From Pets to Companion Animals 4CHAPTER

Researched by Martha C. Armstrong, Susan Tomasello, and Christyna Hunter

A Brief History of Shelters and Pounds nimal shelters in most U.S. their destiny: death by starvation, harassed working horses, pedestrians, communities bear little trace injury, gassing, or drowning. There and shopkeepers, but also spread ra- A of their historical British were no adoption, or rehoming, pro- bies and other zoonotic diseases. roots. Early settlers, most from the grams and owners reclaimed few In outlying areas, unchecked breed- British Isles, brought with them the strays. And while early humanitarians, ing of farm dogs and abandonment of English concepts of towns and town like Henry Bergh, founder of the city dwellers’ unwanted pets created management, including the rules on American Society for the Prevention packs of marauding dogs, which keeping livestock. Each New England of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA), and killed wildlife and livestock and posed town, for example, had a common, a George Thorndike Angell, founder of significant health risks to humans central grassy area to be used by all the Massachusetts Society for the and other animals. townspeople in any manner of bene- Prevention of Cruelty to Animals State and local governments were fit, including the grazing of livestock. (MSPCA), were concerned about ani- forced to pass laws requiring dog As long as the livestock remained on mal abuse, their focus was more on owners to control their animals. Al- the common, the animals could graze working animals—horses, in particu- though laws that prohibited deliber- at will, but once the animal strayed lar—than on the fate of stray dogs. It ate abuse of or cruelty to animals had onto private property or public thor- was through the efforts of Caroline passed in most states by the turn of oughfares, a “pound master” took the Earle White, founder of the Women’s the century, few states had laws that animal to the pound, a small stone- SPCA of Pennsylvania, that the fate of provided for the control of dogs be- walled corral that was usually just a stray dogs began to change. White yond their owners’ property. Only lat- few feet away from the common. For a secured the first contract from a city er in the 1900s were laws requiring small fine, the owner was able to to a humane society to operate a leashing and licensing of dogs passed retrieve his stray livestock. more humane pound or shelter for throughout the United States and As the United States began to grow dogs and cats and implemented an money allocated to hire dogcatchers and as towns became more popula- adoption program, as well as more and run pounds. Although some laws ted, urbanization brought a new type humane ways of housing, caring for, were passed strictly on the grounds of stray to the city. Stray dogs allowed and, if need be, euthanizing the ani- of protecting public safety, most were to roam the streets could present all mals in the care of the SPCA. tied to other laws that required dogs types of problems: barking at and to be vaccinated against rabies and/ frightening working horses, creating Shelters at the or that provided additional penalties sanitation problems, and biting pass- for a dog who killed livestock. A pro- ersby. The old stone-walled corrals Turn of the liferation of local ordinances and by- were not appropriate for dogs. Instead Twentieth Century laws were passed in the late 1930s unused warehouses or enclosed barns Expansion of urban life and contrac- and early 1940s to strengthen state were employed. tion of agrarian interests created in- animal control laws and to provide a Housed in crude pens or tied to creased problems for city managers, revenue source to pay for animal con- hooks on the side of the wall, pound including protecting the public’s trol programs. dogs stood little chance of escaping health and safety. Stray dogs not only

71 While most citizens did not want While most large U.S. cities already Pound Seizure stray dogs roaming the streets, they were served by an SPCA, many of The conditions and location of the also did not want the captured strays which ran shelters, smaller cities and pound were not the only reasons for kept in facilities near their homes. rural communities were either under- the formation of hundreds of new The barking, howling, and fighting served by the local SPCA or relied humane societies and animal welfare among hundreds of strays made solely on municipal government to organizations. The proliferation of pounds unpopular neighbors. As a provide animal care and sheltering stray dogs shortly after World War II, result, the shelters were usually found services for their community’s ani- the shortage of sheltering facilities, near a locality’s other dumping mals. During the early 1950s, humane and the growth of government-funded ground, the municipal landfill. Early societies, animal rescue leagues, and biomedical research combined to municipal pounds were crudely con- other animal welfare groups prolifer- bring about a new policy, pound structed, lacking heat, cooling, and, ated. Many were created to fill a void seizure, which horrified many pet in many instances, hot and cold run- in the locality they served. Others lovers. First passed in Minnesota and ning water. Animals entering a pound were formed to provide an alternative then pushed along by the National were rarely claimed, even more rarely to a substandard municipal pound. Society for Medical Research (NSMR) adopted or rehomed, and normally The new shelters were different not and local research organizations else- destroyed within hours of arriving. only in their look and location, but where, pound seizure laws required Those who did have some sort of iden- also in the programs they offered. They municipally run animal shelters or tification—a collar with a license or sought more to prevent animal control pounds to release unclaimed animals identification tag—were usually afford- problems than to provide curative and on demand to any accredited re- ed an additional period of holding time punitive measures. Humane educa- search facility or university that before they were destroyed. Irregular tion, spaying and neutering, and dif- requested them. cleanings and rarely disinfected cages ferential licensing were part of the Local humanitarians found pound provided ample opportunity for dis- broad menu of services added to the seizure to be the antithesis of the eases to run rampant throughout new animal shelters’ lists of programs true purpose of an animal shelter—to pounds. Coupled with the fact that provided to their communities. provide a safe haven for stray and lost few strays had received any vaccina- As the traditional pound disap- animals. To avoid the law, local tions against highly contagious dis- peared, the stereotypical dogcatcher humane societies built their own shel- eases such as distemper, even the followed right behind it. The days ters or contracted with municipalities “lucky” owner-identified animal who when a driver’s license and the will- to run their facilities. By agreeing to escaped immediate destruction with ingness to be bitten occasionally were run the shelter under contract with his fellow strays would usually con- the only prerequisites gave way; the city or county or by establishing a tract and succumb to disease shortly knowing a bit about animal behavior, separate facility, these organizations after entering the pound. animal first aid, conflict resolution, found that they were exempt from and legal procedures was now re- being forced to comply with pound A Half Century quired. The new animal control offi- seizure laws since they fell outside the of Progress: From cer was more physically fit than his or definition of covered entities. The her predecessor, as well. MSPCA was one of the first to chal- Dog Pound to Training opportunities to profes- lenge pound seizure laws by filing suit Animal Shelter sionalize the field were also increas- in court, stating that the Massachu- ing. The MSPCA offered training for After World War II, pounds underwent setts law mandating pound seizure executives and law enforcement offi- violated the mission of animal shel- a massive transformation. Pet owners cers in the early 1950s. The American were no longer willing to let a con- ters. Although the case went all the Humane Association (AHA) launched way to the state’s Supreme Judicial crete-block-and-wire building at the a series of educational and training town dump represent their communi- Court before a decision was finally venues through universities, state fed- rendered, the court’s ruling still left ty’s effort to house and care for erations, and local shelters. In the homeless and stray animals. They the subject in limbo. The Court stat- late 1970s, The Humane Society of ed that the MSPCA did not have wanted a place that humanely shel- the United States (HSUS) launched tered the animals under its roof, but standing to sue, since the pound sei- its Animal Control Academy in con- zure laws applied only to municipally they also demanded programs that junction with the University of Alaba- were aimed at decreasing the home- operated pounds or shelters. Since ma to provide certification to animal the MSPCA was a private, nonprofit less animal population and shelter control officers. Several state animal staff trained to be more caring and organization that did not serve as a control associations offered training pound, it was not an aggrieved party. professional in the care and treat- through state law enforcement train- ment of animals. The controversy surrounding pound ing institutes or academies. seizure was not limited to the local

72 The State of the Animals: 2001 level. AHA found itself embroiled in The New Look ter efforts proved to be insufficient the battle when legislation was pro- incentive for the adopter to have the posed on the federal level that would of Shelters animal sterilized. have regulated the sale, care, and use As the number of households keeping Even if the shelter was interested in of dogs and cats in medical research. pets grew, the look and function of using the adoption contract to ensure Seeking to find common ground with the shelter that served the canine and compliance with spay/neuter poli- the research community, AHA entered feline population in the community cies, most were limited to civil action. into an agreement with NSMR only to changed drastically. The new shelter The shelter would have to sue the find that agreement later discarded. was more centrally located and usual- adopter to force the sterilization or to Some members of AHA’s board of ly had indoor runs to reduce noise and recover the animal. Most shelters did directors and staff were so angered by to make it a better neighbor to busi- not have the resources or the time to the executive director’s decision to nesses and residences. It not only had pursue this option. enter into any discussions that would hot and cold running water, but also In the late 1970s, the Animal Wel- allow shelter animals to go into had central heat and air-conditioning, fare League of Arlington (Virginia) research that they forced the issue heated floors, and built-in cleaning decided to make sterilization of its onto the ballot of the general mem- systems to help keep disease transmis- adopted animals a requirement by bership meeting in 1954. Although a sion down and odors under control. law. After the League convinced the membership battle on the issue was On the East and West coasts, larger county board that intact animals ultimately avoided, the dissidents humane societies also incorporated adopted from the shelter were adding who forced the issue left AHA and spay/neuter clinics and education to the potential for animal control formed the National Humane Society, centers into their facilities. Beneficia- problems, the board unanimously later renamed The Humane Society of ries of funding from a large trust approved an ordinance that required the United States. established by George Whittel in the any animal adopted from the shelter Thirty years later, The HSUS and 1970s named shelter clinics and hu- to be spayed or neutered by the time AHA joined with nine other animal mane education centers all along the specified in the adoption contract. protection groups to form National California coastline after him. Failure to do so would result in a $300 ProPets, a coalition organized to over- But the look of the shelter was not fine and/or a year in jail, with each turn pound seizure on the state and all that changed in the late 1960s and day beyond the specified time being local levels. The fight over pound 1970s. Shelters pushed to win accep- considered a separate offense. In seizure initially concentrated on local tance as an HSUS accredited shelter addition, the local commonwealth referenda in California and Florida. or to comply with AHA’s Standards of attorney stated that he considered Outspent by and losing to the re- Excellence program. The standards each puppy or kitten born to a search community on the local level, for both programs looked at day-to- League-adopted animal to be a sepa- ProPets turned its attention to the day operations, as well as adherence rate offense. U.S. Congress when Rep. Bob Mrazek to programs to reduce the numbers Several other humane societies and of New York sponsored the Pet Protec- of homeless animals within the com- animal control agencies worked with tion Act of 1986. The bill later passed munity. Many shelters had as part of municipal officials to pass ordinances in a very weakened version in 1990. their adoption contract a provision to help reduce the homeless and stray At the height of the pound seizure that animals adopted from them pet populations within their commu- era, more than fourteen states and must be spayed or neutered. Most nities. The Santa Cruz (California) hundreds of localities required local gave the adopter thirty days from the SPCA worked with its city officials municipally owned and operated shel- date of the adoption to comply (or to pass an ordinance that required ters to give up unclaimed animals for thirty days from the date of the ani- intact animals to be spayed or research purposes. As of 2000 only mal’s “maturity,” since six months neutered if they were picked up by three states still mandated pound was considered the youngest age at animal control for a third time in a seizure and more than a dozen pro- which an animal could be surgically twelve-month period. hibited it. Even in states that neither sterilized). Some had spay/neuter Differential licensing (charging a required nor prohibited pound clinics within the shelter and the higher license fee for intact animals seizure, most municipalities had adopter could make an appointment than for sterilized animals) also in- dropped the practice, noting its un- for the surgery before leaving with creased in popularity across the Unit- popularity with the public and tiring the new family pet. Others worked ed States in the late 1970s and of the public relations nightmare it with area veterinarians and required 1980s. A few brave communities took created for the local animal shelters. the adopter to select a veterinarian on the issue of cat licensing and the prior to leaving the shelter. Still oth- licensing of breeders. Charlotte/ ers required the adopter to leave a Mecklenburg County (North Caro- refundable deposit to encourage fol- lina) passed cat licensing in 1981, but low-through. But far too often, shel- not without a storm of controversy.

From Pets to Companion Animals 73 The day after the law went into effect, ticularly remarkable given that such ment, but enjoyed none of the tax the headline in the Charlotte Obser- services are paid for exclusively by the advantages that nonprofit, humane ver read, “Charlotte Is Killing Its pet owners. Pet owners purchase few society-run clinics did. Cats” (M. Blinn, personal communi- third-party or insurance payer sys- Each of the lawsuits resulted in dif- cation, Sept. 13, 2000). The town of tems, and those pet owners who do ferent judgments. In Virginia the Oxford, Massachusetts, passed a cat purchase them rarely find such proce- state legislature passed a law making licensing bylaw in the early 1990s, dures covered. it illegal for anyone other than a vet- but had to deflect three separate erinarian to own and operate a veteri- challenges in town meetings to keep The War between nary clinic. This effectively forced the it on the books. Some towns and Virginia Beach SPCA to sell its clinic counties that required cat licensing the Humane and contract with the new owner for were issuing almost as many cat and Veterinary services. In Louisiana the state veteri- licenses as they were dog licenses. Communities nary licensing board refused to li- While these licensing laws helped to cense or renew the license of any vet- increase the return-to-owner rate The growth in the veterinary profes- erinarian working for the Louisiana of stray cats three- or fourfold, sion and the growing acceptance of SPCA (LA SPCA). LA SPCA filed suit going from 1 percent to 4 percent was veterinary care by pet owners in the in court to force the state registry still unacceptable. 1970s and 1980s did not produce bet- board to license or re-license its vet- ter relations between the humane erinarians. The resulting ruling found and veterinary communities. Shel- that the passage of an ordinance pur- Opportunities ters, and in some instances, munici- porting to make the SPCA an “em- pal governments, desperate to stop ployee” of the City of New Orleans and Challenges the growing homeless pet population brought the plaintiffs within the and unable to negotiate agreements statutory exception found in La.R.S. in Companion with local veterinarians, began open- 37:1514 (l) and rendered this case ing and running their own low-cost moot (The Louisiana Society for the Animal Care spay/neuter clinics. A few shelters Prevention of Animal Cruelty and the established full-service clinics, setting City of New Orleans v. Louisiana Advances in Medical a sliding fee structure that allowed Board of Veterinary Medical Associa- Care for Companion them to subsidize the costs of caring tion 1990). In two separate cases in for indigent or low-income families’ Michigan, the Internal Revenue Ser- Animals pets through fees from those who vice ruled that the running of a Recent advances in companion ani- could afford to pay full price. spay/neuter clinic by a humane soci- mal veterinary care have been a lead- Full-scale war broke out between ety was a reasonable service of a char- ing benchmark for the status of com- local shelters and veterinarians when itable organization, not a business. As panion animals. The life span of a dog veterinarians, seeing some of their long as the humane society did not or cat has increased significantly clients move over to the shelter-oper- advertise its services, it was legally through improved delivery of preven- ated clinics, decided to file suit to allowed to operate a spay/neuter clin- tive health care measures, such as shut down or halt the growth of these ic (HSUS 1985). vaccines to protect from Parvo virus, nonprofit clinics. Three major chal- In 1986 the American Veterinary feline leukemia, and Lyme disease. lenges, in Michigan, Virginia, and Medical Association (AVMA) joined New cures and treatments for dis- Louisiana, fueled animosity between with other organizations to ask Con- eases and injuries that seemed the camps. gress to impose taxes on nonprofits beyond the scope of the veterinary Veterinarians claimed that humane that operated any type of business not field—as well as the pocketbook of societies enjoyed an unfair tax advan- directly related to their mission. In- the average pet owner—have become tage over private practitioners. The cluded business activities were elec- almost commonplace. With more dis- nonprofit-run clinics sat on land that tive surgeries at university or church posable income and delayed commit- was exempt from property tax; they owned hospitals; sales of toys, games, ments to marrying and starting fami- enjoyed an exemption from paying or other items in nonprofit aquari- lies, pet owners are willing to go to sales tax on most items; they were ums, zoos, or other wildlife organiza- any length to prolong their com- allowed to accept tax-deductible do- tions’ shops; and spay/neuter surg- panion animals’ lives. Hip re- nations of money and property from eries and vaccinations of animals at placement surgeries for dogs, kidney the public; and they paid no state or humane societyo-perated clinics. transplants for cats, and chemo- federal income tax on the revenue Fortunately, relations between the therapy or radiation treatment for they received. Veterinarians incurred humane community and the veteri- pets with cancer may now be request- the same costs for equipment, per- nary community improved in the ed by dog and cat owners. This is par- sonnel, drugs and medical equip- aftermath of a congressional hearing

74 The State of the Animals: 2001 on the matter (no congressional ac- care for thousands of unplanned and There were many reasons why no tion was taken). Their representatives homeless puppies, the veterinary accurate count of the number of ani- now jointly advocate for legislation on community and hobby breeders mals relinquished to shelters each year the state and federal levels to improve began to respond to the increased was obtained. Among them were a lack anticruelty laws and to increase fund- demand for a dialogue on the subject. of consensus on what constitutes a ing for enforcement; research on myr- In 1974 the first of several meet- shelter, a lack of uniformity in record iad issues to help improve animals’ ings among animal-related interests keeping, a lack of any record keeping lives and welfare is being jointly spon- was held in Denver, Colorado. Atten- on the part of some shelters, a distrust sored by the two communities. This dees included the American Dog on the part of shelters of anyone ask- is not to say that there is complete Owners Association, which tradition- ing for their data, and a lack of an agreement on all issues, but the com- ally opposed any legislation that accurate database of shelters. Some munities are closer on many issues would regulate dog breeding or own- shelters felt that the animals they han- than they have ever been. ership, and the AVMA. A second meet- dled were just the tip of the iceberg ing two years later produced a num- and did not want their numbers to be Pet Overpopulation ber of scholarly papers and the used out of context to quantify the The humane community has tradi- beginnings of a consensus on how to problem of animals “in transition” tionally appeared to be perpetually at reverse the tide of unplanned, and from one household to another. odds with all other animal-related usually homeless, litters. This consen- Surveys from various sources, in- interests on the topic of pet overpop- sus could be summed up as a strategy cluding the AVMA and the American ulation. In the latter part of the twen- promoted by Phyllis Wright of The Pet Products Manufacturers Associa- tieth century, shelters were not pri- HSUS known as L.E.S.—legislation, tion (APPMA), indicated that the ma- marily a refuge for stray animals, but education, and sterilization. jority of Americans acquired their pet rather the repository for unwanted Subsequent meetings of animal- from some source other than an ani- animals, most of which were puppies related groups to look at the issue of mal shelter. Cats, in particular, are and kittens. Humane societies felt pet overpopulation were limited to more likely to be acquired through a overwhelmed by a tremendous influx one-time workshops, some of which friend, relative, or neighbor or taken of young animals, many just one gen- produced scholarly papers but few in as a stray (76 percent combined) eration removed from being purebred. other results. Then, in 1993, veteri- than from all other sources (breeder, In the 1960s and 1970s, mass com- narians and researchers, humane shelter, pet shop, etc.). mercial dog-breeding establishments societies, and breeder organizations As difficult as it was to obtain num- known as puppy mills, where dogs met to quantify and qualify “pet over- bers from shelters regarding their were often kept in substandard condi- population.” This meeting was the be- intake and disposition of animals, get- tions, quickly outdistanced private ginning of the National Council on ting data from such other sources as hobby breeders in the number of ani- Pet Population Study and Policy purebred registries, pet stores, and mals being produced each year. For (NCPPSP), comprised of eleven animal- commercial breeding facilities was farmers in the Midwest (the location related organizations. The NCPPSP even more problematic. There was, of most of the puppy mills), the has the mission to gather and analyze however, general consensus among returns on producing a crop of pure- reliable data that further characterize most animal-related organizations bred puppies—with registration the number, origin, and disposition of that the term pet overpopulation was papers—were appealing. pets (cats and dogs) in the United not only difficult to define, but that it The resulting surge in the number of States; to promote responsible ste- was also probably no longer an accu- dogs and puppies registered through wardship of these companion ani- rate catchphrase to describe the rea- the American Kennel Club, the prima- mals; and, based on data gathered, to sons for animals leaving their original ry registry for purebred dogs in the recommend programs to reduce the homes, especially for dogs. United States, swelled the coffers of number of surplus/unwanted pets in the organization. Large numbers of the United States. puppies were pumped into the market The NCPPSP’s efforts to define the by pet stores, which purchased in vol- scope of pet overpopulation, at least ume from puppy mills and enjoyed through those animals relinquished or prime retail locations, such as subur- brought to shelters, were no less frus- ban shopping malls. trating than previous efforts. Mailings Sterilization of dogs and cats was to more than 4,800 U.S. shelters for considered a costly and undesirable four consecutive years produced a 25 procedure by organized veterinary percent return rate in any given year. medicine. As animal control facilities Fewer than four hundred shelters and humane societies struggled to responded all four years.

From Pets to Companion Animals 75 Dangerous or late vicious or dangerous dogs by opt- Additional good news is the way ing for generic laws that imposed that animal shelters—whether run Vicious Dogs restrictions on dogs and their owners municipally, privately, or through a In every decade since the 1950s, a based on the individual dog’s past be- combination of municipal and private breed of dog has emerged as a vicious havior. But, even in these municipali- funding—are different from their pre- or dangerous dog. In the 1960s, the ties, rarely was enough funding appro- decessors in most communities German Shepherd was the “bad dog priated for animal control to enforce throughout the United States. Their du jour”; in the 1970s, it was the dangerous-dog laws. physical structure and their programs Doberman pinscher. In the 1980s, Breed-specific ban legislation has have advanced to include a host of 1990s, and 2001, it has been the pit once again surged in various areas of new animals and new challenges that bull, also known as the American Pit the United States, in part in response most municipal planners and humane Bull Terrier. to a new “bad breed,” the rottweiler. society board members would never Originally bred to fight other dogs While most of these laws are targeted have dreamed of fifty—or even twen- of their breed, pit bulls have been the at pit bulls, some are including new ty—years ago. breed of choice for illegal dogfighting breeds of dogs like the Dogos Argenti- Shelters have had to adapt, recon- activities, such as organized fighting na, whose reputations as fighting figuring existing space or adding addi- in well-hidden barns or warehouses dogs in their country of origin and tional space to handle more cats than and spur-of-the-moment street fights. their physical characteristics make dogs; accommodating a growing The reputation of a pit bull as a them difficult to distinguish from the number of small mammals, reptiles, “bad” dog has been enhanced by a American Pit Bull Terrier. and exotic pets; and housing livestock number of highly publicized attacks Humane organizations are strug- and equines confiscated or relin- by pit bulls and pit bull-type crosses gling to create new strategies to com- quished due to neglect or abuse. on children and other human victims. bat the proliferation of dogs bred to Some shelters have had to deal with During the 1980s, hundreds of fight or be aggressive without label- an increasing number of large wild municipalities passed legislation to ing an entire breed as inherently cats, such as lions, tigers, cougars and prohibit the keeping of pit bulls but vicious. The HSUS, which wrote leopards, seized by police or humane found breed-specific legislation virtu- guidelines for regulating dangerous officers for ordinance violations. ally unenforceable. How dogs were to and potentially dangerous dogs in Shelter programs and services are be identified and by whom proved 1985, has recently committed to far more preventive in nature than insurmountable problems. Rarely did updating those guidelines and to rec- those of the 1900s. A few municipally laws prohibit the owners of pit bulls— ommending solutions for targeting owned and operated animal shelters or of other prohibited breeds—from breeds for additional regulations stand out in their progressive tack- acquiring another dog after the when the numbers of attacks and/or ling of animal control problems with- offending animal had been destroyed incidents of aggressive activities in- in their community and creation of by the local animal shelter. volving the breed are escalating. “outside the box” solutions. In 1997 Where pit bull owners opposed Palm Beach County (Florida) Animal breed-specific laws, officials found Regulation (PBCAR) launched a Spay that they were spending more time Present State Shuttle, a converted camper/recrea- and money defending a law that tional vehicle that served the lower- would probably not survive court of Companion income neighborhoods of Palm Beach scrutiny than they had budgeted for County. In addition to low-cost steril- enforcing the law in the first place. Animals and ization services, the Spay Shuttle of- One case that went all the way to the fered low-cost vaccination clinics and state’s Supreme Court placed all Animal Shelters pet owner education programs in breed-specific ban laws at risk. The Almost two-thirds of U.S. households neighborhoods that represented the court ruled that breed-specific ban have a dog, cat, bird, or reptile as a highest numbers of animal control laws were unconstitutional, violating pet. The number of dogs, and partic- complaints. PBCAR also offered low- due process laws, and that such laws ularly puppies, relinquished to shel- cost sterilization for qualifying pet were vague in their definitions of ters was rapidly diminishing as of owners. All adopted animals were what constituted a pit bull. Some laws mid-2000, to the point that some sterilized prior to leaving the facility were over-inclusive, including breeds shelters did not have any puppies for and new adopters were encouraged to of dogs not known to be aggressive in adoption for many months. Those enroll their dogs in training programs any way; others were under-inclusive, dogs and cats fortunate enough to be offered at the shelter in conjunction leaving out breeds or mixes of breeds in lifelong homes are enjoying a with area dog trainers (Palm Beach that had a record of inflicting serious longer life span than those who County Animal Care and Control, per- injury or death on their victims. shared our homes in the first half of sonal communication Sept. 14, 2000). Most towns and cities tried to regu- the twentieth century. Alachua County (Florida) Animal

76 The State of the Animals: 2001 Services created a two-week intern- Many shelters have incorporated those relationships. Chronically un- ship with the University of Florida Col- assistance with behavior problems in- der-funded for the services they pro- lege of Veterinary Medicine. This to their menus of services offered to vided the community, these nonprof- allowed veterinary students the oppor- the community. One of the most in- its informed their localities that tunity to see every aspect of the opera- clusive programs exists at the Dumb without substantial increases in fund- tion of a government animal control Friends League (DFL), serving the ing, services would be eliminated or agency. Thus exposed, students could greater Denver, Colorado, area. An- their contracts cancelled. In some in- educate their clients on how to other in a much smaller community stances, municipalities responded become more responsible pet owners. is the Humane Society of Washington with the additional resources. In oth- Humane organizations created pro- County (Maryland) that serves a rural ers, the nonprofits revisited their de- grams to help pet owners resolve prob- and rather remote area. mands when they discovered that lems with their animals before the The DFL’s behavior-assistance pro- municipal funding was covering more problems reached the point at which gram was initiated in conjunction than they had initially calculated and the pet owner was ready to relinquish with Suzanne Hetts in 1995. Tem- that loss of funding would create a the animal. Based on research con- perament testing of animals within crisis for the organization. In other ducted as part of a master’s degree the shelter coupled with dog training cases, contracts were cancelled. thesis at Tufts University, shelters classes and a behavior helpline When the San Francisco SPCA (SF learned that the decision by the owner sought to identify undesirable behav- SPCA) gave notice that it would no to relinquish an animal was neither iors earlier and to offer solutions that longer be contracting with the city easy nor impetuous (DiGiacomo, pet owners could understand and eas- and county of San Francisco to pro- Arluke, and Patronek 1998). Most pet ily incorporate to keep the pets in vide animal care and control services, owners spent months agonizing over their new homes. Initially limited to the municipality was faced with sever- the decision and tried multiple venues those who had adopted from the DFL al problems. It had no shelter of its for finding the animal another home and aimed at reducing the recidivism own in which to house stray and before they drove to the shelter. Once rate of shelter adoptees, the program homeless animals, and it did not have there, the decision to relinquish the has now been expanded to include a general animal control program. pet was irreversible. additional prevention programs and The SF SPCA had given the city and Studies conducted by the NCPPSP to serve the broader petowning com- county enough notice and coopera- found that behavior problems and munity. Pet parenting classes, addi- tion to make the transition work, and lifestyle issues are the top reasons for tional dog-training classes, and a some staff of the SF SPCA went to relinquishment of a pet. More than 90 stress reduction program have assist- work for the new San Francisco Ani- percent of individuals relinquishing a ed thousands of additional animals mal Care and Control agency to dog to the twelve shelters that partic- both inside and outside the shelter smooth the transition. ipated in the study had not invested (Rohde 2000). The situation in New York City was any time in training their dogs (Sal- The DFL and The HSUS also estab- quite different. The five shelters op- man et al. 2000). Focus groups spon- lished the Pets for Life National Train- erated by the New York City Center for sored by The HSUS and conducted by ing Center at the DFL’s facilities to Animal Care and Control were origi- research firm Jacobs Jenner and Kent instruct shelter staff from all over nally owned and operated by the revealed that pet owners who experi- the country in creating similar behav- ASPCA, which gave the shelters to the enced behavior problems with their ior assistance programs for their city. The city created a new nonprofit companion animals sought help with communities. organization to run them and most of resolving those issues, but often re- Handling less than one-quarter the the ASPCA staff who had worked in the ceived incorrect or inappropriate re- number of animals of the DFL, the shelters became part of the staff of the sponses from individuals not qualified Humane Society of Washington Coun- New York City Center (Fekety 1998). to deal with the pets’ problems. Most ty launched a “Petiquette” program, of these pet owners were desperate to similar to the DFL’s Head Start pro- find solutions that would keep the gram, which helped to identify and re- pets in their homes. Shelters were solve the problems that brought the usually the last choice for most pet animal into the shelter. The Society owners when relinquishment was nec- also offered dog training classes open essary. Almost unanimously, the focus to all dog owners in the community to groups felt that behavioral assistance keep animals in their homes. should be offered by animal shelters Towards the end of the twentieth and humane societies to help pet century, several shelters run by non- owners resolve their pets’ problems profit organizations that had con- (Jacobs 1999). tracted with their municipalities for animal control services reevaluated

From Pets to Companion Animals 77 deal with homeless animals was As the veterinary field changed to Sterilization “You can do more for animals by reflect the focus on animal-keeping, doing L.E.S.—Legislation, Educa- the tensions between the two com- Programs tion, and Sterilization.” munities on the issue of sterilization The HSUS, through Wright and her began to diminish. The veterinary stu- and Breeding staff, laid out a plan to attack pet dent population shifted from being Moratoriums overpopulation in communities predominantly male to being predom- As companion animal populations across the United States. Through the inantly female. The “feminization” of grew in all parts of the United States, passage of laws and ordinances such the veterinary profession, combined the number of animals entering ani- as differential licensing, The HSUS with the increase in pet-keeping mal shelters grew as well. Registra- believed that those who were not (which traditionally involves the tions of purebred dogs through the motivated to spay or neuter their pets women in the home as primary pet American Kennel Club grew from for population-control reasons would caregivers), has brought about 442,875 per year in 1960 to realize that the savings from lower increased cooperation between the 1,111,799,000 in 1980. For every licensing fees for sterilized animals veterinary and animal protection purebred dog born in the late 1950s could cover the cost of sterilization communities. and early 1960s, it was estimated over the animal’s life. Education pro- Current discussions between the that there was also one mixed-breed grams that explained the health and humane community and veterinary puppy born. behavioral benefits of sterilizing a pet organizations to reduce pet popula- Sterilization of companion animals, were juxtaposed with the conse- tions are focusing on early-age (or pre- and particularly of dogs, was usually quence of overpopulation in shelter— pubescent) sterilization (EAS) and not undertaken until the female ani- death. Lower fees for sterilization development of nonsurgical means of mal’s estrus cycles became a nuisance were urged to encourage those pet sterilization, particularly for feral or for the human family members. Ster- owners who were interested in having unsocialized populations of cats and ilization surgery was quite costly, con- their pets altered to have the surgery dogs. Some of the concerns with EAS sidered unnecessary, and often dis- performed. In the 1970s several cities have been the impact of sterilizing an couraged by the family’s veterinarian experimented with opening lowcost animal at eight weeks of age on long- until the female dog had given birth sterilization (as opposed to full-ser- bone growth, behavior, and inconti- to at least one litter or had experi- vice) clinics. The City of Los Angeles’ nence. Research to date has revealed enced several estruses. To do other- clinic, which opened in 1971, result- no deleterious effects. wise was considered unhealthy for the ed in a sea change in the attitudes of Early experiments in nonsurgical animal. Neutering of male dogs was private practitioners to surgical steril- alternatives to sterilization failed to almost never undertaken except in ization. Boston’s municipally owned provide promising results. But new cases of severe health problems. and operated clinic failed quickly. All research being undertaken looks As the costs for caring for the such clinics were vehemently opposed more hopeful. Neutersol, a zinc-argi- unplanned offspring of both pure- by veterinary organizations, many of nine drug injected into the testicles breds and mixed breeds grew, which believed that government had of male dogs for sterilization purpos- national animal protection groups no place in the veterinary field (Dal- es, is being tested at various sites and rallied to halt or reverse the bur- madge 1972). will probably receive acceptance from geoning growth in the number of Despite such setbacks, additional the U.S. Food and Drug Administra- homeless animals. Phyllis Wright, campaigns appeared in the 1980s. tion (FDA) in the near future. Several The HSUS’s first vice president for The HSUS launched “Be A P.A.L.— researchers are experimenting with a companion animal issues, believed Prevent A Litter” month. Friends of porcine zona pellucida (PZP) injec- that the impediments to reducing Animals expanded its program of issu- tion for sterilizing female dogs (see the number of unplanned births of ing sterilization certificates that “Fertility Control in Animals” in this dogs and cats stemmed from pet could be used at local participating volume). Recombinant zona pellucida owners’ ignorance of canine and veterinary clinics. Several local proteins synthetically produced in feline estrus cycles; from the high humane societies opened their own laboratories were to be tested in costs—whether real or perceived—of spay/neuter clinics to sterilize pets 2000–2001. having the sterilization surgery per- adopted from the shelter, as well as to Although the homeless dog popula- formed on pets; and from the lack of serve low-income pet owners. The tion in the United States is decreas- motivation on the part of owners Doris Day Animal League (DDAL) ing, the cat population is increasing. to have pets sterilized until after started Spay Day USA in 1995 and This should not surprise those munic- the unplanned puppies or kittens publicized the event heavily through ipal officials and others responsible had arrived. In the 1970s Wright’s other national, as well as local, for animal control who have resisted mantra to communities having to groups. It failed, however, to obtain attempts to regulate cat populations AVMA endorsement of the campaign. in the past. Many have turned a deaf

78 The State of the Animals: 2001 ear to repeated warnings from animal- emotional distance from the animals. protection advocates and now have to Euthanasia: The HSUS felt that the further the reconfigure housing and revamp laws technician was away from the animal and policies to accommodate more From “How To” during euthanasia, the greater the felines than canines. potential for error. The potential for Breeding moratoriums, or outright to “Should We?” callousness, overcrowding of cham- Early methods of animal destruction bans, are one such attempt proposed bers, and increased distress on the were crude and rarely met the criteria by animal advocates to lower pet pop- part of the animals was increased of “euthanasia,” from the Greek ulations. In 1990 the Peninsula Hu- when a worker could load a machine, euthantos, meaning “good death.” mane Society in San Mateo, Califor- flip a switch, and walk away. Death by gunshot, carbon monoxide nia, fired the opening round in the By the end of the 1980s, the exhaust gas, and drowning were not local overpopulation debate with a Euthanaire Company had gone out of uncommon in the United States in controversial advertisement carried in business, thirty states had passed the 1950s and unfortunately still the Sunday edition of the area news- legislation prohibiting the use of exist in some parts of the country fifty paper, reaching over 80,000 homes decompression chambers, and AHA years later. (Maggitti 1992). The four-page insert was supporting the use of sodium Moves by national humane organ- carried the headline “This is One Hell pentobarbital as the most humane izations to develop and implement of a Job…” and opened to show bar- method of destroying animals. AHA, more humane methods of destruction rels overflowing with the bodies of The HSUS, and AVMA were by 2000 began in the early 1970s. AHA worked dead animals, with the tagline “…And united in their preference for injec- with U.S. Air Force personnel and en- We Couldn’t Do It Without You.” The tion of sodium pentobarbital as the gineers to develop a chamber that ad called upon San Mateo County to means of providing an animal with would euthanize animals through hy- pass legislation that would prohibit the most humane death. poxia. Similar to the chambers used the breeding of dogs and cats until the In the early 1990s, the debate by Air Force pilots when testing the number of animals entering the shel- changed from how to to should we effects of rapid decompression on the ter and the number of those eutha- when the subject was the euthanasia human body, the Euthanaire™ cham- nized were substantially reduced. of homeless shelter animals. Al- ber was to accelerate the simulated Although the resulting legislation though no-kill shelters had been “ascent rate” within the chamber was substantially watered-down be- around for decades, the SF SPCA and from the 1,000 feet per minute used fore being passed, the concept of lim- its leader, Richard Avanzino, brought with humans to 1,000 feet per sec- iting deliberate breeding of animals the issue to national attention. ond. The Euthanaire was designed to jump-started the debate on whether Avanzino, who was known for his con- hold four to eight medium- to small- laws could reduce pet overpopulation. troversial and often groundbreaking sized animals and would cause their In 1992 The HSUS advocated a volun- stances on dog and cat issues, death in around fifteen minutes. tary breeding moratorium (Handy informed the city and county of San The HSUS opposed the decompres- 1993). Other national humane organ- Francisco in 1989 that, after one hun- sion chamber method of destruction izations, as well as dog- and cat-fancy dred years of contracting for animal and was not supportive of any me- groups, championed other ways of control services, the SF SPCA was chanical means of killing animals. It raising awareness about pet overpop- “getting out of the killing business” felt the most humane method of ulation. Several studies undertaken and would no longer destroy—by any destruction was through the injection by or on behalf of the NCPPSP have means—the city’s unwanted animals. of an overdose of a barbiturate, added to the understanding of the The city and county were given three preferably sodium pentobarbital. It breadth of the problem of homeless years’ notice to develop their own pushed to change laws that prohib- pets. But some of the more surprising program to do so. San Francisco Ani- ited trained lay personnel from items discovered by the NCPPSP were mal Care and Control was the result. administering barbiturates and also the low numbers of shelters keeping Taking the life of any animal is dif- advocated for laws that would allow accurate data and the absence of a ficult to explain to the public, and, shelters to be licensed to purchase so- definitive and accurate listing of U.S. given a choice, it is assumed that dium pentobarbital. shelters (NCPPSP 2000). most animal lovers would rather give AHA believed that killing animals their financial support to a shelter was an emotionally difficult and that does not euthanize animals than sometimes dangerous job and that to one that does. Regardless of the shelter workers charged with the task level of financial support given a shel- should be as physically removed from ter by its municipality, that support the actual killing as possible. The use rarely covers the costs of implement- of chambers, according to AHA, pro- ing progressive animal care and con- vided the worker with physical and trol programs. The loss of charitable

From Pets to Companion Animals 79 dollars from donors who find euthana- Claire Rappaport, a human welfare sia an unacceptable tool in battling advocate, as questioning the appropri- From pet overpopulation is a threat that a ateness of such a large donation for growing number of humane society homeless animals when human suffer- “Property” to boards of directors have not been will- ing and homelessness still exists in San ing to challenge. Francisco (Richardson 2000). “Individual” Companion animals, like most non- In 1995 Avanzino extended the SF Journalist Todd Foster investigated human animals, have had legal rights SPCA’s no-kill philosophy to the en- no-kill shelters for Readers Digest and or status under the law only as prop- tire city and county of San Francisco. concluded that a number did not erty. Basic anticruelty statutes, in- He worked with the board of supervi- function humanely and often ne- cluding the Massachusetts Bay Col- sors to pass the Adoption Pact, which glected the care of the animals they ony’s Bodies of Freedoms, which called for San Francisco County Ani- were trying to “save,” overcrowding prohibits the abuse of animals, were mal Care and Control to relinquish all them in cages or turning away ani- promulgated to protect the animal unclaimed “adoptable” animals to mals when the shelters were full, only owner’s interest rather than to pro- the SF SPCA, where they would live to have other shelters euthanize them tect the animal. Massachusetts’s anti- until they were adopted. In 1997 due to lack of space (Foster 2000). cruelty statutes, for example, make Avanzino declared the Pact to be a The controversy over no-kill facili- killing or beating one’s own animal a complete success and declared San ties has had some positive results. It misdemeanor, but killing or abusing Francisco to be the United States’ has caused many shelter boards of an animal of another—destroying his first “no-kill” city. directors and executive directors to property—is a felony. Since then, other cities have passed reexamine their mission, goals, and Several attempts have been made resolutions or statements declaring roles in the community. It has empow- in recent years to change the status their intention to follow in San Fran- ered some humane societies in their of companion animals under the law. cisco’s footsteps. Austin, Texas, the negotiations with tight-fisted munici- One of the earliest cases involved a County of San Diego (California), and palities, which feared that, if they did San Francisco pet owner’s right to Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, among oth- not provide adequate financial sup- determine the disposition of her ani- ers, have declared their goal of becom- port, they would face the unwelcome mals after her death. Sido’s owner ing no-kill jurisdictions. Several cities prospect of providing all the services had established in her will that upon have been served notice by their local residents had come to demand. the owner’s death any animals living humane societies that their contracts The debate has encouraged hu- with her would be euthanized. Ex- to provide animal control services will mane organizations to be more inno- pecting to live a long life and thinking not be renewed. Some have given a vative and assertive in solving pet that her pets would be similarly advanced in age, the pet owner did few years’ notice of their intentions, overpopulation and pet relinquish- not want her pets to languish in a but others have withdrawn with little, ment problems. Sterilization prices shelter waiting to be adopted, nor did if any, notice. In New York, Ulster have been lowered and spay/neuter she want them to go through the County SPCA abruptly severed its clinics put on the road to serve a trauma of trying to adjust to new agreement with the county and left wider pet-owning community. “Open home at the end of their lives. The pet animal control officers with no place admission” shelters are doing more owner did not provide for an alterna- to take stray animals. to keep animals in their original tive in case she died prematurely The debate over no-kill (or “limited homes by providing training classes, while her pets were quite young, -admission”) shelters versus “open behavior helplines, and leads on pet- which is precisely what occurred. admission” shelters has pitted animal friendly housing to help remove barri- Richard Avanzino felt that Sido advocates against each other. Charges ers from owners and pets in building should not be euthanized simply be- of manipulating statistics and shift- lifelong bonds. cause his owner had suffered a prema- ing definitions of “adoptable,” “treat- ture death. So Avanzino and others able,” and “non-rehabilitatable” ani- went to court to challenge the terms mals have been flung back and forth of the will as it pertained to the pets by groups attempting to seize the and to petition to be awarded custody high ground in a debate over a diffi- of Sido for the term of his life. The cult, thankless task. court ruled in favor of saving Sido’s In 1999 David Duffield, founder of life. The dog lived out his years at the the PeopleSoft company, donated SF SPCA, in Avanzino’s office with free $200 million to create Maddie’s Fund, access to the rest of the shelter. which was to distribute the money When pet owners have sued veteri- throughout the United States to help narians in wrongful death or malprac- every community become a no-kill com- tice cases in which the negligence or munity. Philanthropy magazine quoted

80 The State of the Animals: 2001 misdiagnosis and treatment of a pet “guardian” instead. In Boulder own- membership at a health club. Cats, has resulted in the pet’s death, courts ers are now guardians. often thought of as low-maintenance traditionally have awarded little or no As animal rights evolve, and partic- pets, are now the pets of choice for money to the grieving pet owner. Any ularly as the role of companion ani- busy working women. damages awarded were based on the mals in the lives of humans is studied Cats now pose the greatest chal- value of the animal as determined by and evaluated, the status of dogs and lenge to animal shelters, humane so- the amount the owner had paid to cats will continue to be elevated. cieties, veterinarians, and other ani- purchase the animal. Therefore, a Their days of being thought of as sim- mal-related organizations. Most state “free to good home” pet, a stray that ply property are truly numbered. and local laws do not include cats in had been taken in, or an animal their animal control statutes. The adopted from a shelter, in the court’s sheltering community failed to pre- view, had little or no monetary value. The Status dict and plan for the increased num- The owner who tried to establish bers of both owned and unowned cats. emotional value and therefore recov- of Cats Shelters constructed in the late 1970s er for pain and suffering at the loss of The APPMA has commissioned sur- and throughout the 1980s still allotted his pet was laughed out of court. veys of pet owners every two years more runs and kennels for dogs than But that, too, is changing. Several since the late 1970s. These surveys cages for cats. Policies that required cases concerning the death of pets in are used by APPMA’s membership to sterilization of dogs and puppies the care of veterinarians, groomers, forecast trends in pet ownership to adopted from the shelter often failed boarding kennel owners, and trans- better prepare for the pet owners’ to mention cats. Holding periods for porting airlines have awarded pet needs for pet food, collars, leashes, stray cats, whether mandated by law owners large sums of money for the cat litter, and toys. In 1978, when or through shelter policy, were rarely owner’s emotional suffering. 31.7 million households owned dogs as lengthy as those for stray dogs. Animal shelters have been put in a and 16.2 million households owned Some communities tried licensing difficult position in the debate over cats, APPMA profiled the typical dog programs. One of the first was Char- the position of companion animals as owner: a large family with children lotte/Mecklenberg County, North property. In many instances, the stray and with an average annual income of Carolina, in 1980. While initially criti- dog or cat turned in to a shelter ben- $12,000–$25,000. The APPMA con- cized by the media and by cat owners, efits from being considered property. sidered cat ownership so insignifi- the program slowly began to gain If his original owner does not claim cant that a profile was not even estab- credibility. Twenty years later, Char- the animal in the prescribed period of lished (APPMA 1978). Twenty years lotte was licensing more than 39,000 time established by law, the animal is later, APPMA did profile the typi- cats and had increased its cat-return- deemed “abandoned property” and cal cat owner: a single woman living to-owner rate by 2.4 percent. But the becomes the property of the shelter. in the city with an income lower than battle to increase responsibility among The shelter then has the right to dis- that of the dog-owning family. cat owners through licensing laws pose of its property as it sees fit. For The fact that in 2000 the United was far from over. responsible, caring shelters, this States was a nation of cat owners It is estimated that there may be as means the animal will be evaluated should surprise no one who has fol- many as one feral cat for every owned and then either placed in a new home lowed other U.S. social trends. In cat in the United States. To curb the or euthanized. 1958 37 percent of adult women growth of unowned, unsocialized, or In an effort to change the status worked outside the home. In 1998 60 feral cats within a community, most quo of animals as property, several percent of adult women did so. More municipalities have relied on trap- humane societies and animal protec- than 50 percent of households in the and-euthanize programs, typically tion organizations have in their adop- United States in the 1990s were head- carried out by frustrated homeown- tion contracts, newsletters, and policy ed by single mothers. The woman in ers. Attempting to trap and euthanize statements begun to refer to the keep- one- or two-adult household is the all of a community’s unwanted cats ers of dogs and cats as “guardians” primary person responsible for the has been a failure. The traps end up rather than “owners.” Other commu- family pet’s veterinary care, feeding, being sabotaged by well-meaning peo- nities have changed the terminology exercising, and grooming and is the ple. Most communities are still con- ducive to ferals (providing a ready in their local ordinances to better primary decision maker when choos- supply of food from restaurant trash reflect the relationship that compan- ing the species of the family pet. bins or feral cat caregivers and a mod- ion animals and their caregivers The profile of the typical U.S. fami- icum of safety from cars, weather, and enjoy. San Francisco and Boulder, ly has changed—from having 2.3 kids dogs) so “trapping out” one colony Colorado, have both considered and living in detached houses with just leaves room for a new one. amending their statutes to remove all large backyards for the dog to having In San Mateo County, California, a one child and living in townhouses on references to “owner” as it applies to feral cat pact was established between companion animals and to substitute postage-stamp lots with a cat and a

From Pets to Companion Animals 81 the humane society, which contract- and increased frustration with house- campaign which incorporated several ed with the county and several cities soiling or other preventable problems existing campaigns, such as promo- for animal control, and feral cat care- cause the pet owner to make the tion of pet sterilization, with new pro- givers. In the first three years of the decision to remove the animal from grams that focused on eliminating program, more than 200 colonies his home. Some shelters, seeing bond-breakers or barriers that pre- were registered, representing a total increased numbers of “teenage” ani- vent people from developing and of just under 2,000 feral cats. Over mals enter their facilities, as well as building lifelong bonds with their new this time period, the number of feral more pets who have already been pets. The campaign concentrates on cats was reduced by 29 percent, pri- spayed or neutered, have decided that five major areas: housing issues (poli- marily by the identification, removal, spay/neuter programs alone will no cies which restrict or prohibit pets), and adoption of socialized animals. longer provide the answer to ending human health issues (pets and human The humane society sterilized more pet overpopulation. To attack the new allergies, zoonotic diseases and im- than 1,400 of the remaining ferals reasons for companion animal home- muno-compromised pet owners, and and reached an agreement to manage lessness, programs beyond low-cost cats and pregnant women), lifetime a feral cat colony within the a local sterilization had to be created. commitment (educating pet owners nature park. Veterinary student Alexa Dowdi- on the costs of pet care and the life Hawaiian Humane Society (HHS), chuk and co-researcher John Wen- span of dogs and cats), animal health in conjunction with the City and strup found that many shelters had (preventive health care, including County of Honolulu, passed a com- not carefully analyzed the true causes sterilization) and behavior (house- prehensive Cat Protection Act in for relinquishment of young, healthy soiling, scratching/clawing digging, 1995 to curb the island of Oahu’s bur- animals to their facilities and were vocalizing, etc). geoning stray cat population. With a investing all of their time and re- Additional programs will work on a combination of resources from muni- sources into traditional overpopula- national basis to eliminate other bond cipal and private funds, HHS worked tion solutions of sterilization and edu- barriers by educating housing man- with local veterinarians to offer low- cation on spaying and neutering. agers on responsible pet ownership cost or free sterilization to cat owners Dowdichuk concluded that if those guidelines and human health care and caregivers. As of June 1999, the same resources were redirected to- providers on protecting patient health program had sterilized more than ward behavior counseling, dog train- while keeping the pet in the home. 11,828 cats. ing, and other programs that assist pet owners with integrating a new pet into the home, fewer animals would Spaying and Challenges, be relinquished or returned to shel- ters (HSUS 2000). Neutering Conflicts, To test the theory that behavior Although the number of animals en- and Victories assistance programs readily available tering animal shelters continues to “Unwanted litter” or “unplanned to pet owners can change the future decrease, animal protection organi- pregnancy” are rarely the reasons giv- for animals whose owners are on the zations can not afford to decrease their emphasis on and commitment en for surrendering an animal to a verge of relinquishing them because to sterilization. shelter. Human lifestyle issues, such of “curable” behavior problems, The Pediatric, prepubescent, or the pre- as “no time,” “allergy,” or “moving,” HSUS contracted with a research firm viously mentioned early age steriliza- or animal behavior problems are the to conduct focus groups around the tion (EAS)—the spaying or neutering new challenges to shelters trying to country. Pet owners who were experi- of animals at eight weeks of age or at keep animals in their original homes. encing or had experienced behavior two pounds—was introduced by Dr. According to studies conducted in problems with a pet were asked about their pets’ offending behaviors, steps Leo Lieberman in 1987. Research the late 1990s by the NCPPSP and oth- conducted by Lieberman and others er researchers, behavior issues are a they had taken to address those be- haviors, sources or individuals to found that young animals could be major factor in a pet owner’s decision successfully and safely sterilized to remove a pet from the home. Al- whom they had turned for advice, and the outcomes of their efforts. Over- under controlled conditions and though the pet owner may list such recover from the surgery in shorter other reasons as moving to a new whelmingly, respondents reported frustration at receiving inaccurate or time periods than animals six months home or allergies of family members, of age or older (Lieberman 1998). as the primary motivation for relin- incomplete advice or failure in find- ing sources for advice on their pets’ Subsequent research by The Universi- quishment, further investigation of ty of Florida College of Veterinary the animal’s life in the home often re- particular behavioral problems. Based on this research, as well as Medicine and Texas A&M University, veals a different cause for surrender- which examined such issues as long- ing the animal. Lack of basic training other data, The HSUS launched the Pets for Life project, a broad-based bone growth, urinary incontinence,

82 The State of the Animals: 2001 and behavioral changes, revealed lit- won’t be contributing to the commu- that most local humane societies had tle or no increase in occurrence in nity’s pet overpopulation problem. no law enforcement powers and that the animal sterilized at eight weeks of The acceptance of sterilization as no local humane organizations have age as compared to those who under- an important aspect of owning a pet interstate legal powers. The result went surgery at the traditional age of increased dramatically throughout would have been zero enforcement to six months (Howe 1999). the United States from 1975 to 2000. accompany zero funding. (Congress The AVMA initially expressed reluc- APPMA and AVMA surveys showed restored the funding but never tance in accepting prepubescent ster- that most pet owners didn’t want an increased it despite the fact that addi- ilization, citing a lack of empirical intact animal in their home (NCPPSP tional licences were granted annually.) data indicating few or no adverse 2000). Data showing that intact male Criticism of the American Kennel long-term effects on animals. It dogs are more likely to bite than Club’s role in puppy mill proliferation adopted a resolution of support for neutered dogs drove many reluctant has centered around the income it EAS for shelter animals in 1998. pet owners to castrate their dog for receives from large commercial Eventually, at the urging of its animal that reason alone. breeding establishments (Derr 1990). welfare committee, the AVMA’s exec- Surgical sterilization will most like- Many breeders feel that it should do utive board removed the shelter qual- ly continue to be the method of more to ensure that only the best ifier from its support of early-age ster- choice for controlling breeding in the quality animals carry an American ilization. With the blessing of the United States and wherever veterinary Kennel Club registration and should AVMA, humane organizations and ani- care is readily available. In developing do more to force the puppy mills out mal care and control agencies are countries, less invasive methods that of business. The American Kennel hoping that sterilization-at-adoption can be delivered by non-veterinarians Club maintains that it is not a quality- will become standard practice at shel- hold the key to solving animal control assurance organization and can ters across the country. and pet overpopulation problems. therefore not guarantee the health or New York City hoped to take early- Research is progressing on several quality of animals that carry the age sterilization of newly acquired nonsurgical methods for permanently Club’s registration. animals a step further. Under an ordi- sterilizing dogs and cats. Focus groups conducted by Jacobs nance passed in 2000 and backed by Jenner and Kent for The HSUS in the New York City Center for Animal 1997 found that people who purchase Care and Control and other humane puppies from pet stores were fully organizations, city pet stores and ani- Future aware of puppy mills’ existence, but mal shelters were required to spay or the majority had convinced them- neuter all animals purchased or Challenges selves that their new dog didn’t come adopted from them. The new law from a puppy mill. It is likely that the spurred other communities to consid- Puppy Mills, Humane er proposing similar laws, although it Organizations, vast majority of the 500,000 puppies is being challenged in court by the sold in pet stores (Patronek and Pet Industry Joint Advisory Council. and the American Rowan 1995) originate in large com- While many breeders had relied on Kennel Club mercial dog-breeding establishments, or puppy mills. spay/neuter contracts that required Humane organizations have fought for New appointments and reorganiza- proof of surgery before sending the years to improve enforcement of the tion of USDA APHIS in 2000 im- new owner American Kennel Club Animal Welfare Act (AWA) and to force proved the situation for some animals registration papers for pet-quality a shake-up within the U.S. Department in puppy mills. Increased training, puppies, some breeders found that of Agriculture’s Animal and Plant more intensive scrutiny of licensed compliance was spotty. Some of these Health Inspection Service (USDA dealers, and a stronger commitment breeders are now having their puppies APHIS) to ensure that caring, compe- on the part of the USDA hierarchy to spayed or neutered at eight weeks of tent staff will take seriously the cast out the bad apples resulted in age before the puppies are placed in agency’s congressional mandate to many areas of change, including hefty new homes. protect animals, including dogs in fines and penalties and the closing of Shelters have found that steriliza- puppy mill operations. During the some of the worst puppy mills. Thou- tion at adoption greatly reduces their Reagan administration (1980–88) the sands of animals, however, still lan- paperwork and staff time for adoption Office of Management and Budget guished in puppy mills. compliance follow-up. Sterilizing the (OMB) requested zero funding for animal before he leaves the shelter enforcement of the AWA provisions, does not satisfy all of the adoption reflecting the Reagan Administration’s contract provisions, nor does it assure philosophy that enforcement would be the animal of a life-long home, but it better carried out by local humane does assure that the adopted animal societies. OMB overlooked the fact

From Pets to Companion Animals 83 Lions, Tigers, Bears, Although most state laws require pet stores to put warnings on reptile Literature Cited (and Iguanas) displays to advise parents of the risks American Pet Products Manufacturer At the turn of the millennium, a new of salmonellosis transmission from Association (APPMA), Inc. 1978. wave of exotic pets pushed many shel- reptiles to children, most warnings go National family opinion survey for ters to the edge in terms of resources unheeded. As a result, some shelters the American Pet Products Manu- and staffing. Pet stores and want-ads refuse to place reptiles, particularly facturers Association. Greenwich, had long offered more than just dogs iguanas, in homes with children un- Conn.: APPMA. and cats to anyone with enough cash der twelve years of age. Centers for Disease Control and Pre- to buy an animal, but the new exotic vention. 2000. PHLIS surveillance pet posed multiple challenges to ani- data: Salmonella. Available: www. mal care and control facilities and Into the Future cdc.gov/ncidod/dbmd/phlisdata/ humane organizations. Among the most pressing challenges salmonella.htm U.S. shelters were trying to find in the twenty-first century for advo- Dalmadge, G. 1972. Adoption pro- ways to care for and offer for adop- cates of companion animals will be to grams: Quality or quantity. Shop tion, when justified, rabbits, guinea continue the progress made in reduc- Talk, December, 19. pigs, hamsters, gerbils, sugar gliders ing the uncontrolled breeding of dogs Derr, M. 1990. The politics of dogs. (flying squirrels), hedgehogs, and and to translate that success to the The Atlantic Monthly, March, pp. reptiles and amphibians that ranged feline population. Creative solutions 49–72. from tiny lizards and turtles to giant to cat control that include all stake- DiGiacomo, N., A. Arluke, and G. pythons and boa constrictors. holders—animal control, feral cat Patronek. 1998. Surrendering pets Shelters found themselves playing caregivers, breeders, wildlife advo- to shelters: The relinquisher’s per- host to lions, tigers, leopards, bob- cates, veterinarians, and municipal spective. Anthrozoös 2(1), pp. cats, and jaguars when the animals officials—will have to be developed to 41–50. had become too much for their own- ensure that success is long-term and Fekety, S. 1998. Personal communica- ers to care for or had been confis- supported by the majority. tion. Animal Shelters Consultation cated by police. Some had to add staff More veterinarians are entering the (ASC) for the Center for Animal and space to accommodate a never- field of animal behavior and are anx- Care and Control for the City of ending stream of large exotic cats. ious to work with dog trainers and New York. Report. May. Weak laws regarding the keeping of shelters to resolve behavior problems. Foster, T. 2000. Are these animal wild exotic animals put a tremendous Shelters will realize that the best way shelters truly humane? Readers burden on shelters, which were never to cut euthanasia rates and increase Digest, April, pp. 103–108. intended to house and care for these successful adoptions is to work with Handy, G. 1993. A moratorium on species. Questions of jurisdiction over animal behaviorists, veterinarians, breeding: The best way to stop the these animals when it came to confis- and dog trainers to ameliorate the killing is to stop the breeding. Shel- cating, caring for, and disposing of effects of animal behavior before the ter Sense, March, pp. 3–7. them made it imperative that com- pet owner’s frustration becomes Howe, L. M. 1999. Prepubertal munities clearly define parameters insurmountable. gonadectomy in dogs and cats, Part for keeping wildlife. Other barriers to building and I. Compendium on Continuing Edu- In 2000 the USDA issued a state- maintaining a strong bond with com- cation for the Practicing Veterinari- ment urging states to pass laws to panion animals will fall by the way- an, 21(2): 103–111. prohibit the keeping of large exotic side. Landlords and housing man- Humane Society of the United cats, citing multiple cases of human agers are already finding out that States (HSUS). 1985. IRS clears injuries and instances of animals be- blanket no-pet policies rarely work Michigan societies’ full service and ing poorly and/or cruelly treated. and that responsible pet owners are spay/neuter clinics. HSUS News, In 1999 the Centers for Disease good tenants. Obstetricians, aller- Winter, p. 36. Control and Prevention released data gists, oncologists, and gerontologists ——————. 2000. Making the showing a marked increase in salmo- who dispense faulty or outdated infor- numbers count. Animal Sheltering, nellosis in young children (Centers for mation about pets and disease trans- July/August, page 2. Disease Control and Prevention mission and injury will have to re- Jacobs, W.H. 1999. HSUS campaign 2000). This increase was directly think their advice if they want to keep to protect dogs and cats. Research correlated to the increased incidence patients who are convinced that life is report. Jacobs Jenner and Kent. of keeping iguanas as pets. All reptiles worth living with a pet. December. carry the salmonella bacterium, and children under eight are particularly susceptible to salmonella infection.

84 The State of the Animals: 2001 Lieberman, L. 1998. A case for neu- tering pups and kittens at two months of age. Journal of the Amer- ican Medical Association 191(5): 518–521. Louisiana Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals and the City of New Orleans v. Louisiana Board of Veterinary Medicine, 89-C-2689 Consolidated With 89-C-2709 (1990). Jan. 19, 1990. Maggitti, P. 1992. A banner ordinance for San Mateo. Cats Magazine, March, pp. 21–23. National Council on Pet Population Study and Policy (NCPPSP). 2000. The Shelter Statistics Survey, 1994–1997. Publications Resulting From National Council on Pet Pop- ulation and Policy. Available: www. petpopulation.org. Patronek, G. and A.N. Rowan. 1995. Determining dog and cat numbers and population dynamics. Anthro- zoös 8: 199–205. Richardson, V. 2000. Going to the dogs. Philanthropy, April, 18. Rohde, R. 2000. Denver Dumb Friends League. Available: www.ddfl.org/ tips.htm. Salman, M., J. Hutchison, R. Ruch- Gallie, L. Kogan, J. C. New Jr., P. Kass, and J. Scarlett. 2000. Behav- ioral reasons for relinquishment of dogs and cats to 12 shelters. Jour- nal of Applied Animal Welfare Sci- ence, 3(2): 93–106.

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