Guidelines to Support Implementation of the Great Bear Rainforest Order with Respect to Old Forest and Listed Plant Communities

LAND MANAGEMENT HANDBOOK

2019

Guidelines to Support Implementation of the Great Bear Rainforest Order with Respect to Old Forest and Listed Plant Communities

Allen Banner, Del Meidinger, Bob Green, and Sari Saunders The use of trade, ﬁrm, or corporation names in this publication is for the information and convenience of the reader. Such use does not constitute an ofﬁcial endorsement or approval by the Government of British Columbia of any product or service to the exclusion of any others that may also be suitable. Contents of this report are presented for discussion purposes only. Funding assistance does not imply endorsement of any statements or information contained herein by the Government of British Columbia. Uniform Resource Locators (urls), addresses, and contact information contained in this document are current at the time of printing unless otherwise noted.

ISBN 978-0-7726-7326-8 – Print version ISBN 978-0-7726-7327-5 – Digital version

Citation Banner, A., D. Meidinger, R.N. Green, and S.C. Saunders. 2019. Guidelines to support implementation of the Great Bear Rainforest Order with respect to Old Forest and Listed Plant Communities. Prov. B.C., Victoria, B.C. Land Manag. Handb. 72. www.for.gov.bc.ca/hfd/pubs/Docs/Lmh/LMH72.htm

Authors’ affiliations Allen Banner, R.P.Bio., R.P.F. (ret) Banner Consulting 315 McLean St. S. Campbell River, BC v9w 2l7

Del Meidinger, R.P.Bio. Meidinger Ecological Consultants Ltd. 639 Vanalman Ave. Victoria, BC v8z 3a8

Robert N. Green, R.P.Bio., R.P.F. B.A. Blackwell and Associates Ltd. Suite 270 – 18 Gostick Place North Vancouver, BC v7m 3g3

Sari C. Saunders, Ph.D. R.P.Bio. Coast Area Research B.C. Ministry of Forests, Lands, Natural Resource Operations and Rural Development 103–2100 Labieux Rd. Nanaimo, BC v9t 6e9

Cover Photo Credit: Robert N. Green. B.A. Blackwell and Associates Ltd. Old growth forest in the CWHvm1.

Copies of this report may be obtained from: Crown Publications, Queen’s Printer PO Box 9452 Stn Prov Govt 563 Superior Street, 2nd Floor Victoria, BC V8W 9V7 1 800 663-6105 www.crownpub.bc.ca

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The Great Bear Rainforest Order GBRO( ), estab- A set of field keys is provided to facilitate consistent lished January 2016 (B.C. Ministry of Forests, Lands application of ecological concepts to meet the intent and Natural Resource Operations 2016a, 2016b), pre- of the GBRO objectives. The keys incorporate initial sents legal objectives for the protection of Old For- minimum criteria for certain ecological features, and ests and red- and blue-listed plant communities an index that integrates a suite of old forest attributes (Listed Communities) within the timber harvest- (the Forest Attribute Score) based on features that ing land base of the Great Bear Rainforest. The Or- reflect the complexity of these older coastal, forested der presents a definition of Old Forest that includes ecosystems. The field procedures begin with the Old forests younger than 250 years, provided they possess Forest assessment key and proceed to the Sufficiently certain structural and compositional characteristics Established Listed Community decision key in order that are associated with older forests. Listed Commu- to evaluate whether protection of a Listed Community nities must meet conditions related to forest age and is required. Both assessments initially use a decision structure, size of occurrence, and degree of develop- key that either provides the final decision or directs ment of the plant community. Although the direction the user to the Forest Attribute Score procedure for on management and conservation of both Old For- making the final decision. Both keys require the field est and Listed Communities is conceptually straight- practitioner to determine stand age and occurrence forward, practical field implementation is challenging of a Veteran Overstorey Tree (VOT) layer. To evaluate due to the lack of explicit field assessment criteria. As the requirement for protection of Listed Communi- such, there is a need for guidance to assist operational ties, the level of understorey development must also personnel in interpreting the legislation and ensuring be evaluated. Calculation of a Forest Attribute Score compliance with the intent of the current Great Bear requires the assessment of six stand attributes: den- Rainforest Land Use Order. sity of VOTs, density of large snags, vertical canopy We reviewed published materials and unpublished differentiation, understorey shrub and herb cover, (internal British Columbia natural resource minis- amount of coarse woody debris, and stand distur- tries) literature and data pertaining to the identifica- bance history. tion, management, and conservation of old forests and Insight and critical review from forest licensees threatened and endangered forested plant commu- (Coast Forest Conservation Initiative and Timber- nities in coastal temperate rainforests. This guidance West Forest Corp.) and environmental nongovern- document provides an overview of key aspects of the mental organizations (Rainforest Solutions Project) GBRO with respect to Old Forest and Listed Commu- were incorporated into this field manual during all nities, and interpretation of the text in the GBRO with stages of its development. Oversight was also provid- reference to current ecological concepts. Additionally, ed by the Ecosystem-based Management Government we discuss how the GBRO text relates to the B.C. Con- to Government Forum, including the Nanwakolas servation Data Centre (CDC) methods for assessing Council and Coastal First Nations. red- and blue-listed ecological communities.

PREFACE

This guidance document has been produced at Rainforest Solutions Project. Diverse sources of in- the request of the B.C. Ministry of Forests, Lands, formation were reviewed and considered to complete Natural Resource Operations, and Rural Develop- this document, including some interim draft guid- ment. Earlier drafts were prepared for TimberWest ance provided by TimberWest Forest Corp. (Hopwood Forest Corp. and the Joint Solutions Project, includ- 20141), discussion with Joint Solutions Project mem- ing the Coast Forest Conservation Initiative and the bers, review of pertinent scientific literature from the

1 Hopwood, D. 2014. TimberWest operational definition of old forest forEBM – Draft 6, conceptual overview. Prepared for TimberWest Forest Corp., Nanaimo, B.C.

iii U.S. Pacific Northwest and coastal British Columbia, Project and TimberWest, and numerous external including B.C. Conservation Data Centre methodol- technical reviews. We have strived to produce a ogy, and field experience of the authors. product that we believe is ecologically defensible, This published version contains minor changes operationally feasible, and in keeping with the intent from the previous 2018 drafts, primarily to clari- of the ecological objectives within the Great Bear fy some quantitative thresholds and wording; for Rainforest Land Use Objectives. example, setting minimum diameters for Veteran We recognize that there will always be borderline Overstorey Trees and providing additional guidance or “controversial” cases in any decision that uses eco- on reserving small occurrences of Old Forest and logical information within a dichotomous key due to: Listed Communities. The earlier 2018 drafts incorpo- • the ecological variability in recognized, central rated revisions from a review of the July 2017 version concepts; that was produced after a 2-day field-testing session • the exceptional or unusual stand disturbance in May 2017. The authors feel that the present version histories and stand characteristics; and presents ecologically informed, operationally feasible • the simplicity of such keys. and repeatable guidance on how to implement the Great Bear Rainforest Order requirements for pro- This guidance document is expected to be used tecting Old Forest and Listed communities. operationally over the next few years, and modifi- This guidance document includes keys and docu- cations (e.g., to conservation key thresholds) that mentation that integrate careful consideration of the are agreed to by all the above client groups may be literature, our own professional experience, informa- incorporated into a future revision. tion and comments provided by the Joint Solutions

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors acknowledge the contributions of Heather Station, Corvallis, Oregon), and Dr. Tony Trofymow Klassen during the discussions and development (Research Scientist, Pacific Forestry Centre, Canadi- of draft/supporting materials, including compiling an Forest Service). provincial Biogeoclimatic Ecosystem Classification Numerous review drafts of this document were mensuration data. We also thank Russell Klassen for produced for FLNRORD, TimberWest Forest Corp., his assistance with compiling mensuration data. Alex the Joint Solutions Project (including the Coast Forest Inselberg provided photos for several figures in the Conservation Initiative and the Rainforest Solutions report; the remainder were provided by the authors. Project), and the Ecosystem-based Management We very much appreciate the reviews of the initial Government to Government Forum, including the draft document by Terry Lewis (consulting in soils Nanwakolas Council and Coastal First Nations. We and land use) and Carmen Cadrin (Vegetation Ecolo- appreciate the many thorough reviews by represen- gist, B.C. Conservation Data Centre, B.C. Ministry of tatives from these organizations and the discussions Environment). This version has benefitted from addi- and field sessions that led to this final product. tional technical reviews completed by Deb MacKillop Finally, we thank Ben Morton, Dorthe Jakobsen, (Research Ecologist, B.C. Ministry of Forests, Lands, Brian Retzer, Larianna Brown, Pam Silver, and Jeff Natural Resource Operations and Rural Development Sheldrake, FLNRORD, and Kathryn Willis and Mike [FLNRORD], Kootenay-Boundary Region), John Sunde Desrochers, B.C. Timber Sales, for their efforts in (Land and Resource Specialist, FLNRORD, West Coast facilitating the process and funding this project in Region), Dr. Andrew Gray (Research Ecologist and co-operation with the Coast Forest Conservation Team Leader, United States Department of Agri- Initiative. culture Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research

iv CONTENTS

Executive Summary...... iii Preface ...... iii Acknowledgements...... iv 1 Introduction...... 1 1.1 Background...... 1 1.1.1 Legal objectives...... 1 2 Interpreting the Order...... 3 2.1 Requirements for Identifying Old Forest ...... 3 2.2 Requirements for Identifying Listed Communities...... 4 2.3 Revisions to the Order and This Guide...... 4 3 Developing a Practical Field Assessment Procedure...... 4 3.1 Challenges for the Practitioner ...... 4 3.2 Overview of Approach...... 5 3.3 Primary Assessment Factors ...... 5 3.3.1 Stand age and composition...... 5 3.3.2 Veteran Overstorey Tree layer...... 7 3.3.3 Understorey plant community development...... 10 3.4 The Forest Attribute Score ...... 12 3.4.1 Conceptual stand structure characteristics used in the Great Bear Rainforest Order definitions...... 13 3.4.2 Forest Attribute Score attributes...... 14 3.5 Sufficiently Established Listed Communities...... 20 3.5.1 Listed Communities...... 20 3.5.2 Assessing whether Listed Communities are Sufficiently Established...... 21 4 The Conservation Decision-making Procedure...... 25 4.1 Overview...... 25 4.2 Identifying Old Forest...... 28 4.3 Identifying Sufficiently Established Listed Communities...... 29 4.4 Calculating the Forest Attribute Score...... 31 4.5 Summary of Criteria for Identifying Old Forest and Sufficiently Established Listed Communities ...... 33 Literature Cited...... 34 Appendices 1 Authors’ proposal for altered wording to clarify definitions, objectives, and criteria for application of objectives associated with concepts of Old Forest and Sufficiently Established Listed Communities within the Great Bear Land Use Objectives Order ...... 39 2 Reserve considerations for Old Forest and Listed Community occurrences...... 40 3 Comparison chart for visual estimation of foliage cover...... 42 4 Additional forest attributes to consider in assessments of Old Forest and Sufficiently Listed Communities...... 43 5 Western redcedar – Bluffs Listed Community...... 44 6 Spatial distribution pattern types...... 45 7 Condition, landscape context, and size factors that influence ecological integrity...... 45 8 Examples of forests assessed for Old Forest and Sufficiently Established status...... 48 9 Literature review – mature and old forest attributes ...... 56

v Tables 1 Listed Communities, from the Great Bear Land Use Order Schedules, on floodplain systems...... 22 2 Element occurrence rank factors and components for ecological communities...... 24 3 Weighting of element occurrence rank factors...... 24

Figures 1 Typical stand development following moderate-severity fire in Douglas-fir–western hemlock forests that are common in southern Great Bear Rainforest drier biogeoclimatic units ...... 8 2 Examples of Veteran Overstorey Trees...... 9 3 Examples of three vegetation development categories used for assessing understorey shrub and herb cover ...... 11 4 Young Forest and Mature Forest in the very dry maritime Coastal Western Hemlock subzone...... 14 5 Summary of the Forest Attribute Score procedure used to evaluate structural and other stand attributes in the assessment of Old Forest and Sufficiently Established Listed Communities...... 15 6 Examples of snags assessed in the Forest Attribute Score procedure; standing dead trees ≥ 50 cm dbh and ≥ 5 m tall ...... 16 7 Stratification of forest stands into three tree canopy layers and two understorey shrub layers ...... 17 8 Examples of stands with a simple, uniform canopy and a multi-storeyed, complex canopy. . 17 9 Examples of Forest Attribute Scores for coarse woody debris ≥ 50 cm maximum diameter and ≥ 10 m in length...... 19 10 Flow chart for the conservation decision-making procedure...... 26 11 Field decision key for identifying Old Forest ...... 27 12 Field decision key for identifying Sufficiently Established Listed Communities...... 30 13 Summary of the Forest Attribute Score procedure used to evaluate structural and other stand attributes in the assessment of Old Forest and Sufficiently Established Listed Communities...... 32 14 Summary of main criteria for identifying Old Forest and Sufficiently Established Listed Communities...... 33

vi 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background This guidance document addresses the identification of Old Forest and Sufficiently Established The Great Bear Rainforest Order GBRO( ), established Listed Communities within forest industry operating January 2016 (B.C. Ministry of Forests, Lands and areas and emphasizes the identification of current Natural Resource Operations [BCMFLNRO] 2016a, stand conditions that are required to meet criteria 2016b), presents legal objectives for the protection of for protection as outlined in the Order. Although the Old Forests and red- and blue-listed plant communi- recruitment of younger stands—that is, stands that ties (subsequently referred to as “Listed Communi- will develop the required conditions for Old Forest ties” 2). In the case of Old Forests, the Order provides and Sufficiently Established Listed Community status a definition that includes forests younger than 250 over time—is not the specific focus of this document, years, provided they possess certain characteristics the concepts and approach outlined here will com- that are associated with older forests. This broader plement the draft Landscape Reserve Design LRD( ) definition is designed primarily for application in methodology (BCMFLNRO 2016c) where recruitment Type 1 Restoration Landscape Units (as per Schedule of younger stands plays a larger role. H, GBRO). Listed Communities must meet certain The Red-Listed Communities in ScheduleN in- conditions related to age of forest, structure of forest, clude non-forested ecosystems; for example, wetland, size of occurrence, and expression (degree of develop- dune, saline, and subalpine communities. In this ment) of plant community3 (i.e., they must be “Suffi- guidance document, we address only forested plant ciently Established”) to require protection. communities. Although the direction on both Old Forest and Listed Communities is conceptually straightforward, 1.1.1 Legal objectives practical field implementation is challenging due to Old Forests the lack of explicit field assessment criteria. As such, In the Order (January 2016), Old Forest representa- there is a need for guidance to assist operational tion targets are specified under objectives for ecolog- personnel in interpreting the legislation with respect ical representation, as follows: to these criteria in the field, thus ensuring compliance with the intent of the current (2016) GBRO. Van From Part 1, Division 3 – Biodiversity Pelt (2007) similarly produced a guide to help field personnel identify mature and old forests in west- 4. Objectives for ecological representation ern Washington. This was produced in support of (1) Maintain landscape level biodiversity as follows: 2004 legislation that directed the Washington State (a) For each Site Series Group in the order area, main- Department of Natural Resources to conduct an old- tain a distribution of forest stand ages that will growth inventory on state lands. achieve the Old Forest Representation Targets listed In this section, we review key aspects of the GBRO in Column “A” in Schedule G by no later than 2264; with respect to Old Forest and Listed Communities, (b) For each Site Series Group in the order area, retain and quote text from specific sections of theGBRO . In an amount of Old Forest equal to or greater than the sections that follow, we provide interpretation the order area Minimum Old Forest Retention Lev- of the text in the Order, elaborate on how it relates to els listed in Column “B” in Schedule G; and the provincial Conservation Data Centre (CDC) meth- (c) For the purposes of subsections (1)(a) and (1)(b), ods for assessing red- and blue-listed ecological com- for each Site Series Group in a Landscape Unit, re- munities, and present a field assessment procedure to tain a minimum of 30% of the total forest area achieve the intent of the Order. of the Site Series Group as Old Forest.

2 Note that the GBRO red- and blue-listed plant communities listed in Schedules n and o of the Order, while derived from the provincial Conservation Data Centre (CDC) lists, are specific to theGBRO . TheGBRO lists are similar to, but not the same as, the officialCDC lists. Terminology used in this guidance document is specific to the GBRO “Listed Communities,” unless otherwise stated in the text. See Section 3.5 for further discussion. 3 The Conservation Data Centre uses the term “ecological community,” whereas the GBRO uses the term “plant community” when referring to Listed Communities. Although these terms are not entirely technically equivalent, we use “plant community” to refer generally to plant species composition and relative abundances of plant species that are characteristic of a site unit, and when referring to these attributes specifically in the context of the GBRO. We use the term “ecological community” to refer to the same attributes when speaking specifically in the context of theCDC .

1 Additional paragraphs under this Objective (No. 4, From Part 2 and Part 3, Division 4 – Biodiversity Part 1) specify further criteria related to Old Forest representation; actual targets by site series group (SSG)4 16. Objectives for Red-Listed Plant Communities and Blue-Listed Plant Communities are specified in ScheduleG . The definition of Old Forest provided in the Order (1) Protect each occurrence of a Red-Listed Plant Commu- nity during a primary forest activity as per Schedule N. is as follows: (2) Despite subsection (1), up to 5% of each occurrence of a Red-Listed Plant Community may be disturbed From Part 1, Definitions if there is no practicable alternative for road access, other infrastructure, or to address a safety concern. “old forest” means any of the following: (3) Reserve a minimum of 70% of each occurrence of a (a) a stand of trees 250 years or older; Blue-Listed Plant Community during a primary forest (b) an old, structurally complex stand comprised activity or reserve a minimum of 70% of the total mainly of climax species where older seral rem- area of each Blue-Listed Plant Community within a nants may still be present in the upper canopy landscape Unit as per Schedule O. and typically have: (i) standing snags; Listed Communities and terms for their manage- (ii) rotting logs on the ground; and ment are defined in the Order BCMFLNRO( 2016a) as (iii) patchy understories; or follows: (c) a stand of trees that has reached the climax state for the ecosystem it is found in where trees naturally From Part 1, Definitions cycle at an age less than 250 years. “red-listed plant community” means a plant community listed in Schedule N that is Sufficiently Established Throughout most of the Great Bear Rainforest and meets the age, stand structure, and area criteria area, Old Forest representation will be achieved described in Schedule N. simply by applying criterion (a) above. The addi- “blue-listed plant community” means a plant commu- tional criteria in the Old Forest definition provide nity listed in Schedule O that is Sufficiently Established for reserving mature forest areas with sufficient old and meets the age, stand structure, and area criteria forest attributes to help achieve Old Forest represen- described in Schedule O. tation targets in Type 1 Restoration Landscape Units. ”sufficiently established” means a Red-Listed Plant This will apply primarily in southern biogeoclimatic Community or Blue-Listed Plant Community most commonly associated with late mature or Old Forest units (e.g., Coastal Western Hemlock Dry Maritime stand characteristics, with the exception of floodplains, [CWHdm] and Very Dry Maritime [CWHxm] sub- or a Red-Listed Plant Community or Blue-Listed Plant zones), where a history of natural disturbances such Community found in a stand not defined as Old Forest as windthrow and fire, as well as logging (including but with a complex, open stand structure, along with a partial cutting) has created stands with complex quantity and distribution of indicator plants for the listed structure and a component of old “legacy” trees community, that constitutes an element occurrence with and other attributes of old forests. a good or better viability rank.

Listed Communities The criteria for application of red-listed BCMFLNRO( The Objectives for Listed Communities specified 2016a, Schedule N) and blue-listed (BCMFLNRO 2016a, in the Order (BCMFLNRO 2016a) are as follows: Schedule O) plant communities are as follows:

4 A site series group (SSG) within the GBRO means “a Site Series or Site Series Group listed in Schedule S.” A site series is the set of all sites within a biogeoclimatic subzone or variant (regional or subregional climatic units) of the British Columbia Biogeoclimatic Ecosystem Classification (Meidinger and Pojar 1991) that are capable of supporting the same late successional plant community. Some site series are grouped for purposes of Order implementation within Schedule G (Old Forest Targets).

2 Criteria for application of red- and blue-listed plant communities For the purposes of the objectives for red-listed and blue-listed plant communities, a plant community occurrence: (1) must: (a) be sufficiently established; (b) have a minimum area of: (i) 0.25 hectares for a discrete occurrence; or (ii) 2.0 hectares for a complex occurrence where the red-listed plant community is the dominant community; and (c) be associated with forests 200 years of age or older; or (2) must be associated with forests less than 200 years of age; and (a) be a floodplain ecosystem; (b) have a veteran overstory tree layer remaining; or (c) have a structural stage of either 6 or 7. “Veteran overstory tree layer” means trees that are considerably older than the rest of the stand and are remnants of a much older stand. Veteran trees will have a much larger diameter or height than the main stand. The size or age of the trees, along with the density of veteran trees required to constitute a layer will be dependent on the characteristics of the rest of the stand as well as the overstory trees.

2 INTERPRETING THE ORDER5

2.1 Requirements for Identifying Old Forest

Implementing the GBRO requires practitioners to – mainly climax species; designate Old Forest stands by: – older seral remnants in the upper canopy; • identifying stands that are at least 250 years old. – standing snags; Such stands are considered old throughout the – rotting logs on the ground; Great Bear Rainforest area and will be the stands – patchy understoreys; that are most commonly used to achieve Old For- • identifying stands of trees that have reached the est Representation Targets (OFRTs) and Minimum late successional to climax state for that specific Old Forest Retention Levels (MOFRLs); ecosystem (site series), although tree age may be 6 • identifying (primarily in Type 1 Restoration < 250 years old. Such stands may be considered Landscape Units) mature stands (< 250 years Old Forest throughout the Great Bear Rainfor- old) that possess enough old forest attributes to est for contributing to old forest representation be identified as good candidates for inclusion in target requirements and identifying candidate Landscape Reserve Designs (LRDs) and Tempo- areas for inclusion in LRDs and TOFRs but not for rary Old Forest Reserves (TOFRs). Such stands application to MOFRLs; and should have most of the following attributes: • conducting field assessments, with consistent and – “old” features; repeatable results, and at any time of year. – structural complexity;

5 This section outlines the requirements of the Order according to current Order wording. See Appendix 1 for the authors’ interpretation of Order definitions and refinement of wording that the authors suggest would clarify both definitions of Old Forest and Listed Communities, and the criteria that invoke protection of Listed Communities. The guidelines provided in the remainder of this report reflect the wording presented in Appendix 1, with the aim of providing a practical field interpretation of the Order. Rationale for the authors’ interpretation of the Order is also provided throughout this report. 6 This clause of the Old Forest definition may be interpreted in a couple of ways: (1) stands of “interior” (i.e., continental or submaritime rather than maritime or hypermaritime) biogeoclimatic units or stands of certain coastal ecosystems that have a more frequent disturbance regime than most coastal forests (e.g., drier Douglas-fir ecosystems), or (2) stands where the inventory age indicates that the stands are younger than they actually are. Direction from the B.C. Ministry of Forests, Lands, Natural Resource Operations and Rural Development (Resource Initiatives, West Coast Region) is to follow the second interpretation (see Section 4.2 regarding the ground confirmation of stand age).

3 2.2 Requirements for Identifying Listed Communities regarding understorey vegetation development); – understorey vegetation: a quantity and distri- Implementing the GBRO requires practitioners to iden- bution of indicator plants for the Listed Com- tify Listed Communities by: munity must be present for stands not defined • recognizing the site series in Schedules N and O as old to have plant communities designated that potentially support Listed Communities; as Sufficiently Established; • determining that Listed Communities are Suffi- – element occurrence ranking: must have a good 7 ciently Established and have preservation require- or better viability rank to be Sufficiently Estab- ments, using the following ecosystem attributes: lished if the stand is not defined as old; – stand age: all Listed Community occurrences – floodplain ecosystem: floodplain forest com- in stands > 200 years old that are Sufficiently munities are protected; Established and meet minimum size criteria • understanding what an occurrence is, being able have preservation requirements. Being able to to identify a discrete occurrence and a complex establish stand age in younger stands is also occurrence, being able to evaluate the proportion important because these younger stands must of communities in a complex occurrence, and also be assessed with respect to additional cri- being able to apply the minimum area criteria teria to determine whether the plant commu- of Schedules N and O; and nities require protection; • conducting field assessments with consistent and – veteran overstorey tree layer: if present, pres- repeatable results at any time of year. ervation requirements apply to Sufficiently Established Listed Communities in stands 2.3 Revisions to the Order and This Guide < 200 years old; – structural stage 6 (mature forest) or 7 (old for- The preamble to theGBRO indicates that if moni- est): if present, preservation requirements apply toring suggests that ecological integrity or human to Sufficiently Established Listed Communities well-being is not being maintained or improved, the in stands < 200 years old; Order can be amended. In addition, the Order is to – stand structure: must be complex and open— be reviewed in March 2021. The authors acknowledge that is, must be at least structural stage 6 rather that this guidance document presents a set of proce- than late stem exclusion (structural stage 5; dures to guide the implementation of the Order, and young forest), for a Listed Community found that monitoring may indicate that the procedures in a stand not defined as old to be Sufficiently require modification to more effectively meet the Established (in addition to meeting criteria GBRO Objectives.

3 DEVELOPING A PRACTICAL FIELD ASSESSMENT PROCEDURE

3.1 Challenges for the Practitioner

The overarching challenge for the field practitioner stand structure requires some guidelines that will re- in fulfilling the intent of the Order is that the defini- sult in independent assessments arriving at the same tions related to Old Forest and Listed Communities conclusion, most of the time. Conversely, addressing have a mix of explicit and conceptual components. explicit stand age thresholds can be achieved by using Field guidance is thus required to translate the con- standard techniques such as referencing the Vegeta- ceptual aspects of the definitions into practical and tion Resource Inventory (VRI) and confirming inven- repeatable field assessment procedures. For example, tory ages by increment coring of main canopy trees. identifying a structurally complex stand or an open

7 Note that the B.C. Conservation Data Centre uses the term “integrity” instead of “viability” for ecological communities. Viability is a concept that is applied to species populations (B.C. Ministry of Environment 2006). See Section 3.5 for further discussion.

4 This guide aims to provide a field assessment ap- Appendix 8 provides a photographic collection proach that puts some categorical boundaries on the of coastal forest sites that have been assessed for Old definitions of Old Forest and Listed Communities, Forest (OF) and Sufficiently EstablishedSE ( ) status. thus enabling operational staff to achieve the intent This provides a useful visual reference to help the of the Order confidently and consistently. user establish the link between OF/SE status, Forest Attribute Scores, and forest characteristics. 3.2 Overview of Approach Throughout this section, reference is made to relevant literature citations in Appendix 9 in which quan- The Order requires the assessment of two separate titative thresholds of attributes for defining old and (but linked) types of conservation values—Old Forest mature forest stands are summarized from coastal and Listed Communities. A structured decision-mak- British Columbia and U.S. Pacific Northwest PNW( ) ing process is presented that aims at achieving the literature. Age of recovery state (relative to old growth) intent of the Order while ensuring repeatable assess- for different attributes was also assessed through this ment of the essential stand criteria that are inherent literature review, to inform age thresholds used in the in the Old Forest and Sufficiently Established Listed decision keys. Community definitions. Since the first Old Forest definition in theGBRO provides a clear age threshold 3.3 Primary Assessment Factors (250 years), and Listed Communities are considered Sufficiently Established if they are the community 3.3.1 Stand age and composition most commonly associated with late mature or Old Stand age is used as a starting point for assessing Forest stand characteristics, the field assessment begins both Old Forest and Listed Communities. Stand age with the Old Forest assessment. Once the Old Forest refers to the average age of main canopy trees (in assessment has been completed, the next procedure multi-cohort stands this is the cohort that contrib- assesses whether (any other) criteria or thresholds for utes the most volume to the stand) as confirmed designation of a Sufficiently Established Listed Com- through increment coring, with the expectation munity are met. Both assessments follow a similar, that initial estimates will have been taken from the two-step procedure, initially using a dichotomous provincial VRI or corporate inventory. For example, decision key that either provides the final decision a second-growth stand with a layer of VOTs that or directs the user to the Forest Attribute Score (FAS) survived the last disturbance is aged based on the procedure for the final decision. Field keys for both second-growth main canopy trees; older VOTs are Old Forest and Sufficiently Established Listed Com- assessed separately. In the literature, commonly munities require the field practitioner to make initial used age thresholds for coastal old-growth forests in decisions based on an assessment of stand age and British Columbia and the U.S. PNW are 200 (range occurrence of a Veteran Overstorey Tree (VOT) layer, of 190–200 for the minimum for early old-growth) and for Sufficiently Established, a minimum level and 250 years (Franklin and Spies 1991; B.C. Ministry of understorey development (patchy versus sparse). of Forests 1992; Province of British Columbia 1995; Depending on the initial field key results, theFAS as- Franklin et al. 2005; Freund et al. 2015); 250 years cor- sessment may be required for the scoring of six stand responds to age class 9 on provincial VRI maps and attributes (density of VOTs, density of large snags, is the default age used in the GBRO for Old Forests. vertical canopy differentiation, understorey shrub Important threshold ages below the default 250 and herb cover, coarse woody debris, and disturbance years that are used in the Old Forest assessment deci- history), and the development of a final Old Forest sion key (see Section 4.2) are 80 and 140 years. Litera- and/or Listed Community conservation decision. A ture from drier (Douglas-fir Pseudotsuga[ menziesii]) prerequisite for determining whether criteria for the forest ecosystems of the U.S. PNW (e.g., Spies and protection of Listed Communities are invoked is the Franklin 1991; Acker et al. 1998) suggests 80 years as a identification of the Biogeoclimatic Ecosystem Clas- minimum age for mature forests; work within wetter sification BEC( ) site series using the appropriate site British Columbia western redcedar–western hemlock identification field guide for the area (Banner et al. (Thuja plicata–Tsuga heterophylla) forests has used 1993; Green and Klinka 1994). up to 100 years (e.g., Spies and Franklin 1991; Gerzon

5 et al. 2011; LePage and Banner 2014). Coastal forests shrub and herb cover), there are also some cases between 80 and 200–250 years are typically consid- where, due to well-developed understorey vegetation ered mature forests (Province of British Columbia in combination with additional structural features, 1995). The intent of the Order is to consider mature forests ≥ 80 years old may be considered Sufficiently forests, with adequate old structural attributes, to Established without meeting all minimum Old Forest contribute effectively to old forest values and func- requirements. tion as Old Forest (particularly for Type 1 Restoration Stand composition (the mixture of tree species Landscape Units). The 80-year-old threshold provides in different vertical layers of the vegetation) is also a defensible minimum age to be considered as Old considered in recognizing Old Forests. The Old Forest Forest if additional criteria are met. To be considered definition in the Order includes the following state- as functional Old Forest, these younger mature forests ment that applies to stands ≤ 250 years old, if they (i.e., 80–140 years old, corresponding to VRI age classes meet other criteria: 5–7) have more stringent requirements for structural attributes in the decision key compared with older (b) an old, structurally complex stand comprised mainly mature forests (i.e., 140–250 years old, corresponding of climax species where older seral remnants may to VRI age class 8). still be present in the upper canopy… For Listed Communities, the Order specifies a 200-year threshold, stating that preservation require- Stands ≤ 250 years old that are structurally com ments apply to forests > 200 years (rather than 250 plex are often composed of climax species with “older years, as for Old Forest), provided they are Sufficient- seral remnants.” However, these structurally com- ly Established. This is problematic from a practical plex stands may also be comprised of seral species perspective. Determining an accurate age in forests that dominate early stand development but are not between 200 and 250 years old is challenging (1) due yet replaced by “climax” species. This is especially to the difficulty in obtaining a reliable ring count the case with Douglas-fir, which is often considered from large, old trees where rot may be prevalent, and a long-lived seral species. (2) even with accurate ring counts, many such counts In coastal forests, successional stand development are required to establish a meaningful stand age in can also occur without tree species replacement—that old forests that are experiencing gap dynamics, where is, species that will dominate the climax stage regener- a significant range in tree ages (easily 50 years) would ate immediately after disturbance; (e.g., western hem- be expected (see Van Pelt 2007). In addition, British lock and western redcedar). The important aspect of Columbia government and industry forest invento- the above statement from the Old Forest definition is ries lump all forests between 140 and 250 years (age that the stands should be structurally complex and, class 8) into one age class. Although stand ages can in the opinion of the authors, can be composed of be extracted for individual polygons in the inventory, climax and/or long-living seral species. they are generally either estimates or based on just In the CWHxm and CWHdm, the climatic “cli- one or a few age counts. max” (zonal sites) overstorey species is western hem- It is the authors’ opinion that all forests > 250 years lock. Hemlock is shade-tolerant in these subzones and old, by meeting the first Old Forest definition, also can be expected to eventually succeed Douglas-fir in automatically meet the requirement of being Suffi- the absence of stand-replacing disturbance. Due to ciently Established. It also makes both ecological and the shorter fire return interval in the CWHxm and practical sense to use the same younger age thresh- dm (200 years in Natural Disturbance Type 2) than olds that are used to identify Old Forest (140 years in wetter subzones of the CWH (250 years to 1000s of and 80 years, as outlined above) to assess the preser- years in Natural Disturbance Type 1) (B.C. Ministry vation requirements for Listed Communities. Thus, of Forests and B.C. Ministry of Environment 1995; using the keys provided here, if forests meet the Old Lertzman et al. 2002), true climatic climax (west- Forest definition for younger stands, in addition to ern hemlock–dominated) stands are less common. having the minimum vegetation community require- Douglas-fir is a long-lived species and has adaptations ments (patchy versus sparse understoreys—see Section to survive moderate-intensity fires. Hence, western 3.3.3) for being Sufficiently Established, then they hemlock–Douglas-fir mixes with scattered, larger have Listed Community preservation requirements. Douglas-fir are typical of late successional stands As noted below (Sections 3.3.3 and 3.4.2, Understorey on zonal (average moisture and nutrient) sites.

6 On edaphic sites, wetter or richer than zonal, and influence on the structure and dynamics of old forest in the absence of stand-replacing disturbance, succes- stands. These trees also have unique roles as habitat sion to western hemlock is typical. Western redcedar for other plant species and for multiple animal taxa, is generally a component of the overstorey on these both as standing live and, subsequently, downed sites because it is shade-tolerant and long-lived. On woody features (Huggard et al. 2009; Lutz et al. 2012, drier sites (e.g., CWHxm/02 or /03 site series), late 2013). In true old-growth stands (well over 250 years successional or “climax” stands are expected to be old) of the PNW, threshold diameters at breast height composed mainly or fully of Douglas-fir. (dbh) of 80–100 cm (with maximum dbh well over In a true climax stand, the shade-tolerant species 2 m) are frequently used to describe the large tree for that site will form the dominant/codominant can- component—usually Douglas-fir (Franklin and Spies opy and will regenerate in the understorey. However, 1991; Van Pelt 2007). Lower threshold diameters are in the drier CWH subzones, this concept is some- typical of more northerly British Columbia coastal what theoretical, since a shorter fire return interval Old Growth (LePage and Banner 2014). combined with the long-lived nature of Douglas-fir In the CWHxm and CWHdm within the south- results in western hemlock–Douglas-fir mixes per- ern Great Bear Rainforest, where assessments for Old sisting in old forests. Forest and Sufficiently Established Listed Communi- The current south coastal BEC guide (Green and ties associated with forests < 250 years old will most Klinka 1994) provides a reasonable central concept often be applied, second-growth stands with a VOT for expected overstorey and understorey species com- layer (commonly Douglas-fir) often result from the position of older (late successional) stands. The data last stand-initiating disturbance—fire, windthrow, used to produce this guide are essentially the same or logging—that occurred 80+ years ago (Figure 1). as those used by the CDC for its ecological commu- The development of structure after selective nity descriptions. TheBC Species and Ecosystems logging that left behind remnant old-growth trees Explorer website refers to Meidinger (1992) as the within a newly regenerating young stand would be concept reference for the forested ecological commu- expected to follow a pattern of development simi- nities of the CWHxm and CWHdm. This source was lar to that after historical, natural disturbances in the vegetation classification of the B.C. Ministry of these drier CWH stands. However, suppressed trees Forests BEC program at that time. Most BEC plots in released with disturbance (logging or non-anthro- the CWHxm and CWHdm are from late successional pogenic) are not remnants of the older main canopy stands rather than true “climax” stands because of and are unlikely to appear as emergent veterans the preponderance of late seral (late successional) within the mature or old-growth stages depicted in stands in these subzones. Figure 1. These residual trees would not be considered as part of the VOT layer as it is defined here for 3.3.2 Veteran Overstorey Tree layer purposes of the Great Bear Rainforest Land Use Ob- jectives, despite their old age, unless they were now Background in the upper canopy and achieve minimum diameter criteria (see Identifying Veteran Overstorey Trees and estimating their density p. 8). gbro definition: “Veteran overstory tree layer” means trees that are considerably older than the rest of the stand and Based on the range in large tree densities reported are remnants of a much older stand. Veteran trees will in the literature and on data for late mature and old- have a much larger diameter or height than the main growth forests in the U.S. PNW and coastal British stand. The size or age of the trees, along with the density Columbia (Appendix 9), threshold VOT densities of 15 of veteran trees required to constitute a layer will be de- and 20 stems per hectare (sph) are initially used in the pendent on the characteristics of the rest of the stand as decision keys for Old Forest and Listed Communities well as the overstory trees. (depending on stand age; see Section 4.2), with lower numbers being acceptable in stands that have other Throughout the literature, large old trees are typical- compensating Old Forest/Sufficiently Established ly considered to be one of the critical features in old- attributes. In the literature that was reviewed, report- growth forest descriptions and definitions (Franklin ed densities for large-diameter trees (> 100 cm dbh) et al. 2005; Bauhus et al. 2009; Gerzon et al. 2011). varied from scattered to > 35 per hectare, depending Large-diameter trees have a disproportionate on forest type, species measured, age of forest reported

7 0 70 150 250 500 750

Y OG R E D O G

M OG R

Years

FIGURE 1 Typical stand development following moderate-severity fire in Douglas-fir–western hemlock forests that are common in southern Great Bear Rainforest drier biogeoclimatic units. “OG remnants” is synonymous with Veteran Overstorey Trees (Adapted with permission from illustration from Franklin, J.F., T. Spies, R. Van Pelt, T. Riepe, S. Hull, and W. Obermeyer 2005. Definition and inventory of old growth forests on DNR-managed state lands. Washington State Department of Natural Resources). as “old” or “old growth,” and site moisture and nu- stand and survived the disturbance, or shorter re- trient regimes. Thresholds in the Old Forest key were siduals that released after the disturbance and grew proposed based on their apparent modal quantitative sufficiently to gain dominance and emerge from the support across several studies in the literature for both main canopy as VOTs. While the VOTs will often be wetter (e.g., CWHvm) (Gerzon et al. 2011) forest eco- initially identified as the largest-diameter trees in the systems and drier sites similar to those in the Great stand, confirmation that they are emergent A1 or the Bear Rainforest where these keys are most likely to be tallest A2 trees that meet the minimum age and diam- used (e.g., Franklin and Spies 1991). The coastal British eter criteria is required to identify them as VOTs. The Columbia BEC mensurational data were also used to minimum threshold diameters were set to emphasize develop these thresholds. stands with higher occurrence of old-growth–associated structural attributes. Larger-diameter trees (> 100 Identifying Veteran Overstorey Trees and estimating cm dbh) also score higher in the FAS assessment pro- their density cedure (see Density of Veteran Overstorey Trees p. 14). For practical purposes, VOTs are identified as being In many stands, the VOTs will be obvious because emergent trees that are at least 200 years old and have they are notably larger in both diameter and height a minimum diameter (dbh) of either 50 cm on dry (Figure 2), especially when assessors have some expe- sites (relative soil moisture regime 2 or lower) or 70 rience in the local area. Veteran Overstorey Trees also cm on all other sites. Such trees will generally belong typically have physical characteristics of older trees, to the dominant (A1) (B.C. Ministry of Forests and such as distinctive bark, branching (e.g., complex, Range 2007) tree layer but may also include some of epicormic branching), crown form, and burn scars the tallest main canopy (A2) trees. Most often in the (see illustrations in Van Pelt 2007). Western redcedar CWHxm and dm, it will be the tallest, larger-diame- VOTs generally have lower boles that are relatively ter Douglas-fir seral remnants that make up theVOT clear of retained smaller dead branches (Figure 2), layer. However, other species such as western hem- upper crowns that often have dead and/or multiple lock and western redcedar may also occur as VOTs. tops, and basal scars in the lower bole compared to These may have beenA 1 or A2 trees of the previous generally healthy, full crowns of younger trees.

8 FIGURE 2 Examples of Veteran Overstorey Trees (top three and bottom left). The lower right photo illustrates a second- growth western redcedar with abundant lower branches remaining. This is contrasted with the clear lower bole of the veteran redcedar (lower left).

Where it is less obvious that a tree is a VOT, incre- estimates based on clumps of trees. Areas of interest ment boring may be required to confirm that the tree (e.g., proposed cutblocks) should initially be stratified is at least 200 years old, and it may also be necessary according to ecological site units and stand charac- to measure diameter (dbh) and/or height. Generally, teristics (e.g., areas with and without probable VOTs, it will not be necessary to core every potential candi- relatively uniform versus complex canopies) with a date since individuals of the same species and similar minimum stratum size of 1 ha (unless considering height, diameter, and physical characteristics can be smaller VOT patches as stand retention; see Section grouped, and ages can be obtained from representa- 4.2 and Appendix 2 for further guidance on reserving tive individuals. smaller forest patches). Strata are then sampled to Because of the irregular distribution of VOTs, confirm the occurrence and density of VOTs. Density their density should be assessed over a reasonably estimates can be obtained in several ways, including large area (e.g., ≥ 1 ha) to avoid biasing density visual estimates if density is low, fixed-area or prism

9 plots (B.C. Ministry of Forests and Lands and B.C. deciding whether a forest community < 250 years old Ministry of Environment 2010), or GPS referencing of is Sufficiently Established. We present a simple and individual trees and overlaying of waypoints on maps subjective, three-category assessment scheme that for calculating the number of stems per hectare. In- uses common descriptors for vegetation develop- formation such as dbh can be collected for each tree, ment in maturing forests—sparse, patchy, and consis- and spatial distribution of all VOTs in the area can be tent/well developed (see Figure 3). This assessment is collected. Fixed-area plots of 0.2 ha (25-m radius) can generally restricted to the shrub and herb layers, ex- be quickly established using distance rangefinders cluding bryophytes and conifer regeneration. Bryo- during a walk-through of each stratum, and VOTs can phytes and conifer regeneration are common, and be confirmed and tallied (three trees/plot represent often abundant, components of forest ecosystems of 15 sph; four trees/plot represent 20 sph). Averaging the Great Bear Rainforest. Their presence and cover values from several plots within each stratum should are variable over stands of an ecosystem, and because yield reasonable estimates of VOT density. their abundance is often not diagnostic of a particu- Where numbers of VOTs do not meet the initial lar ecological community, they are excluded from this thresholds in the assessment keys, the VOTs that do assessment—the exception being in site units where occur still contribute to the Old Forest/Sufficiently shrub and herb cover is characteristically very low Established assessment through the application of the (e.g., CWHds2/01; see further discussion at the end Forest Attribute Score. TheFAS also recognizes the of this section). ecological value of the relatively larger (> 100 cm dbh) Since most operational staff have some experience VOTs by assigning them bonus points (see Density of with using the BEC field guides for the coast (Banner Veteran Overstorey Trees p. 14). et al. 1993; Green and Klinka 1994) and are also familiar with the common forest understorey species, the 3.3.3 Understorey plant community development vegetation tables that compare the site series for each In addition to possessing the required stand age and BEC unit should be consulted as part of this proce- structural criteria, stands must demonstrate a min- dure. Dominant shrub and herb species that are ex- imum degree of vegetation development to be con- pected to occur should be noted and compared with sidered Sufficiently Established. This presents some on-site vegetation composition. challenges in an operational setting due to (1) opera- Every effort should be made to conduct vegetation tional preferences for year-round field sampling, and assessments between May and October (November) (2) limited expertise of operational staff in complet- as part of operational site series identification, anoth- ing detailed plant species composition assessments. er important component of assessing and applying In addition, as outlined in Section 3.5, considerable both Old Forest and Listed Community conservation variation in understorey vegetation development requirements. Where surveys must be conducted out- exists across age classes, and several factors, such as side the growing season, they must be done in the ab- disturbance history and stand density, affect under- sence of snow cover, and observations of woody and storey development. Further challenges result from evergreen growth, combined with remains of decay- field guide descriptions of vegetation composition ing deciduous vegetation, should be used to estimate by site series that are largely qualitative; defining degree of development during the growing season. quantitative thresholds for species composition and Preliminary winter assessments can be confirmed or abundance values is currently not feasible. Section 3.5 modified with follow-up site visits during the grow- presents a more in-depth description of the Conser- ing season, especially for contentious or borderline vation Data Centre approach to assessing ecological sites. When assessing understorey communities, it is community condition and integrity, and provides important to avoid edge effects8 because higher light the background and rationale for developing a more levels and soil disturbance, which are typical of for- generalized approach to assessment of degree of plant est edges, tend to stimulate growth, particularly of community development for operational purposes. species that may not be characteristic of the (interi- The procedure proposed here attempts to strike or) forest community. Surveys should be conducted at a balance between practical operational limita- least one tree length into the stand to minimize such tions and the need for an ecologically valid assess- edge effects. ment of understorey development—the basis for

8 Depth of edge influence will depend on factors such as the ecological variable of interest (e.g., plant growth, microclimate, stand structure), edge contrast, edge orientation, topographic position, season, and even time of day (Chen et al. 1990, 1992). Microclimatic edge influences can extend 200 m or more into the forested patch (Voller 1998).

10 FIGURE 3 Examples of three vegetation development categories used for assessing understorey shrub and herb cover: sparse (top), patchy (middle), and consistent/well-developed (bottom). Note that bryophytes and conifer regeneration are excluded from the assessment except in special cases (e.g., CWHds2/01; see text for further explanation).

11 The three vegetation development categories are greater vegetation development simply because they defined as follows (Figure 3) (see Appendix 3 for a are moister/richer rather than more successionally comparison chart to assist in the estimation of foli- advanced. As mentioned, reference to the BEC field age cover): guides will aid in factoring this variation in vegetation potential for the site series into the assessment. 1. Sparse understoreys are clearly dominated by Zonal sites in the CWHds2 (i.e., CWHds2/01 site bryophyte communities or forest litter (represent- series) represent a special case where shrub/herb ing > 85% of ground cover); shrub/herb cover is development is typically sparse and mature/old sites negligible or poorly developed (≤ 15% cover) with are characterized instead by a well-developed bryo- few or none of the expected species for the site phyte layer. In this case, a consistent/well-developed series present (based on reference to BEC guide understorey would be composed of low cover of the vegetation tables). few characteristic shrubs/herbs with continuous or 2. Patchy understoreys consist of a mosaic of shrub/ near continuous bryophyte cover and < 15% litter/un- herb-dominated patches and bryophyte- or lit- vegetated. A patchy understorey would be a mosaic of ter-dominated patches. Total shrub and herb cover bryophyte-dominated patches representing 15–50% is 15–50%. Few to several of the expected species of total cover with the remainder litter-dominated patch- the plant community for that site series are present es. Sparse understoreys would be overwhelmingly within the shrub/herb patches. litter-dominated (< 15% bryophytes). 3. Consistent/well-developed understoreys provide the impression of being surrounded by continu- 3.4 The orestF Attribute Score ous shrubby and/or herbaceous vegetation with scattered small areas that lack shrubs and herbs, Definitions and characterization of old-growth for- and only a few larger areas that lack understorey ests in the U.S. PNW and British Columbia gen- shrub/herb development. Areas dominated by erally encompass a suite of factors that reflects the bryophytes/litter represent ≤ 50% of the ground complexity of structural and biological attributes cover, with total shrub and herb cover > 50%. Un- of these ecosystems (Old-Growth Definition Task derstorey vascular plant species listed in vegetation Group 1986; Franklin and Spies 1991; Wells et al. tables for the relevant site series are generally well 1998; Franklin et al. 2005; Bauhus et al. 2009; Gray represented, although just one or two may domi- et al. 2009). Typically, these include the density of nate the community. large old trees, diversity of tree canopy layers, diversity of tree diameters, occurrence of canopy open- In the Sufficiently Established Listed Communi- ings, density of large snags, understorey vegetation ty decision key (see Figure 12, Section 4.3), a patchy development, and abundance of large coarse woody understorey is the minimum vegetation development debris on the ground. These features have been in- requirement for stands < 250 years old to be Sufficient- corporated into quantitative ecological definitions ly Established, but it is not diagnostic in itself—other using criteria thresholds and development of indices features are required. A consistent/well-developed of “oldgrowthness” based on scoring of individual understorey community scores higher in the FAS as- attributes (Wells et al. 1998; Holt et al. 1999; Brau- sessment (which uses these same three categories for mandl and Holt 2000; Holt 2000a, 2000b). In meet- understorey development) and therefore may contrib- ing the intent of the GBRO, a yes/no decision must be ute to a stand being considered Sufficiently Estab- made regarding Old Forest and Listed Communities, lished, even if it lacks certain other (late successional a requirement that lends itself to the minimum-cri- forest) structural attributes. teria approach. However, Order definitions refer to While being practical and adequate for assess- a range of structural and other ecological attributes; ing most site series, the three-category approach to these types of definitions are more suited to an index understorey vegetation assessment has limitations approach. This guide has thus adopted a combined related to distinguishing the effects of site factors (site approach using minimum criteria (decision keys) series driven by moisture and nutrient regimes) from that incorporate threshold values for an index based forest succession factors. Thus, some sites may have on a suite of old forest attributes (the FAS).

12 3.4.1 Conceptual stand structure characteristics used Stem exclusion stage: in the Great Bear Rainforest Order definitions Great Bear Rainforest Order definitions for Old For- 5 Young Forest Self-thinning has become evident and the forest canopy has begun to differentiate into distinct est and Listed Community use several stand struc- layers (dominant, main canopy, and overtopped); vig- ture descriptors that overlap considerably in the orous growth and a more open stand than in the Pole/ concepts they convey. Phrases such as “old, struc- Sapling stage; begins as early as age 30 (e.g., broadleaf turally complex stands” (Old Forest definition) and or vigorous conifer stands) and extends to 50–80 years, “complex open stand structure” (Sufficiently Es- depending on tree species and ecological conditions; tablished definition) both refer to stands that have in forest stands at environmental extremes, a very open advanced through the relatively homogeneous struc- Young Forest structure may develop initially (single cohort) or over a period of time (multi-cohort) – use the tural stages that are typical of young forests, with ‘open’ modifier for such conditions. successional processes giving rise to a more heteroge- neous vertical and horizontal structure (i.e., structur- Understorey re-initiation stage: al stage 6 or more advanced). Natural processes such 6 Mature Forest Trees established after the last stand- as self-thinning or stem exclusion (Oliver and Lar- replacing disturbance have matured; a second cycle of shade-tolerant trees may have become established; son 1990), establishment of additional canopy layer shrub and herb understories become well developed as cohorts, and development of gaps from windfall and the canopy opens up; time since disturbance is generally standing tree mortality yield a greater differentiation 80–140 years for biogeoclimatic units with Natural Dis- of vertical canopy layers (e.g., suppressed, main can- turbance Type (NDT) 3 and 80–250 years for NDT 1, 2, opy, and dominant emergents), as well as horizontal and 4.9 complexity in overstorey density (Van Pelt 2007). The Old-growth stages: result is a mosaic of dense, intermediate, and open 7 Old Forest Stands of old age with complex structure; overstoreys and a corresponding diversity in under- patchy shrub and herb understories are typical; regen- storey light regimes, and thus vegetation develop- eration is usually of shade-tolerant species with compo- ment, as the stand progresses through mature to old sition similar to the overstorey; long-lived seral species stages (Banner and LePage 2008; Giesbrecht et al. may be present in some ecosystem types or on edaphic 2017; Schneider and Larson 2017). sites. Old-growth structural attributes will differ across There are many possible successional trajectories, biogeoclimatic units and ecosystems. however, and depending on factors such as distur- 7a Old Forest Stands with moderately to well-devel- bance type and severity, species composition (e.g., oped structural complexity; stands comprised mainly deciduous versus coniferous), site productivity, and of shade-tolerant tree species in canopy and regeneration layers, although older seral trees from a distur- human intervention, the relationship between stand bance such as fire may still dominate the upper cano- age and structural development is not consistent py; fire-maintained stands may have a ‘single-storied’ (Bunnell and Dunsworth 2009). Thus, some relatively appearance (see modifiers); time since stand-replacing young stands may exhibit more advanced structural disturbance is generally 140–250 years for biogeocli- characteristics than do older stands, and some stands matic units with Natural Disturbance Type (NDT) 3 with higher initial tree densities may experience pro- and > 250 years for NDT 1, 2, and 4. longed stem exclusion stages (structural stage 5). 7b Very Old Forest Very old stands having complex The structural stage definitions used in British structure with abundant large-sized trees, snags and Columbia for ecological inventories (B.C. Ministry coarse woody debris (size is relative to the specific of Forests and Lands and B.C. Ministry of Environ- ecosystem); snags and coarse woody debris occur in all stages of decomposition; stands are comprised ment 2010) are used to classify this continuum of entirely of shade-tolerant overstorey species with stand development into discrete structural stages. well-established canopy gaps; time since stand-re- Structural stage definitions relevant to Old Forest placing disturbance generally > 250 years for bio- and Listed Community assessments are as follows: geoclimatic units with Disturbance Types (NDT) 3 and > 400 years for NDT 1, 2, and 4.

9 Natural Disturbance Type definitions are as per Province of British Columbia (1995).

13 Examples of Young Forest and Mature Forest struc- an approach to satisfying the ecological intent of Or- tural stages are illustrated in Figure 4. der definitions. This provides the practitioner with a method of systematically evaluating several individual structural and other stand attributes and calculating a Forest Attribute Score (FAS) (Figure 5). TheFAS replac- es the need to decide whether a stand meets multi-fac- eted conceptual definitions by instead focussing on the individual components that contribute to those definitions and providing just a few broad scoring categories for each. For example, instead of having to decide whether a stand has a complex, open structure or fits the definition of structural stage 6, individual stand components (e.g., vertical canopy differentiation, snag density, patchiness of understoreys) that are inherent in these concepts are scored individually; these individual attribute scores are then summed to calculate an FAS for the stand. The FAS is used only when stands do not meet the initial minimum criteria thresholds in the field decision keys for both Old Forest and Listed Communities based mainly on age and density of Veteran Overstorey Trees, and, in the case of Listed Communities, assessment of understorey vegetation development. While this FAS assessment procedure has been developed for use primarily in the southern, drier CWH subzones (CWHxm, dm, and mm), it is anticipated to work effectively in northern, wetter subzones as well. Refinements may be required, however, with further field testing. There are sixFAS attributes (Figure 5). Some subjectivity will always be required in any ecological field assessment, and con- sultation with more experienced professionals may be FIGURE 4 Young Forest (structural stage 5 with simple canopy differentiation; top) and Mature Forest required in some borderline or special cases. ThisFAS (structural stage 6 with moderate canopy dif- approach emphasizes quick, replicable assessment ferentiation; bottom) in the very dry maritime methods. Figures 2–4 and 6–9 illustrate several FAS Coastal Western Hemlock subzone (CWHxm). attributes and provide photographic examples of attribute scores. Additional information on attributes Structural stage is explicitly mentioned in the GBRO of Old Forest that are not included within the FAS but only as a requirement for Listed Communities; that is, that may assist field crews in judging the ecological stands < 200 years old that are classified as structural features of a stand relative to the intent of the Order is stage 6 or 7. These same structural stages are inferred, provided in Appendix 4. however, in the Old Forest definition, which includes forests < 250 years old that are “old, structurally com- 3.4.2 Forest Attribute Score attributes plex stand(s) composed mainly of climax species where Scoring criteria are summarized in Figure 5. older seral remnants may still be present in the upper canopy.” Similarly, concepts of structural stage 6 are Density of Veteran Overstorey Trees implied by “…complex, open stand structure…” with- Section 3.3.2 provides the Order definition for the in the current definition of Sufficiently Established. Veteran Overstorey Tree layer, some background/ra- To address the conceptual (versus explicit) nature tionale on establishing threshold densities to be used of the above definitions, this guide uses a combination in the field assessment, and guidelines for identifying of quantitative and descriptive assessment criteria as and assessing VOTs (see Figure 2). This assessment is

14 Forest Attribute Score (FAS)a Refer to Sections 3.3.2, 3.3.3, and 3.4 for methods of field assessing FAS attributes

(1) Density of VOTs (4) Understorey shrub and herb cover (Veteran Overstorey Trees) (excluding conifers and bryophytes)

dbh < 100 cm Old Forest Listed Community • ≤ 4 sph 0.0 pts • Sparse 0.0 pts 0.0 pts • 5–9 sph 0.5 pts • Patchy 1.0 pt 1.0 pt • ≥ 10 sph 2.0 pts • Consistent/well developed 2.0 pts 2.5 pts

dbh ≥ 100 cm • 1–4 sph 1.0 pt • 5–9 sph 2.0 pts (5) Coarse woody debris pieces ≥ 50 cm • ≥ 10 sph 3.0 pts diameter and ≥ 10 m length • Few to no pieces 0.0 pts • Some pieces 0.5 pts (2) Density of snags ≥ 50 cm dbh • Common pieces 1.0 pt and ≥ 5 m tall

• ≤ 4 sph 0.0 pts • 5–14 sph 1.0 pt (6) Disturbance history • > 14 sph 2.0 pts • Intensive harvest (numerous/obvious stumps) 0.0 pts • Selective harvest (scattered stumps often moss covered) 0.5 pts • Natural disturbances (e.g., fire, wind) 1.0 pt (3) Vertical canopy differentiation • Simple 0.0 pts SCORING • Moderate 1.0 pt • Complex 2.0 pts If total score > 6 then PASS

a Use .-ha fixed radius plots of -m radius to estimate stems per hectare for VOTs and snags. Multiply the plot stem count by to calculate stems per hectare for the sample area; for coarse woody debris pieces sampled within .-ha plots, – = few to none, – = some, and > = common; pieces are counted if any portion occurs within plot. Calculate average FAS scores based on three to four plots per hectare.

FIGURE 5 Summary of the Forest Attribute Score (FAS) procedure used to evaluate structural and other stand attributes in the assessment of Old Forest and Sufficiently Established Listed Communities. The FAS attributes and rationale for assessing them are described in Section 3.4; sph = stems per hectare, dbh = diameter at breast height. done initially as part of the Old Forest assessment dry sites and 70 cm for all other sites; see Identifying key, and, depending on the outcome, further FAS Veteran Overstorey Trees and estimating their density, assessment of overstorey trees may be required for p. 8), while the second part provides bonus points for stands ≥ 140 years old. Stands between 80 and 140 the number of larger VOTs present (> 100 cm dbh). years old must meet the minimum VOT threshold of TheFAS for VOTs is the sum of these two values. Thus, 20 sph to be considered Old Forest. TheFAS assess- a stand with fewer total VOTs has a greater probability ment of VOTs has two parts. The first part scores of being identified as Old Forest/Sufficiently Estab- based on the number of VOTs/ha that are < 100 cm lished if those trees are large. dbh (but greater than the minimum dbh of 50 cm for

15 Snag density BEC data from coastal British Columbia (see Appendix TheFAS procedure assesses only larger snags (stand- 9) suggest higher numbers than this (> 15 sph). The FAS ing dead coniferous trees; Figure 6), ≥ 50 cm dbh and snag density scoring criteria in Figure 5 reflect this ≥ 5 m tall because they provide habitats that are most range from the literature/data. Snag density can be important to the biodiversity associated with older assessed using the same procedures described for VOTs forests. The relevant literature from the U.S. PNW (Old- (Section 3.3.2, Identifying Veteran Overstorey Trees). As Growth Definition Task Group 1986; Franklin and with Veteran Overstorey Trees, snag density should be Spies 1991; Gray et al. 2009) uses > 10 sph snags of this assessed over a reasonably large area (e.g., 1 ha) to avoid size class to characterize old-growth stands, but the biasing density estimates based on clumps of snags.

Vertical canopy differentiation ThisFAS attribute has three classes for vertical canopy differentiation and draws on the approach described in the Vegetation Resourc- es Inventory Ground Sampling Procedures manual (B.C. Min- istry of Forests and Range 2007). This attribute aims to differentiate those stands that have succeed- ed through the self-thinning and understorey re-initiation stages (Oliver and Larson 1990). This is where tree canopies have developed vertical structure (Figures 7 and 8; see also Figure 4), and are thus differentiated into multiple vertical layers: sub-canopy (suppressed and intermediate A3 trees entirely below the main canopy), main canopy (A2 trees that form the main layer of canopy cover and receive full sunlight from above; typically the major portion of stand volume), and dominant (A1 trees emergent from the main canopy). Canopy gaps may have also developed and understorey shrub (B) layers < 10 m tall also contribute to vertical structural diversity. This is contrasted with relatively dense, uniform stands with main canopy trees dominating and overall canopy height lacking much variation. Typically, these more uniform stands also lack canopy gaps and, thus, horizontal differentiation. FIGURE 6 Examples of snags assessed in the Forest Attribute Score procedure; standing dead trees ≥ 50 cm dbh and ≥ 5 m tall.

16 A1

FIGURE 7 Stratification of forest stands into three tree canopy layers (A1, A2, and A3) and two understorey shrub layers (B1, 2−10 m tall and B2, < 2 m tall). The degree of development of each of these layers is used as a basis for defining the simple, moderate, and complex classes of vertical canopy differentiation (from B.C. Ministry of Forests and Lands and B.C. Ministry of Environment 2010).

Three classes of vertical canopy differentiation are defined as follows (note that if total tree canopy cover = 70%, 10% of total tree canopy cover = 7%):

Simple—even canopy height with little vertical differentiation; primarily an A2 canopy (A2 cover makes up > 90% of total tree canopy cover) with limited cover (< 5–10 % of total tree canopy cover) in A1 and A3 layers; < 10% variation in canopy height; dense canopy/ high stocking may limit development of B layer. Moderate—moderately developed vertical differentiation; A2 canopy with emergent A1 dominants; distinct (but often minor)A 3 layer; understorey B layer regeneration moderately to well established; A2 layer contributes > 50% of total tree canopy cover with 10–25% of the total from each of A1 and A3 layers; A1 layer extends 10–15% taller than median A2 height (e.g., for a 40-m median A2 canopy height, the A1 layer extends 4–6 m taller). Complex—uneven tree and canopy layer heights with significant vertical differentiation;A 2 layer dominates, but A1, A3, and B layers are distinct and obvious; > 25% of total tree canopy cover from each of A1, A2, and A3 layers; A1 layer extends > 15% taller than median A2 height (e.g., for a 40-m median A2 canopy height, the A1 layer extends to > 6 m taller). FIGURE 8 Examples of stands with a simple, uniform canopy (top) and a multi-storeyed, complex canopy (bottom).

17 Understorey shrub and herb cover Consistent/well-developed understoreys provide Section 3.3.3 outlines the rationale and procedure the impression of being surrounded by continuous for assessing understorey vegetation development. shrubby and/or herbaceous vegetation with scattered Refer also to the discussion in Section 3.5 on factors small areas lacking shrubs and herbs, and only a few that influence understorey vegetation development. larger areas that lack understorey shrub/herb devel- The practicalities of assessments conducted through- opment. Areas dominated by bryophytes/litter repre- out the year by individuals who lack ecological and sent ≤ 50% of the ground cover, with total shrub and botanical expertise limit detailed analysis of species herb cover > 50%. Understorey vascular plant species composition. The three-categoryFAS assessment listed in vegetation tables for the relevant site series procedure is adequate, however, to identify the min- are generally well represented, though just one or imum requirements for the vegetation development two may dominate the community. In areas that are of a Listed Community to be considered Sufficiently transitional to another subzone or site unit, the actual Established in stands identified as Old Forest. In species composition may be partially composed of addition, where understoreys are “well-developed” species from the other subzone or site unit but still and thus exceed the minimum threshold of “patchy,” be representative. this could result in some forests (≥ 80 years old) that When assessing understorey communities, it is are not identified as Old Forest to still be declared important to avoid edge effects; higher light levels Sufficiently Established—provided they also possess and soil disturbance, which are typical of forest sufficient other structural attributes to pass the overall edges, tend to stimulate greater vegetation develop- FAS assessment. ment. Surveys should be conducted at least one tree Understorey shrub and herb cover is the only FAS length into the stand to avoid such edge effects (see assessment that is scored differently for the Old Forest Section 3.3.3). assessment versus the Listed Community Sufficiently Established assessment. More points are awarded for Coarse woody debris well-developed understoreys in the Sufficiently Estab- Coarse woody debris (CWD) (downed—not self- lished assessment (2.5 versus 2.0 for the Old Forest supporting—decaying wood), while a characteristic assessment). and important attribute of old forests, is difficult While there is no minimum threshold for vegeta- to quantify consistently without time-consuming tion development for a stand to be identified as Old assessment procedures. This attribute is thus given Forest, the FAS understorey vegetation assessment still a relatively low weighting within the FAS. A simple contributes (for stands ≥ 140 years old), together with three-category visual assessment method is used. other FAS attributes, toward a stand meeting Old Forest The assessment focusses just on larger rotting logs status if an Old Forest designation does not result from on the ground (≥ 50 cm in maximum diameter and the initial Old Forest key based on age and VOT criteria. ≥ 10 m in length) of any decay class (B.C. Ministry The three vegetation development categories are of Forests and Lands and B.C. Ministry of Environ- defined as follows (repeated from Section 3.3.3; see ment 2010). There are three scoring categories, and Figure 3 and refer to Appendix 3 for a comparison assessments can be done quickly within 0.2-ha (25-m chart to assist with visual estimation of foliage cover): radius) plots. Assessments should be done over 1-ha areas (using, for example, three to four plots per hect- Sparse understoreys are clearly dominated by bryo- are to calculate a mean). Reference photographs are phyte communities or forest litter (representing > 85% provided in Figure 9 for guidance. of ground cover); shrub/herb cover is negligible or The scoring categories are as follows CWD( pieces poorly developed (≤ 15% cover) with few or none of are counted if any portion occurs within the plot): the expected species for the site series present (based on reference to BEC guide vegetation tables). Few to none: very scattered pieces requiring some Patchy understoreys consist of a mosaic of shrub/ searching; 0–1 within a 0.2-ha (25-m radius) plot herb-dominated patches and bryophyte- or lit- Some: noticeable but scattered pieces; 2–4 within ter-dominated patches. Total shrub and herb cover a 0.2-ha plot is 15–50%. Few to several of the expected species of Common: visible as an obvious feature; > 4 within the plant community for that site series are present a 0.2-ha plot within the shrub/herb patches.

18 FIGURE 9 Examples of Forest Attribute Scores for coarse woody debris ≥ 50 cm maximum diameter and ≥ 10 m in length: few to no pieces (top), some pieces (middle), common pieces (bottom).

19 Disturbance history 3.5 Sufficiently Established Listed Communities The B.C. Conservation Data Centre considers forest stands that are influenced by natural disturbance Implementing the objectives related to Listed Com- events such as fire, windthrow, and landslides to be munities requires three steps: preferable candidates for conservation compared 1. identifying potential Listed Communities; with those influenced by human-caused disturbance, 2. determining whether they are Sufficiently especially forest harvesting (B.C. Ministry of En- Established; and vironment 2006). Forest stands that are recovering 3. applying minimum area criteria to confirm from non-human disturbances are assumed to be preservation requirements. following more natural successional pathways, with more structural legacies remaining in the recovering 3.5.1 Listed Communities forest ecosystem. Where post-disturbance manipu- The GBRO Listed Communities are presented in lations such as site preparation, planting, and stand Schedules N and O of the Order, for red-listed and tending (as well as other human-related effects such blue-listed plant communities, respectively. The as invasive plant establishment) are minimal, howev- communities are presented by the BEC unit and site er, the distinctions among the effects of disturbance series with which they are associated.10 Practitioners types on long-term ecosystem development are less should note that there are differences between the significant. To acknowledge that disturbance history lists of red- and blue-listed communities provided may affect ecosystem integrity, disturbance histo- within the GBRO and the lists of red- and blue-list- ry is included as a FAS attribute (with a lower score ed “ecological communities” provided by the CDC weighting, similar to CWD) that may influence the (http://a100.gov.bc.ca/pub/eswp/): final stand assessment where stands do not meet the structural and age requirements of the initial field • There are CDC blue-listed ecological communities assessment keys. in the GBRO area that are not included in the two Points are assigned based on the extent and in- Schedules. tensity of forest harvesting history of the stand. • There are some GBRO blue-listed communities The categories are as follows: that are not on the CDC lists. • The assessment of ecological communities for Intensive harvest: stands originating primarily ranking as red- or blue-listed by the CDC is an through operational forest harvesting, including on-going process—ecological communities may stands with a history of operational partial cutting differ in their inclusion onCDC lists over time or variable retention harvest, but where a signifi- and these lists will differ from the current Sched- cant portion of the stand was removed (stumps are ules for GBRO Listed Communities. numerous and obvious). Comprehensive guides for identifying Listed Commu- Selective harvest: stands within which some com- nities in the GBRO area do not exist. TheCDC Species mercial but selective harvesting has occurred (scat- and Ecosystems Explorer (http://a100.gov.bc.ca/pub/ tered stumps that are often moss-covered). eswp/) presents general descriptions for some red- or Natural disturbance: stands initiated primarily blue-listed ecological communities (see Reports and from natural disturbances such as fire or wind, with References), but diagnostic criteria or other tools minimal evidence of past harvesting (non-operation- for identification (e.g., keys) are not available. Green al cutting of selected trees—e.g., firewood cutting, or (200511) produced a comprehensive identification felling for cultural purposes such as canoes; ceremo- guide for five red-listed communities on the Cen- nial poles are included in this category). tral Coast. At present, the BEC field guides for site

10 Note that the English names in the Schedules correspond to the cdc ecological community names, not site series names. 11 Green, R.N. 2005. A field guide to red-listed ecosystems of the Central Coast Planning Unit. Draft. Submitted to Coast Forest Conservation Initiative.

20 identification (Banner et al. 1993; Green and Klinka • Transitions between climates: in areas that tran- 1994; MacKenzie and Moran 2004; Green 200512) sition between existing subzones or variants, or provide the most complete set of tools for identify- are transitioning to emerging climatic conditions, ing Listed Communities of the GBRO, and although species of both climates may occur. they do not include all Listed Communities, they • Natural disturbance: stand history affects both do include all wetlands and forested communities overstorey and understorey development, and except “Western redcedar – bluffs” (see description thus, stand density, stand structure, and species in Appendix 5). Because the GBRO Schedules note composition. the site series associated with the Listed Community, • Anthropogenic disturbance: human-related dis- practitioners can use the guides to identify potential turbance can result in stand conditions that differ forested and wetland Listed Communities.13 from natural stands; for example, less woody debris, TheBEC field guides include the procedures for us- fewer snags, more uniform overstorey, and changes ing the guides and a set of tools for site identification. in species composition, including introduction of They are used regularly by foresters and forest tech- species or selective removal (loss) of species. nicians to identify and map site series in proposed • Conditions around the stand (landscape context): harvest blocks. Because forested communities are the edge effects, for example, or modifications to hydrolo- focus here, practitioners will initially identify the site gy may change species composition and productivity. series, then subsequently, any relevant Listed Com- • Biotic influences: herbivory and disease can dra- munities using the BEC field guides and maps in the matically influence understorey species composi- same manner that site series identification and map- tion and cover. ping is done for other forestry operations (e.g., site plans). The tools in the BEC guides allow site series to Identification of the site series determines the po- be identified by using a combination of site, soil, and tential for a specific Listed Community to exist on the vegetation factors. Although the vegetation tables in site. The next step is to confirm whether the existing BEC field guides have abbreviated species lists, they forest community meets the Order definition for be- have proven to be adequate for site identification. ing Sufficiently Established. With the requirement that field assessments related to Listed Communities be conducted throughout the 3.5.2 Assessing whether Listed Communities are year, vegetation will not always be well developed; Sufficiently Established thus, site factors will often need to be relied upon for General Great Bear Rainforest Order interpretation site series identification. The Order references late mature and older forest Practitioners identifying Listed Communities will as the forest developmental stages where the Listed find that older stands of a site series have vegetation Communities are most likely to be well expressed; that corresponds, generally, to the descriptions with- that is, where they are likely to be Sufficiently Estab- in the field guides. However, understorey vegetation lished. The Order also indicates that stands with a development in forests is variable and influenced by “complex, open stand structure along with a quanti- many factors: ty and distribution of indicator plants for the Listed Community, that constitutes an element occurrence • Age: younger stands are generally denser, so un- with a good or better viability rank” are to be consid- derstorey vegetation can be poorly developed; con- ered Sufficiently Established. The Order specifies that versely, where conditions are right (e.g., more open preservation requirements apply to all forests > 200 young stands), understoreys can be well developed years old that are Sufficiently Established and meet in younger stands where structural features still specific occurrence size criteria, as well as forests that do not meet mature forest condition. are < 200 years old that are Sufficiently Established • Transitions between site series: transitions can and meet one or more of the following criteria: (a) are be abrupt to gradual on the landscape. Condi- a floodplain ecosystem, (b) have a veteran overstorey tions that are intermediate between site units tree layer, and (c) have a structural stage of 6 or 7, and commonly occur, and species of both site units meet specific size criteria. For reasons outlined in can occur in varying proportions. Section 3.3.1, this guidance document uses the 250-year

12 Ibid., p. 20. 13 If non-forested communities other than wetlands are to be identified, thecdc community summaries and associated references can be consulted.

21 threshold as the default for both Old Forest and Suffi- regardless of age, because they are disturbance-main- ciently Established Listed Communities. Forests < 250 tained forests that cycle much more frequently than years old must have at least patchy understorey com- 200–250 years; invoking requirements for Old Forest munities and meet minimum requirements for the structural features is thus inappropriate for these sys- structural criteria to be Sufficiently Established (as tems. As well, such ecosystems are almost always in- interpreted in the decision keys of Section 4). cluded in riparian reserves and are therefore generally excluded from timber harvesting. Floodplain ecosystems Table 1 provides the Listed Communities that are This guidance document interprets the Sufficiently Es- considered to be floodplain ecosystems inBEC (Ban- tablished assessment for listed floodplain ecosystems ner et al. 1993; Green and Klinka 1994). Hydroripar- as follows: high, medium, and low bench floodplain ian requirements in the GBRO will generally include ecosystems are by default Sufficiently Established, these same ecosystems.

TABLE 1 Listed Communities, from the Great Bear Land Use Order Schedules, of floodplain systems

BEC unit Site series Plant community name List Schedule Site series name CWHdm 08 Sitka spruce/salmonberry Dry Red N Ss – Salmonberry CWHdm 09 black cottonwood – red alder/salmonberry Blue O Act – Red-osier dogwood CWHdm 10 black cottonwood/Sitka willow Blue O Act – Willow CWHds2 08 western hemlock – black cottonwood/salmonberry Red N Ss – Salmonberry CWHms2 07 Sitka spruce/salmonberry Moist Submaritime Red N Ss – Salmonberry CWHms2 09 black cottonwood/Sitka willow – thimbleberry Red N Act – Willow CWHvh1 08 Sitka spruce/false lily-of-the-valley Very Wet Hypermaritime Red N Ss – Lily-of-the-valley CWHvh1 09 Sitka spruce/tall trisetum Red N Ss – Trisetum CWHvh1 10 red alder/salmonberry/common horsetail Blue O Dr – Lily-of-the-valley CWHvh2 08 Sitka spruce/false lily-of-the-valley Wet Hypermaritime Red N Ss – Lily-of-the-valley CWHvh2 09 Sitka spruce/tall trisetum Red N Ss – Trisetum CWHvh2a 10 red alder/salmonberry/common horsetail Blue O Dr – Lily-of-the-valley CWHvm1 09 Sitka spruce/salmonberry Very Wet Maritime Red N Ss – Salmonberry CWHws1 07 Sitka spruce/salmonberry Red N Ss – Salmonberry CWHxm2 08 Sitka spruce/salmonberry Very Dry Maritime Red N Ss – Salmonberry CWHxm2 09 black cottonwood – red alder/salmonberry Blue O Act – Red-osier dogwood CWHxm2 10 black cottonwood/Sitka willow Blue O Act – Willow a Called CWHvh1 in Schedule o for the North and Central Coast, but it should be CWHvh2.

Defining an occurrence In the context of implementing the Listed Com- The GBRO uses the terms “occurrence” and “element munities objectives, we feel that it would be impracti- occurrence”—terms that are also used by NatureServe cal for practitioners to delineate “a cluster of stands” (NatureServe 2002; Master et al. 2012) and the CDC. using the methods of NatureServe (2002). These 14 These terms are defined by the latter as : methods consider factors such as size, barriers that An area of land and/or water in which a spe- limit expansion or alter the function of communities, cies or ecological community is, or was, pres- and separation distances between stands. Implemen- ent. An Element Occurrence (EO) should have tation requires assessing these factors over a larger practical conservation value for the Element as area—usually through a GIS-based exercise—and de- evidenced by potential continued (or historic) lineating element occurrences using the principles in presence and/or regular recurrence at a given the EO Data Standard (NatureServe 2002) and custom- location…. For ecological community Ele- ized specifications for different ecological commu- ments, the EO may represent a stand or patch nities or groups of communities; for example, linear, of an ecological community, or a cluster of small patch, large patch, or matrix landscape types stands or patches of an ecological community. (B.C. Ministry of Environment 2006) (see Appendix 6).

14 www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/environment/plants-animals-ecosystems/conservation-data-centre/explore-cdc-data/glossary-for -species-ecosystems-at-risk

22 In the context of the GBRO, we therefore propose, More detailed vegetation summary tables can be for practical purposes, an “occurrence” to be a sin- prepared for Listed Communities (e.g., Green 200516), gle stand; that is, a polygon delineation within which but they are influenced by available data and are still a Listed Community (i.e., the site series) occurs and a central concept. As such, developing thresholds of is subsequently determined to be Sufficiently Estab- species presence and cover would be difficult and, lished.15 The polygon delineation is initially deter- due to site and climate transitions, overly restrictive mined during the mapping of the proposed block in determining what is included as a Listed Commu- into strata. A “discrete occurrence” is a mapped poly- nity. Therefore, we propose that the “quantity and gon of only one Sufficiently Established Listed Com- distribution of indicator plants for the listed community (i.e., the mapped area is entirely, or very nearly munity” criterion can be met by the correct initial entirely, of one community). A “complex occurrence” identification of site series (see Section 3.5.1), followed is a polygon composed of two or more communities by the assessment of key age, structural, and under- that cannot be separated into discrete occurrences storey vegetation development attributes (Section 4.3), due to the spatial complexity of site conditions and/ including, if required, the Forest Attribute Score (Sec- or the scale of mapping. A complex occurrence may tion 4.4). If use of the FAS is required, consideration is have multiple small patches of Listed Communities then given to the development of a plant community (and small areas of non-listed communities). Current- for the site series (as described by the appropriate BEC ly, the Order specifies minimum occurrence sizes of guide) present on the site, through points allotted for 0.25 ha for discrete occurrences and 2 ha for complex the “Understorey shrub and herb cover” attribute. occurrences (see further discussion on page 25 regard- The Sufficiently Established Listed Community de- ing minimum reserve sizes). cision key determines whether the forest community has characteristics of mature or old forest structur- Considerations for assessing Sufficiently Established al stages (6 or 7) as well as patchy to well-developed Listed Communities understorey development, and therefore, a Sufficiently The Sufficiently Established definition requires “a Established plant community. The authors’ review of quantity and distribution of indicator plants for the understorey development by age and site series for listed community” to be present (Sections 1.1.1, Listed selected site series (using provincial BEC data) from Communities and 2.2). Indicator plants are those that the CWHdm and CWHxm showed limited differen- characterize the plant association upon which the tiation in understorey vegetation composition across Listed Community was based, as described in region- ages. Stand characteristics that affect understorey al BEC guides. Quantifying thresholds of cover and light levels are presumably more important for under- presence of indicator plants by Listed Community is storey development than is age, per se, though these problematic for the following reasons: features (e.g., canopy gaps) are associated with later • The vegetation composition presented in BEC stages of succession (and stage age). A patchy under- field guides or CDC community summaries is storey (rather than well-developed) is considered a qualitative and based on central concepts. suitable minimum vegetation development require- • Species composition can vary considerably ment (for stands < 250 years old) for being Sufficient- within older stands of a Listed Community ly Established (as per the Listed Community decision (see Section 3.5.1). key, Section 4), but well-developed understoreys can • Plot data are rarely available for a wide range of contribute to a higher assessment score and thus, in ages of stands within a Listed Community upon part, compensate for the lack of some other struc- which to base thresholds. tural attributes through application of the FAS (see • Available data (i.e., number of plots and the geo- Understorey shrub and herb cover p. 18). A patchy un- graphic range over which the data have been col- derstorey is not diagnostic in itself—its presence is lected) for a Listed Community vary considerably. necessary to move through the key to consider other

15 See Appendix 1 for suggested wording of definitions and Objectives that separate the concepts of plant community, occurrence, and Sufficiently Established. 16 Green, R.N. 2005. A field guide to red-listed ecosystems of the Central Coast Planning Unit. Draft. Submitted to Coast Forest Conservation Initiative.

23 features of Sufficiently Established. However, stands operating within the bounds of natural or historic dis- < 250 years old with sparse understoreys cannot be turbance regimes, and is of exemplary size.” Note that Sufficiently Established. this definition has been used by NatureServe (Master et The definition of Sufficiently Established in GBROthe al. 2012) to describe ecological communities with good includes the statement “… that constitutes an element to excellent ecological integrity. We presume that the occurrence with a good or better viability rank.” Vi- Order intended to say “integrity” rather than “viability.” ability is a term usually associated with species; that Ecological integrity could be assessed in various is, the likelihood that a species will persist for a des- ways; NatureServe and the B.C. CDC assess ecological ignated period of time (Master et al. 2012). A similar integrity by combining attributes of size, condition, concept applied to ecosystems is ecological integrity— and landscape context (Table 2). This is done in the defined by Faber-Langendoen et al. (2012a; 2012b) as “an context of determining element occurrence rank or assessment of the degree to which, under current condi- assessing ecological integrity (NatureServe 2002; B.C. tions, an occurrence of an ecosystem matches reference Ministry of Environment 2006; Faber-Langendoen conditions for structure, composition, and function, et al. 2012a; 2012b).

TABLE 2 Element occurrence rank factors and components for ecological communities (B.C. Ministry of Environment 2006)

Factor Components Size Area of occupancy Development/maturity (stability, old growth) Species composition and biological structure (species richness, evenness of distribution, presence of exotics) Condition Ecological processes (degree of disturbance by land use; e.g., grazing, harvesting, changes in hydrology or natural disturbance regime) Abiotic physical/chemical factors (stability of substrate, physical structure, water quality, excluding processes) Landscape structure and extent (pattern, connectivity; e.g., measure of fragmentation/patchiness, measure of genetic Landscape connectivity) context Condition of surrounding landscape (i.e., development/maturity, species composition and biological structure, ecological processes, abiotic physical/chemical factors)

Determining ecological integrity involves assessing In addition, details on assessing each factor and some factors in the field and using spatial Geograph- thresholds are often customized for specific eco- ic Information System (GIS) software and imagery logical communities or groups of communities for to determine element occurrence size (e.g., clusters example, types of wetlands (Faber-Langendoen et al. of stands) and landscape context. For each element 2012a; 2012b)—or by spatial distribution pattern type occurrence (in the sense of the CDC), condition, (Appendix 6). The method is applied primarily in the landscape context, and size are assigned a class value. office as a tool for conservation planning and is not These values contribute to the integrity rank in dif- practical to be fully implemented operationally for ferent “weights,” depending on the type of ecosystem meeting objectives for GBRO Listed Communities.17 (Table 3); for example, size is considered more import- The condition factor (Table 2) can be assessed ant than context or condition for a matrix ecosystem, on-the-ground and is relevant to the Order criteria whereas context is weighted higher for small patch for Sufficiently Established because the emphasis is ecosystems. on evaluating stand maturity (development), species

TABLE 3 Weighting of element occurrence rank factors (based on NatureServe 2002; B.C. Ministry of Environment 2006)

Spatial distribution pattern Primary rank factor Secondary rank factor Tertiary rank factor Matrix Size Landscape context Condition Large patch Condition Size Landscape context Small patch Condition Landscape context Size Linear Landscape context Condition Size

17 The principles are applicable to dealing with Listed Communities in the Landscape Reserve Design context of the Order.

24 composition, and degree of disturbance. Good- to achievable in Landscape Reserves but is potentially excellent-condition communities have the age and an issue for the ecological integrity of small occur- structural attributes of mature and old forest stands rences in the timber harvesting forest landscape. and plant communities (including overstorey and One approach is to consider a minimum reserve understorey composition and development) com- size of 1 ha for plant communities in harvest land- posed of native species that are typical of the Listed scapes to attempt to meet the ecological viability/ Community. The assessment procedures outlined in integrity objective. The reserve may include a small this guidance document should effectively achieve (e.g., 0.25 ha) Sufficiently Established Listed Com- the intent of meeting good or better integrity as munity within mature or old forest of a different represented by condition. For reference, criteria for community type, or it may be composed of multi- assessing condition of forested ecosystems are shown ple Listed Communities. Requirements of the Order, in Appendix 7 and are adapted from CDC criteria. however, may prevent a preferred minimum reserve One consideration with respect to ecological size of 1 ha from being achieved in some cases. As integrity is that a very small GBRO occurrence (i.e., with small patches (< 1 ha) of Old Forest, small areas approximately 0.25 ha) would generally need to have of Sufficiently Established Listed Communities could good landscape context to be classed as having good be used to meet the stand retention requirements of or better integrity, even with a good or excellent con- the Order (see Section 4.2 and Appendix 2 for further dition ranking. A good or better landscape context is guidance on reserving small forest patches).

4 THE CONSERVATION DECISION-MAKING PROCEDURE

4.1 Overview

This section describes the decision-making procedure inform the selection of candidate site series/site series for determining Old Forest and Sufficiently Estab- groups for inclusion in Landscape Reserve Designs lished Listed Communities. It provides an overview and Temporary Old Forest Reserves, and to determine of the approach and the detailed field decision keys whether the forest is potentially a Listed Community. for identifying Old Forest and Sufficiently Established Since these guidelines are applicable primarily to an Listed Communities, including the Forest Attribute operational setting where potential harvest areas are Score (FAS) assessment. Application requires following being examined, site series identification and mapping the three-step field assessment prior to applyingGBRO will have generally been conducted as a standard prac- conservation requirements (Step 4). Step 4 is intro- tice in the development of a site plan. duced here for context but is beyond the scope of this guidance document. An overview of the conservation Step 2—Old Forest assessment decision-making procedure is illustrated in Figure 10. Applying the Old Forest decision key (Figure 11) is the next step. The key may lead directly to an Old Step 1—Identifying and mapping site series Forest/Not Old Forest decision or further assessment Site series identification procedures are not provided may be required (for forests ≥ 140 years old) using the in these guidelines. Users should refer to the proce- FAS procedure (Section 4.4). A passing FAS will then dures outlined in the site identification field guides result in the determination of Old Forest. (Banner et al. 1993; Green and Klinka 1994; MacKen- zie and Moran 2004). Terrestrial Ecosystem Mapping Step 3—Listed Community assessment (TEM), Predictive Ecosystem Mapping (PEM), and the Regardless of the decision resulting from the Old Vegetation Resource Inventory (VRI) are the primary Forest assessment, the next step is to confirm wheth- means of identifying site series groups and age for er the site series may support a Listed Community satisfying the Old Forest representation target and by referring to Schedules N and O. If so, the Listed minimum Old Forest retention level requirements. Community assessment must be conducted. Use Site series identification/confirmation is necessary to of the Sufficiently Established Listed Community

25 Conservation decision-making procedure Overview decision key

1. ID and map site series Apply GBRO objectives for ecosystem representationa,b

2. Apply Old Forest decision key

Site series Site series supports Listed NOT O supports Listed Yes Yes Community? O F F Community?

No No

3. Apply No further No further 3. Apply Sufficiently action action Sufficiently Established Established decision key decision key

Meets area NOT SE SE SE NOT SE requirements for discrete or complex Yes occurrence? No

No further No further action action

Apply objectives No further for Listed action Communities

SE = Sufficiently Established (red- or blue-listed community) NOT SE = Not Sufficiently Established (red- or blue-listed community) a Old Forest components of this key and the Old Forest decision key are designed primarily to help achieve Old Forest representation targets in Type Restoration Landscape Units. b Appendix outlines reserve considerations for Old Forest and Sufficiently Established Listed Community occurrences, including reserve options for Old Forest patches less than ha.

FIGURE 10 Flow chart for the conservation decision-making procedure. Decision keys for Steps 2 and 3 are provided in Figures 11 and 12, respectively.

26 Conservation decision-making procedure Old Forest decision keya,b,c,d

Yes Stand age ≥ 250 years? O F No

Stand age ≥ 140 years?

No Yes NOT No Veteran Overstorey Yes O Stand age ≥ 80 years? O F Trees (VOTs) ≥ 15 sph? F

Yes No

O Yes Veteran Overstorey Forest Attribute Score Yes O F Trees (VOTs) ≥ 20 sph? (FAS) = PASS? F

No No

NOT NOT O F O F

a This key is designed primarily to help achieve Old Forest representation targets in Type Restoration Landscape Units. b This key reflects the wording of definitions and criteria as provided in Appendix , and represents the intent of the wording within the Great Bear Rainforest Order, as understood by the authors. c Use .-ha fixed radius plots of -m radius to estimate stems per hectare for VOTs. Multiply the plot stem count by to calculate stems per hectare for the sample area. Calculate average VOT density based on three to four plots per hectare. d Appendix outlines reserve considerations for Old Forest and Sufficiently Established Listed Community occurrences, including reserve options for Old Forest patches less than ha.

FIGURE 11 Field decision key for identifying Old Forest. The rationale for the decision thresholds within the key is provided in Section 3.3. The Forest Attribute Score procedure is described in detail in Section 3.4 and is summarized in Section 4.4 and Figure 13. sph = stems per hectare. decision key (Figure 12) will determine whether the for Old Forest status are not met. Use of the Suffi- Listed Community is Sufficiently Established. This ciently Established Listed Community key may lead may occur regardless of whether the stand was iden- directly to a decision or further assessment using the tified as Old Forest; there are minimum requirements FAS procedure (Figure 13) may be required before a for the plant community to be Sufficiently Estab- decision is reached. lished even for Old Forests (except where forests are Both the Old Forest and Listed Community deci- ≥ 250 years old), and conversely, there will be some sion keys are designed to provide some structure to, cases where well-developed understorey communities and simplification of, the decision-making process. result in Sufficiently Established status (for forests ≥80 In many cases, where thresholds are easily met, the years old), even where the minimum requirements decision will be straightforward; in other cases,

27 professional judgement and more detailed field as- that are ≥ 140 years old require a minimum of 15 sessments will be required. Users are encouraged to VOTs per hectare to be considered old, except where work through the keys a few times and be conserva- other old forest attributes (assessed using the Forest tive in uncertain situations (especially in Landscape Attribute Score) are sufficiently developed. Forests Units with limited remaining mature and old for- between 80 and 140 years old may be considered ests). If directed by the keys, users will have to move Old Forest only when they contain a minimum of on to the FAS assessment to incorporate additional 20 VOTs per hectare. stand attributes and arrive at the final decision. Initial estimates of stand age can be obtained from provincial VRI or corporate inventory map layers. Step 4—Apply the reserve requirements specified Most often it will be necessary to field-check stand in the Great Bear Rainforest Order ages with increment borers. Many old-growth stands The Order outlines the reserve requirements for both have been cycling through a gap-phase replacement Old Forest and Sufficiently Established Listed Com- disturbance regime for many centuries and estab- munities. It is beyond the scope of this guidance lishing an accurate stand age is not straightforward document to provide details on the procedures for or practical. In these cases, it is sufficient to simply assigning reserves. Appendix 2 summarizes infor- establish that stand age is ≥ 250 years old. mation from the Great Bear Rainforest Order and the For stands that are < 250 years old, it is necessary Landscape Reserve Design Methodology (BCMFLNRO to establish whether the stand is ≥ 140 years old, and 2016a, 2016c) that is related to reserve requirements/ if not, ≥ 80 years old, by coring two to four main can- options (i.e., incorporation into the Landscape Re- opy trees, preferably sampling each of the main cano- serve Design, Temporary Old Forest Reserves, stand py tree species. Corrections for years to breast height retention) and provides additional guidelines on re- must be applied using standard techniques to convert serving small forest patches (< 1 ha). breast height age to total age (BCMFLNRO 2016d). VOTs are identified as being emergent trees that are 4.2 Identifying Old Forest at least 200 years old and have a minimum diameter (dbh) of either 50 cm on dry sites (relative soil mois- Figure 11 provides the dichotomous decision key for ture regime 2 or lower) or 70 cm on all other sites. identifying Old Forest. Three age thresholds are used Refer to Identifying Veteran Overstorey Trees and esti- in the key. As per the Order, forests ≥ 250 years old18 mating their density p. 8, for guidelines on identifying are Old Forest by default. TheGBRO also includes as VOTs and estimating their density. In many stands, Old Forest, stands of trees that have reached the cli- the veteran trees will be significantly and obviously max state for the ecosystem but have been assigned larger without the necessity for measurement, espe- an inventory age < 250 years. This often refers to very cially with some experience in the local area. VOTs old ecosystems that have not experienced major also typically have physical characteristics of older (stand-replacing) disturbance for centuries but may trees, such as distinctive bark, branching, and crown contain significant numbers of trees that are younger form. than 250 years due to ongoing, small-scale, gap distur- Because of the irregular distribution of VOTs, bances (Franklin and Spies 1991). These ecosystems their density should be assessed over a reasonably are generally found in hypermaritime (CWHvh, wh), large area (e.g., ≥ 1 ha), where the distribution pattern relatively wet maritime subzones (CWHwm and vm), is similar across the area, in order to avoid biasing or subalpine (MH) climates of the GBRO area (Lertz- density estimates based on small clumps of trees. It is man and Krebs 1991; Lertzman et al. 1998) and Haida important to differentiate between small clumps of Gwaii. They typically have uneven-aged, multi-sto- old trees and an old forest stand. A “stand” identifies reyed canopies, deep forest floors, and abundant coarse an area of forest that is relatively spatially consistent woody debris, and lack evidence of significant, large- in certain attributes; for example, species composi- scale disturbance. tion, structure, density, age, basal area, volume, and For stands that are < 250 years old, additional age origin. It is challenging to evaluate or describe such thresholds of 140 years and 80 years apply. Forests characteristics in a very small patch of trees. Small

18 Inventory age may indicate that a stand is < 250 years old, when, in fact, it is not. This sometimes occurs with stands on low-productivity sites where the trees are shorter, and so appear younger, especially when photo interpreted. Although some trees in such stands may be < 250 years, the stands are older, and aging trees with an increment borer should clarify whether the stand is > 250 years old.

28 patches of taller trees are more at risk of loss to wind- as Listed Communities, meet the Order requirements throw, and the conservation value of a stand of old for being Sufficiently Established. Low, medium, and forest increases with its size. For example, for a stand high bench floodplain site units (Table 1) and any to have a “tree length of forest interior,” the mini- stands ≥ 250 years old are automatically considered mum stand size would be > 1 ha (based on a 40-m Sufficiently Established. Plant community occurrenc- tall stand and a one-tree length “depth of edge influ- es in younger stands—that is, stands < 250 years old— ence”19). As such, a minimum of 1 ha for Old Forest is are considered Sufficiently Established if they: 20 recommended. • are identified as Old Forest (as per the Old Forest In some cases, especially within Type 1 Resto- decision key) and have patchy to well-developed ration Landscape Units, VOTs within assessment understorey vegetation development; or areas may occur exclusively in clumps that are much • are identified as Not Old Forest (as per the Old smaller than 1 ha but still meet the Old Forest (and Forest decision key) but: Sufficiently Established) VOT or FAS thresholds, pro- – are ≥ 80 years old; rated on a per hectare basis (e.g., for a 0.20-ha patch, – have well-developed understorey vegetation; they would have to have either 3 or 4 VOTs, depending and on stand age, or pass the FAS). Conservation options – pass the Forest Attribute Score for the Suf- in these cases are (1) buffer these small forest patches ficiently Established Listed Community with surrounding forest to create reserves of 1 ha or Decision key. greater, (2) use the small patches to meet the 15% (of cutblock area) stand retention requirements specified After determining whether a stand is Sufficient- in the GBRO (section 17(2) c and g), or (3) retain VOTs ly Established, the size criteria need to be applied > 1.25 m dbh as single trees. From a conservation per- (Schedules N and O). They are as follows: spective, we recommend using a mix of options; use the approach that best fits the specific situation rather To be considered an occurrence, a plant community than doing the same thing everywhere. Appendix must have a minimum area of: 2 provides further guidance regarding decisions on • 0.25 ha if it is a discrete occurrence; or reserving forest patches that are < 1 ha. • 2.0 ha if it is a complex occurrence where the Old Forest “stands” (≥ 1 ha) that are not intended Listed Community is the dominant community. for future harvesting can contribute to meeting representation targets and minimum old levels, and can As noted in Considerations for assessing Sufficient- be incorporated into the Landscape Reserve Design ly Established Listed Communities pp. 23–25, small oc- (LRD) or reserved as Temporary Old Forest Reserves currences in a harvested landscape will not be of (TOFRs), depending on occurrence, size, and location good or better ecological integrity outside landscape criteria (see Appendix 2 for further discussion). reserves. Refer to that section, Section 4.2, and Ap- pendix 2 for further discussion on targeting 1-ha re- 4.3 Identifying Sufficiently Established Listed serves as a minimum, except when addressing stand Communities retention requirements of the Order (BCMFLNRO 2016a, Part 1, Division 4, #17-Objectives for Stand Figure 12 provides the dichotomous decision key for Retention). assessing whether candidate forest stands, identified

19 Depth of edge influence will depend on factors such as the ecological variable of interest (e.g., plant growth, microclimate, stand structure), edge contrast, edge orientation, topographic position, season, and even time of day (Chen et al. 1990, 1992). Interior forest habitat lies beyond the influence of both microclimatic and biotic edge effects, and therefore sustains the integrity of the plant and animal communities that depend on less extreme environmental conditions. Microclimatic edge influences can extend 200 m or more into the forested patch (Voller 1998). 20 Note that provincial guidelines specify that for small reserves (e.g., wildlife tree retention) to contribute to old-growth targets, they must be at least 2 ha (B.C. Ministry of Forests and B.C. Ministry of Environment 1995; B.C. Ministry of Forests and B.C. Ministry of Environment, Lands, and Parks 1999).

29 Conservation decision-making procedure Sufficiently Established Listed Community decision keya,b For use in assessing site series supporting red- and blue-listed communities as per Schedule N and O

Yes Stand age ≥ 250 years? SE

Low, mid, or high bench Yes SE floodplain ecosystem?

No NOT SE Patchy to well-developed understorey community?

Yes

Old Forest as per Yes Old Forest key? SE

No NOT SE Stand age ≥ 80 years?

Yes

No NOT SE Well-developed understorey?

Yes

No Forest Attribute Score Yes NOT SE SE (FAS) = PASS?

SE = Sufficiently Established (red- or blue-listed community) NOT SE = Not Sufficiently Established (red- or blue-listed community) a See overview key (p. ) for additional criteria related to application of protection for Listed Communities within the Great Bear Rainforest Order. b This key reflects the wording of definitions and criteria as provided in Appendix , and represents the intent of the wording within the Great Bear Rainforest Order, as understood by the authors.

FIGURE 12 Field decision key for identifying Sufficiently Established Listed Communities. The rationale for the decision thresholds within the key is provided in Sections 3.3 and 3.5. The Forest Attribute Score procedure is described in detail in Section 3.4 and is summarized in Section 4.4 and Figure 13.

30 4.4 Calculating the Forest Attribute Score

The Forest Attribute Score FAS( ) procedure is shown TheFAS is used only when stands do not meet the in Figure 13. Section 3.4.2 provides descriptions of initial minimum criteria thresholds in the Old For- the FAS attributes and guidance on how to assess the est (Figure 11) or Sufficiently Established (Figure 12) attributes. Figures 2–4 and 6–9 illustrate several FAS field decision keys, based mainly on age and density attributes by providing photographic examples of of VOTs. There are six FAS attributes (Figure 13). Some attribute scores. subjectivity will always remain in any ecological field TheFAS focusses on the individual components assessment, and deliberation with more experienced that contribute to Old Forest and Sufficiently Estab- professionals will likely be required in some border- lished attributes and provides a few broad scoring line or special cases. This approach emphasizes quick, categories for each. For example, instead of having to replicable assessment methods that do not require decide whether a stand has a complex, open structure time-consuming and detailed measurements. Appen- or fits the definition of structural stage 6, individual dix 4 lists some additional stand attributes that are stand components (e.g., vertical canopy differentia- commonly used in the literature to characterize old- tion, snag density, development of understoreys) that growth forests. Although they are difficult to incor- are inherent in these concepts are scored individually porate into our field assessment procedure, it may be to calculate a FAS for the stand (see Section 3.4 for useful to refer to them to help adjudicate special or further background on the FAS procedure). challenging assessment situations.

31 Forest Attribute Score (FAS)a Refer to Sections 3.3.2, 3.3.3, and 3.4 for methods of field-assessing FAS attributes

(1) Density of VOTs (4) Understorey shrub and herb cover (Veteran Overstorey Trees) (excluding conifers and bryophytes)

FIGURE 13 Summary of the Forest Attribute Score (FAS) procedure used to evaluate structural and other stand attributes in the assessment of Old Forest and Sufficiently Established Listed Communities. The FAS attributes and rationale for assessing them are described in Section 3.4. sph = stems per hectare, dbh = diameter at breast height.

32 4.5 Summary of Criteria for Identifying Old Forest and Sufficiently Established Listed Communities

Figure 14 provides a summary of age, veteran over- procedures and when assessing borderline situations. storey tree density, plant community development, With time and experience, the concepts will become and Forest Attribute Score requirements for identi- familiar enough that the keys will serve mainly to fying Old Forest and Sufficiently Established Listed confirm initial impressions in the field. Communities for the GBRO area. Reference to Figure Appendix 8 provides a photographic collection of 14 will assist with gaining an understanding of the coastal forest sites that have been assessed for Old For- defining criteria and the linkages between the con- est and Sufficiently Established status. This provides cepts of Old Forest and Sufficiently Established Listed a useful visual reference to help the user establish the Communities. The decision keys and FAS procedure, link between Old Forest/Sufficiently Established sta- however, should be used in the field, especially by tus, Forest Attribute Scores, and forest characteristics. individuals who are just becoming familiar with the

Old Forest (OF) criteria

NOT O ≥ 20 VOTs/ha OF O F = ≥ 15 VOTs/ha or FAS pass = OF F

Age of the 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240250 260 280 main stand (yr) Sufficiently Established (SE) criteria

SE if: SE if: OF as above and OF as above and understorey ≥ patchy understorey ≥ patchy Upland NOT SE OR OR SE FAS pass and FAS pass and understorey understorey well developed well developed

Floodplain SE SE SE SE

FIGURE 14 Summary of main criteria for identifying Old Forest and Sufficiently Established Listed Communities. VOT = Veteran Overstorey Tree; FAS = Forest Attribute Score.

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36 Lutz, L.A., A.J. Larson, J.A. Freund, M.E. Swanson, Old-Growth Definition Task Group. 1986. Interim and K.J. Bible. 2013. The importance of definitions for old growth Douglas-fir and large-diameter trees to forest structural mixed-conifer forests in the Pacific Northwest heterogeneity. PLoS ONE 8(12): e82784. and California. U.S. Dep. Agric. For. Serv., https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0082784 Portland, Oreg. Res. Note PNW-447. Lutz, L.A., A.J. Larson, M.E. Swanson, and J.A. Oliver, C.D. and B.C. Larson. 1990. Forest stand Freund. 2012. Ecological importance of large- dynamics. McGraw-Hill, New York, N.Y. diameter trees in a temperate mixed-conifer forest. PLoS ONE 7(5): e36131. DOI:10.1371/ Pabst, R. 2005. Methodology for developing the old- journal.pone.0036131. growth index. Appendix 1. In: Definition and inventory of old growth forests on DNR-managed MacKenzie, W.H. and J.R. Moran. 2004. Wetlands state lands. Franklin, J.F., T. Spies, R. Van Pelt, T. of British Columbia: a guide to identification. Riepe, S. Hull, and W. Obermeyer. 2005. Wash. B.C. Min. For., Res. Br., Victoria, B.C. Land State Dep. Nat. Resources, Olympia, Wash. Manag. Handb. 52. Parish, R. and J.A. Antos. 2004. Structure and dy- Master, L.L., D. Faber-Langendoen, R. Bittman, G.A. namics of an ancient montane forest in coastal Hammerson, B. Heidel, L. Ramsay, K. Snow, A. British Columbia. Oecologia 141:562–576. Teucher, and A. Tomaino. 2012. NatureServe conservation status assessments: factors for ______. 2006. Slow growth, long-lived trees, and evaluating species and ecosystem risk. Nature- minimal disturbance characterize the dynamics Serve, Arlington, Va. of an ancient, montane forest in coastal British Columbia. Can. J. For. Res. 36:2826–2838. McCune, B. 1993. Gradients in epiphyte biomass in three Pseudotsuga–Tsuga forests of different Peter, D.H. and C.A. Harrington. 2010. Reconstructed ages in western Oregon and Washington. old-growth forest stand structure and compo- Bryologist 96(3):405–411. sition of two stands on the Olympic Peninsula, Washington State. U.S. Dep. Agric. For. Serv., McKee, A., G. LaRoi, and J.F. Franklin. 1980. Struc- Portland, Oreg. Res. Pap. PNW-RP-583. ture, composition, and reproductive behav- ior of terrace forests, South Fork Hoh River, Poage, N.J. and J.C. Tappeiner II. 2005. Tree species Olympic National Park. In: Proceedings of the and size structure of old-growth Douglas-fir Second Conference on Scientific Research in forests in central western Oregon, USA. For. National Parks, San Francisco, Calif., 1979. Vol. Ecol. Manag. 204:329–343. 7, pp. 64–79. Price, K. and G. Hochachka. 2001. Epiphytic lichen Meidinger, D. 1992. Vegetation classification hier- abundance: effects of stand age and composi- archy: DBASE September 1992. B.C. Min. For., tion in coastal British Columbia. Ecol. Appl. Res. Br., Victoria, B.C. 11(3):904–913. Meidinger, D. and J. Pojar (compilers and editors). Price, K., E. Lilles, and A. Banner. 2017. Long-term 1991. Ecosystems of British Columbia. B.C. recovery of epiphytic communities in the Great Min. For, Victoria, B.C. Spec. Rep. Series 6. Bear Rainforest of coastal British Columbia. For. Ecol. Manag. 391:296–308. NatureServe. 2002. Element occurrence data standard. www.natureserve.org/conservation-tools/ Province of British Columbia. 1995. Biodiversity standards-methods/element-occurrence guidebook. Forest Practices Code of British -data-standard (Accessed Jan. 17, 2017). Columbia. Victoria, B.C. North, M., J.Q. Chen, B. Oakley, B. Song, M. Rud- Schneider, E.E. and A.J. Larson. 2017. Spatial aspects nicki, A. Gray, and J. Innes. 2004. Forest stand of structural complexity in Sitka spruce – west- structure and pattern of old-growth western ern hemlock forests, including evaluation of a hemlock/Douglas-fir and mixed-conifer for- new canopy gap delineation method. Can. J. ests. For. Sci. 50:299–311. For. Res. https://doi.org/10.1139/cjfr-2017-0029

37 Spies, T.A. and J.F. Franklin. 1991. The structure of Van Pelt, R. 2007. Identifying mature and old forests natural young, mature, and old-growth Doug- in western Washington. Wash. State Dep. Nat. las-fir forests. In: Wildlife and vegetation of Resources, Olympia, Wash. unmanaged Douglas-fir forests. L.F. Ruggiero, K.B. Aubry, A.B. Carey, and M.H. Huff (edi- Voller, J. 1998. Biodiversity and interior habitats: the tors). U.S. Dep. Agric. For. Serv., Portland, Oreg. need to minimize edge effects. B.C. Min. For., Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-285, pp. 91–109. Victoria, B.C. Res. Prog. Exten. Note 21. Spies, T.A., B.C. McComb, R.S.H. Kennedy, M.T. Wells, R.W. 1996. Developmental trends of stand McGrath, K. Olsen, and R.J. Pabst. 2007. structure and tree mortality in Coastal West- Potential effects of forest policies on terrestrial ern Hemlock forests. MSc thesis. Simon Fraser biodiversity in a multi-ownership province. Univ., Burnaby, B.C. Ecol. Appl. 17:48–65. Wells, R.W., K.P. Lertzman, and S.C. Saunders. 1998. Trofymow, J.A., J. Addison, B.A. Blackwell, F. He, Old-growth definitions for the forests of British C.A. Preston, and V.G. Marshall. 2003. Attri- Columbia, Canada. Nat. Areas J. 18:279–292. butes and indicators of old-growth and succes- Zenner, E.K. 2004. Does old-growth condition imply sional Douglas-fir forests on Vancouver Island. high live-tree structural complexity? For. Ecol. Environ. Rev. 11:S187–S204. Manag. 195:243–258. United States Department of Agriculture Forest Zenner, E.K. and D.E. Hibbs. 2000. A new method Service. 1993. Region 6 interim old growth for modeling the heterogeneity of forest struc- definition for Douglas-fir series, grand fir/ ture. For. Ecol. Manag. 129:75–87. white fir series, interior Douglas-fir series, lodgepole pine series, Pacific silver fir series, ponderosa pine series, Port-Orford-cedar and tanoak (redwood) series, subalpine fir series, western hemlock series. https://www.blm.gov/ or/plans/surveyandmanage/files/16-region6 _old_growth_def.pdf

38 APPENDIX 1 Authors’ proposal for altered wording to clarify definitions, objectives, and criteria for application of objectives associated with concepts of Old Forest and Sufficiently Established Listed Communities within the Great Bear Land Use Objectives Order

Definitions: Sufficiently Established means any of the following23: (a) a plant community occurrence within a stand Red-listed community: means a plant community that is ≥ 250 years old24; or listed in Schedule N. (b) a plant community occurrence within a stand that Blue-listed community: means a plant community is < 250 years and that meets the following criteria: listed in Schedule O. i. exhibits a late mature vertical and horizontal structure (structural stage 6 or 7) and tree spe- Occurrence: (i.e., of a Listed Community) means cies composition, and often includes a veteran a single patch (or polygon) within which a Listed overstorey tree layer; and Community has been mapped. A “discrete occur- ii. has a patchy to well-developed understorey rence” is a polygon of only one plant community (i.e., for the site series (excluding consideration of the mapped area is entirely or very nearly entirely one conifer regeneration and bryophytes); or community). A “complex occurrence” is a polygon of (c) a low, mid, or high bench floodplain ecosystem. more than one plant community (i.e., the mapped area is composed of two or more communities that Criteria for Application of Objectives for Listed cannot be separated into discrete occurrences due Communities (Schedules and )25: to the spatial complexity of site conditions and/or N O the scale of mapping). Objectives for Listed Communities apply when the Old Forest means any of the following21: plant community occurrence meets all three of the (a) a stand of trees that is 250 years old or older; or following criteria: (b) a structurally complex stand (structural stage (a) is a red-listed community or a blue-listed 6 or 7) composed mainly of late successional or community26; and climax species, where older seral remnants may (b) is Sufficiently Established27; and still be present in the upper canopy, and which (c) has a minimum area of either: typically has: i. 0.25 ha if it is a discrete occurrence28; or i. standing snags; ii. 2.0 ha if it is a complex occurrence28 where ii. rotting logs on the ground; and the red-listed community is the dominant iii. a patchy to well-developed understorey; or community. (c) a stand of trees of an ecosystem that has reached the late successional/climax stage for the ecosystem, yet has an inventory age of < 250 years.22

21 See this guidance document for the decision key to field identification of Old Forest in the Great Bear Rainforest (Section 4.2). 22 This is meant primarily to recognize stands that have escaped large-scale disturbance for at least 250 years, but in which continuous, gap-phase replacement (small, in-stand disturbances) has resulted in the common occurrence of younger trees and inventory ages < 250 years. It may also include wet, low-productivity stands or drier (e.g., rocky outcrop) stands that have been aged incorrectly in the inventory due to small stature. Fluvial and other ecosystems with more frequent natural disturbance regimes may also be included this category, but for the most part, they are addressed with the younger age thresholds and structural requirements in the Old Forest key. 23 See this guidance document for the decision key to field identification of Sufficiently Established Listed Communities in the Great Bear Rainforest (Section 4.3). 24 The authors suggest that 250 years (versus 200 years) is an acceptable and effective breakpoint within an operational key; 250 years corresponds to vri age class 9 within the forest cover data and relates to concepts of Old Forest discussed within the document and put forward within the Order. Using a 200-year cutoff and distinguishing between a 200- and 250-year-old stand is impractical with current forest cover inventories. Keys allow for plant communities in younger forest to be identified as Sufficiently Established using additional structural and compositional criteria. 25 See this guidance document for an overview decision key to assessing the applicability of GBRO Objectives for Old Forest and Listed Communities (Section 4.1). 26 As per definitions (this page). 27 As per definitions (this page). 28 See this guidance document for the definition of “occurrence” (this page and Defining an occurrence p. 22).

39 APPENDIX 2 Reserve considerations for Old Forest and Listed Community occurrences

Material in this Appendix (except for the section Au- and simultaneously contribute to protection of thors’ Proposal for Reserving Small [< 1 ha] Old Forest Aboriginal Heritage Features, Aboriginal Forest and Sufficiently Established Occurrences) is extracted Resources and other land use objectives.” largely from the Landscape Reserve Design Methodol- ogy (BCMFLNRO 2016c) and the Great Bear Rainforest From draft Landscape Reserve Design Methodology: Order (BCMFLNRO 2016a). Stand-level features that are not intended for future harvesting (e.g., resource features, red-listed ecosys- Overview tems) and that meet the following occurrence, size, Areas to meet targets for Old Forest (OF) and Suffi- and location contribute to meeting representation ciently Established (SE) Listed Communities should targets and minimum old levels, and form part of be incorporated into Landscape Reserve Design the LRD when they are: (LRD) polygons where possible to manage effects on (1) within a Type 1 Restoration Landscape Unit the managed forest. However, occurrence size, loca- (Schedule H, GBRO): tion, and characteristics will determine whether the • ≥ 7 ha; or occurrence should be considered for: • ≥ 3 ha and ≤ 1.5 tree lengths from a cutblock (1) incorporation into the LRD; edge; and (2) a temporary old forest reserve (TOFR); or (2) within all other areas: (3) stand retention. • ≥ 1 ha and capable of being mapped.

The intention is to incorporate occurrences into Temporary Old Forest Reserves the LRD where they meet the size and location cri- Defined in theGBRO as “a temporary spatially de- teria (or where they are smaller but can be incorpo- fined Old Forest reserve outside of Landscape Reserve rated into larger reserves) or to otherwise manage as Designs where timber harvesting will not take place TOFRs or stand-level retention. during the period of time that the Temporary Old The GBRO also provides two tools for managing Forest Reserve, or portion thereof, is in effect.” recovery of Listed Communities: 1. In the short term, applying the minimum old From draft Landscape Reserve Design Methodology: forest retention levels (MOFRLs) by site series Much of the remaining old forest in Restoration group (SSG), and specific 100% and 70% targets LUs exists as small fragments of old-growth forest for red- and blue-listed plant communities, re- scattered across a landscape dominated by sec- spectively—reserve the older elements of these ond-growth forests. Since these small patches are ecosystems. an important element of present-day biodiversity, 2. Old forest representation targets (OFRTs) pro- and their reservation is required to meet minimum vide a second mechanism to recruit and recover old levels, they must be reserved in some way in the red- and blue-listed ecosystems over time. short to intermediate term. However, in the long term, many of these fragments would not contribute Reserving current (now old) Listed Communities will greatly to the Restoration Zones because of their size be met by the MOFRLs for SSGs. Some plant commu- and distribution. Those judged not to be ecologically nities that are presently too young to be Sufficiently very useful or those not feasible to encompass within Established Listed Communities, will become Suffi- a Restoration Zone are therefore designated as and ciently Established over time. The long-termOFRT s will included in Temporary Old Forest Reserves. Conse- provide for recruitment of those plant communities. quently, Temporary Old Forest Reserves contribute to attaining minimum old forest levels in the short Landscape Reserve Designs term, and to the area of Managed Forest in the long Defined in theGBRO as “a system of Landscape term (i.e., when no longer required, they will be avail- Reserves in a Landscape Unit which is designed able for harvesting). to meet requirements for Old Forest representation,

40 Stand Retention Authors’ Proposal for Reserving Small (< 1 ha) Old Defined in theGBRO as “small patches of trees and Forest and Sufficiently Established Occurrences understorey vegetation that are located in a cutblock or contiguous to a cutblock.” Many Old Forest (OF) and Sufficiently Established (SE) examples will be smaller than 1 ha, especially From the Great Bear Rainforest Order: in Type 1 Restoration Landscape Units where older 17. Objectives for Stand Retention forest is rare and fragmented. In such cases, buffer- (1) Maintain forest structure and diversity at the ing with surrounding non–Old Forest/Sufficiently stand level: Established may be required to conserve functional (a) by maintaining a minimum of 15% of a Cut- occurrences for the long term. The objective is to try block area as Stand Retention; and to ensure that OF patches < 1 ha actually function as (b) in Cutblocks 20 hectares or greater in size, by forest, specifically Old Forest. Realistically, for that distributing a minimum of 50% of the Stand to be so, the occurrence has to be surrounded by Retention within the Cutblock, except in: forest of sufficient structure to a depth of one tree (i) second-growth stands where a windthrow length (preferably greater than that), depending on hazard assessment indicates a moderate or the variable of concern/interest to maintain interior higher biophysical hazard for windthrow; condition. Improved context is achieved where there and is less contrast between the small OF/SE patch and the (ii) Old Forest stands where local knowledge surrounding forest used to buffer it (i.e., where the has identified the potential for catastroph- surrounding forest has at least some older legacy fea- ic inflow or outflow winds. tures as reflected in higher Forest Attribute Scores). The larger reserve area should be shaped in a way that (2) To the extent practicable, include the following minimizes edge effects (e.g., circular or square versus within Stand Retention: long, linear patches). (a) Aboriginal Forest Resources that are main- Depending on the size and shape of the small tained or enhanced by retention in a mature patch of OF/SE, even a 1-ha reserve is generally small- or older forest; er than required to eliminate edge effects for all (b) habitat elements important for species at functional attributes. The GBRO specifies a mini- risk, ungulate winter range, and regionally mum occurrence of 0.25 ha for SE Listed Communi- important wildlife; ties where they consist of just one plant association, (c) representation of ecosystems and plant com- and 2 ha where they occur as a complex of two or munities listed in Schedule N and Schedule O; more associations. No minimum size is specified for (d) Functional Riparian Forest adjacent to Active OF, although the LRD specifications above (page 40) Fluvial Units, Forested Swamps, fen and imply a 1-ha minimum area. Provincially, for small marsh wetlands and Upland Streams with reserves (e.g., wildlife tree retention) to contribute to unique features or moderate or higher risk of old-growth targets, they must be at least 2 ha (B.C. sediment transport; Ministry of Forests and B.C. Ministry of Environ- (e) western redcedar and yellow-cedar for future ment 1995; B.C. Ministry of Forests 1999). Aboriginal Tree Use; Decisions on reserving small forest patches that (f) western yew; meet Old Forest and/or Sufficiently Established VOT/ (g) within restoration landscape units, remnant FAS criteria within operational areas should be made patches of Old Forest in Site Series Groups based on local considerations such as proximity to where < 30% of the total forest area is Old existing LRDs; size, characteristics, and configura- Forest; and tion of forest patch; wind firmness; safety; and stand (h) wildlife trees and coarse woody debris. retention requirements. The following approach provides some guidance to help practitioners make (Note: bold type indicates where stand retention meets such decisions: Old Forest or Listed Community objectives.)

41 For OF/SE patches < 1 ha: Established forest to create a minimum 1-ha • < 0.25 ha reserve, where practicable; if near enough and – maintain VOTs > 1.25 m dbh as single trees, large enough to add to LRD, do so; otherwise, where practicable reserve as TOFR. Old Forest/Sufficiently Estab- • 0.25–0.5 ha lished patches surrounded by forest with Forest – reserve as stand retention where practicable Attribute Scores close to passing (5–6) have (e.g., windfirmness, harvest safety, meeting higher priority for increasing reserve size to 1 ha stand retention goals) or greater. Reserve size and shape should be op- • > 0.5 ha timized according to considerations described – use surrounding non–Old Forest/Sufficiently above (page 41).

APPENDIX 3 Comparison chart for visual estimation of foliage cover

1% 2% 3% 5%

7% 10% 15% 20%

25% 30% 40% 50%

(from B.C. Ministry of Forests and Lands and B.C. Ministry of Environment 2010)

42 APPENDIX 4 Additional forest attributes to consider in assessments of Old Forest and Sufficiently Established Listed Communities

Several special forest attributes may be associated value; for example, mixtures that include three with Old Forest condition, and many of them would or more major tree species. contribute to a higher condition ranking for Listed • High diversity of tree diameters: diameter diver- Communities. While assessing these attributes does sity index (as measured by standard deviation not form part of the standard assessment procedure of tree diameter) is often used as a criterion in described in this manual, the attributes may be help- old-growth indices (e.g., Franklin and Spies 1991; ful in assessing Old Forest or Sufficiently Established Spies and Franklin 1991; Franklin et al. 2002, 2005; status in borderline stands, especially where unique Larson et al. 2008; Gerzon et al. 2011). This is in- or particularly outstanding features occur but are directly factored into the vertical canopy differen- not captured in the standard procedures. tiation criteria of the FAS assessment. These “special forest attributes” include the following: • Exceptional tree size (height and or diameter): • Well-developed epiphytic communities: these while this attribute is factored into the FAS assess- communities are a characteristic of most old- ment, there will be cases where exceptional spec- growth forest ecosystems (McCune 1993). While imens and the forests surrounding them warrant some younger coastal stands may have minor ep- preservation despite not meeting Old Forest or iphytic development, well-developed and diverse Sufficiently Established Listed Community status. canopy bryophyte and lichen communities are Large, old trees of species such as Douglas-fir, considered one of the last old forest attributes western redcedar, Sitka spruce, and yellow-cedar to recover following disturbance (Price and Ho- (Chamaecyparis nootkatensis) can develop deep chachka 2001; Price et al. 2017). Where epiphytes, irregular crowns; others will have broken tops especially hair lichens (e.g., Alectoria and Bryoria (Hopwood 1991). spp.) and cyano lichens (e.g., foliose Lobaria spp.), • Exceptional understorey plant community ex- occur in noticeable amounts on the living branch- amples with high diversity and high vigour: this es of main canopy mature stands, they can be a should be accounted for largely in the Listed useful indicator of Old Forest condition. Community and FAS assessments, but there may • High diversity of tree species: forests with greater be rare cases where exceptional examples warrant tree diversity generally have higher conservation further consideration.

43 APPENDIX 5 Western redcedar – Bluffs Listed Community

C F Synopsis: Forested ecosystem on precipitous bluffs and cliffs; characterized by extreme microsite variation due to crevices, ledges, and other irregularities, combined with intermittent surface seepage. Irregularly stocked stands rooted in crevices, and very thin organic and colluvial parent material.

Characteristic vegetation: Trees: redcedar, western hemlock, Douglas-fir Shrubs: salal, false azalea, red huckleberry Herbs: licorice fern, sword fern, deer fern

Key site conditions: Bluffs and cliffs; highly variable moisture and nutrients with intermittent surface and subsurface seepage; active unstable soils typically accumulating on ledges and in cracks.

44 APPENDIX 6 Spatial distribution pattern types

Spatial distribution pattern type Definition Matrix Ecosystems that form extensive and contiguous cover, occur on the most extensive landforms, and typically have wide ecological tolerances. Disturbance patches typically occupy a relatively small percentage (e.g., < 5%) of the total occurrence. In undisturbed conditions, typical occurrences range from 2000 to 10 000 ha (100 km2) or more. Large patch Ecosystems that form large areas of interrupted cover and typically have narrower ranges of ecological tolerances than matrix types. Individual disturbance events tend to occupy patches that can encompass a large proportion of the overall occurrence (e.g., > 20%). Given common disturbance dynamics, these types may tend to shift somewhat in location within large landscapes over time spans of several hundred years. In undisturbed conditions, typical occurrences range from 50 to 2000 ha. Small patch Ecosystems that form small, discrete areas of vegetation cover, typically limited in distribution by localized environmental features. In undisturbed conditions, typical occurrences range from 1 to 50 ha. Linear Ecosystems that occur as linear strips. They are often ecotonal between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. In undisturbed conditions, typical occurrences range in linear distance from 0.5 to 100 km. See also pp. 141–142 of element occurrence data standard (NatureServe 2002) for further information.

APPENDIX 7 Condition, landscape context, and size factors that influence ecological integrity

Note: The content in this section follows the B.C. communities, alterations in the hydrological regime Ministry of Environment (2006) and draft materials can be a primary degrader of condition. from the CDC, but it has been edited for clarity and application in forest environments. A: Excellent condition • Typically, old-growth stands. May also include Condition mature forest with elements of old-growth structure and some patches or stands of old growth. Condition is an assessment of the composition, struc- – At least half of the stand has age > 250 years or ture, and ecological function of the ecological com- multi-cohort stands with a significant compo- munity occurrence. Condition can be thought of as nent of > 250-year-old trees. the degree of departure from the structure, function, • Stands have well-developed vertical structure. and composition of late seral ecological communities Structure is all-aged with multi-layered canopy that existed prior to European settlement. Succession- that includes larger-diameter trees. al stage, stability, ecological processes, disturbance • No, or very little, evidence of past forest harvesting regimes, alteration of physical or chemical processes, is apparent, and stand origin is apparently from and changes in species composition are all factored natural disturbance, typical of gap dynamics and/ into the assessment of condition. or low-intensity fire, or very old stand-replacing Changes in natural disturbance regimes and an- disturbance. thropogenic disturbances reduce the quality of condi- • There is a significant component of standing tion. Intact natural disturbance regimes, particularly (snags) or fallen (coarse woody debris) dead for fire-maintained systems and flood systems, are and decaying wood of all sizes and diameters. critical to ecological integrity. For wetland ecological

45 • Understorey vegetation is composed of native spe- • Moderate fragmentation: for example, > 40% cies, and alien species are absent or non-invasive fragmented and < 60% contiguous patch. and present with very low frequency. • There may be evidence of natural disturbance D: Poor condition (i.e., fire, insects, pathogens, wind). • Stands are typically in shrub/herb–pole/sapling • Typically, there is no mineral soil exposure due structural stages that regenerated after clearcut to recreation or resource use. harvesting, or dominant trees were planted after • Little to no internal fragmentation. harvesting. • Invasive alien species may be abundant in the B: Good condition understorey or invading the upper canopy. • Typically, mature or nearly mature forest stands. • The ground surface may be very disturbed, with – Most stands are < 250 and > 140 years of age major disruptions to vegetation and components (stand origins from natural disturbance; e.g., of exposed mineral soil. tree-fall gap, windfall, geomorphic event, fire, • Continued resource or recreational use may be or little evidence of disturbance from past evident. harvesting); or • High fragmentation: for example, > 75% fragment- – Stands are > 250 years of age but show evidence ed and < 25% contiguous patch. of selective logging that has altered their structure. Landscape Context – Minor inclusions of early seral forest may exist. • Stands have moderately well-developed vertical Landscape context considers both the abiotic and structure. Remnant large-diameter trees may be biotic features of the geographic area adjacent to and present and increase the condition of otherwise surrounding the ecological community occurrenc- younger (> 80 years old) mature stands. es. The condition of the landscape is assessed by the • Snags or coarse woody debris of large and medi- integrity of ecological processes, species composition, um diameter are present. and structure of the vegetation, including its maturity • Alien species may be present with low to moder- and stability, and the stability of the abiotic features ate frequency, but there is low percent cover of of the landscape. Patchiness, fragmentation, and con- invasive alien species. nectivity are specific attributes of the landscape. • Low fragmentation: for example, < 25% fragmented and > 75% contiguous patch. A: Excellent landscape context • Highly connected landscape over a large area C: Fair condition around the occurrence, with intact natural • Vertical structure is poorly developed and con- vegetation. Few small roads in the surrounding sists mostly of even-aged stands, often with a landscape. suppressed regeneration layer in the understorey. • Surrounding landscape with native-dominated • Stand structure is mainly young forest (generally vegetation, very little to no development or agri- < 80 years old) combined with the pole/sapling culture, and little to no industrial forestry (> 90% stage and limited areas of the mature forest stage.29 natural vegetation). • Both live trees and snags are of small to medium • Fragmentation by anthropogenic influences (e.g., diameter, and small coarse woody debris predom- transportation corridors, development) is < 5%, inates. and connectivity to other occurrences is limited • Stands regenerated naturally after logging or are only by natural barriers. young to mature stands with significant history • Natural disturbance regime is within the expect- of selective logging disturbance that altered com- ed range of variability for the region. Occurrences position or structure. on islands may have poor connectivity to other • Alien invasive species may be uncommon to occurrences because of large bodies of open wa- frequent but do not dominate or codominate ter, but those with greater separation and little to the understorey (< 10–20% cover). no anthropogenic alteration have higher natural

29 Structural stages noted are defined as per the B.C. Ministry of Forests and Range and B.C. Ministry of Environment (2010).

46 landscape context due to isolation from adjacent • Natural disturbance regimes are actively sup- disturbances and have higher possibility of unin- pressed. terrupted natural disturbance dynamics. D: Poor landscape context B: Good landscape context • Heavily fragmented (< 25% of the landscape occurs • Moderately connected landscape composed in a contiguous patch) and the occurrence is sur- primarily of natural or semi-natural vegetation, rounded primarily by urban, industrial, commer- without any development directly adjacent to the cial, or agricultural areas. occurrence; or landscape has very little develop- • Less than 35% of the landscape has natural or ment or agriculture but may have components semi-natural vegetation. of alien vegetation in at least one physiognomic • No connectivity to other occurrences of the same layer, and/or includes some area of young tree ecosystem and limited connectivity to occurrenc- plantations (< 40 years) (likely pole/sapling struc- es of other ecosystem types. ture stage). • Natural disturbance regimes are outside the • Surrounding landscape has low fragmentation expected natural parameters of pattern, extent, (> 75% contiguous patch), and natural and semi- intensity, and return interval. natural vegetation dominates the landscape (70–90%). Size • There are few non-natural barriers in the surrounding landscape (e.g., major roads, urban areas). As used here, size refers to the area of occupancy of • Connectivity to at least one or more other occur- the ecological community occurrence. As noted in rences of the same ecosystem and connectivity the guidance document, total size will often involve to other adjacent ecosystem types is present. multiple stands. If an ecosystem occurs in a mosaic • There may be some suppression of natural fire with other ecosystems, the area is calculated based on due primarily to rural interface safety issues. the estimated proportion of occupancy. The importance of size varies based on the type of ecosystem; C: Fair landscape context for example, size is relatively unimportant in small • Moderately fragmented landscape (25–75%) due patch or linear ecosystems (for which context be- to anthropogenic barriers such as urban, indus- comes relatively important) but is very important in trial, and commercial areas and transportation large patch and matrix-type ecosystems. Larger oc- corridors. currences have greater integrity because of reduced • Surrounding vegetation is a mosaic (35–70%) of edge effects and reduced susceptibility to degrada- natural or semi-natural vegetation and/or the tion or extirpation by large-scale disturbance events. landscape is dominated by very young tree plan- Smaller occurrences can have high importance, tations (cut within the last 20 years) (shrub/herb particularly where existing disturbance precludes or pole/sapling structural stage). any remaining matrix occurrences. In these cases, • Connectivity to other occurrences of the same condition is equally or more important than land- type is restricted largely by non-natural barriers, scape context. Criteria for size are specific to each and connectivity to other ecosystem types is also ecological community at risk, but general estimates limited. are shown in Table A7.1.

TABLE A7.1 Size classes for spatial distribution pattern groups

Distribution pattern A rating (ha) B rating (ha) C rating (ha) D rating (ha) Minimum size (ha) Matrix > 2000 200–2000 20–200 < 20 2.00 Large patch > 80 30–80 2–30 < 2 0.25 Small patch > 20 8–20 1–8 < 1 0.05 Linear > 20 8–20 1–8 < 1 0.25

47 APPENDIX 8 Examples of forests assessed for Old Forest (OF) and Sufficiently Established (SE) status (FAS: Forest Attribute Score; VOT: Veteran Overstorey Tree)

CWHms1/01; OF ≥ 250 years old; sparse understorey but SE because forest ≥ 250 years old (CWHms1/01 not a Listed Community)

CWHms1/01; OF ≥ 250 years old; well-developed understorey; SE but CWHms1/01 not a Listed Community

CWHdm/03; ± 100 years old; < 20 VOTs/ha; FAS = 5; not OF, not SE

48 CWHdm/01; 80–140 years old; < 20 VOTs/ha; FAS = 2.5; not OF, not SE

CWHdm/01; 140+ years old; < 15 VOTs/ha; FAS = 6; not OF, not SE (but close, so stand has high recruitment value)

CWHxm/05; 140+ years old; ≥ 15 VOTs/ha; FAS = 7.5; OF and SE

49 CWHxm/01-03; CWHxm/01; 80–140 years old; 80–140 years old; < 20 VOTs/ha; < 20 VOTs/ha; FAS = 5; not OF, not SE FAS = 5; not OF, not SE

CWHxm/01; CWHdm/01; Densely established stand; 80–140 years old; FAS = 0.5; not OF, not SE < 20 VOTs/ha; FAS = 2.5; not OF, not SE

50 CWHxm/03; CWHxm/01-06; > 140 years old; 80–140 years old; ≥ 15 VOTs/ha; OF and SE < 20 VOTs/ha; FAS < 3; not OF, not SE

CWHxm/01; CWHxm/01; > 140 years old; 80–140 years old; < 15 VOTs/ha; < 20 VOTs/ha; FAS > 6; OF, SE FAS = 2; not OF, not SE

51 CWHxm1/01; young forest (not OF) with well-developed understorey but not SE due to young age and lack of forest structure (FAS < 3)

CWHxm1/01; OF with similar well-developed understorey; SE due to age ≥ 250 years (FAS > 7)

52 CWHxm/01; CWHxm/01; > 140 years old; 80–140 years old; ≥ 15 VOTs/ha; OF, SE < 20 VOTs/ha; FAS < 3; not OF, not SE

CWHxm/01; CWHxm/01; 80–140 years old; Cw vets ≥ 200 years old but 80–140 years old with larger Cw VOTs ≥ 20/ha; < 70 cm dbh so not VOTs; not OF, not SE; OF, but sparse understorey so not SE sparse understorey development

53 CWHxm/03; > 140 years old with ≥ 15 VOTs/ha; OF and SE; well-developed understorey

CWHvm1/05; ≥ 250 years old; OF; SE, but not a Listed Community

54 CWHxm/01; CWHxm/05; 80–140 years old; < 20 VOTs/ha; 80–140 years old; < 20 VOTs/ha; FAS < 6; not OF, not SE FAS < 6; not OF, not SE

CWHxm/05; CWHxm/01; 80–140 years old; FAS = 6–6.5; not enough VOTs 80–140 years old; scattered VOTs (< 20/ha) for OF (< 20/ha) but some portions of stand may but very low FAS; not OF, not SE be SE (FAS > 6 and well-developed understorey)

55 - ). 0 cm 1

50 yr; 2

20 stands

189 189 yr

Age definitions as per Spies and and Spies as per definitions Age (1991) Franklin U.S. PNW; N PNW; U.S. ≥ in Fig. 2; trees totals stem live dbh 48 plots; no disturbance in > disturbance no 48 plots; logging, after developed 28 plots, Fig. 2 to refer Fig. 2 to refer No. plots/size, location, plots/size, notes No. 2 stands (Pack Creek, Limestone Inlet); Inlet); Limestone Creek, (Pack 2 stands 150–470 yr codominants 1 stand (Red River); all codominants all (Red codominants River); 1 stand <

d Hw, Ba, Cw Ba, Cw Hw, range over sizes of Cw Hw, regen.; active Fd increased in higher size classes dominatesHw logging, after developed 20 plots, Hw, Fd Hw, Fd Tree Species Tree

c 0 og 54 100 (43–67) )I 2 drier stands or canopy volumes (Van Pelt 2007 for U.S. pnw U.S. for 2007 Pelt (Van volumes canopy or drier stands stands). 53.6 Basal area (m area 66.9–72.6 19 0.5 0.6 (0–3) 100 cm) Large

Fd stems Fd (>

373 935 448 Total Total stems 249–572 399–423 (253–678) dbh 100 cm Stems Stems

> cm

, McClellan in Alaska). , McClellan b dbh 75

Stems Stems >

Live tree density (measures perLive (measures hectare) tree density s

96 128 dbh 50 cm

Stems > 17 32 SD dbh (cm) dbh 31 21 12 92 42 5 cm)

1032 Mean (32–60) (> dbh (cm) dbh a 1) 1) 1) 3); 3); 3);

======

Ecosystem Plant community community Plant or Biogeoclimatic or Classification unit 600 m; Western 600 m; Western zone Hemlock Rainier, Mount 600–100 m; Western zone Hemlock Hw–Ss CWHvm1 ( N CWHvm1 ( N CWHxm1 ( N CWHxm1 ( N CWHxm1 Fd forests, U.S. PNW U.S. forests, Fd f y of old forest live stem characteristics from ecological literature for ecosystems that are applicable to the Great Bear Rainf orest Order land base* e (40–80) 189 250

e Old < > 61–80 ( N CWHvm1 Older Alaska, Southeast 30–60 ( N CWHvm1 Literature review – mature and old forest attribute Mature Mature Mature

or plot (yr) plot or Old-growth Rainier, Mount Age of stand stand of Age Summar (80–195) ±100 (80–195) Young

9.2 are cited9.2 in the text the provide rationale help various to for aspects the assessment of in forest procedures presented this guidance document. A ameter diversity index (as per Spies et al. 2007). et al. per (as index Spies diversity ameter uadratic mean diameter (not great for field); for example, Caouette et al. (2000) for Alaska stands, and Fierst et al. 1992 ( Amabilis1992 et al. Fierst and stands, Alaska for (2000) et al. Caouette example, for field); for great (not diameter mean uadratic ld-growth habitat index (Pabst 2005). (Pabst index habitat ld-growth nderstorey biomass (e.g., work of Alaback for southeast Alaska, Van Pelt for U.S. pnw U.S. for Pelt Van Alaska, southeast for Alaback of work (e.g., biomass nderstorey anopy elements; for example, distribution of free space, canopy profiles, and foliage height density/diversity (Dial et al. 2011) in U.S. pnw (Dial in 2011) et al. density/diversity height foliage and profiles, canopy free space, of distribution example, for elements; anopy og biomass (e.g., Franklin and Spies 1991; Er and Innes 2003). Innes Er and 1991; Spies and Franklin (e.g., og biomass tructural complexity index (Zenner and Hibbs 2000; Zenner 2004) incorporating diameters, distances of neighbouring trees. neighbouring of distances diameters, incorporating 2000; Zenner 2004) Hibbs (Zenner index and tructural complexity 9.1 and 9.1 C Q L U S Di O

Alaback and and Alaback 1989 Juday Acker et al. 1998 et al. Acker Reference et al. Acker 2006 Arsenault Arsenault Bradfield and 1995 bia. This includes to informationrelated stand densityage, of largeveteran trees snags, and coarseand woody debris loading. Manyof Tables papers the listed in APPENDIX 9 assessing for a procedure Developing and Forest Sufficiently Old Established ListedCommunities required aliterature reviewgather to old to related information and mature definitions forest relevant to of forests the Great Bear the Rainforest.The information summarized in Appendix this includesfor sev- thresholds eral attributes forest that are used in characterizing various of forests stages age classes/developmental in the PacificNorthwest U.S. coastaland British Colum A a9.1 TABLE – – *Other possible indices: – – – – –

540)

0 cm shade 0 cm shade 4

0/ha > 0/ha interpreted from from interpreted from interpreted 1

og og 0 cm – 12–17/ha tral western Washington Washington tral western tral western Washington Washington tral western h 0 cm dbh; Forest Renewal BC Forest 0 cm dbh; 5 1

7; cen 5; cen

= =

Snags: > Snags: Best revised interim old-growth Best old-growth revised interim Old-Growth of that (from definition U.S. [1986]); Group Task Definition also > sites; PNW best trees large of density associates; young from old growth differentiated origin natural of stands mature and mature identifying of value Notes transitional legacies as with forest 0.8–8 ha. units viable suggests old; to N Cascade I Range; Reporting/adapting numbers from from numbers Reporting/adapting Group Task Definition Old-Growth PNW U.S. (1986); Reporting ranges from Franklin and and Franklin from Reporting ranges 30–34 tons/ha log biomass (1991); Spies Northern Oregon Coast Range; means Coast means Range; Oregon Northern heterophylla T. in multiple 9 sites for 1) (Table associations plant ( N 20 with each plots 27 stands; Figure 2 Figure 2 Figure No. plots/size, location, plots/size, notes No. SE Alaska; top numbers Ss, bottom Ss, bottom numbers top Alaska; SE stands 2 OG Hw; upland numbers 1) in Table riparian (excluded Stems ≥ Stems unpublished report; and B.C. Ministry B.C. and report; unpublished compilation Paper; Working Forests of studies of From size–density modelling work work modelling size–density From Caouette of N Cascade I Range; d Hw (Ss, Yc, (Ss, Yc, Hw Hm) Tree Species Tree 80

c ~50 >

– –

90.3 30

< ~20 )I 2 Basal area (m area 81

4/4/1 100 cm) 10–20 Large

200 yr) 20 (>

NA/3/0 NA/3/0 6/12/NA Fd stems Fd > ≥ (> cm dbh or or cm dbh Total Total stems 257–595 0–10 630–935 0 410/378/NA NA/549/479 NA/549/479 362/644/406

dbh 10 10 (all

10–15 100 cm Stems Stems

≥ species) 17/23/17 17/23/17 6/17/NA > NA/14/15 NA/14/15 “common” cm

b ± 9.6 19

20 15–20 dbh

75 15–19

Stems Stems > > 62/64/48 41/49/NA NA/59/49 NA/59/49

Live tree density (measures perLive (measures hectare) tree density 22

8–10

148 dbh 50 cm

Stems 24–120 25–250 113 > (95% CI) (95% 120/113/72 123/104/NA NA/128/159 SD 41.6 6.2 (95%

12.5 cm ±

11.8–17.5 dbh (cm) dbh > CI) for stems stems CI) for 27.4 i 5 cm)

108.7 Mean 27.7–33.2 (trees with(trees dbh (cm) dbh dbh > dbh a

g Ecosystem Plant community community Plant or Biogeoclimatic or Classification unit Hemlock zone zone Hemlock CWHvm1 and vh1 and CWHvm1 Fd on Hw sites Hw on Fd Hw–Cw–Fd 20.8–57.1 10.2–29.0 Southeast Alaska Ss–Hw; southeast southeast Ss–Hw; Alaska CWHvm2 D/F/W CWHvm2 D/F/W CWHxm2 Moderately Moderately to productive productive upland, southeast Alaska sites Hw on Fd CWHvm1 D/F/W CWHvm1 200) 200– 212)?

100

Old Old Old Old > < 73–80 Hw–Cw–Fd 173–536 100–200 Late seralLate 380 mean) Old Old (> or plot (yr) plot or Old-growth Old-growth Old Old (> Old Old (> Age of stand stand of Age (continued)

Gray et al. et al. Gray 2009

Franklin et al. et al. Franklin 2005 et al. Gerzon 2011

Franklin and and Franklin 1991 Spies Hanley and and Hanley Hoel 1996 et al. Larson 2008 Reference 2002; Caouette and Caouette DeGayner 2005 Innes Er and 2003 Hennon and and Hennon McClellan 2003 Davis et al. et al. Davis 1997 TABLE a9.1 TABLE

57 2

ciduous tree tree ciduous 0 cm of tolerant tolerant 0 cm of 4

1 de

5-ha plots for snag snag for plots 5-ha 5-m plots for live tree densities densities tree live for 5-m plots 4 0.2

8 0.2

Minimum attributes of ecological of attributes Minimum Old-Growth Interim growth; old each layers; 2 canopy Definitions. of a number included class productivity applicability (variable associations plant PNW U.S. systems); B.C. to Southeast Vancouver Island, four sets four Island, Vancouver Southeast plots chronosequence of Mean values; U.S. PNW (Oregon and and (Oregon PNW U.S. values; Mean sites) Washington Also suggested 30/haAlso > suggested hemlock). western (e.g., associates than rather old for standards Minimal for area a minimum Suggest averages. (80 ha acres) 32 of growth old viable U.S. PNW – Washington (Wind River); River); (Wind – Washington PNW U.S. from estimated stems large of numbers Fig. 3 General Land and plots 2 5.6-ha surveys;Office (GLO) reconstructed after (regen. stand 200–300-year-old legacy 1930s from in down cut fire) data GLO and data, snag and stump per hectare) but is presented possibly possibly presented is per but hectare) N terrace; a highas riparian bench and N These are “upper terrace” values – as – values terrace” “upper are These sounds the site described in the paper, (< site upland an like plots 1-ha N densities Some differences by site – no legacy – by site differences Some larger just trees, No. plots/size, location, plots/size, notes No. 50-cm cutoff was used was in 50-cmmore these cutoff trees CWHvh; northern coastal forests in old scattered 100 cm were than larger the mature from absent were but stands stands. d 00 1

Tree Species Tree Fd dominated dominated Fd > trees (90% of cm dbh) c og

)I 2 81.8 69.0 Basal 12.5–30.2 area (m area 10.2–39.0/

19 2.5 59.0 0.5 44.0 81 81 cm 129 94.0

≥ 100 cm) Large

or 200or (> Fd stems Fd years old) years (> 16.65–18.32 bh) bh)

142 935 452 520 343 448 2. 7 cm, Total Total levels levels stems 1

5 cm d 4 cm d

hectare)

266–460 at 148 yr) 148 at (> (means per (means (≥ (> 00 but 1

0 cm dbh) dbh 9 100 cm 40 (?)

Stems Stems

> Scattered 11 > 11–28 (except 1 stand 11–28 (except with 0 stems > 0 stems with cm

b 20 90 dbh 75

Stems Stems > 25 (61 cm dbh min) 25 cm dbh (61 22 (86 cm dbh min)/ 22 (86 cm dbh 20 (94 cm dbh min)/ 20 cm dbh (94

Live tree density (measures perLive (measures hectare) tree density

dbh 50 cm

70–92 39–77 27–65 74–150 Stems 74–110 127–139 Absent > 32 22 SD 10.1 10.1 40.1/ 37.9/ 37.9/ dbh (cm) dbh increasing increasing all site typesall site with time for time for with 31 21 12 34 41.4 33.9 33.8 77.2 65.6 65.6 12.7 cm 63.8/ 63.8/ from value value

dbh)/ dbh)/ Mean 60–135 (means (means samples) dbh (cm) dbh (> (threshold (threshold unknown) a Ecosystem Plant community community Plant or Biogeoclimatic or Classification unit CWHxm Fd high/med/ low productivity Fd Vancouver Island Island Vancouver Coast Sunshine and lower-elevation (1000 m) MH Olympic Peninsula, Peninsula, Olympic Ss– Washington; Hw/ oxalis; Oregon salal–swordfern Hw–Fd Hw–Ba, western western Hw–Ba, and Washington Oregon Ss–Hw, Olympic Olympic Ss–Hw, Peninsula, Washington Northern B.C. B.C. Northern CWHvh 80

195 250) 200) 200)

1000)

245 Old (450) Mature Mature Old Old > (101–250) Young < Young Old Old (> Old Old (> Old Old (> or plot (yr) plot or Old-growth Fd Oregon, Western Old-growth Old-growth 190/205/200 series: Fd Old Old (> Age of stand stand of Age (continued) Mature 80–195 Mature

Trofymow et Trofymow 2003 al. U.S. Department Agriculture of Service, Forest 6 1993 Region

Spies and and Spies 1991 Franklin

Parish and 2004, Antos 2006 Old-Growth Old-Growth Definition Group Task 1986 and Poage II Tappeiner 2005 North et al. et al. North 2004 and Peter Harrington 2010 McKee et al. et al. McKee 1980 Reference and LePage 2014 Banner

TABLE a9.1 TABLE

0% to 0% to 2

P. menziesii P. bh) 0% or < 0% or 2

00; see graphs of of 00; see graphs 1

100 cm d

; Yc – Chamaecyparus nootkatensis. ; Yc

define two cohort and stands with with stands and cohort two define legacies, respectively; types both stand factors. other on depending becan old, for per data hectare actual stems No forests vs. younger old on of site the influence Emphasized structure, occurrence of and recovery > dbh as such diameter class by age by class diameter Minimum attributes of ecological of attributes Minimum Old-Growth Interim growth; old each layers; 2 canopy Definitions. a number included class productivity (variable associations plant of U.S. systems); B.C. to applicability each series: 28/13/8/38 for plots PNW; Uses legacy > trees Uses No. plots/size, location, plots/size, notes No.

Variable radius (prism) plots; plots; (prism) radius Variable CWH=dry: xm1/2, ds1/2, CWHdm, CWHvm1/2 mm1/2 CWHvm: ms1/2, CWHvh1/2 CWHvh: d Tree Species Tree ; Ss – Picea sitchensis of tree dbh, density of large (> large of density dbh, tree of c og 100 28.97 )I 2 32.0 33.5/ 33.5/ 38.0/ 36.8/ Basal area (m area 0 100 cm) 33–50 Large

Fd stems Fd (> bh) 908 Total Total stems 5 cm d 422/378 422/378 (means) 380–410

450/405/ (>

7 6 11 11 12 10 dbh 100 cm Stems Stems

b 10–20 0–2 18 37 23 27 28 40 dbh 75

Stems Stems > 2 (56 cm min)/ 17 (6417 cm min) 15 (66 cm min)/

Live tree density (measures perLive (measures hectare) tree density 22 min)/ (56 cm dbh

93 111 131 121 156 150 dbh 50 cm 100+ 100+

Stems Tsuga heterophylla – Tsuga ; Hw mertensiana – Tsuga ; Hm menziesii – Pseudotsuga ; Fd > 20-100+ 0 SD bh per hectare; ranges from 0 for typical young stand structure to 100 for typical old-growth structure; formula modified by Larson et al. (2008). et by al. modifiedLarson formula structure; old-growth typical 100 for to structure stand young typical 0 for from per ranges bh hectare; 32.8 33.3/ 33.3/ 27.2/ 30.5/ dbh (cm) dbh 5 cm d

; Cw – Thuja; Cw plicata 30.3 14.9 Mean bh. 41.0–46.6 34.7–46.5 dbh (cm) dbh wet. a

80 cm d

40 years old and structural stage 7); Mature = 80–250 years old and structural6. stage and old years = 80–250 structural7); Mature stage and old years 40 1

fresh, fresh, W

Ecosystem Plant community community Plant or Biogeoclimatic or Classification unit CWHvm; mostly mostly CWHvm; Island Vancouver Ba 5/ series, site 6/ site 2–3/ site 4 site Washington Hw zone, Oregon Oregon zone, Hw Cascades CWH-dry CWHvm CWHvh CWH-dry CWHvm CWHvh 5 cm, some ≥ 5 cm, some dry, dry, F

j j Old Old 50–150 80–150 Mature 180/200 150–200 260/360/ or plot (yr) plot or Age of stand stand of Age (concluded)

0 years old (stand age) or (> or age) (stand old 0 years 25

ean values from Spies and Franklin (1991) as reported in Acker et al. (1998). et al. in Acker reported as (1991) Franklin and Spies from values ean values. ean uadratic mean diameter of dominants and codominants. and dominants of diameter mean uadratic ld ≥ ata synthesized from multiple studies ongoing in the Vancouver Forest Region, 1997. Region, Forest in the Vancouver ongoing studies multiple from synthesized ata s per Acker et al. (1998), integrates four structural variables that successfully discriminated among age classes of forest in Spies and Franklin (1991): sd (1991): Franklin and in Spies forest of classes age among discriminated successfully that structural variables four integrates (1998), et al. s per Acker Abies amabilis Ba – Abies follows: as speciesree abbreviations oil oil moisture classes: D ome studies reported ≥ reported studies ome trees per hectare, mean tree dbh, and density of all > trees of density and dbh, tree mean pertrees hectare, M M S D Q O B d. species tree codes per as footnote variant; – western CWHxm2 variant; eastern very CWHxm1; dry subzone, variant; – central maritime CWHvh2 variant; southern subzone, hypermaritime S A T

BEC BEC mensuration (VTrees) Wells 1996

Van Pelt 2007 Pelt Van Northwest Reference U.S. Department Agriculture of Service, Forest 6 1993 Region Zenner 2004 Old-growth conifer; Mixed f g h i j e a – very wet CWHvh1 variant; – montane CWHvm2 variant; submontane subzone, very Zone, maritime wet Hemlock – Coastal Western CWHvm1 follows: as abbreviations unit iogeoclimatic b c d TABLE a9.1 TABLE

59 e plant all; no 48 plots; 2 cm diameter per 2 cm diameter 1

2 m t

50 yr 2

0 cm dbh; Forest Renewal BC Forest 0 cm dbh; 1 1

Stems ≥ Stems unpublished report; and B.C. Ministry B.C. of and report; unpublished studies of compilation Paper; Working Forests T. heterophylla T. in multiple 9 sites for > 4.5 m tall 1); snags (Table associations Mean no. pieces CWD > pieces no. Mean Reporting ranges from Franklin and Spies Spies and Franklin from Reporting ranges 30–34 tons/ha log biomass (1991); 100-m transect: 4–9 dry CWH; CWH variants moist 1–10 with forest mature identifying of value Note viable suggest old; to transitional legacies as 0.8–8 ha units Reporting/adapting numbers from Old-Growth Old-Growth from numbers Reporting/adapting PNW U.S. (1986); Group Task Definition definition Best old-growth revised interim Task Definition Old-Growth of that (from also log sites; PNW U.S. [1986]); Group stems live large that note 30 tons/ha; biomass and young from old growth best differentiated origin natural of stands mature Snags > Snags in > disturbance logging after developed 28 plots, > 0 cm dbh, No. plots/size, location, plots/size, notes No. 20 plots, developed after logging after developed 20 plots, ) 3 667 Coast means Range; Oregon Northern (m Volume Volume 125–900 100–1000 NA/112/NA NA/112/NA NA/231/NA NA/231/NA nonresidual 440/NA/NA 440/NA/NA 750 (CWHvh); 750 (CWHvh); 554 (CWHvm) 554 (CWHvm) 119 (CWHxm); (CWHxm); 119 (approximate – (approximate (approximate – (approximate 179 (CWHdm); (CWHdm); 179 Means reported reported Means excluding outlier) excluding excluding outlier) excluding from other studies: studies: other from 430 ± 170 (95% CI) (95% 430 ± 170 taken from graph – graph taken from taken from graph – graph taken from ong 5 m l

0 cm diameter 5

and ≥ and Pieces ≥ 15

f ≥ 10 ≥ 10 23.8 Downed (per woody hectare) material (> 61 cm dbh) (> 61 m long Pieces ≥ 100

Pieces > cm diameter c

all) all)

0 cm all) 5

f total f total f total 00 cm) 10 10 1

1 5 m t

> dbh 25.4 4–10 4–10 12–17 5 m t

4.6 m t 36/39/12

0% of total 0% of 5% o 5% o 20/18/NA NA/23/37 NA/23/37

5 (> 4 (>

< < (> dbh > dbh > ≥ Snags > Snags 23.3 (8 ± 5.6 for 23.3 (8 ± 5.6 for Snags/standing dead Snags/standing (measures per(measures hectare) 60 167 198 Total Total snags 97/141/42 97/141/42 72/92/NA NA/74/184 NA/74/184 a,b

d 1) 1) 1) 3); 3); 3);

======

Ecosystem Plant community community Plant or Biogeoclimatic or Classification unit CWHvm2 D/F/W CWHvm2 D/F/W CWHxm2 CWHvm1 ( N CWHvm1 sites Hw on Fd sites Hw on Fd vh1 and CWHvm1 CWHxm1 ( N CWHxm1 CWHxm1 ( N CWHxm1 ( N CWHxm1 CWHvm1 D/F/W CWHvm1 Hemlock zone Hemlock 200) 212)?

y of old forest standing dead and downed material characteristics from ecological literature for ecosystems that are applicable to the Great Bear

100 250

Old Old < > 61–80 ( N CWHvm1 30–60 ( N CWHvm1 173–536 100–200 Old Old (> or plot (yr) plot or Old-growth Old-growth Old Old (> Age of stand stand of Age Rainforest Order land base Summar

Feller 2003 Feller and Franklin 1991 Spies Gerzon 2011 et al. Arsenault and and Arsenault 1995 Bradfield et al. Franklin 2005 Reference Innes Er and 2003

Davis et al. 1997 et al. Davis seral Late

Gray Gray 2009et al. TABLE a9.2 TABLE

60 540)

0 cm of tolerant tolerant 0 cm of 4

lots for live tree densities and and densities tree live for lots 8 sites within five references references five within 8 sites 1

5-ha plots for snag densities snag for plots 5-ha 8 0.2–5-m p 4 0.2

= =

Minimum attributes of ecological old growth; ecological growth; old of attributes Minimum each Definitions; Old-Growth Interim plant of a number included class productivity B.C. to applicability (variable associations each series: for plots PNW; U.S. systems); 28/13/8/38 N ecological growth; old of attributes Minimum each Definitions; Old-Growth Interim plant of a number included class productivity B.C. to applicability (variable associations PNW U.S. systems); N sites) Washington Also suggested 30/haAlso > suggested old for standards Minimal Hw). (e.g., associates area a minimum Suggest averages. than rather (80 ha acres) 32 of growth old viable for sets of four Island, Vancouver Southeast plots chronosequence 27 stands; each with 20 plots ( N 20 with each plots 27 stands; Mean for sites within four references references four within sites for Mean 5) (Table summarized Mean for > for Mean 5; (Table et al. Harmon by summarized Washington and Oregon Western No. plots/size, location, plots/size, notes No. ) 3 391 631 124 223 266 and (Oregon PNW U.S. values; Mean (m Volume Volume ong 5 m l

0 cm diameter 5

minimum) minimum)/ minimum)/ minimum)/ minimum)/ minimum)/ minimum)/ and ≥ and 10 (61 diameter diameter (61 10 10 (61 cm diameter cm diameter (61 10 cm diameter (61 10 cm diameter (61 10 10 (61 cm diameter cm diameter (61 10 10 (61 cm minimum) (61 10 10 (61 cm minimum)/ cm minimum)/ (61 10 Pieces ≥ 15

10 10

61 61 cm

≥ Downed (per woody hectare) material m long (≥ diameter) Pieces ≥ 100

Pieces > cm diameter all; 0 cm 5

5 m t

0 cm, 42 at 0 cm, 42 at 4.6 m tall) dbh

5 41–55 41–55

5 cm dbh; 5 cm dbh; 24 (all)/ 24 4 3 (38 cm 3 (43 cm 3 (43 6 (56 cm (>

10 (5610 cm

30 (56 cm 24 (all)/6.1 24 25 (all)/5.6 minimum) minimum) 12 (5 m tall) minimum)/ minimum)/ minimum)/ minimum)/ minimum)/ minimum)/ minimum)/ 2 (56 cm dbh 2 (56 cm dbh mean values) mean (> Snags > Snags 12–30 cm dbh) 10–17 (> 10–17 ≥10 excepting 1 stand 1 stand excepting w/ 0 >

Snags/standing dead Snags/standing 27 4 cm (measures per(measures hectare)

32/ 45/ 29/ dbh) Total Total snags 0–124 cm dbh 3 (33 25–56 (> (means) a,b Ecosystem Plant community community Plant or Biogeoclimatic or Classification unit Ba 5/ series, site 6/ site 2–3/ site 4 site Fd Fd Fd series: Fd high/medium/ low productivity CWHxm Vancouver Island Island Vancouver Coast Sunshine and lower-elevation (1000 m) MH Southeast Alaska Hw–Ba, western western Hw–Ba, and Washington Oregon Fd–Hw 80

195

1000)

245 200

200 Old Old Old 190/ 205/ > > 200–380 values values mean)

100–181 180/200 analysis) 260/360/ Old Old > (minimum (minimum Young < Young (> or plot (yr) plot or Old Old (> discriminant discriminant Age of stand stand of Age derived from from derived Mature 80–195 Mature (continued)

U.S. Department U.S. Agriculture of Service,Forest 6 1993 Region

Spies and and Spies 1991 Franklin Parish and 2004, Antos 2006 Trofymow 2003et al. Department U.S. Agriculture of Service,Forest 6 1993 Region Old-Growth Old-Growth Task Definition 1986 Group Hennon and and Hennon 2003 McClellan Harmon 1986 et al. Reference TABLE a9.2 TABLE

all. ; ; 2 m t

ameter, > ameter, ; Ss – Picea sitchensis 10 cm di

Variable radius (prism) plots; plots; (prism) radius Variable CWH=dry: mm1/2 ms1/2, xm1/2, ds1/2, CWHdm, CWHvm1/2 CWHvm: CWHvh1/2 CWHvh: No. plots/size, location, plots/size, notes No. ) 3 (m Volume Volume ong 5 m l

0 cm diameter 5

and ≥ and Pieces ≥ 15

Downed (per woody hectare) material m long Pieces ≥ 100

0 years old and structural6. stage and old 0 years Pieces > cm diameter 80–25

Tsuga heterophylla – Tsuga ; Hw mertensiana Tsuga – ; Hm menziesii – Pseudotsuga ; Fd 0 cm 5

23 27 24 29 34 20 dbh Snags > Snags Snags/standing dead Snags/standing ; Cw – Thuja; Cw plicata (measures per(measures hectare) Total Total snags a,b wet.

40 years old and structural stage 7); Mature structural stage and old years 40 1

Ecosystem

fresh, fresh, W

Plant community community Plant or Biogeoclimatic or = Classification unit

CWH-dry CWHvm CWH-dry CWHvm CWHvh CWH-dry CWHvm CWHvh ameter large end. large ameter g dry, dry, F

g =

Old 60 cm di

Mature or plot (yr) plot or Age of stand stand of Age (continued)

5 m and > 5 m and 1 0 years old (stand age) or (> or age) (stand old 0 years

ld ≥ ata synthesized from multiple studies ongoing in the Vancouver Forest Region, 1997. Region, Forest in the Vancouver ongoing studies multiple from synthesized ata elative values estimated from Figure 3, subpanel for snags for which 75% of original height remained (patterns representative of all height classes); snags > snags classes); all height of representative (patterns remained original whichheight 75% of for snags for 3, subpanel Figure from estimated values elative ieces > Abies amabilis Ba – Abies follows: as speciesree abbreviations oil oil moisture classes: D Yc – Chamaecyparus nootkatensis. Yc R S D P O B b. species tree codes per as footnote variant; – western CWHxm2 variant; eastern very CWHxm1; dry subzone, variant; – central maritime CWHvh2 variant; southern subzone, hypermaritime T

Biogeoclimatic Biogeoclimatic Ecosystem Classification mensuration (VTrees) Reference

c d g e f a – very wet CWHvh1 variant; – montane CWHvm2 variant; submontane subzone, very Zone, maritime wet Hemlock – Coastal Western CWHvm1 follows: as abbreviations unit iogeoclimatic b TABLE a9.2 TABLE