from the behavioural sciences (Vol. 1, ioural sciences (Vol. 1, pp.143–158). Brisbane: pp.127–141). Brisbane: Australian Academic Australian Academic Press. Press. Street, H. (2002). Exploring relationships between ICF (2005). The ICF Code of Ethics. Retrieved 12 goal setting, goal pursuit and depression: August 2005, from A review. Australian Psychologist, 37(2), 95–103. http://www.coachfederation.org/ethics/ Williams, P. (2004). The potential perils of personal ICF_Code_of_Ethics_01_22_05.pdf issues in coaching the continuing debate: Kampa-Kokesch, S. & Anderson, M. Z. (2001). Exec- Therapy or coaching? What every coach must utive coaching: A comprehensive review of the know! International Journal of Coaching in Organi- literature. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice sations, 2(2), 21–30. and Research, 53(4), 205–228. Katter, N. (1999). Duty of care in Australia. Sydney: LBC.

International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 85 Experiences of coaching and stress in the workplace: An Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis Kristina Gyllensten & Stephen Palmer

Objectives: This paper will present the findings from a qualitative study exploring experiences of workplace coaching. Design: The study adopted a qualitative design. Semi-structured interviews were used and the method of analysis was Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (Smith, Jaraman & Osborn, 1999). Methods: Two large organisations participated and nine individuals, who had taken part in coaching, were interviewed. The interviews focused on the participants’ experiences of coaching, and one of the topics investigated was coaching and stress. Results: ‘Management of Stress’ was identified as a main theme which, in turn, comprised of a number of sub-themes. According to these sub-themes coaching had helped the participants to reduce stress indirectly, to cope with stressful situations, and was a resource that the participants would consider using in the future. Moreover, coaching also had the potential to cause stress. Conclusions: It was concluded that coaching could help to reduce stress indirectly and help individuals to cope with stressful situations. However, as coaching also had the potential to cause stress it was suggested that it was important that coaches clearly explain what can be expected from coaching. In addition, limitations with the study were discussed. Keywords: work-related stress, coaching, Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis, management of stress.

Coaching and stress (2001) suggests that coaching can help indi- ORKPLACE STRESS CAUSES viduals to identify stressors, develop strate- distress and ill health (Health and gies for change and maintain solutions. As WSafety Executive (HSE), 2001). well as tackling stress directly, coaching There are many different definitions of stress could reduce stress indirectly by helping an and according to the HSE (2001) stress is ‘the individual to reach their personal goals (e.g. adverse reaction people have to excessive pressures improve performance, efficiency, or commu- or other types of demand placed on them’. Within nication), and thereby decrease any stress cognitive definitions of stress there is more caused by the perceived deficiency in the focus on the perceptions of the individual. area targeted in coaching (Gyllensten & Palmer, Cooper and Thomas (2003) propose Palmer, 2005a). However, it is also possible that ‘stress occurs when the perceived pressure that coaching will increase awareness of work exceeds your perceived ability to cope’ (p.2). stressors that may or may not be tackled by A variety of interventions are used to the organisation. This increased awareness tackle workplace stress (Cooper & may lead to increased stress. Cartwright, 1997). One intervention that is Whilst it is recognised that there is a lack not commonly associated with stress reduc- of research on coaching effectiveness and on tion is coaching. Nevertheless, it has been coaching and stress (Gyllensten & Palmer, suggested that coaching can be useful in 2005a), the current qualitative and quantita- reducing stress (Busch & Steinmetz, 2002; tive research in this area is reviewed below. Hearn, 2001; Jones, 1996; Meyer, 2003; Grant (2001, 2003) has conducted two quan- Palmer, Tubbs & Whybrow, 2003). Hearn titative studies investigating the effects of

86 International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 © The British Psychological Society 2006 – ISSN: 1750-2764 Experiences of coaching and stress in the workplace coaching that demonstrate a positive impact despite the fact that stress was not specifically of coaching on mental health. Grant (2001) targeted in the coaching, and the manager found that cognitive coaching significantly was going through challenging periods of reduced levels of depression and anxiety. change. In addition, the stress levels had also Additionally, Grant (2003) reported that been reduced among the members of the participation in a life coaching programme manager’s team. significantly reduced levels of depression, anxiety, and stress. The current study Compasspoint Nonprofit Services (2003) The current study was Part III of a larger used both quantitative and qualitative piece of research on coaching and stress. methods to investigate the effects of Part I of the research investigated whether coaching in a group of Executive Directors. coaching reduced stress. A quasi-experi- The findings indicate that whilst there was mental design was used and stress was meas- no significant reduction of stress and ured before and after coaching. It was found burnout after coaching, coaching had that coaching did not significantly reduce helped participants to reduce stress by stress (Gyllensten & Palmer, 2005b). Part II encouraging the coachees to take time for of the research investigated whether there themselves regularly and by highlighting the was a relationship between participation in importance of self care. Furthermore, the coaching and levels of stress. A correlational participants reported that they felt better design was used. Participation in coaching equipped to cope with any future feelings of did not significantly predict levels of stress burnout as a result of the coaching. (Gyllensten & Palmer, 2005c). Part III of the Wales (2003) used a phenomenological research used a qualitative methodology. approach to explore the experience of A qualitative methodology was suitable as the coaching in a group of managers. The aim with Part III of the research was to gain coaching relationship provided a safe envi- a deeper insight into the participants’ expe- ronment where the managers could share riences of coaching and their views and fears and anxieties, identify coping skills, and experiences of coaching and stress. The test new behaviours. Coaching was found to qualitative research process is flexible, inter- help the participants to reduce their experi- ested in rich descriptions of the topic, and ence of stress and manage their work/life enables the discovery of novel themes balance. At the beginning of the coaching (Denzin & Lincon, 2000; Holliday, 2002). relationships, many of the participants This article will only present some of the reported that they had been experiencing findings from Part III of the study. high levels of stress. Following coaching the participants described themselves as more The aim of the current study relaxed, less angry, and better able to under- The aim of the current study was to investi- stand and deal with work and personal pres- gate participants’ experiences and views of sures. Coaching had also helped the coaching, specifically, the process of participants to become more proactive in coaching, evaluation of coaching (was the dealing with the different roles in their lives. coaching beneficial or not – how, in what Various case studies have reported that way) and if/how coaching impacted on coaching was effective in reducing clients’ stress. stress levels (Hearn, 2001; Richard, 1999). A case study describing the coaching of a Methods Regional Drug Strategy Manager was Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis reported by Ascentia (2005). The coaching Phenomenology relates to the person’s indi- produced a number of benefits including vidual view of an event rather than an objec- stress reduction. Stress levels were reduced tive statement about the event (Smith,

International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 87 Kristina Gyllensten & Stephen Palmer

1996). The present study used Interpretative the participants held management positions Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) to analyse and all nine worked full-time. All partici- the data from the semi-structured interviews. pants had taken part in coaching within IPA is a practical and systematic approach to their organisation. analysing rich data (Baker, Pistrang & Elliot, 2002). The main aim of IPA is to explore and Procedure understand meanings of experiences of the The interview schedule was based on the aim participants (Smith & Osborn, 2004). IPA of the research and previous literature. Main has been used extensively in health topics included details of coaching, the psychology research but according to Smith coaching process, evaluation of coaching, and Osborn (2004) it is appropriate for a and coaching and stress. The questions were range of psychological research questions piloted prior to the research interviews. where the aim is to investigate the meaning Semi-structured interviews were used as this of the participants’ experiences. IPA recog- method is flexible, enables the collection of nises that the research process is dynamic, rich data, and is suitable for IPA studies and the researcher takes an active role in (Smith & Osborn, 2003). The interviews attempting to get an insider’s perspective of took between 30 to 45 minutes and were the participant’s experience. However, this recoded and transcribed in their entirety. cannot be done directly or fully, but rather The lines in each transcript were numbered via a process of interpretation (Smith & for ease of reference. In the transcripts Osborn, 2003). IPA assumes that there is a participants were assigned one of the first relationship between an individual’s verbal nine letters of the alphabet. The letter ‘I’ was accounts and their cognitions and emotions. used to denote the Interviewer. Nevertheless, it is recognised that the rela- tionship is complicated and individuals may UK organisation have difficulties reporting what they are The interviews with the participants from the thinking or/and they may not want to self- UK organisation took place at one of the disclose (Smith & Osborn, 2003). organisation’s sites. Prior to the interview the participants were asked to read and sign a Participants consent form indicating their understanding The participants in the current study were of the study and agreement to take part. The selected on the basis of having participated consent form stated the participants’ rights in workplace coaching and thereby being to anonymity, withdrawal and ensured secu- able to contribute to the research question rity of the data. The interviewer then asked as recommended by Smith and Osborn the participants for permission to switch the (2003). One UK organisation from the tape recorder on and start the interview. At finance sector and one Scandinavian organi- the end of the study the participants were sation from the telecommunications sector invited to ask questions and they were participated in the study. Both organisations informed that they were welcome to contact mainly focused on telephone-based work the researcher if they had any further ques- and had in excess of 3000 employees. Poten- tions or concerns regarding the research. tial participants were selected by a contact individual at each organisation. Overall, Scandinavian organisation nine participants were interviewed, six were All interviews with the participants from the employees of the UK organisation and three Scandinavian organisation took place over were employees of the Scandinavian organi- the telephone. Initially, the researcher sation. Six females and three males partici- contacted these participants via e-mail. This pated and the mean age of the interviewees initial e-mail outlined the aim of the was 33 years with a range of 23 to 52. Four of research, the confidentiality and anonymity

88 International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 Experiences of coaching and stress in the workplace of the study and the right to withdrawal. If repeated for the remaining transcripts and a the participant replied to this e-mail and final table of superordinate themes for the agreed to take part in the study the partici- whole group was constructed. The main pants’ e-mail reply was kept as a proof of themes that emerged were: management of their consent (all participants allowed the stress, confidence, the coaching relation- researcher to print and keep the e-mail). At ship, coaching = investment in staff. As the the beginning of the telephone conversation topic of this article is coaching and stress the the researcher asked for the participants’ central focus will be on the main theme consent to switching the tape recorder on. ‘management of stress’. However, there will Following this consent the researcher be a brief discussion of the other main emphasised that participation was voluntary themes. and that the participant should only agree to take part in the research if they had under- Evaluating the analysis stood and agreed to the conditions outlined. The qualitative analysis is a subjective Once the participant had given a verbal process and different researchers may have consent to taking part in the study the inter- arrived at different conclusions. In IPA the view commenced. At the end of the interview researcher’s personal frame of reference the participants were invited to talk about inevitably influences the analysis any issues or ask questions related to the (Golsworthy & Coyle, 2001). It has been topic. They were also informed that they suggested that good qualitative practice could contact the researcher if they wanted involves researchers specifying their to discuss any questions or issues related to personal perspective relevant to the study, as the interview. this enable readers to interpret the researcher’s analysis (Elliot, Fisher & Analysis Rennie, 1999). In this study the researcher’s The analysis was conducted in accordance interpretative framework has been influ- with Smith, Jarman and Osborn’s (1999) enced by; training and practice in coun- guidelines to doing IPA. As suggested by selling psychology, particularly in working Smith and Osborn (2003) an ideographic with issues of work stress; previous research approach to analysis was used, where the on stress; and training in coaching analysis begins with a detailed investigation psychology. As the researcher was aware of of a specific case before the other cases are these factors from the beginning of the study incorporated and a more general categorisa- much effort was made to ‘bracket’ (Baker et tion emerge. In accordance with this al., 2002) preconceived ideas and expecta- approach one transcript was read a number tions in order to minimise unwarranted idio- of times and notes of anything significant or syncratic interpretations or unwarranted interesting were made. Prevalence within the selective attention in the interviews. data is not the only important factor when Various criteria have been suggested for themes are selected: richness of text passages the evaluation of qualitative studies, and the and ability to explain other aspects of the following is a summary list of published interview are also important factors (Smith, guidelines: openness of theoretical frame- Jaraman & Osborn, 1999). The next step of work by researchers (Baker et al., 2002; Elliot the analysis involved reading the transcript et al., 1999); situating the sample (Elliot et al., again and recording the emerging themes. 1999); methods described in detail to allow The themes were listed and connections replication (Baker et al., 2002); grounding between themes and superodinate concepts the data and presentation of evidence (Baker were noted. Finally, the themes were ordered et al., 2002; Elliot et al., 1999; Popay, Rogers & coherently and a table of themes was Williams, 1998; Smith, 1996); providing cred- produced. This process of analysis was ibility checks by the use of an independent

International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 89 Kristina Gyllensten & Stephen Palmer audit, member checks or triangulation Results (Baker et al., 2002; Elliot et al., 1999; Smith, The management of stress 1996); internal coherence of the data-based Management of stress was a main theme that story/narrative (Elliot et al., 1999; Popay et emerged from the analysis. It is important to al., 1998; Smith, 1996); limitations of the note that that this theme does not only high- extension of the findings are specified (Elliot light the positive impact of coaching in et al., 1999; Popay et al., 1998). The present dealing with stress but also the negative study has attempted to address these guide- aspects including coaching causing stress. lines in the following manner. The Four sub-themes emerged and these researcher’s personal perspective has been included: indirect work on stress; coping highlighted and basic descriptive data about with stress; use coaching for stress in the the participants have been presented. The future; and cause of stress. Their relation- methods of the study have been thoroughly ship is depicted in Figure 1, ‘The Manage- described to allow replication. Examples of ment of Stress’. the data have been provided to illustrate each theme. The data has been presented in a Indirect work on stress narrative that aims to highlight the phenom- The participants had not sought coaching enon under study in a coherent manner. specifically to reduce stress. However, Moreover, a summary of the analysis has been coaching appeared to help participants to presented in a in a model that highlights the reduce stress by helping them to manage relationship between the themes. Finally, it is other work-related problems that were suggested that the findings should not be causing them stress. Thus, it could be generalised to all coaching situations but suggested that coaching reduced stress indi- only to the groups studied and possibly rectly. One route coaching reduced stress similar groups in similar settings. However, indirectly was by helping participants to despite the fact that the findings are not become more satisfied with their job role. generalisable to all coaching situations it is Indeed, role ambiguity is a common stressor possible that coaches can benefit from some in the workplace: of the issues highlighted in the research.

Figure 1: The Management of Stress.

Indirect work Reduced stress on stress C O A Coping with stress C H I Use coaching for stress in the future N G Cause of stress

90 International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 Experiences of coaching and stress in the workplace

No, it definitely reduced the stress because by how much work I can take on and when to start working on everything that we have worked on I refusing things you know. I will take on as much feel happier in my role so I think it has definitely as I feel I can cope with. (E: 334–337) helped with stress. (B: 331–332) Worrying about situations at work was Another indirect route to reduced stress was another source of stress. Improved confi- improved confidence. Confidence was one dence lead to less worry about these work of the other main themes found in the situations and this lead to reduced stress: analysis and many of the participants had sought coaching in order to increase confi- I would get stressed about worrying about things dence. Low confidence appeared to have a and, you know I would sort of, I would worry negative influence on well-being and about going into team meetings so that would performance. It was reported that when stress me. And because of this coaching and the confidence and job-satisfaction were goal of becoming more confident then that doesn’t improved, as a result of the coaching, stress worry me anymore so I don’t let it effect me. So yes was reduced: from an indirect point of view I am less stressed than I was when I first started. (E: 368–372) I didn’t necessarily go to do the coaching to reduce stress, but I suppose it has done because I feel Uncertainty over dealing with problems at happier in what I am doing, and more confident, work was a major source of stress according and organised. (B: 338–340) to the participants. Discussing problems and problem solving were key activities of the According to some participants improved coaching. Highlighting and discussing prob- confidence automatically reduced stress: lems at work and developing new solutions helped to reduce stress: But overall yes it reduced it, because by me feeling more confident I think that automatically reduces …my coaching sessions also made some things stress… (D: 379–380) easier for me to work with afterwards. Because I found new ways to do things, I found my way out Pressure and high workload were sources of of things that I thought ‘how do I do that’. And stress for the participants. Once again then I discussed it… and that kind of clarity takes coaching helped to reduce stress indirectly away the stress feeling. (J: 389–392) by helping the participants to become more confident and assertive and decline extra You can’t just all of a sudden eliminate all your work. Thus, it appeared that the coaching problems in life, but you got to sit down and plan helped the participants to increase aware- how you are going to tackle those problems. If you ness of their own limitations regarding work know that then it makes it so much easier to demands and to clearly state these limita- contend with and deal with. I think that has really tions at the workplace: helped over the last couple of years. (E: 447–451)

I know now when to say ‘it is too much, we can’t It was also suggested that coaching could take on any more’ and I feel that I will say that. play a role in preventing future stress by Whereas previously I may have just said ‘oh yes I providing an opportunity to discuss prob- will do it’ and just end up worrying and getting lems and to find solutions, the inability to stressed over it, so yes I do. (D: 414–417) solve problems being an identified cause of stress: I used to sometimes feel that maybe I was taking on too much and ending up with too much work that Because if you have like things you have to do and I couldn’t physically do. So in my mindset I know you don’t know how to do them I think it is

International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 91 Kristina Gyllensten & Stephen Palmer stressful. And coaching can help you to find out am finding I can cope with it now, which previ- how to solve the problems, and in that way I think ously I just couldn’t have done. (A: 640-641) it can prevent future stress. (J: 399–401) Working in a new job role, that was different However, it is important to note that not all to the previous one, was identified as a cause participants felt that coaching had helped of stress. The stress caused by this situation them to reduce distress. It is, therefore, had been so serious for some employees that important to remember that stress is a they had chosen to leave the organisation complex phenomena that is influenced by a rather than to continue and face the new multitude of different factors: work situation. Coaching helped some participants to remain in the organisation I am not that susceptible to external factors, if I and to cope with the new job role. Thus, wake up in the morning feeling low that is the way coaching may have had an important organ- it is regardless of what coaching I have done. isational function in reducing staff turnover (A: 539–540) in a period of organisational change:

Coping with stress The job I applied for has completely changed. And Coaching was not always helpful in elimi- quite a lot of people found that really difficult that nating or reducing stress. Nevertheless, change, because it is kind of an uncomfortable coaching helped some participants to cope zone I suppose. And quite a few people left, but with situations that were causing them stress: coaching has definitely helped with that. So I don’t know, maybe if I did not have that support I don’t I never doubted my ability to be competent. The know whether I would still be here. (B: 431–434) thing that was always undermining me was my nervous reaction – it was something I could never Although coaching did not always manage to ever cope with. I just hated that, and I just didn’t eliminate or even reduce stress some partici- want to feel it. What the coaching has helped me to pants expressed hope that continuous work do is help me deal with that stress. Not to eradicate in coaching could help to eliminate the it. (A: 615–618) distress:

It has not reduced the feeling of pain. It has helped …I have obviously done loads of presentations in me to cope with it. (A: 660) the past and just hated them, and never seeking opportunities and all the rest of it. It has helped me In the past some participants had felt unable to be able to cope rather than eliminating my stress. to remain in distressing situations and had, So I mean you could ask me this question in 12 therefore, avoided these situations. However, months time and I might have totally knocked the with the help of coaching, the participants stress thing over. (A: 650–654) were able to remain in and cope with distressing situations that they had been Use coaching for stress in the future unable to tolerate in the past: As stated previously, the participants had not sought coaching in order to deal with what So whereas previously I would have run away and they perceived to be workplace stress. avoided the situation and those feelings, whereas However, when discussing the usefulness of now they are still there but I feel I can cope with coaching in dealing with stress the partici- them and sort of manage them. That is what pants any reported that they believed that coaching has helped me to do. (A: 623–625) coaching could be suitable:

Yes, and I am able to sort of stay in there and live I think if I did use coaching for stress, and that with it. As uncomfortable as it (presentations) is I sort of thing, then it would help, but I think it

92 International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 Experiences of coaching and stress in the workplace definitely would help, but it not something that I from stress it appeared that that seeing a have used it for before. (B: 360–362) coach was preferable to seeing a manager. This was principally for reasons of confiden- But I think that using the tools from the coaching tiality, the participants believing a meeting could have some positive effects so I would not be with a coach as being more confidential than so stressed. (H: 393–394) one with a manager:

Although they had not used coaching for I think most people would rather go to a coach to stress in the past, the participants considered talk about stress than their team manager. Because going to coaching for stress problems in the once again if you talk to your team manager then future, with one of the participants contem- it is going to go down on your file, it is just you plating booking further coaching sessions in don’t want it on your paper ‘he suffers from stress, order to deal with worry that was causing bla, bla, bla’. (C: 390–393) stress: Similarly, for some participants seeing a I mean I don’t know whether it would be useful to coach was viewed as preferable to seeing a book more coaching sessions, I might do it actually. counsellor in order to deal with stress. The I think I still could do with working on the reason for this was that seeking help from a worrying side of things, and worrying about what counsellor made the problem seem more people think and that type of thing. I think I do serious. This indicates that employees may put added stress and pressure on myself sometimes be more willing to participate in coaching because of that. (D: 404–408) than in counselling. One possible reason for this is that there may be a stigma associated Furthermore, the participants reported that with counselling: they would recommend coaching to colleagues, as a means of tackling stress. Yes, because it if you go to a counsellor then that Thus, increasing awareness in the workplace makes it real. If you go to a coach then that is just of the potential benefits of coaching: chatting to one of your friends about it. Do you see what I mean, if, I think actually counselling But I know if any member of my team is suffering would be the next step along from a coach, but I from stress I would direct them to go and see a think most people would rather go to a coach and coach. So I imagine that they would be quite good try and sort it out that way. (C: 400–403) at sorting that out. (C: 395–396) However, it is important to highlight that this One explanation to why participants had not view, that attending coaching implied a less yet approached the coaches regarding prob- serious problem, was not held by all partici- lems with stress was because the stress prob- pants, some believing that coaching was very lems they were facing were not viewed to be similar to counselling, and counselling serious enough. There appeared to be a view psychology: that in order to seek coaching for stress there should be serious problems with stress: I mean, at university I did do a bit of counselling psychology and that is what coaching is at the end I know that if I had a problem with it (stress) I of the day in a way isn’t it. It is like being a coun- would go to them and they would sort it out but I sellor to someone. (D: 179–181) am not stressed above a level that I can work at. (C: 337–338) Cause of stress As well as being able to reduce stress or help When the participants considered where participants to cope with stress it was also they would like to seek help if they suffered reported that coaching could in fact cause

International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 93 Kristina Gyllensten & Stephen Palmer stress. It was pointed out that openness to The appreciation and perceived benefits of coaching was an important factor in deter- coaching did not seem to be immediate for mining its usefulness. For those coachees all participants. Indeed, although partici- who considered coaching a ‘waste of time’ it pants reported that there was a risk that actually became a source of stress. This was coaching could be unproductive, there based upon the perception that the time appeared, however, to be a process in which taken up by coaching could be used in a the participants could learn to appreciate more constructive manner. The attitudes of coaching after a period of time: the coachees, therefore, being vital: Well I think the first time I participated in it I was But you have to get to a point where you can actu- very disappointed, I did not see any meaning in it ally see that you get something out of the coaching. and I left with the feeling that I had spent a lot of Because if you are sitting there and you think it is time and didn’t get anything with me. a waste of time you will just be a bit more stressed (H: 119–121) But the following times I think it knowing that you could have used your time much improved very much. And at the end of it, it was better at work instead of being coached. So you really good. (H: 125–126) have to have a coaching set-up that you feel will give you something otherwise it won’t help you. Coaching could also cause stress by encour- (H: 435–439) aging the participants to focus on their problem(s). By focusing on the problem(s) Nevertheless, the skills and competence of at the beginning of the coaching the partici- the coach was also viewed as important. If pant became more aware of the extent of the the coach was insufficiently skilled the problem and this, subsequently, could cause coaching session could be perceived as a distress: ‘waste of time’: I think my first couple of sessions in a way made Well it depends on the opinion about it. Because if me feel worse. Because it was making me focus you go there and you feel it is a waste of time and more on the problem, so I was becoming more you keep on insisting it is a waste of time, it will be conscious that the problem existed and thinking a waste of time. So somehow you have to decide ‘god yes I do, do that’, and I was focusing on my that this is something I will get something good own behaviour. But once I got over that in the long from, so you go into it with a positive mind. But run it helped definitely. (D: 157–161) also of course you need to have someone coaching you that knows what they are doing. Because Although the coaching initially caused otherwise I guess it could be a waste of time. increased stress it did, however, eventually (H: 444–449) help to reduce stress. Once again there would appear to be a process in which the Another reason to why coaching could be participants could derive benefit from perceived as unproductive, and thereby coaching after a period of time: cause stress, was if there was an over emphasis on discussion that did not lead to I think like I say in the early stages possibly it any action. It would appear that the partici- makes you feel worse, but then once you really get pants sought practical results from the to grips with everything it makes you feel a lot coaching: better. (D: 215–217)

Sometimes there is too little action. (G: 452) When Furthermore, participants highlighted the it takes too much time or resources. I think it tends potential risk associated with leaving to be when we just talk and talk and nothing coaching before these initial feeling of stress happens. (G: 456–457) had been worked through. Thus, there

94 International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 Experiences of coaching and stress in the workplace appeared to be a risk that coachees would stressful situations. Thus, the coaching had leave coaching feeling more distressed than helped them to stay in stressful situations when they entered: rather than avoid them. Avoidance behav- iour can be a behavioural response to stress And if they weren’t prepared to see it through it (Palmer et al., 2003). It was further found could have a negative effect. But as long as people that coaching was viewed as a resource that are prepared to see it through to the end I think it the participants would consider using to definitely has a positive effect. (D: 294–296) tackle workplace stress in the future. However, coaching also had the potential to Overview of additional main themes cause stress. Coaching could cause stress by Management of stress is the central focus of being perceived as a waste of time and by not this result section. However, a brief outline leading to any action. This could be the of the three additional themes is presented result of a coachee not being open to the below. coaching process or an unskilled coach. The three additional themes that Some participants reported that there was a emerged from the analysis included: the process of learning to appreciate coaching. coaching relationship, confidence, and Increased focus on the target problem was a coaching = investment in staff. It was found further example of how coaching could that the relationship between the coach and increase stress. This could occur at the early the coachee was viewed as very important stages of coaching and participants reported and necessary for the coaching to develop. that it was important to stay in the coaching This relationship was dependent on trust to work through this stage. and improved by transparency. Coaching The finding that coaching helped to also helped to increase the participants’ reduce stress was similar to the results from confidence and this lead to other benefits, the Wales (2003) qualitative study with a including improved job performance, sample of managers. According to Wales assertiveness, and well-being outside work. (2003) coaching had helped to reduce stress A valuable coaching relationship and and anger and had increased awareness and increased confidence did of course have a capability of dealing with pressures. Simi- positive impact on the management of stress. larly, Grant (2001, 2003) found that cogni- There appeared to be some initial scepti- tive coaching and life coaching significantly cism towards the concept of coaching, improved mental health. The findings from however, once the participants had attended the current qualitative study were, however, coaching it was viewed as a sign that the different from those in the quantitative organisation valued and invested in their staff. studies conducted in Part I and Part II of the same larger piece of research. Part I of the Discussion study found that coaching did not signifi- The participants in the current study had cantly reduce stress (Gyllensten & Palmer, not sought coaching in order to tackle stress 2005b) and Part II found that coaching was directly. Nevertheless, the participants not a significant predictor of levels of stress expressed that coaching had helped them to (Gyllensten & Palmer, 2005c). Similarly, reduce stress indirectly, for example, by stress levels were not significantly reduced helping to improve confidence and problem after coaching in the quantitative part of solving skills. However, coaching did not CompassPoint Nonprofit Services’ (2003) always help to reduce stress and it is impor- study. However, the qualitative part of the tant to recognise that stress is a complex same study found that coaching had helped process that can be influenced by many to reduce stress. The CompassPoint factors other than coaching. Coaching had Nonprofit Services’ (2003) study is particu- helped some individuals to cope with larly interesting to compare with the current

International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 95 Kristina Gyllensten & Stephen Palmer study as both found that the qualitative and tions. Problem solving models were an quantitative methodologies produced some- important part of both organisations’ what different findings regarding stress coaching approaches. However, the organi- reduction and coaching. A possible reason sations also used different coaching tech- for this inconsistency is that there is a niques and theories. problem measuring reduction of stress with questionnaires. The stress process may be Implications and conclusions too complex and hold so many different The current study found that coaching was meanings for individuals that a question- helpful in reducing stress indirectly. This naire is not the most suitable way of meas- would suggest that it could be useful to intro- uring it. On the other hand, the duce coaching in organisations that are inconsistencies between the qualitative and facing problems with workplace stress. It was quantitative approaches may reflect the fact also found that coaching had helped partici- that the individuals who were interviewed pants to cope with stressful situations such as were in a minority or that they felt required changing job roles. Thus, organisations that to report positive aspects of coaching. are planning major changes to job roles may Further research is needed in order to clarify benefit from employing coaches to help the this discrepancy. employees through the period of change. Furthermore, the participants were positive Limitations towards using coaching for stress. Indeed, Issues relating to qualitative research designs participants in both the current study and in have been discussed under ‘Evaluation of previous research (Gyllensten, Palmer & Analysis’. Nevertheless, there are some Farrants, 2005) have reported that coaching further limitations of the study that needs to is viewed as preferable to counselling for be highlighted. It is always possible that workplace stress. A potential reason for this recruitment bias will have an impact on the being that counselling implies a more research when the sample is relatively small serious problem with stress and may carry a (Chapman, 2002). Indeed, it may be the case stigma. Consequently, coaching has the that only those individuals who considered potential to reach the individuals who are that their coaching was successful agreed to not comfortable seeking counselling for take part in the study. Moreover, the contact stress at their workplace. In addition, it is persons, based at the organisations, may important to note that the study also found unintentionally (or intentionally) have put that coaching can actually cause stress. Based forward individuals who were positive on the participants’ views it is important that towards coaching. Six of the participants the coaching leads to some form of action. It worked in the UK organisation and three is also important that the coach explains worked in the Scandinavian. All interviews what the coachee can expect from coaching were analysed as one sample as they had all and highlights that excessive focus on the experienced workplace coaching within target problem may cause an initial increase their organisations and, therefore, would be in distress. If the coachee is aware of what to able to inform the researcher about the expect they can then make an informed topic under investigation. However, there is choice regarding the suitability of coaching the risk that the results were consequently and thereby reduce the likelihood of it being more representative of the experiences of perceived as a ‘waste of time’ for both the coaching in the UK organisation. It would coachee and coach. Finally, the current study have been preferable to have a more equal highlights the need for further qualitative amount of participants from both organisa- and quantitative research on coaching and tions. A further limitation was that the stress. Future research could investigate the coaching differed between the organisa- discrepancy between qualitative and quanti-

96 International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 Experiences of coaching and stress in the workplace tative approaches. Further, quantitative Correspondence studies could employ larger sample sizes in Professor Stephen Palmer order to investigate the effectiveness of Coaching Psychology Unit, coaching in reducing stress and qualitative Department of Psychology, studies could investigate the process of City University, coaching as well as the outcome. Northampton Square, London, EC1V 0HB, UK. Authors details E-mail: Kristina Gyllensten & Stephen Palmer [email protected] City University, London, UK. [email protected]

References Ascentia (2005). Case studies. International Journal of Gyllensten, K. & Palmer, S. (2005a). Can coaching Evidence-Based Coaching and Mentoring, 3(1). reduce workplace stress? The Coaching Psychologist, Baker, C., Pistrang, N. & Elliot, R. (2002). Research 1, 15–17. methods in clinical psychology: An introduction to Gyllensten, K. & Palmer, S. (2005b). Can coaching students and practitioners (2nd ed.). Chichester: reduce workplace stress? A quasi-experimental John Wiley & Sons. study. International Journal of Evidence-Based Bush, C. & Steinmetz, B. (2002). Stress management Coaching and Mentoring, 3(2), 75–87. and management. Gruppdynamic und Organisa- Gyllensten, K. & Palmer, S. (2005c). The relationship tionsberatung, 33, 385–401. between coaching and workplace stress: A corre- Chapman, E. (2002). The social and ethical implica- lational study. International Journal of Health tions of changing medical technologies: The Promotion and Education, 43, 97–103. views of people living with genetic conditions. Gyllensten, K., Palmer, S. & Farrants, J. (2005). Journal of Health Psychology, 7, 195–206. Perception of stress and stress interventions in CompassPoint Nonprofit Services (2003). Executive finance organisations: Overcoming resistance coaching project: Evaluation of findings. Retrieved towards counselling. Counselling Psychology 28 January, 2005, from www.compasspoint.org Quarterly, 18, 19–29. Health and Safety Executive (HSE) (1998). Organisa- Cooper, C.L. & Cartwright, S. (1997). An inter- tional interventions to reduce work stress: Are they effec- vention strategy for workplace stress. Journal of tive? A review of the literature. Suffolk: HSE Books. Psychosomatic Research, 43, 7–16. Health and Safety Executive (HSE) (2001). Tackling Denzin, N.K. & Lincon, Y.S. (2000). Introduction: work-related stress: A manager’s guide to improving The discipline and practice of qualitative and maintaining employee health and well-being. research. In N.K. Denzin & Y.S. Lincon (Eds.), Suffolk: HSE. The discipline and practice of qualitative research Hearn, W. (2001). The role of coaching in stress (2nd ed., pp.1–14). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. management. Stress News, 13, 15–17. Elliot, R., Fisher, C.T. & Rennie, D.L. (1999). Holliday, A. (2002). Doing and writing qualitative Evolving guidelines for publication of qualitative research. London: Sage. research studies in psychology and related fields. Jones, J.D. (1996). Executive coaches. Mississippi British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 38, 215–229. Business Journal, 18, 5–7. Golsworthy, R. & Coyle, A. (2001). Practitioners’ Meyer, J. L. (2003) Coaching and counselling accounts of religious and spiritual dimensions in psychology in organisational psychology. In M.J. bereavement therapy. Counselling Psychology Schabraq, J.A.M. Winnburst & C.L. Cooper Quarterly, 14, 183–202. (Eds.), The handbook of work and health psychology Grant, A.M. (2001). Coaching for enhanced performance: (2nd ed., pp.569–583). Chichester: Wiley. Comparing cognitive and behavioural approaches to Palmer, S., Cooper, C. & Thomas, K. (2003). Creating coaching. Paper presented at the 3rd Interna- a balance: Managing stress. London: The British tional Spearman Seminar: Extending Intelli- Library. gence: Enhancement and new constructs. Palmer, S., Tubbs, I. & Whybrow, A. (2003). Health Sydney, Australia. coaching to facilitate the promotion of healthy Grant, A.M. (2003). The impact of life coaching on behaviour and achievement of health-related goal attainment, metacognition and mental goals. International Journal of Health Promotion and health. Social Behaviour and Personality, 31, 253–264. Education, 41, 91–93.

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Popay, J., Rogers, A. & Williams, G. (1998). Rationale Smith, J.A. & Osborn, M. (2003). Interpretative and standards for the systematic review of quali- phenomenological analysis. In J.A. Smith (Ed.). tative literature in health services research. Qualitative psychology: A practical guide to research Qualitative Health Research, 8, 341–351. methods (pp.51–80). London: Sage. Richard, J.T. (1999). Multimodal therapy: A useful Smith, J.A. & Osborn, M. (2004). Interpretative model for the executive coach. Consulting phenomenological analysis. In G.M. Breakwell Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 51, 24–30. (Ed.), Doing social psychology research Smith, J.A. (1996). Beyond the divide between cogni- (pp.229–254). Oxford: BPS Blackwell. tion and discourse: Using interpretative phenom- Wales, S. (2003). Why coaching? Journal of Change enological analysis in health psychology. Management, 3, 275–282. Psychology and Health, 11, 261–271. Smith, J., Jaraman, M. & Osborn, M. (1999) Doing interpretative phenomenological analysis. In M. Murray & K. Chamberlain (Eds.), Qualitative health psychology (pp. 218–240). London: Sage.

98 International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 The Special Group in Coaching Psychology

We are pleased to present further details of our 2006 Event Programme. These events will offer opportunities for further training and development in topics which have been carefully selected to complement coaching psychology. We really look forward to seeing you at one or more events.

30 June 2006: ‘Managing Personal and Client Stress in Coaching Psychology’ Facilitator: Jenny Summerfield, CPsychol. This one-day event will be held at the Work Foundation, 3 Carlton Terrace, London, SW1Y 5DG, and will run from 10.00am to 5.00pm. Registration from 9.30am.

7 September 2006: ‘Positive Psychology in Coaching Psychology’ This one-day conference will be held at the BPS London Office and will run from 9.30am to 4.30pm. Registration from 9.00am.

For further details and information about these events see the ‘News Page’ of the BPS SGCP website on: http://www.coachingpsychologyforum.org.uk. For booking information please contact: Tracy White, E-mail: [email protected]

18 & 19 December 2006: ‘SGCP 3rd Annual National Conference’ This ‘not-to-be-missed event’ will offer a series of stimulating and thought-provoking parallel papers, full-day workshops, mini-workshops, and round-table discussions. Leaders in the field of Coaching Psychology will provide a mix of stimulating and thought-provoking sessions. Parallel research paper and poster sessions will also provide some of the latest thinking and research in Coaching Psychology. Further details will soon be announced on the SGCP website.

The 2006 membership fee to join SGCP is £3.50. BPS members can join and immediately benefit from member rates at events.

International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 99 Interest Group in Coaching Psychology Second National Symposium

Asking the right Questions: Exploring the cutting edge of Coaching Psychology

July 14 and 15, 2006 Venue: Palazzo Versace Queensland, Gold Coast Australia

The 2006 Symposium will focus on the practice of coaching by Psychologists in Australia and will provide a unique opportunity for practitioners to share experience and knowledge regarding the practice of coaching. Join international keynote speakers (Dr. Robert Hogan - international authority on personality assessment, leadership, and organisational effectiveness, And Professor David Lane – authority on measuring coaching outcomes). There will be a range of symposia and opportunities to discuss the issues of importance in coaching with both fellow practitioners and national experts.

Come and share your experience and hear from other coaching psychologists on the issues that help to differentiate psychologists as coaches.

• What are the questions and answers that give us – as Coaching Psychologists – the edge? • How has practice in the field of coaching evolved over the last few years? • How do you ask and answer the challenging questions of your coachees? • What is the latest research • How do you ask the questions that get you the job as coach?

For Registration Details and Call for Papers go to: www.psychology.org.au/units/interest%5Fgroups/coaching For enquiries, please email: [email protected]

Want to contribute a paper or symposium? • Write a short summary (200 words) on your chosen topic • Email this to the IGCP Qld Committee ( [email protected] ) • CLOSING DATE: Friday, 29TH April, 2006

PD Points will be available for presenters and attendees.

100 International Coaching Psychology Review G Vol. 1 No. 1 April 2006 4. Online submission process (1) All manuscripts must be submitted to a Co-ordinating Editor by e-mail to: Stephen Palmer (UK): [email protected] Michael Cavanagh (Australia): [email protected] (2) The submission must include the following as separate files: G Title page consisting of manuscript title, authors’ full names and affiliations, name and address for corresponding author. G Abstract. G Full manuscript omitting authors’ names and affiliations. Figures and tables can be attached separately if necessary.

5. Manuscript requirements G Contributions must be typed in double spacing with wide margins. All sheets must be numbered. G Tables should be typed in double spacing, each on a separate page with a self-explanatory title. Tables should be comprehensible without reference to the text. They should be placed at the end of the manuscript with their approximate locations indicated in the text. G Figures can be included at the end of the document or attached as separate files, carefully labelled in initial capital/lower case lettering with symbols in a form consistent with text use. Unnecessary background patterns, lines and shading should be avoided. Captions should be listed on a separate page. The resolution of digital images must be at least 300 dpi. G For articles containing original scientific research, a structured abstract of up to 250 words should be included with the headings: Objectives, Design, Methods, Results, Conclusions. Review articles should use these headings: Purpose, Methods, Results, Conclusions. G For reference citations, please use APA style. Particular care should be taken to ensure that references are accurate and complete. Give all journal titles in full. G SI units must be used for all measurements, rounded off to practical values if appropriate, with the Imperial equivalent in parentheses. G In normal circumstances, effect size should be incorporated. G Authors are requested to avoid the use of sexist language. G Authors are responsible for acquiring written permission to publish lengthy quotations, illustrations etc for which they do not own copyright.

For Guidelines on editorial style, please consult the APA Publication Manual published by the American Psychological Association, Washington DC, USA (http://www.apastyle.org ).

6. Brief reports These should be limited to 1000 words and may include research studies and theoretical, critical or review comments whose essential contribution can be made briefly. A summary of not more than 50 words should be provided.

7. Publication ethics BPS Code of Conduct – Code of Conduct, Ethical Principles and Guidelines. Principles of Publishing – Principle of Publishing.

8. Supplementary data Supplementary data too extensive for publication may be deposited with the British Library Document Supply Centre. Such material includes numerical data, computer programs, fuller details of case studies and experimental techniques. The material should be submitted to the Editor together with the article, for simultaneous refereeing.

9. Post acceptance PDF page proofs are sent to authors via e-mail for correction of print but not for rewriting or the introduction of new material.

10. Copyright To protect authors and journals against unauthorised reproduction of articles, The British Psychological Society requires copyright to be assigned to itself as publisher, on the express condition that authors may use their own material at any time without permission. On acceptance of a paper submitted to a journal, authors will be requested to sign an appropriate assignment of copyright form.

11. Checklist of requirements G Abstract (100–200 words). G Title page (include title, authors’ names, affiliations, full contact details). G Full article text (double-spaced with numbered pages and anonymised). G References (APA style). Authors are responsible for bibliographic accuracy and must check every reference in the manuscript and proofread again in the page proofs. G Tables, figures, captions placed at the end of the article or attached as separate files. Contents

1 Editorial – Coaching Psychology: Its time has finally come Stephen Palmer & Michael Cavanagh 5 The coaching psychology movement and its development within the British Psychological Society Stephen Palmer & Alison Whybrow 12 A personal perspective on professional coaching and the development of coaching psychology Anthony M. Grant 23 Does coaching work or are we asking the wrong question? Annette Fillery-Travis & David Lane 37 Strengths Coaching: A potential-guided approach to coaching psychology P. Alex Linley & Susan Harrington 47 Person-centred coaching psychology: A meta-theoretical perspective Stephen Joseph 56 Taking stock: A survey of Coaching Psychologists’ practices and perspectives Alison Whybrow & Stephen Palmer 71 Duty of care in an unregulated industry: Initial findings on the diversity and practices of Australian coaches Gordon B. Spence, Michael J. Cavanagh & Anthony M. Grant 86 Experiences of coaching and stress in the workplace: An Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis Kristina Gyllensten & Stephen Palmer

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