Can God Create a Stone Too Heavy for God to Lift?

Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift?

Kenneth L. Pearce

Ussher Assistant Professor in Berkeley Studies (Early Modern Philosophy) Trinity College Dublin

February 6, 2018

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 1 / 28 Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift?

1 Philosophical Theology

2 Some Puzzles About Omnipotence

3 Some Theories of Omnipotence Act Theories Result Theories Modiﬁed Result Theories

4 The Stone Paradox

5 Giving Up Omnipotence?

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 2 / 28 Philosophical Theology

1 Philosophical Theology

2 Some Puzzles About Omnipotence

3 Some Theories of Omnipotence Act Theories Result Theories Modiﬁed Result Theories

4 The Stone Paradox

5 Giving Up Omnipotence?

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 3 / 28 One Approach (‘Natural (A)Theology’) Starts ‘from scratch’ and attempts to use philosophical reasoning to support a position about whether God exists and/or what God is like.

A Second Approach Uses philosophical tools to analyze theological claims, evaluate them for consistency, and identify their entailments.

Philosophical Theology

Deﬁnition Philosophical thought about God.

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 4 / 28 A Second Approach Uses philosophical tools to analyze theological claims, evaluate them for consistency, and identify their entailments.

Philosophical Theology

Deﬁnition Philosophical thought about God.

One Approach (‘Natural (A)Theology’) Starts ‘from scratch’ and attempts to use philosophical reasoning to support a position about whether God exists and/or what God is like.

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 4 / 28 Philosophical Theology

Deﬁnition Philosophical thought about God.

One Approach (‘Natural (A)Theology’) Starts ‘from scratch’ and attempts to use philosophical reasoning to support a position about whether God exists and/or what God is like.

A Second Approach Uses philosophical tools to analyze theological claims, evaluate them for consistency, and identify their entailments.

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 4 / 28 Philosophical Theology

It seems we have a duty with respect to these common and well-known views, however false we believe them, not to ignore what is said about them. We owe this civility, or rather this justice, not to their falsity, because it certainly does not deserve it, but to the persons who are so taken by these views, so as not to reject what they value without examining it. So by taking the trouble to study these topics, we can reasonably purchase the right to hold them in contempt. – Antoine Arnauld and Pierre Nicole, Logic or the Art of Thinking (1662), tr. Jill Buroker, p. 12

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 5 / 28 Step Two Is this claim internally consistent? Does it make sense?

Step Three What else does this claim imply? Are these implications acceptable?

Step Four Is this a reasonable thing to believe?

Four Steps

Step One What does this claim even mean?

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 6 / 28 Step Three What else does this claim imply? Are these implications acceptable?

Step Four Is this a reasonable thing to believe?

Four Steps

Step One What does this claim even mean?

Step Two Is this claim internally consistent? Does it make sense?

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 6 / 28 Step Four Is this a reasonable thing to believe?

Four Steps

Step One What does this claim even mean?

Step Two Is this claim internally consistent? Does it make sense?

Step Three What else does this claim imply? Are these implications acceptable?

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 6 / 28 Four Steps

Step One What does this claim even mean?

Step Two Is this claim internally consistent? Does it make sense?

Step Three What else does this claim imply? Are these implications acceptable?

Step Four Is this a reasonable thing to believe?

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 6 / 28 Question What is meant by the word ‘omnipotent’ (or ‘almighty’)?

Problem If God is omnipotent, does that imply that God can create a stone too heavy for God to lift?

Omnipotence and the Stone

Revelation 19:6 “the Lord God omnipotent reigneth”

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 7 / 28 Problem If God is omnipotent, does that imply that God can create a stone too heavy for God to lift?

Omnipotence and the Stone

Revelation 19:6 “the Lord God omnipotent reigneth”

Question What is meant by the word ‘omnipotent’ (or ‘almighty’)?

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 7 / 28 Omnipotence and the Stone

Revelation 19:6 “the Lord God omnipotent reigneth”

Question What is meant by the word ‘omnipotent’ (or ‘almighty’)?

Problem If God is omnipotent, does that imply that God can create a stone too heavy for God to lift?

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 7 / 28 Some Puzzles About Omnipotence

1 Philosophical Theology

2 Some Puzzles About Omnipotence

3 Some Theories of Omnipotence Act Theories Result Theories Modiﬁed Result Theories

4 The Stone Paradox

5 Giving Up Omnipotence?

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 8 / 28 “it was impossible for God to lie” (Hebrews 6:18) “God cannot be tempted with evil” (James 1:13)

Make 2 + 2 = 5? Learn? Fail?

Further Problems

“God Can do Anything”

Draw a round square?

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 9 / 28 “it was impossible for God to lie” (Hebrews 6:18) “God cannot be tempted with evil” (James 1:13)

Learn? Fail?

Further Problems

“God Can do Anything”

Draw a round square? Make 2 + 2 = 5?

Fail?

Further Problems

“God Can do Anything”

Draw a round square? Make 2 + 2 = 5? Learn?

Further Problems

“God Can do Anything”

Draw a round square? Make 2 + 2 = 5? Learn? Fail?

Further Problems

“God Can do Anything”

Draw a round square? Make 2 + 2 = 5? Learn? Fail?

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 9 / 28 “God cannot be tempted with evil” (James 1:13)

“God Can do Anything”

Draw a round square? Make 2 + 2 = 5? Learn? Fail?

Further Problems “it was impossible for God to lie” (Hebrews 6:18)

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 9 / 28 “God Can do Anything”

Draw a round square? Make 2 + 2 = 5? Learn? Fail?

Further Problems “it was impossible for God to lie” (Hebrews 6:18) “God cannot be tempted with evil” (James 1:13)

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 9 / 28 All of the students in the universe? All of the students at this university? All of the students enrolled in the module? All of the students who sat for the exam?

“All of the students passed the exam.” All of what students?!

Domain of Discourse The collection of things we are talking about; the things included in ‘all’.

Question What is the domain of discourse when we say ‘God can do all things’?

Domains of Discourse

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 10 / 28 All of the students in the universe? All of the students at this university? All of the students enrolled in the module? All of the students who sat for the exam?

“All of the students passed the exam.” All of what students?!

Domain of Discourse The collection of things we are talking about; the things included in ‘all’.

Question What is the domain of discourse when we say ‘God can do all things’?

Domains of Discourse

“All of the students passed the exam.” All of what students?!

Domain of Discourse The collection of things we are talking about; the things included in ‘all’.

Question What is the domain of discourse when we say ‘God can do all things’?

Domains of Discourse

All of what students?!

Domain of Discourse The collection of things we are talking about; the things included in ‘all’.

Question What is the domain of discourse when we say ‘God can do all things’?

Domains of Discourse

Domain of Discourse The collection of things we are talking about; the things included in ‘all’.

Question What is the domain of discourse when we say ‘God can do all things’?

Domains of Discourse

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 10 / 28 All of the students at this university? All of the students enrolled in the module? All of the students who sat for the exam?

Domain of Discourse The collection of things we are talking about; the things included in ‘all’.

Question What is the domain of discourse when we say ‘God can do all things’?

Domains of Discourse

“All confess that God is omnipotent; but it seems diﬃcult to explain in what His omnipotence precisely consists: for there may be doubt as to the precise meaning of the word ‘all’ when we say God can do all things” (Aquinas, Summa Theologica I, q. 25, a. 3) “All of the students passed the exam.” All of what students?! All of the students in the universe?

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 10 / 28 All of the students enrolled in the module? All of the students who sat for the exam?

Domain of Discourse The collection of things we are talking about; the things included in ‘all’.

Question What is the domain of discourse when we say ‘God can do all things’?

Domains of Discourse

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 10 / 28 All of the students who sat for the exam?

Domain of Discourse The collection of things we are talking about; the things included in ‘all’.

Question What is the domain of discourse when we say ‘God can do all things’?

Domains of Discourse

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 10 / 28 Domain of Discourse The collection of things we are talking about; the things included in ‘all’.

Question What is the domain of discourse when we say ‘God can do all things’?

Domains of Discourse

Question What is the domain of discourse when we say ‘God can do all things’?

Domains of Discourse

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 10 / 28 Question What is the domain of discourse when we say ‘God can do all things’?

Domains of Discourse

Domain of Discourse The collection of things we are talking about; the things included in ‘all’.

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 10 / 28 Domains of Discourse

Domain of Discourse The collection of things we are talking about; the things included in ‘all’.

Question What is the domain of discourse when we say ‘God can do all things’?

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 10 / 28 Divine Omnipotence

Our Question Is there anything a theist might reasonably mean by ‘God is omnipotent’ (or ‘all-powerful’ or ‘almighty’) that actually makes sense.

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 11 / 28 Contradiction Theories should not make omnipotence itself a contradictory property, or attribute to God the ability to make contradictions true.

Triviality Theories should make some kind of substantive claim about the extent of an omnipotent being’s power, and not just say “an omnipotent being can do everything an omnipotent being can do.”

Inconsistency with Other Divine Attributes God is also traditionally thought to be necessarily morally perfect, i.e., unable to do wrong.

Weakness A theory is too weak if it counts imaginable beings who are not impressively powerful as omnipotent.

Pitfalls for Theories of Omnipotence

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 12 / 28 Triviality Theories should make some kind of substantive claim about the extent of an omnipotent being’s power, and not just say “an omnipotent being can do everything an omnipotent being can do.”

Inconsistency with Other Divine Attributes God is also traditionally thought to be necessarily morally perfect, i.e., unable to do wrong.

Weakness A theory is too weak if it counts imaginable beings who are not impressively powerful as omnipotent.

Pitfalls for Theories of Omnipotence

Contradiction Theories should not make omnipotence itself a contradictory property, or attribute to God the ability to make contradictions true.

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 12 / 28 Inconsistency with Other Divine Attributes God is also traditionally thought to be necessarily morally perfect, i.e., unable to do wrong.

Weakness A theory is too weak if it counts imaginable beings who are not impressively powerful as omnipotent.

Pitfalls for Theories of Omnipotence

Contradiction Theories should not make omnipotence itself a contradictory property, or attribute to God the ability to make contradictions true.

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 12 / 28 Weakness A theory is too weak if it counts imaginable beings who are not impressively powerful as omnipotent.

Pitfalls for Theories of Omnipotence

Contradiction Theories should not make omnipotence itself a contradictory property, or attribute to God the ability to make contradictions true.

Inconsistency with Other Divine Attributes God is also traditionally thought to be necessarily morally perfect, i.e., unable to do wrong.

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 12 / 28 Pitfalls for Theories of Omnipotence

Contradiction Theories should not make omnipotence itself a contradictory property, or attribute to God the ability to make contradictions true.

Inconsistency with Other Divine Attributes God is also traditionally thought to be necessarily morally perfect, i.e., unable to do wrong.

Weakness A theory is too weak if it counts imaginable beings who are not impressively powerful as omnipotent.

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 12 / 28 Some Theories of Omnipotence

1 Philosophical Theology

2 Some Puzzles About Omnipotence

3 Some Theories of Omnipotence Act Theories Result Theories Modiﬁed Result Theories

4 The Stone Paradox

5 Giving Up Omnipotence?

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 13 / 28 Act Theories

1 Philosophical Theology

2 Some Puzzles About Omnipotence

3 Some Theories of Omnipotence Act Theories Result Theories Modiﬁed Result Theories

4 The Stone Paradox

5 Giving Up Omnipotence?

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 14 / 28 First Problem What do we mean by ‘possible’?

The Stone Making a stone one cannot lift appears to be a possible action. Is it consistent to hold that an omnipotent being (on this theory) can perform this action?

A Further Problem Lying, stealing, forgetting, etc., are all possible actions, but it’s traditionally thought that God can’t do them.

Proposal 1: Any possible action (Thomas Aquinas, sort of)

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 15 / 28 The Stone Making a stone one cannot lift appears to be a possible action. Is it consistent to hold that an omnipotent being (on this theory) can perform this action?

A Further Problem Lying, stealing, forgetting, etc., are all possible actions, but it’s traditionally thought that God can’t do them.

Proposal 1: Any possible action (Thomas Aquinas, sort of)

First Problem What do we mean by ‘possible’?

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 15 / 28 A Further Problem Lying, stealing, forgetting, etc., are all possible actions, but it’s traditionally thought that God can’t do them.

Proposal 1: Any possible action (Thomas Aquinas, sort of)

First Problem What do we mean by ‘possible’?

The Stone Making a stone one cannot lift appears to be a possible action. Is it consistent to hold that an omnipotent being (on this theory) can perform this action?

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 15 / 28 Proposal 1: Any possible action (Thomas Aquinas, sort of)

First Problem What do we mean by ‘possible’?

The Stone Making a stone one cannot lift appears to be a possible action. Is it consistent to hold that an omnipotent being (on this theory) can perform this action?

A Further Problem Lying, stealing, forgetting, etc., are all possible actions, but it’s traditionally thought that God can’t do them.

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 15 / 28 The McEar Problem Necessarily, Mr. McEar never does anything other than scratch his ear. According to this deﬁnition, McEar is omnipotent.

An Objection Edward Wierenga: But there just couldn’t be a being like McEar!

A Possible Response Alvin Planting and Richard La Croix: Perhaps we should give up on the project of deﬁning ‘omnipotence’ in general, and just note that when we say that God is omnipotent we mean that God can do anything that is consistent with God’s nature.

Proposal 2: Any action such that it is possible that that being does it

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 16 / 28 An Objection Edward Wierenga: But there just couldn’t be a being like McEar!

Proposal 2: Any action such that it is possible that that being does it

The McEar Problem Necessarily, Mr. McEar never does anything other than scratch his ear. According to this deﬁnition, McEar is omnipotent.

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 16 / 28 A Possible Response Alvin Planting and Richard La Croix: Perhaps we should give up on the project of deﬁning ‘omnipotence’ in general, and just note that when we say that God is omnipotent we mean that God can do anything that is consistent with God’s nature.

Proposal 2: Any action such that it is possible that that being does it

The McEar Problem Necessarily, Mr. McEar never does anything other than scratch his ear. According to this deﬁnition, McEar is omnipotent.

An Objection Edward Wierenga: But there just couldn’t be a being like McEar!

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 16 / 28 Proposal 2: Any action such that it is possible that that being does it

The McEar Problem Necessarily, Mr. McEar never does anything other than scratch his ear. According to this deﬁnition, McEar is omnipotent.

An Objection Edward Wierenga: But there just couldn’t be a being like McEar!

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 16 / 28 Result Theories

1 Philosophical Theology

2 Some Puzzles About Omnipotence

3 Some Theories of Omnipotence Act Theories Result Theories Modiﬁed Result Theories

4 The Stone Paradox

5 Giving Up Omnipotence?

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 17 / 28 Possible World A complete way all of reality (past, present, and future) could be.

Objection 1 Alvin Plantinga: This means that God determines all of our choices.

Reply Leibniz and Ross: That’s not so bad.

Objection 2 This implausibly restricts which worlds are possible.

Reply It’s not really so implausible.

Proposal 3: Any possible world (Gottfried Leibniz and James F. Ross)

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 18 / 28 Objection 1 Alvin Plantinga: This means that God determines all of our choices.

Reply Leibniz and Ross: That’s not so bad.

Objection 2 This implausibly restricts which worlds are possible.

Reply It’s not really so implausible.

Proposal 3: Any possible world (Gottfried Leibniz and James F. Ross)

Possible World A complete way all of reality (past, present, and future) could be.

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 18 / 28 Reply Leibniz and Ross: That’s not so bad.

Objection 2 This implausibly restricts which worlds are possible.

Reply It’s not really so implausible.

Proposal 3: Any possible world (Gottfried Leibniz and James F. Ross)

Possible World A complete way all of reality (past, present, and future) could be.

Objection 1 Alvin Plantinga: This means that God determines all of our choices.

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 18 / 28 Objection 2 This implausibly restricts which worlds are possible.

Reply It’s not really so implausible.

Proposal 3: Any possible world (Gottfried Leibniz and James F. Ross)

Possible World A complete way all of reality (past, present, and future) could be.

Objection 1 Alvin Plantinga: This means that God determines all of our choices.

Reply Leibniz and Ross: That’s not so bad.

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 18 / 28 Reply It’s not really so implausible.

Proposal 3: Any possible world (Gottfried Leibniz and James F. Ross)

Possible World A complete way all of reality (past, present, and future) could be.

Objection 1 Alvin Plantinga: This means that God determines all of our choices.

Reply Leibniz and Ross: That’s not so bad.

Objection 2 This implausibly restricts which worlds are possible.

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 18 / 28 Proposal 3: Any possible world (Gottfried Leibniz and James F. Ross)

Possible World A complete way all of reality (past, present, and future) could be.

Objection 1 Alvin Plantinga: This means that God determines all of our choices.

Reply Leibniz and Ross: That’s not so bad.

Objection 2 This implausibly restricts which worlds are possible.

Reply It’s not really so implausible.

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 18 / 28 Objection McEar Again!

Proposal 4: Any state of aﬀairs such that it is possible that that being actualize that state of aﬀairs. (Edward Wierenga)

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 19 / 28 Proposal 4: Any state of aﬀairs such that it is possible that that being actualize that state of aﬀairs. (Edward Wierenga)

Objection McEar Again!

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 19 / 28 Modiﬁed Result Theories

1 Philosophical Theology

2 Some Puzzles About Omnipotence

3 Some Theories of Omnipotence Act Theories Result Theories Modiﬁed Result Theories

4 The Stone Paradox

5 Giving Up Omnipotence?

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 20 / 28 What notion of ‘due to’ (explanation) is in play here? What notion of (lack of) power is in play here? Does this imply that God has necessarily unexercised powers?

Questions

Proposal 5: There is no state of aﬀairs such that an omnipotent being is unable to bring it about partly due to lack of power. (Erik Wielenberg)

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 21 / 28 What notion of (lack of) power is in play here? Does this imply that God has necessarily unexercised powers?

Proposal 5: There is no state of aﬀairs such that an omnipotent being is unable to bring it about partly due to lack of power. (Erik Wielenberg)

Questions What notion of ‘due to’ (explanation) is in play here?

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 21 / 28 Does this imply that God has necessarily unexercised powers?

Proposal 5: There is no state of aﬀairs such that an omnipotent being is unable to bring it about partly due to lack of power. (Erik Wielenberg)

Questions What notion of ‘due to’ (explanation) is in play here? What notion of (lack of) power is in play here?

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 21 / 28 Proposal 5: There is no state of aﬀairs such that an omnipotent being is unable to bring it about partly due to lack of power. (Erik Wielenberg)

Questions What notion of ‘due to’ (explanation) is in play here? What notion of (lack of) power is in play here? Does this imply that God has necessarily unexercised powers?

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 21 / 28 Perfect Eﬃcacy Necessarily, whatever an omnipotent being wills happens.

Objection One What if McEar can’t will anything other than scratching his ear?

Reply Is McEar free? What would happen if he willed otherwise?

Objection Two But God can’t will to do evil.

Reply Perfect freedom doesn’t require the possibility of willing just anything.

Proposal 6: An omnipotent being has perfect eﬃcacy of will and perfect freedom of will (Kenneth Pearce and Alexander Pruss)

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 22 / 28 Objection One What if McEar can’t will anything other than scratching his ear?

Reply Is McEar free? What would happen if he willed otherwise?

Objection Two But God can’t will to do evil.

Reply Perfect freedom doesn’t require the possibility of willing just anything.

Proposal 6: An omnipotent being has perfect eﬃcacy of will and perfect freedom of will (Kenneth Pearce and Alexander Pruss) Perfect Eﬃcacy Necessarily, whatever an omnipotent being wills happens.

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 22 / 28 Reply Is McEar free? What would happen if he willed otherwise?

Objection Two But God can’t will to do evil.

Reply Perfect freedom doesn’t require the possibility of willing just anything.

Proposal 6: An omnipotent being has perfect eﬃcacy of will and perfect freedom of will (Kenneth Pearce and Alexander Pruss) Perfect Eﬃcacy Necessarily, whatever an omnipotent being wills happens.

Objection One What if McEar can’t will anything other than scratching his ear?

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 22 / 28 Objection Two But God can’t will to do evil.

Reply Perfect freedom doesn’t require the possibility of willing just anything.

Proposal 6: An omnipotent being has perfect eﬃcacy of will and perfect freedom of will (Kenneth Pearce and Alexander Pruss) Perfect Eﬃcacy Necessarily, whatever an omnipotent being wills happens.

Objection One What if McEar can’t will anything other than scratching his ear?

Reply Is McEar free? What would happen if he willed otherwise?

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 22 / 28 Reply Perfect freedom doesn’t require the possibility of willing just anything.

Proposal 6: An omnipotent being has perfect eﬃcacy of will and perfect freedom of will (Kenneth Pearce and Alexander Pruss) Perfect Eﬃcacy Necessarily, whatever an omnipotent being wills happens.

Objection One What if McEar can’t will anything other than scratching his ear?

Reply Is McEar free? What would happen if he willed otherwise?

Objection Two But God can’t will to do evil.

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 22 / 28 Proposal 6: An omnipotent being has perfect eﬃcacy of will and perfect freedom of will (Kenneth Pearce and Alexander Pruss) Perfect Eﬃcacy Necessarily, whatever an omnipotent being wills happens.

Objection One What if McEar can’t will anything other than scratching his ear?

Reply Is McEar free? What would happen if he willed otherwise?

Objection Two But God can’t will to do evil.

Reply Perfect freedom doesn’t require the possibility of willing just anything.

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 22 / 28 The Stone Paradox

1 Philosophical Theology

2 Some Puzzles About Omnipotence

3 Some Theories of Omnipotence Act Theories Result Theories Modiﬁed Result Theories

4 The Stone Paradox

5 Giving Up Omnipotence?

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 23 / 28 An Easy Solution If God created the stone, God would limit God’s own power, and thereby cease to be omnipotent, but that doesn’t show that God isn’t omnipotent now, nor does it show any inconsistency in the concept of omnipotence.

Problem Theists have usually held that God is essentially omnipotent, that God can’t stop being omnipotent, so they have not usually been satisﬁed with this answer.

The Stone Paradox

The Problem If God can’t create the stone, then there is something God can’t do; but if God can create the stone then there is also something God can’t do (lift the stone).

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 24 / 28 Problem Theists have usually held that God is essentially omnipotent, that God can’t stop being omnipotent, so they have not usually been satisﬁed with this answer.

The Stone Paradox

The Problem If God can’t create the stone, then there is something God can’t do; but if God can create the stone then there is also something God can’t do (lift the stone).

An Easy Solution If God created the stone, God would limit God’s own power, and thereby cease to be omnipotent, but that doesn’t show that God isn’t omnipotent now, nor does it show any inconsistency in the concept of omnipotence.

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 24 / 28 The Stone Paradox

The Problem If God can’t create the stone, then there is something God can’t do; but if God can create the stone then there is also something God can’t do (lift the stone).

Problem Theists have usually held that God is essentially omnipotent, that God can’t stop being omnipotent, so they have not usually been satisﬁed with this answer.

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 24 / 28 God can bring this about by making a human/angel/whatever who makes a stone, etc.

What about there being a stone too heavy for its creator to lift?

But what about McEar? The state of aﬀairs there being a stone too heavy for God to lift is impossible, and none of the result theories require God to be able to bring about impossible states of aﬀairs.

Some Other Solutions

Limiting God’s own power might be inconsistent with God’s nature, so perhaps God doesn’t need to be able to do this in order to be omnipotent.

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 25 / 28 God can bring this about by making a human/angel/whatever who makes a stone, etc.

What about there being a stone too heavy for its creator to lift?

The state of aﬀairs there being a stone too heavy for God to lift is impossible, and none of the result theories require God to be able to bring about impossible states of aﬀairs.

Some Other Solutions

Limiting God’s own power might be inconsistent with God’s nature, so perhaps God doesn’t need to be able to do this in order to be omnipotent. But what about McEar?

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 25 / 28 God can bring this about by making a human/angel/whatever who makes a stone, etc.

What about there being a stone too heavy for its creator to lift?

Some Other Solutions

Limiting God’s own power might be inconsistent with God’s nature, so perhaps God doesn’t need to be able to do this in order to be omnipotent. But what about McEar? The state of aﬀairs there being a stone too heavy for God to lift is impossible, and none of the result theories require God to be able to bring about impossible states of aﬀairs.

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 25 / 28 God can bring this about by making a human/angel/whatever who makes a stone, etc.

Some Other Solutions

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 25 / 28 Some Other Solutions

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 25 / 28 Giving Up Omnipotence?

1 Philosophical Theology

2 Some Puzzles About Omnipotence

3 Some Theories of Omnipotence Act Theories Result Theories Modiﬁed Result Theories

4 The Stone Paradox

5 Giving Up Omnipotence?

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 26 / 28 Peter Geach: Perhaps God has power over all things (rather than power to do all things). Jordan Howard Sobel: Perhaps God has only necessarily self-limited power. Scott A. Hill: God is as powerful as is consistent with God’s other attributes. Nancy Frankenberry: Perhaps divine omnipotence was a theological/religious mistake all along. This stems from an objectionable notion of ‘greatness’ or ‘perfection’ as domination over others.

Giving Up Omnipotence?

Maybe it’s ﬁne if God is just contingently omnipotent.

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 27 / 28 Jordan Howard Sobel: Perhaps God has only necessarily self-limited power. Scott A. Hill: God is as powerful as is consistent with God’s other attributes. Nancy Frankenberry: Perhaps divine omnipotence was a theological/religious mistake all along. This stems from an objectionable notion of ‘greatness’ or ‘perfection’ as domination over others.

Giving Up Omnipotence?

Maybe it’s ﬁne if God is just contingently omnipotent. Peter Geach: Perhaps God has power over all things (rather than power to do all things).

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 27 / 28 Scott A. Hill: God is as powerful as is consistent with God’s other attributes. Nancy Frankenberry: Perhaps divine omnipotence was a theological/religious mistake all along. This stems from an objectionable notion of ‘greatness’ or ‘perfection’ as domination over others.

Giving Up Omnipotence?

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 27 / 28 Nancy Frankenberry: Perhaps divine omnipotence was a theological/religious mistake all along. This stems from an objectionable notion of ‘greatness’ or ‘perfection’ as domination over others.

Giving Up Omnipotence?

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 27 / 28 Giving Up Omnipotence?

Maybe it’s ﬁne if God is just contingently omnipotent. Peter Geach: Perhaps God has power over all things (rather than power to do all things). Jordan Howard Sobel: Perhaps God has only necessarily self-limited power. Scott A. Hill: God is as powerful as is consistent with God’s other attributes. Nancy Frankenberry: Perhaps divine omnipotence was a theological/religious mistake all along. This stems from an objectionable notion of ‘greatness’ or ‘perfection’ as domination over others.

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 27 / 28 But most theistic philosophers today favor result theories or modiﬁed result theories.

The Paradox is most eﬀective against Act Theories of omnipotence (which say that God can perform any action), since making a stone too heavy for one to lift is a possible action.

Although the Paradox does not present an unsolvable problem for theism, it does prompt us to clarify the concepts involved in theistic claims, and shows us some diﬀerent ways this clariﬁcation can go. Understanding what’s meant by the claim that there is an omnipotent being is of course only preliminary to the question of whether we should believe that there actually is such a thing.

Summary

The Stone Paradox is one of a number of questions that arise in trying to make sense of the theist’s claim that God is omnipotent.

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 28 / 28 But most theistic philosophers today favor result theories or modified result theories. Although the Paradox does not present an unsolvable problem for theism, it does prompt us to clarify the concepts involved in theistic claims, and shows us some different ways this clarification can go. Understanding what’s meant by the claim that there is an omnipotent being is of course only preliminary to the question of whether we should believe that there actually is such a thing.

Summary

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 28 / 28 Although the Paradox does not present an unsolvable problem for theism, it does prompt us to clarify the concepts involved in theistic claims, and shows us some diﬀerent ways this clariﬁcation can go. Understanding what’s meant by the claim that there is an omnipotent being is of course only preliminary to the question of whether we should believe that there actually is such a thing.

Summary

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 28 / 28 Understanding what’s meant by the claim that there is an omnipotent being is of course only preliminary to the question of whether we should believe that there actually is such a thing.

Summary

The Stone Paradox is one of a number of questions that arise in trying to make sense of the theist’s claim that God is omnipotent. The Paradox is most effective against Act Theories of omnipotence (which say that God can perform any action), since making a stone too heavy for one to lift is a possible action. But most theistic philosophers today favor result theories or modified result theories. Although the Paradox does not present an unsolvable problem for theism, it does prompt us to clarify the concepts involved in theistic claims, and shows us some different ways this clarification can go.

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 28 / 28 Summary

Kenneth L. Pearce (Trinity College) Can God Create a Stone too Heavy for God to Lift? February 6, 2018 28 / 28