Carnival As a Transnational Cultural Phenomenon

Carnival as a Transnational Cultural Phenomenon

Carnival under British rule covers a period that is marked by an imperial culture of domination and an ever-growing culture of resistance and claim to national power. In small countries like Malta, foreign presence domi- nated any form of local society long before the arrival of the British. Colonisation was a reality that the inhabitants had to contend with for the larger part of their history. The British period started out with the eager delivery of the islands into British hands in 1800, and ended with Independence in 1964. The acquisition of Independence constituted a major political turning point in Malta’s history; it paved the way for Malta’s social and economic growth that enabled the country, forty years later, to join the European Union. Within the colonial context, Carnival in Malta may be seen as part of a more general phenomenon that foregrounded culture as the key driving force in the negotiation between local and colonial identity. However, this cultural practice was played out differently according to the particular histories and socio-political concerns of the various countries celebrating Carnival. Consequently, the different cultural manifestations of Carnival have to be examined first and foremost in relation to the individual cir- cumstances of the particular country, which may then be paralleled to similar happenings beyond. The fact that Carnival on the islands has lasted from before 15201 to today traces a long cultural lineage in the celebrations and their uninter- rupted continuity up to the present. Malta’s Carnival has remained very

© The Author(s) 2018 269 V. A. Cremona, Carnival and Power, Transnational Theatre Histories, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-70656-6 270 CARNIVAL AS A TRANSNATIONAL CULTURAL PHENOMENON much a local affair, unlike those in the Caribbean which have been ‘exported’ to more than sixty cities in North America and Europe, creat- ing ‘the world’s largest transnational celebration of popular culture’ (Ho and Nurse 2005, vii). However, Malta’s cultural responses to the challenges posed by colonial power link its Carnival to other similar processes across the colonised world. In these instances, culture provided the means for a continuous reaffirmation of local identity that underpinned local claims vis-à-vis colonial will and its imposed structures. Wherever the worth and validity of local reality could not be affirmed through political channels, it could be fully asserted through local cultural expressions, particularly those which had no real equivalence in the lifestyles of the British colonisers, and could not be measured by any foreign yardstick. Cultural difference, therefore, marked socio-political identity. Carnival, although celebrated over a brief period of time in the year, constituted a major indi- cator of cultural difference with respect to the British, and of cultural identification within the individual colonies that celebrated it. The double aspect of latent seriousness and manifest play embodied by Carnival expressed socio-political concerns that provided cultural links with other nations through the various modes of resistance that were adopted, developed or discarded in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries to confront, or emerge from, colonial rule. Moreover, they also expressed efforts to assert power among local political groups, providing local examples of a transnational cultural phenomenon. Under British rule, Malta and other colonised countries shared in the very experience of undergoing adaptation to colonisation, as well as adjust- ment to the end of colonialism. Popular culture reflects local identity, but, as Osterhammel points out: ‘personal and collective identities change at the cultural frontier of an advancing empire’ (2014, 464). In the affirmation of the rule of empire, identity became a site of ‘categorisation and stereotyping’ (465) by the colonisers, and adaptation as well as contestation by the colonised. The way the different peoples constructed and represented identity may be seen as a critical feature of colonial relations globally. In an age which saw the rise of nationalism and the formation of nation-states, colonial societies were torn between imperial absorption— which allowed a small section of society to move upwardly thanks to the colonial bureaucratic structures that ensured the governance of the empire—and national distinctiveness—which was linked to social realities such as religion as well as to cultural manifestations such as Carnival. On a transnational level, this festivity represented a brief moment where the CARNIVAL AS A TRANSNATIONAL CULTURAL PHENOMENON 271 public celebrated itself, and seized the opportunity to critique the foreign colonisers as well as local society and local politics. Transculturally, Carnival has given rise to a struggle between spontaneity and containment which articulated political concerns over the affirmation of power and resistance to the celebration itself. In this book, we have seen how outdoor celebration thriving on spontaneous action and movement created a meeting ground for all classes. It was generally developed through altered appearance and behaviour, which also allowed masqueraders to indulge in socio-political criticism and caricature. This paidean behaviour, characteristic of various street Carnivals across the world, attracted fear and suspicion by higher authorities or upper echelons of society. Their riposte was to create organised spectacle that encouraged passive watching and was easier to control and channel. The Carnival committee became the mainstay of this type of spectacle, which often included limits in space through enclosures. This ludic type of Carnival led to the flourishing of playful forms of amazing spectacularity, but marginalised spontaneity and purged socio-political criticism. In contrast, indoor celebration, which was always highly organised, established class difference through the type of participation selected, especially with regard to private and, up to a certain extent, public balls. However, even in this privileged context, the play of power created political distinction and underlined hierarchy. Carnival generates ambivalence; it provides ground for both the blur- ring and affirmation of social status as well as political identity. The various chapters in this book have illustrated different kinds of identification and participation in outdoor and indoor carnivals both in Malta and beyond, as well as the cultural changes and adjustments that took place due to socio-political exigencies. They have shown how the Maltese public celebrated Carnival both collectively, particularly in the street and in the public balls, and within their social categories, particularly in the private balls. It has also discussed satire and public contestation of imperial will, but has focused on power sites of struggle and resistance among the Maltese themselves. It has shown how political confrontation could take on spec- tacular proportions in Carnival, or in the adoption of Carnivalesque char- acteristics at other moments of the year. Many countries have shared the feeling of uncertainty in the construc- tion of a new independent identity that was generated at the twilight of colonialism. People in the newly-forming nation-states had to come to terms with each other in ways they never had had to do when all were 272 CARNIVAL AS A TRANSNATIONAL CULTURAL PHENOMENON under the same ruler. Carnival echoed the challenges and obstacles to this formation. This book has discussed the different courses of action that were pursued politically in the endeavour to create a national status within or beyond the structures of empire, and how this was reflected in the Carnival or in other manifestations that included elements directly inspired from this popular celebration. Carnival culture across the world reasserts the feeling of ‘belonging’ to a cultural community. Carnival, for its brief few hours, transforms the society into one festive community—different social classes or institutions are, up to a certain extent, merged into a single human reality. The dimin- utive size of the Maltese islands renders the brief experience of unity more intense than in larger and more dispersed communities. More importantly, the quality and intensity of participation in Carnival in various countries across the world continues to foreground the role of culture in affirming links beyond national borders that can foster new modes of transnational communication and exchange.

A New Transcultural Beginning? I would like to close this book by opening a little window to provide a glimpse into a nascent socio-cultural transnational process that is currently being established between two former colonised countries—Maltese exportation of Carnival to Tunisia. Local float-makers and dancers go to Tunisia in the summer to develop a Carnival in one of the seaside resorts; this is slowly becoming a local attraction. The interest of the process lies in its hybrid nature—Carnival as a cultural phenomenon is even more unfa- miliar to the Muslim Arabo-Berber Tunisian culture than it was to the Protestant British Europeans. Yet this new transcultural process is taking place at the behest of Tunisian local authorities, and was primarily dictated by commercial concerns linked to tourism. However, it is attracting a Tunisian public who willingly goes to watch the celebrations. It is to be hoped that this will provide an example in embryo of ‘cultural transfer’, a dynamic process which differs from the hierarchical standpoint of ‘cultural diversity’ denounced by Bhabha (1994, 32); rather, one which involves ‘adapting ideas, systems and formats of expression of foreign cultures’ that result in ‘new, hybrid cultural and artistic practices’ (Teissl 2014, 151). The phenomenon is still too new to predict whether it will be eventu- ally integrated into the Tunisian cultural landscape, and even less to esti- mate whether this will result in any lasting transnational connection. CARNIVAL AS A TRANSNATIONAL CULTURAL PHENOMENON 273

However, although in embryonic form, this new link is revealing of the cultural adaptability of Carnival play within different socio-political realities and may well grow to reflect the development of transcultural exchange that stretches out across the world.

Notes

1. This is the earliest record of Carnival celebration that has been discovered up to now. It appears in a book of accounts at the Santo Spirito Hospital, where it is noted that patients were given a special meal, which included veal and cheese for Carnival (Fiorini 1987, 311–4). Bibliography

Newspapers Cited Amico Cattolico, L’: 1862 Animali Parlanti, Gli: 1875 Asino, L’: 1894–6 Daily Malta Chronicle and Garrison Gazette: 1891, 1894, 1899, 1901, 1913 Dr. Brombos: 1934 Eco di Malta e Gozo, L’: 1936 Economista di Malta e Gozo, L’: 1876 Figaretto, Il: 1844 Figaro: 1897 Filantropo Maltese, Il: 1856–7, 1859–60 Forward il-Quddiem: 1956, 1959, 1960 Garrison Gazette: 1894, 1899 Gazzetta di Malta, La: 1899, 1902 Gazzetta Popolare: 1861 Giahan: 1907 Globo, Il: 1841 Habbar Malti: 1879, 1883 Id-Dawl: 1931 Il Bandiera tal Maltin: 1900, 1902 Il Felu: 1929 Il Frosta: 1867 Il Gazzetta Maltia: 1900 Il Hmar: 1920

Il Poplu: 1931–4, 1937, 1958–61 Il Progress: 1930 Il-Berka: 1932–3, 1935–38, 1940; as Il-Berqa: 1947–62, 1965, 1968 Il-Ħelsien: 1959–61, 1963 Ir-Review: 1958 Is-Sebh: 1955, 1957–58 It-Torca:̇ 1962, 1963 Journal of the Federation of Malta Industries: 1951 Ass, L’: 1928 Ors, L’: 1923, 1929 Labour Opinion: 1926 Leħen il-Belt Vittorja: 1957, 1958 Leħen is-Sewwa: 1940, 1943, 1952, 1957, 1971 Lil Hutna: 1953 L-Orizzont: 1964 Malta Government Gazette: 1816, 1819–21, 1823, 1848, 1903, 1918, 1935, 1944, 1955 Malta Taghna: 1918 Malta Times and United Service Gazette: 1846, 1867 Malta: 1884–1890; (as Gazzetta di Malta: 1891–1902), (as Malta e le Sue Dipendenze 1903–4, 1906–8); 1909–16, 1918–20, 1922–33, 1935–40 Mediterraneo, Il: 1846 Opinione, L’: 1881 Ordine, L’: 1854, 1862, 1883 Patria!: 1955 Patriotta, Il: 1884 Popolo, Il: 1886 Portafoglio Maltese, Il: 1883, 1856 Public Opinion: 1867, 1873–4, 1877, 1890–2, 1894, 1896, 1899, 1906, 1908 Pungolo, Il: 1867 Rigenerazione, La: 1877 Risorgimento, Il: 1881 The Bulletin: 1944 The Enterprise: 1878 The Freeman: 1933 The Graphic: 1877, 1882, 1902 The Harlequin: 1840 The Malta Herald: 1922–4, 1926–9 The Malta Mail and United Service Journal: 1844–46 The Malta News: 1964 The Malta Observer: 1862–3, 1866–7, 1869–70 The Malta Penny Magazine: 1840–1 Bibliography 277

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Laws: 1848. Leggi Criminali Per l’Isola Di Malta e Le Sue Dipendenze. Libro Terzo. Delle Contravvenzioni e Della Loro Punizione, (1848): 55. 1860. Criminal Laws for the Island of Malta and Its Dependencies 1860. Malta. 1963. Laws of Malta, Emergency Powers Act, 1963, Part II, para. 4.1.

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British ‘Rose’ Complexion: “Full Text of “Merrie England: A New and Original Comic Opera in Two Acts”,” https://archive.org/stream/merrieenglandnew00germuoft/merrieengland- new00germuoft_djvu.txt

Broadcasting: “Broadcasting in Malta”. Maltese History & Heritage. A Project Run by the vas- sallomalta.com Website. https://vassallohistory.wordpress.com/broadcasting- in-malta/. Accessed on 30 June 2016. Bibliography 293

Carnival Floats: “Brian Sharman 1929–2004”. Jever Steam Laundry—98 Sqn Personnel Bebe Sharman 005. http://www.rafjever.org/98sqnper005-1.htm. Accessed on 16 March 2015.

Charitable Institutions: “Joseph Becket Henry Collings and the Reforms of the Charitable Institutions of Malta”. http://maltaramc.com/articles/contents/jbhc.html. Accessed on 8 September 2016.

Garibaldi: “La Italia Disfatta Dalla Revoluzione Piemontese”. Last Modified July. http:// www.eleaml.org. Accessed on 23 August 2015.

Lenci Dolls: “Antique and Vintage Lenci Dolls”. Collectors Weekly. http://www.collector- sweekly.com/dolls/lenci. Accessed on 5 August 2015.

Military: “A History of the British Army in Malta”. Malta Family History, 21 April 2017, http://website.lineone.net/~stephaniebidmead/Chapter123.htm “Miscellaneous Information Mentions in Despatches—Army”. AngloBoerWar.com. http://www.angloboerwar.com/other-information/16-other-information/ 1843-mentions-in-despatches-army. Accessed on 23 August 2015. “Service Record—James Miranda Stuart Barry”. Barry James Miranda Stuart. http://maltaramc.com/staffmo/b/barryj.html. Accessed on 22 August 2016. “Wirt Artna”. http://www.wirtartna.org/livinghistory_menu/Heritage InterpretationGroup/RoyalMaltaRegimentofMilitia/tabid/274/Default. aspx. Accessed on 22 July 2010.

Music for Il-Maltija: Borg, Steve. http://www.my-malta.com/interesting/Guns&Roses.html. Accessed on 2 October 2012. 294 Bibliography

Nobility of Malta (Gomerino): http://user.orbit.net.mt/fournier/maltese_nobility_in_maltese_hist.htm. Accessed on 7 August 2015. http://www.saidvassallo.com/SME/maltesenobility/nobility/depiro/ TestaferrataCassia.html. Accessed on 7 August 2015.

Police Force: “A Brief History of the Malta Police Force”. The Malta Police Corps on Line. http://steno.webs.com/112/police/corpinf.htm. Accessed on 28 November 2014.

Trams: “Maltese History & Heritage”. http://vassallohistory.wordpress.com/maltese- public-transport-since-1856-a-brief-history-of-the-public-transport-in-malta- the-omnibus-up-to-the-mid-1800s-the-only-means-of-human-transport-w/. Accessed on 18 July 2014.

Personal Communications Dr. Philip Ciantar (Head of Music Studies Department, University of Malta), Discussion with Author. 25 May 2015. Interview with Old Person in a Shop as Part of Television Documentary: Masks and Metamorphosis, Broadcast on TV Malta During Carnival 1995–6. Mrs. Mary Busuttil (Gozitan Seamstress Who Sewed Prize-Winning Carnival Costumes for Many Years), Telephone Interview with Author. 29 July 2016. Mrs. Pawla Caruana (Gozitan Housewife, Who Helped Out During Carnival Celebrations in Gozo), Discussion with Author. 29 July 2016. Index1

NUMBERS, AND SYMBOLS definition of, 15 8th September celebrations, 258–262 Anthem, Maltese national, 133, 215, 231 Antigua Carnival, 243 A Anti-Reformist Party, 22 Abulafia, David, 26, 40 See also Nationalist Party (PN) Access, popular, to paid entertainment, Apap, Koli, 64, 203, 204, 226 see Balls, public; Enclosure Aquilina, Ġużè, 204 Adversary, 15, 16 Asquith, H. H., 185 Afro-Asian People’s Solidarity Attard, Frans, 236 Organisation (AAPSO), 214, 237, Awbery, Stan, 253 239n3 Axisa, John, 204 Agon, 132–135, 181 Azzopardi, Felic (is-Suffarell), 58 See also Agonism; Antagonism Azzopardi, Francesco, 161 Agonism, 111, 129, 134, 228 definition of, 15 Ahmad, Aijaz, 210 B Almonds, sugared, see Perlini Bagolino Carnival, 94 Amore, Domenico, 153 Bajada, Toni, 72 Anderson, Benedict, 21, 24 Ballou, Maturin, 51, 61, 107, 151 Anglo-Maltese Party, 23 Balls Animals, live, 150, 225, 236, 238 and advertisements, 111 Antagonism, 111, 129, 134, 144, 166 at the Balzonetta, 130

1 Note: Page numbers followed by “n” refer to notes

Balls (cont.) Battle of Flowers, 260, 261 cancelled, 111, 125–128, 192, 221 Baynes, Arthur, 49 and entrance fees and standards of Bermuda Carnival, 243 living, 136–137 Bevan, Aneurin, 220 at the Governor’s Palace, 34, 93, Bhabha, Homi, 272 104, 109, 112–128 Blaquière, Edward, 101 at the Malta Chamber of Body, playful, 59–62 Commerce, 54, 110–112, 131, Boer War, 126, 158 139 Boffa, Mrs. Genoveffa, 138 at the Manoel Theatre, 50, 69, 100, Boffa, Sir Paul (Prime Minister), 138, 111, 130, 133, 136 212 and politicians’ participation, 138 Bonanno, Fra Diego, 38 at the Royal Opera House, 36, 59, Bonham-Carter, Sir Charles, 54, 127 69, 111, 113, 126, 130, Bonnici, Ignazio, 149, 163 132–140 Bonnici, John, 235 Balls, fashion of, 100–105 Borg Olivier, George (Prime Minister), Ball, Sir Alexander, 30, 49 138, 172, 214, 215, 222, 235 Balls, public, 36, 50, 61, 67, 69, 104, Borno, President Louis, 180 105, 111, 120, 126, 128–140, Borton, Sir Arthur (Governor 190, 195, 199, 271 General), 163 and the circulation of power, Boycott, 12, 93, 139, 181, 211, 128–137 217–232, 248, 260 locations of, 120, 131, 135, 136, Boy Scouts Association, 127, 217 223 Bread, price of, 35, 103 Ballucci, Ġużi, 205, 233 Brockway, Fenner, 250, 251 Balme, Christopher, 143 Buenos Aires Carnival, 128 Band clubs, 58, 72, 136, 192, 196, Buhagiar, Helen, 41 197 Burns Debono, Josephine, 41 Bando, 50, 51 Bands, 58, 74, 88, 180, 192, 204, 205, 224, 230, 236, 246 C Barbaro Zimmermann, Marquise, 110 Caillois, Roger, 45, 177, 181 Barber, J. Lee (Admiral Calypso, 27, 143, 145 Superintendent), 227 Cameron, Charles (Civil Barry, Edward M., 154 Commissioner), 1, 48, 50 Barthes, Roland, 246 Camilleri, Carmelo (playwright), 155 Barthet, Esprit, 194, 233 Camilleri, John C., 37 Bartolo, Anthony, 23 Campbell, Sir David (Governor), 133, Bartolo, Judge Augustus, 23 202 Bathurst, Earl, 32 Canboulay, 145, 151, 166, 179 Battenberg, Prince (Princess Louis of), Cardinale, Mons. Igino (Apostolic 117 Delegate), 262 INDEX 297

Caricatures, 19, 148, 151, 159, 161, Castiglione, Baldassare, 90 218, 224, 235, 237, 271 Catholic Church, 10, 18, 105, 210, Caricchia, Francesco, 130 211, 213, 228, 241–258 Carnival Cefai, Spiru, see Navarro, Johnny and aural landscapes, 55–59 Celebrations, Independence, 262–266 colonial perceptions of, 1–4 Celebrations, 8th September, 258–262 control and regulations, 48–51 Chamber of Commerce, 28, 37, 110, exportation of, 272 160, 163, 164 in February, 217–228 Chamberlain, Sir Joseph, 164 financial costs of, 91, 196–200 Charity, 33, 38, 158, 253 the first, under British Rule, 48–51 Cholera, 32 funeral of, 86–89 Circolo della Sliema, 116 looking for, 85–86 Circolo la Valette, 136 organised (see Ludus) Cirillo, Mario (Maestro), 198 organised in Valletta, the rise of, CivicCentre, Senglea, 232 183–184 Civil Service Sports Club, 74, 138, participation of armed forces during, 139 37, 52, 87, 217, 221 Clarke, Lady Gemma, 127 post-war, 200–203 Clarke, Sir Charles (Governor), 127 and power and economic concerns, Clubs, rivalry between, –110, 107 30–38 Coleiro, Charles, 196 as ritual, 85, 181, 243, 248 Comfits,see Perlini in spring, 203, 216–228, 242–258 Commerce during Carnival, 37, 199 rival, 210, 228 Commission, Sanitary, 162 as tourist attraction, 191, 243, 272 Committee for the Organisation of the See also Police regulations National Regatta, 260 Carnival Committee, 91, 93, 94, 135, Committive, 71, 72 178, 184–203 Communitas, 46, 95, 220, 243, 248 emergence of, 184–186 Compact, 39, 92, 133 other, 178, 197 Companies, children’s costumed, Carnival during wartime, 36, 38, 67, 98n14, 197, 225, 231, 236 72, 131, 135, 138, 156 Companies, costumed, 58, 70, 93, Carnival in Gozo, 45, 56, 61, 64, 98n14, 110, 114, 132, 133, 152, 69, 83, 95, 131, 169, 203–205, 184, 187, 190, 197, 204, 229, 225–238 234, 236 Cars, decorated, see Floats Competitions, 58, 129, 132, 186–191, Cars, publicity, see Floats, publicity 198, 200 Caruana, Archbishop Maurus, 134 Confetti, see Perlini Casino della Borsa, see Chamber of Congregation of the Holy Office, 245 Commerce Congreve, Sir Walter Norris, 111 Casino di San Giorgio, 116, 140n6, Consiglio Popolare, 20, 39, 127, 140n5 192 Consolato di Mare, 26 298 INDEX

Constitutional Party, 23, 39, 41, 167, Dijon Carnival, 48, 191 214 Dimech, Manwel, 22, 23, 159 Constitutions, Maltese, 16, 20, 29, 39, Dingli, Lady Amy Mildred, 117 92, 123, 125, 167, 169, 171, Dingli, Sir Adrian, 117, 121, 166 221, 258, 267n10 Diocesan Junta, 256 suspension of, 9, 41, 92, 133, 144, Discharged Workers Fund, 255 167, 171, 221 Disguise, and behaviour Contradanza Maltija, dance, see of the poorer classes, 62–67 Il-Maltija of the wealthy classes, 70–74 Costume and theatricality, 120–122 Disguise, prize for best, 69, 188 Cottonera, 46, 147, 187, 197, 258 Disguise, prohibition of, 20, 49, 53, Creasy, Sir Gerald, 202 54, 100, 187 Cremona, Danny, 259 Dockyard, 26, 33, 36, 40, 41, 131, Cremona, Emvin, 194, 262 209, 221, 227, 234, 257 Crimean War, 155 Dockyard Staff Sports Club, 221 Cross-dressing, 67–69 Domeier, William, 30, 51, 101 and homosexuality, 68 Donations, private, 188, 196 Cultural continuity, 4 Dress codes Cultural transformation, 4–5 and the disarticulation of power, Curmi, Gianni, 92, 93 122–125 Cutajar, Felice, 49 Drum, friction, 56 Duke of Edinburgh cinema, 120 Dynamics, street D and disguise, 51–54 Da Matta, Robert, 248 Dynamics, visual, 59–62 Dances, 89–96, 113–120 See also Il-Maltija; Kummittiva, dance E Darbois, Camille, 153 Economic concerns Dawson, Captain, 114 and carnival and power, 30–38 Debord, Guy, 145, 265 Eco, Umberto, 48 De Gray, Vivian (Police Edinburgh, Philip (Duke of), 202, Commissioner), 222, 264 264 De Lancellotti, Prof. Cav., 113 Eighth of September Regatta Del Valle-Inclán, Ramón, 143 Committee, 260 Demartino, Carmelo, 38 Elizabeth II, Queen, 120, 202, 215 Demonstrations, political, 24, 171, Ellul Mercer, Guzé, 139 173, 221, 222, 248 Emergency Powers Act, 236 See also Meetings, public, political Emigration, 26, 32, 35, 37, 140, 219, De Piro, Mona, 110 253 Difference, class Empire Football Stadium, 228, 231, and street play, 55–62 246 INDEX 299

Enclosure, 73, 74, 181, 192, 202, Ganado, Dr. Herbert, 38, 58, 68, 86, 204, 219, 225, 230, 271 257, 258 Enredo, 184 Garibaldi, Giuseppe, 157, 158 Entrance fees, 181, 192 Gatt, Adeodato (composer and band and balls, 136–137 master), 249 and enclosure, 181, 192, 207n14, Gaxxen, 33 234 Gellner, Ernest, 34, 102 Exchange Ball, see Balls; Chamber of General Workers’ Union, 40, 222, Commerce 245, 257, 264 Għana, 56, 83 Gibbons, Rawle, 51 F Gilmore, David, 68 Fabian Society, 212 Giolzi, 86 Farsons Beer Company, 196 Giunta, 256 Fastnacht, 160 Giurati, abolition of, 39 Father Carnival, see King Carnival Glenelg, Lord, 33 Federation of Malta Industries, 138 Godwin, Reverend, 35, 108 Ferris, Monsignor Francesco, 135 Gonzi, Michael (Archbishop of Malta), Figures, pelted, 80–85 105, 213, 214, 241, 245, 247, Fireworks, 58, 72, 202, 222, 225, 250, 262 231, 249, 263 Grand Hotel, 78, 165 Fisher, Admiral Sir John, 117 Grant, Miss, 113 Floats, 46, 84, 89, 181–186, 223, Grantham, Sir Guy (Governor), 235 226, 229, 234, 236, 246, 247 Grech, Joe, 234 Floats, historical, 263, 265 Greco-Turkish war, 156 Floats, political, 152, 249, 251, 257, Grenfell, Lt. General Sir Francis 261 Wallace, 29, 117, 125 Floats, publicity, 75, 197, 202 Grey, Earl, 161 Floats, satirical, 32, 147, 149, 161, Griscti, Carmelo (tailor), 54, 187 167, 171, 230, 248 Grotesque Band Marches, see Band Floats, women’s participation on, clubs; Bands 197 Forces, micro and macro, at play, 15–20 H Foucault, Michel, 17–19, 66, 106, Habba, 32 125, 147, 210, 211, 244 Haiti Carnival, 56, 59, 128, 180, 191 French rule, 48 Hegemony, 25, 36, 42, 99, 211 Frere, John Hookham, 39 Herbert, Henry (Fourth Earl of Carnarvon), 162 Hierarchy, 6, 8, 17, 23, 25, 77, 177, G 181, 183, 192, 193, 210, 211, 271 Galea, Bishop Emmanuel, 256 See also Social boundaries; Social Games of strategy, 210, 212, 259 difference; Social positioning 300 INDEX

Hill, Errol, 120 Kosbor, 79, 82, 97n10 Homosexuality and cross-dressing, 68 Kukkanja, 225, 231, 233, 235 Hooch, 137 Kummittiva, dance, 94–95 Houlton, Lady Hyacinthe, 114 See also Dances Houlton, Sir Edward Victor Lewis Kutra, 64 (Chief Secretary), 114

L I Labour Brigade, 217, 232, 234, 249, Id-Duca, 82 251, 259, 260 Identity, national, 2, 7–11, 19–29, 92, Labour League of Youth, 261 93, 96, 111, 118, 146, 161, 209, Laferla, Albert, 155 213, 258, 270 Laiviera, Nestu, 259 Il-Bolxevist, 245 Language Question, the, 168–170 Il-Conslu, 82, 83 and social boundaries, 27–30 Il-Karnival tax-Xitan, 203 Laycock, Sir Robert (Governor), 222, Il-Konsli, 83 241, 248, 259 Il-Maltija, 64, 93, 114–116, 120, Le Marchant, Sir John Gaspard 188, 232, 235 (Governor), 153, 158 See also Dances Lennox-Boyd, Viscount Alan, 221 Il-Muskettieri Għawdxin, 226, 233 Lewis, George Cornewall, 3, 106 Independence, 4, 10, 11, 16, 26, 40, Liedna, 261 42, 131, 139, 209–222, 224, Lucignano, carnival company from, 237, 243, 249, 255, 262–266, 221 269 Ludus, 177–184, 224 Independence Arena, 265 definition of, 46 Inglott, Captain G. F., 79 Luzzu, 261 Inglott, Ferdinando, 121 Integration, 41, 42, 93, 203, 209–227 Interdict, 179, 213, 214, 234, 243, M 250, 252, 256, 262 Maitland, Sir Thomas (Governor), 32, Invented tradition, 113–120, 216 39 Ir-Romblu, 82 Malta Band Clubs Association, 230 Italo-Turkish war, 156 Malta Carnival Pageant Committee, see Carnival Committee Malta Government Savings Bank, 227 J Malta Labour Party (MLP), 10, 22, Jowitt, Lord, 202 24, 36, 39, 41, 42, 93, 105, 172, 210–212, 218, 219, 221–224, 228–238, 241, 245, 249, K 251–253, 255–260, 262, 263 Kefi, 60, 66 Malta Union Club, 107–110, 139, Kessler Sisters, 236 187 King Carnival, 86, 189, 221 Maltempu, 83 INDEX 301

Maltese Liberation Movement, 250 Muscat Azzopardi, Guzé, 72 Mamo, Mr. J. (dancing master), 104, Musical instruments, 57 118 Mussolini, Benito, 136, 144, 168, Manderaggio, 247 169, 185 Marks, John, F., 242 Myth Maschera da Coltra, 64 and Mintoff, 213, 246 Mascherata, 51, 185 Maskeruni, see Masks, grotesque Masks, grotesque, 180, 194, 204, 210, N 231, 232, 234, 237, 246 National day, Maltese, 258 Masks, prohibition of, 49, 129, 150, Nationalist Party (PN), 22, 29, 41, 82, 179, 195 83, 165, 167, 170, 214, 215, May Day Carnival, see Carnival, in 219, 258, 259 spring See also Anti-Reformist Party McCulloch, General Andrew Jameson, National Political Union, 134 172 NATO, 250, 251, 261, 263 Meetings, public, political, 144, 147, Navarro, Johnny, 233 151, 165, 171, 215, 234, 255, New Orleans Carnival, 17, 48, 74, 259 102, 177, 178, 190 See also Demonstrations, political Nice Carnival, 48, 56, 76, 178 Mejlak, Ġuzè, 204 Memmi, Albert, 27 Methuen, Lord Paul (Governor), 126 O Mifsud, Arturo, 191 Oakes, Brigadier-General Hildebrand, Mintoff, Dom (Prime Minister), 24, 31 93, 139, 171, 212–238 O’Ferrall, Sir Richard More, 17, 18, Mirabita, Mr. A., 117 28, 160 Mitchell, Reid, 178 Organisation, new efforts at, 191–196 Mitrovich, Giorgio, 39 See also Ludus Mizzi, Fortunato, 22, 23, 29, 116, Oruro Carnival, 48 161, 258 Osterhammel, Jürgen, 16, 19, 27–29, Mizzi, Giuseppe, 171 36, 102, 144, 155, 161, 215, Mizzi, Nerik (Prime Minister), 214 266, 270 Montevideo Carnival, 128 Ottoman Empire, 32, 153, 154 Monti, Vincenzo, 169 Moresque, dance, see Parata, dance Morris Dancing, see Parata, dance P Mothers and Infants Welfare Pace, Archbishop Pietro, 53, 166 Association, 127 Paidia, 46, 51–54, 177–183, 205, Mouffe, Chantal, 15, 99, 111, 134, 227 166, 211, 241 definition of, 45 Mountbatten, Lord Louis, 117, 133, Palace Theatre, 262 202 Panzavecchia, Mgr Ignatius, 22, 134 302 INDEX

Parata, dance, 89–96 and tradition, 74–96 Parry, Benita, 7 of the wealthy, 110–112 Partito Popolare, 22 Power, Sir Arthur and Lady, 202, 203 Pastoral power, 244 Press, role of Patronage, political, 173 and resistance, 20–25 Peck, Francis, 90 Prizes, 186 Pellegrini, Toni, 257, 258 amount of, 188, 196, 198, 202 Pelting, 47, 51, 74–80, 165, 183, 202 criteria for, 198 Penn, Granville, 30 Protagonists, political, 212–216 Perlini, 76, 82 Publicity, commercial during, Carnival, Peto, Gladys, 133 191 Phoenicia Hotel, 135, 137, 138, 221 See also Floats, publicity Pigot, Major General Henry, 49 Pius XI, Pope (death of), 199 Plague, 32, 227 Q Play Qarcillȧ , 80, 81, 86 and politics, 137–140 Quadrille, 103, 104, 113 and social behaviour, 132–135 See also Dances Play, ludic, see Ludus Quarantore, 10, 200 Play, paidean, see Paidia Play, popular, 74–96 Play, street R and class difference, 55–62 Radio City Opera House, 139, 235 Play, unstructured, see Paidia Rally, see Meetings, public, political Police regulations, 17, 61, 70–74, 76, Rawdon, Francis (Marquis of 79, 100, 144, 152, 157, 171, Hastings), 32 172, 179, 200, 238, 251 Rediffusion, 105, 195, 226, 233, 251, Political, the 258 definition of, 15 Referendum Political spectacularity, 205, 211, 212, for independence from Great 215, 242, 244, 250 Britain, 237, 255, 257, 262 Politics for integration with Great Britain, definition of, 15 203, 218, 246 and paidia and ludus, 177 Reformist Party, 22, 29, 40, 149, 161 Portelli, Pawlu, 204 Representation, Maltese political, Pound, Admiral Sir Dudley, 128 38–43 Power Resistance and carnival and economic concerns, and the role of the Press, 20–25 30–38 and theatricality, 7, 20, 100, 146 circulation of, 128–137 Ridley, Major General, 123 and identity, 8–11 Rio Carnival, 178, 184, 193 and social hierarchy, 5–8 Riot, 166 symbol of, 216–217 Riots, 36, 227, 236 INDEX 303

Rizzo, Arthur J., 260 Seddall, Rev. Henry, 31, 150 Roach, Joseph, 17, 74, 102 Seymour, Lady Agnes, 114 Royal Netherlands Navy Squadron, Seymour, Sir Francis, 114 218 Shaw, George Bernard, 126 Rundle, Sir Leslie (Governor), 126, Sillato, Ġiġi, 205, 233 132 Smith, Anthony, 214, 215 Russo-Turkish war, 156 Smyth, Sir Henry Augustus, 53, 123 Social Action Movement, 257 Social and political conditions in S Malta, historical background of, St John’s Ambulance Brigade, 217 25–27 St Joseph the Worker, Feast of, see Social boundaries Carnival, in spring and the Language Question, 27–30 St. Vincent de Paul Society, 33, 38 See also Hierarchy Salesian Boys’ Brigade, 250 Social capital, 116 Salomone, Captain, 133 Social difference Salvu l-qaddis, 83 in street dynamics, 45–48 Sambôdromo, 193 See also Hierarchy Sandys, Duncan, 248, 262, 264 Social positioning Sant, Lorry, 231, 250 between the British and the Maltese Satariano, Dr. Gio. Batta, 108 upper lasses, 105–107 Satires, 143, 144 See also Hierarchy on foreign politics, 154–160 Socialist International, 214, 250 and the Language Question, Soler, Right Hon. J., 258 168–170 Spectacle, as a symbol of power, 216 on Maltese politics and policies, Spectators, passive, see Ludus 160–168 Spiteri, Fredu (comedian), 83, 205, by political parties, 144, 147, 149, 226, 233, 236 161–167, 218 Spiteri, Lino (politician), 231 and the Press, 24, 145–152, 157, Spiteri, Mary (singer), 234 161, 169, 218, 219, 232 Spivak, Gayatri, 2, 41, 244 prohibition of, 161, 165, 172, 183, Spontaneity in carnival, see Paidia 223, 235, 237, 238, 251 Spontaneity, lack of, see Ludus social, 152–154 State of Emergency, 222, 237, 248 Savona, Sigismondo, 22, 165, 169 Stolper, Wolfgang (Head of UN Savona, William, 22 Economic Mission), 255 Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, Princess Stonehouse, John, 252 Alexandra, 78 Stopford, Sir Robert, 153 Saxe-Coburg Gotha, Prince Alfred, 34, Strickland, Lord Gerald (Prime 125 Minister), 23, 24, 29, 39, 123, Sciortino, Dr., 106 134, 166, 214 Secularism, 216, 244, 247, 256, Strickland, Mabel, 23, 41, 214, 232, 257 259 304 INDEX

Stuart, Lady Catherine, 114 V Stuart, Lieutenant General Sir Patrick Valente, Valerio (musician), (Governor), 18, 114, 140n2, 150, 230 151 Vassallo, Carmel, 35, 37 Subsidy, government, 34, 38, 92, 93, Veglioni, see Balls, public 173, 193, 196, 199, 204, 205, 224 Vella, Dr. E. L., 91 Vella Gera, Alfred, 148, 167 Vella, Gianni, 194 T Venice Carnival, 64 Tabone, Sander, 204 Von Koningsbruggen, Peter, 6 Ta Ċaflas, 186 Von Straubenzee, Sir Charles, Tal-Likk, 170 Governor, 121 Tal-qrun, 83 Tas-Single, 170 Tax, amusement, 230, 234 W Taylor, Diana, 42, 217 Wakefield, Sir Edward, 235 Teddy Boys, 105, 261 Waltz, 95, 104 Theatricality, 47, 166, 209, 210, 215, Wells, Rear-Admiral, 128 246 Whalen, Philip, 48, 191 and costume, 120–122 Wheeler, Private William, 32, 52 and resistance, 7, 20, 100, 146 Williams, Penry, 62 Three Cities, the, see Cottonera Wilson, Rev. S. S., 62–65, 68, 86, Tombola, 185 130 Tonna, Superintendent Frank, 265 Winthrop, William, 158 Trinidad Carnival, 2, 6, 19, 27, 48, Workers’ Day, 216, 242, 247 51, 56, 61, 64, 120, 144, 145, Working hours, 17, 37 151, 158, 166, 179, 191 Tunisian Carnival, 272 Turner, Victor, 45, 46, 60 X Xerri, Ġorġ, 204 Xirka Xemia, 164, 168 U Unemployment, 37, 40, 41, 185, 238n2, 251 Z United Nations Charter, 249 Zammit, Spiridione, 236 Universal Declaration of Human Zepṗ and Grezz, 64, 94, 115 Rights, 249 Zerrec, 55