Emu 2014, 114, 1–12 © BirdLife 2014 © BirdLife Australia 2014 doi:10.1071/MU12122_AC

Supplementary material

Threats from introduced to native birds

Jack BakerA,B, Kerinne J. HarveyA and Kris FrenchA

AInstitute for Conservation and Environmental Management, University of Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia.

BCorresponding author. Email: [email protected]

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Table S1. Interspecific interactions between introduced and native showing the type of interaction, level of evidence, outcome and whether a -level threat was demonstrated Introduced bird Native bird as named in Location Process Level of Outcome Threat Reference reference evidence demonstrated Austral Thrush Juan Fernandez Juan Predation Anecdotal known to be a nest No Hahn et al. (2011) (Turdus Firecrown Fernandez predator of the native species falcklandii) Archipelago Australian Competition – Causal Native species avoids artificial feeding site No Borowske et al. Magpie interference near introduced species (2012) (Cracticus tibicen) 20+ species including 12 New Zealand Competition – Anecdotal Introduced species seen to attack 12 native No McCaskill (1945) native species interference species Swamp New Zealand Competition – Anecdotal Introduced species makes 100+ non-contact No McIlroy (1968) interference attacks on native species White-faced Heron, , New Zealand Competition – Anecdotal Introduced species attacks nests and nestlings No Moon (1956) Australasian interference of native species 45 species, including 27 New Zealand Competition – Correlative Introduced species attacks 27 native species – No Morgan et al. native species interference 33% of attacks on 45 species are fatal and (2005) Predation 25% of fatalities eaten Swamp Harrier, Sacred New Zealand Competition – Correlative Fewer native birds in the vicinity of No Morgan et al. Kingfisher, Masked interference introduced species – territoriality inferred (2006a) Lapwing, Grey Fantail, Welcome Swallow, New Zealand Pigeon and several non-native species Purple Swamphen New Zealand Predation Causal 38 nests monitored – no predation by No Morgan et al. (Pukeko) and several introduced species (2006b) non-native species Canada Goose Native waterfowl Northern Competition – Theoretical Introduced species could affect nesting of No Allen & Mellon (Branta Ireland interference some species at a very local level Environmental Ltd canadensis) (2005) Cattle Egret Black-necked Stilt Hawaiian Predation Anecdotal Introduced species takes chicks of native No Stone and (Bubulcus ibis) Islands species Anderson (1988)

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Introduced bird Native bird as named in Location Process Level of Outcome Threat Reference reference evidence demonstrated Chukar Red-legged Partridge Italy Hybridisation Correlative Native population introgressed at genomic Potentially Baratti et al. (2005) (Alectoris level with introduced species chukar) Red-legged Partridge Italy Hybridisation Correlative High level of hybridisation in three Potentially Barbanera et al. (2005) Red-legged Partridge, Europe Hybridisation Correlative Introduced species hybridised with native Potentially Barilani et al. Rock Partridge species (2007) Red-legged Partridge Iberian Hybridisation Correlative Introduced species hybridised with native Potentially Blanco-Aguiar et Peninsula species al. (2008) Red-legged Partridge Spain Hybridisation Correlative Introduced species hybridised with native Potentially Tejedor et al. species (2007) Common Myna Tahiti Monarch Tahiti Competition – Correlative Reproductive success of native species Yes Blanvillain et al. (Acridotheres interference reduced – predation inferred (2003) tristis) Silvereye New Zealand Competition – Causal Native species does not avoid artificial No Borowske et al. interference feeding site near introduced species (2012) Various species Global Disease Theoretical Introduced species presumed to carry diseases No Brochier et al. that infect native species (2010) Black-backed and Red- New Zealand Competition – Anecdotal Introduced species fights over some food No Counsilman (1974) billed Gulls food items with native species Honeyeaters and other Australia Competition – Anecdotal Introduced species presumed to have No Crisp and Lill native species food negligible competition with native species (2006) Various species Global Predation Theoretical Introduced species may be a predator of native No Dhami and Nagle (review) eggs and chicks, may outcompete native (2009) Competition – species for food, and may spread parasites and food diseases to native species Disease 17 native and 3 Australia Competition – Correlative Reduced abundance of one nativespecies – No Grarock et al. introduced species nest site competition for nesting hollows inferred (2012) Competition – Growth in populations of 7 native species was interference slowed – competition inferred Silver Gull, Australian Australia Competition – Causal Interspecific aggression measured – inferred No Haythorpe et al. Magpie, Noisy Miner, food that competition for food not significant (2012) Australian Raven, Crested Pigeon Sooty Tern Ascension Predation Causal Introduced species a predator of nest-contents No Hughes et al. Island of native species (2008)

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Introduced bird Native bird as named in Location Process Level of Outcome Threat Reference reference evidence demonstrated Common Myna Various species Australia, Disease Correlative Introduced species carries parasite (avian No Ishtiaq et al. (2006) (cont.) Pacific malaria, Plasmodium spp.) lineages to sites of islands introductions Mauritius Kestrel Mauritius Competition – Anecdotal Introduced species excluded native species No Jones (1996) nesting sites from nest-boxes Seychelles Magpie- Seychelles Competition – Correlative All nesting attempts (n = 9) by native species Yes Komdeur (1996) Robin interference abandoned when introduced species present Wedge-tailed Hawaiian Predation Anecdotal Introduced species a predator of nest-contents No Long (1981) Shearwater Islands of native species Various species Disease Introduced species carries diseases Various species Australia Competition – Causal Introduced species had low rate of nesting in No Lowe et al. (2011) nesting sites native vegetation – lack of competition with native species inferred Competition – Introduced species had low rate of aggression interference toward native species

Purple Martin USA Competition – Anecdotal Native species attacked at its nesting sites by No Neville (2003) nesting sites introduced species 7 small common garden Australia Competition – Correlative No native species was negatively associated No Parsons et al. birds interference with presence of introduced species (2006) Red-rumped Parrot, Australia Competition – Causal During breeding period, introduced species No Pell and Tidemann Crimson Rosella, nesting sites was dominant aggressor and user of nest- (1997) Eastern Rosella hollows Tanga’eo (Mangaia Cook Islands Competition – Anecdotal Introduced species disrupted one nest of No Rowe and Empson Kingfisher) interference native species (1996) Pomarea spp. Tahiti Predation Causal No egg predation by introduced species No Thibault et al. (Monarchidae) (2002) Various species New Zealand Competition – Correlative Native species increased in abundance with No Tindall et al. (2007) interference removal of introduced species – release from competition inferred Common Various species North Competition – Theoretical Introduced species does not compete with No Elton (1958) Starling (Sturnus America food native species because it occupies a new niche vulgaris) Red-rumped Parrot; Australia Competition – Correlative Availability of nest-hollows was not a limiting No Gates (1996) Tree Martin nesting sites factor for native species

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Introduced bird Native bird as named in Location Process Level of Outcome Threat Reference reference evidence demonstrated Common Rufous Hornero, Chalk- South Competition – Anecdotal Introduced species disrupted 3 nest-hollows of No Ifran and Fiorini Starling (cont.) browed Mockingbird, America nesting sites one native species (2010) Shiny Cowbird, Golden- breasted Woodpecker Red-bellied North Competition – Causal Nest-hollows lost to introduced species and No Ingold (1989) Woodpecker, Red- America nesting sites correlated with reduced fecundity in one headed Woodpecker native species Red-bellied North Competition – Causal Nest-hollows of native species lost to No Ingold (1994) Woodpecker, Red- America nesting sites introduced species headed Woodpecker, Northern Flicker Northern Flicker North Competition – Causal Native species pairs that delayed breeding had No Ingold (1996) America nesting sites reduced fecundity – competition for nest- hollows with introduced species inferred Northern Flicker North Competition – Causal Supplementation with nesting boxes did not No Ingold (1998) America nesting sites reduce competition with introduced species Mountain Bluebird, Tree North Competition – Correlative Introduced species had little effect on No Koch et al. (2012) Swallow America nesting sites fecundity of native species – Tree Swallow may shift nesting niche in response to density of introduced species 27 hollow-nesting native North Competition – Correlative One native species possibly declining owing No Koenig (2003) species America nesting sites to competition for nest-hollows with introduced species Red-rumped Parrot, Australia Competition – Causal During breeding, introduced species was a No Pell and Tidemann Crimson Rosella, nesting sites dominant user of nest-hollows (1997) Eastern Rosella Acorn Woodpecker North Competition – Causal Introduced species increased nesting hollow No Troetschler (1976) America nesting sites usage, native excavated more nest-hollows, native fecundity not reduced Lewis’s Woodpecker North Competition – Causal Introduced species usurped one native-species No Vierling (1998) America nesting sites nest-hollow, native species dominated Competition – aggressive interactions interference

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Introduced bird Native bird as named in Location Process Level of Outcome Threat Reference reference evidence demonstrated Common Various species North Competition – Correlative Association of introduced species with native No Williamson and Starling (cont.) America food species varies with season Gray (1975) Competition – Introduced species imitates feeding behaviour interference of native species Crimson Rosella Tasman Parakeet, Norfolk Competition – Anecdotal Introduced species competes with native Yes Garnett et al. (Platycercus Norfolk Island Southern Island nesting sites species for limited number of nest-hollows (2011) elegans) Boobook Eurasian Mourning Dove North Competition – Causal High degree of dietary overlap, introduced No Poling and Collared Dove America food species not more aggressive or competitive Hayslette (2006) (Streptopelia Mourning Dove North Competition – Theoretical Introduced species a potential competitor to No Romagosa and decaocto) America food native species owing to similar requirements McEneaney (1999) Competition – nesting sites Great Kiskadee Bermuda’s Bluebird Bermuda Competition – Theoretical Introduced species a potential competitor No Forbes (2012) (Pitangus food sulphuratus) Competition – nesting sites Green-backed Juan Fernandez Juan Competition – Correlative Introduced species has different nesting No Hahn et al. (2011) Firecrown Firecrown Fernandez nesting sites microhabitat requirements (Sephanoides Archipelago sephaniodes) House Crow Weaver spp. and other Kenya Predation Anecdotal Introduced species a predator of nest-contents No Sodhi (2011) (Corvus small bird species of native species splendens) House Finch Various species North Disease Theoretical Introduced species could spread conjunctivitis No Avery and Moulton (Carpodacus America to native species (2007) mexicanus) Various species North Disease Causal Native species experimentally infected with No Farmer et al. (2005) America introduced species strain of conjunctivitis developed disease Various species North Competition – Theoretical Introduced species not a competitive threat to No InfoNatura (2007) America nesting sites native species in eastern North America Various species Hawaiian Disease Anecdotal Introduced species as a carrier of birdpox No Warner (1968) Islands virus (Avipoxvirus spp.) – infection of native species inferred

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Introduced bird Native bird as named in Location Process Level of Outcome Threat Reference reference evidence demonstrated House Sparrow Eastern Bluebird Bermuda Competition – Theoretical Introduced species and native species have No Forbes (2012) (Passer nesting sites similar nesting requirements domesticus) Endemic Juan Competition – Correlative Introduced species has different nesting No Hahn et al. (2011) Fernandez nesting sites macrohabitat requirements to native species Archipelago Cliff Swallow North Competition – Causal Introduced species reduced reproductive No Leasure et al. America nesting sites success of native species at artificial structure (2010) Various species Western Competition – Correlative Introduced species related to lower species No MacGregor-Fors Mexico interference richness of native species – aggression et al. (2010) inferred Noisy Miner Australia Competition – Correlative Native species negatively affects introduced No Woodall (1996) interference species – aggression inferred Japanese White- 8 species, including the Hawaiian Competition – Causal Juvenile native species had decreased growth Yes Freed and Cann eye (Zosterops endangered Hawaii Islands food and survival in presence of introduced species (2009) japonica) Akepa – competition inferred Bonin Island White-eye Bonin Islands Competition – Causal and Native species diet and fledgling body weight No Kawakami and (Japan) food Correlative not different in allopatric and sympatric Higuchi (2003) populations, preferred habitat of introduced species different to native – lack of competition inferred Various species Hawaiian Disease Anecdotal Introduced species as a carrier of avian No Warner (1968) Islands malaria – infection of native species inferred Little Corella Various species Western Competition – Theoretical Potential for interactions No Blythman (2012) (Cacatua Australia nesting sites sanguinea) Disease Hybridisation Long-billed Various species Western Competition – Theoretical Potential for interactions No Blythman (2012) Corella Australia nesting sites (Cacatua Disease tenuirostris) Hybridisation

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Introduced bird Native bird as named in Location Process Level of Outcome Threat Reference reference evidence demonstrated Northern Hawaiian Duck (Koloa) Hawaiian Hybridisation Theoretical Genetic introgression considered primary Potentially BirdLife (Anas Islands threat to native species International (2012) platyrhynchos) Hawaiian Duck (Koloa) Hawaiian Hybridisation Causal Markers established that can distinguish native Potentially Fowler et al. (2009) Islands from hybrids – threat inferred Pacific Black Duck New Zealand Hybridisation Correlative Phenotypic classification showed only 4.5% Yes Gillespie (1985) of sample was native species Anas spp. Global Hybridisation Theoretical List of congenerics that hybridise with Potentially Global Invasive introduced species Species Database (2010) Pacific Black Duck Australia, Hybridisation Theoretical Hybridisation of introduced and native species Potentially Guay and Tracey New (review) – potential threat to native species in Australia (2009) Zealand, inferred Lord Howe Island, Macquarie Island Pacific Black Duck Macquarie Hybridisation Anecdotal Hybrids identified No Norman (1990) Island Pacific Black Duck Australia Competition – Anecdotal Introduced species a superior aggressor No Paton et al. (1992) interference Hybridisation Introduced species and hybrids said to be increasing Pacific Black Duck New Zealand Hybridisation Causal Two-way introgression between introduced Yes Rhymer et al. and native species (1994) Pacific Black Duck Lord Howe Hybridisation Correlative Phenotypic classification revealed no pure Yes Tracey et al. (2008) Island individuals of native species Hawaiian Duck (Koloa) Hawaiian Hybridisation Anecdotal Rapid increase in incidence of hybridisation Yes US and Islands Wildlife Service (2011) Mute Swan Native waterfowl North Competition – Correlative Introduced species aggression had negligible No Conover and Kania (Cygnus olor) America interference effect on native species (1994) Nutmeg Iiwi Hawaii Disease Causal Introduced species not infected with avian No Atkinson et al. Mannikin malaria in captive trials – spread of disease by (1995) (Lonchura native species inferred punctata)

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Introduced bird Native bird as named in Location Process Level of Outcome Threat Reference reference evidence demonstrated Purple Native species North Competition – Theoretical Introduced species may aggressively out- No Johnson and Swamphen America interference compete native species for food and territories McGarrity (2009) (Porphyrio porphyrio) Rainbow Various species Western Competition – Anecdotal Potential for introduced species to affect No Chapman (2006) Lorikeet Australia nesting sites native species (Trichoglossus Competition – haematodus) food Disease

Red-vented Tahiti Monarch Tahiti Competition – Correlative Reproductive success of native species Yes Blanvillain et al. Bulbul interference reduced – competition with introduced species (2003) (Pycnonotus for nesting sites and territories inferred cafer) Pomarea spp. Tahiti Predation Causal No egg predation by introduced species No Thibault et al. (Monarchidae) (2002) Red-whiskered Native passerines Mascarene Competition – Theoretical Rapid colonisation by introduced species No Clergeau and Bulbul Islands interference documented – competition and predation Mandon-Dalger (Pycnonotus Predation inferred (2001) jocosus) Red Junglefowl Various species Galápagos Disease Theoretical Diseases in introduced species could spread to No Deem et al. (2008) (domestic Islands (review) native species poultry) (Gallus Various species Galápagos Disease Correlative No evidence of exposure to diseases – no No Soos et al. (2008) gallus) Islands transmission between introduced and native species inferred Various species Hawaii Disease Anecdotal Introduced species a source of birdpox virus No Warner (1968) that may be transmitted to native species

Rock Dove Galapagos Dove Galápagos Disease Correlative Introduced species presumed to bring parasite No Harmon et al. (Columba livia) Islands Trichomonas gallinae, which is also found in (1987) native species Galapagos Dove Galápagos Disease Anecdotal Native species rapidly declining – infection Potentially Wikelski et al. Islands with Trichomonas gallinae inferred (2004) Rock Partridge Red-legged Partridge Spain Hybridisation Correlative Hybridisation demonstrated using molecular No Arruga et al. (1996) genotyping Red-legged Partridge Spain Hybridisation Correlative Farmed hybrids are being introduced into wild No Negro et al. (2001) populations – introgression inferred

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Introduced bird Native bird as named in Location Process Level of Outcome Threat Reference reference evidence demonstrated Rose-ringed Kestrel, Stock Dove, United Competition – Anecdotal Introduced species not likely to be causing No Butler (2003) Parakeet Jackdaw, Green Kingdom nesting sites declines in native species but may become a (Psittacula Woodpecker, Common more serious competitor for hollows krameri) Starling Eurasian Nuthatch and 7 United Competition – Correlative Negative correlation with abundance of No Newson et al. other hollow-nesting Kingdom nesting sites Eurasian Nuthatch – different habitat (2011) species preference inferred Eurasian Nuthatch and Belgium Competition – Correlative Negative association of introduced species Potentially Strubbe and other hollow-nesting nesting sites with Eurasian Nuthatch but not other hollow- Matthysen (2007) species nesters – competition inferred Eurasian Nuthatch Belgium Competition – Causal When nest-hollows of introduced species were Potentially Strubbe and nesting sites artificially blocked they usurped hollows of Matthysen (2009) native species Eurasian Nuthatch Belgium Competition – Correlative Introduced species affecting one-third of No Strubbe et al.(2010) nesting sites native population Ruddy Duck White-headed Duck Europe Hybridisation Anecdotal Reports of hybridisation – threat inferred No Hughes (1996) (Oxyura White-headed Duck Europe Hybridisation Causal Hybridisation confirmed using molecular Potentially Muñoz-Fuentes et jamaicensis) genotyping al. (2007) Sacred Ibis Sandwich Tern, France Predation Anecdotal Introduced species a predator of nest-contents No Yésou and (Threskiornis Whiskered Tern, of native species Clergeau (2005) aethiopicus) Common Tern, Black Tern, Northern Mallard, Black-winged Stilt, Cattle Egret, Little Egret, Lapwing Shiny Cowbird Puerto Rican Vireo and Puerto Rico Brood Causal Native species suffered high rates of Potentially Woodworth (1997) (Molothrus 16 other native species parasitism parasitism from introduced species bonariensis) Swamp Harrier Tahiti Imperial-Pigeon, Tahiti Predation Theoretical Introduced species said to be main cause of No Meyer (2003) (Circus extinction of native species approximans) Tasmanian Lord Howe Woodhen, Lord Howe Predation Anecdotal Introduced species noted as a predator of No Hutton (1991) Masked Owl White Tern, Black- Island native species (Tyto winged Petrel, novaehollandiae Providence Petrels castanops)

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