Analysis of Hong Kong's Wind Energy

Home , Energy in Hong Kong, Lamma Island, Lantau Island, Ma Wan, Renewable Energy Systems, Waglan Island

sustainability

Article Analysis of Hong Kong’s Wind Energy: Power Potential, Development Constraints, and Experiences from Other Countries for Local Wind Energy Promotion Strategies

Xiaoxia Gao 1,2, Lu Xia 1, Lin Lu 2,* and Yonghua Li 1

1 Department of Power Engineering, North China Electric Power University (Baoding), Beijing 071000, China; [email protected] (X.G.); [email protected] (L.X.); [email protected] (Y.L.) 2 Renewable Energy Research Group (RERG), Department of Building Services Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong 999077, China * Correspondence: [email protected]

Received: 31 December 2018; Accepted: 31 January 2019; Published: 12 February 2019

Abstract: The wind energy utilization in Hong Kong is limited, although its potential has proven to be significant. The lack of effective policy for wind energy development is the main constraint. In this paper, the wind power potential in Hong Kong is analyzed, and the wind power potential assessment is conducted based on one-year field measured wind data using Light Detection & Ranging (LiDAR) technology in a proposed offshore wind farm. Results show that the offshore wind power potential in Hong Kong was 14,449 GWh which occupied 32.20% of electricity consumption in 2017. In addition, the electricity market and power structure in Hong Kong are also reviewed with the existing policies related to renewable energy development. Conclusions can be made that the renewable energy target in Hong Kong is out of date and until now there have been no specific effective policies on wind energy. In order to urge Hong Kong, catch up with other countries/regions on wind energy development, the histories and evolution of wind energy policies in other countries, especially in Denmark, are reviewed and discussed. Suggestions are provided in the aspects of economics, public attitude, and political factors which can stimulate wind power development in Hong Kong.

Keywords: Wind energy policy in Hong Kong; wind power potential; wind energy development; promotion strategies; public attitudes; political factors

1. Introduction Renewable energy policy is a country’s strategy on renewable energy production, distribution, and consumption, in which legislation, incentives, target and taxation are included [1–5]. Feed-in tariff (FIT) and Renewable Portfolio Standard (RPS) are two typical incentive types in renewable energy policy all over the world [6–8]. Figure1 shows the number of countries with types of renewable energy policies [9]. Note that not all policy types in use are shown in this Figure. Countries are considered to have policies when at least one national or state/provincial-level policy is in place. It can be seen that until 2018, more than 130 countries have power regulatory incentives/mandates which can stimulate the development of renewable energies. As costs fall, it was recorded that renewable energy markets continue to diversify geographically all over the world [10–14]. Europe remains an important market, as well as an innovation center, and also, activities continue to shift towards other regions with China again leading the world in new RE power capacity installations in 2018 [15–20].

Sustainability 2019, 11, 924; doi:10.3390/su11030924 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability Sustainability 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 20

Number of countries with 140 heating and cooling regulatory incentives/mandates transport regulatory incentives/mandates power regulatory incentives/mandates Sustainability 2019, 11, 924 120 2 of 20 Sustainability 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 20 100

80 Number of countries with 140 heating and cooling regulatory incentives/mandates transport regulatory incentives/mandates 60 power regulatory incentives/mandates 120

Number of Number of countries 40 100

20 80

0 60 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018

Year

Number of Number of countries 40

Figure 1. Number20 of countries with types of renewable energy policies (From [9]).

0 As costs fall, it was recorded2012 that2013 renewable2014 energy2015 markets2016 continue2017 to2018 diversify geographically all over the world [10–14]. Europe remains an importantYear market, as well as an innovat ion center, and also, activities continue to shift towards other regions with China again leading the world in new RE FigureFigure 1. 1.NumberNumber of ofcountries countries with with types types of ofrenewable renewable energy energy policies policies (From (From [9]) [9.]). power capacity installations in 2018 [15–20]. Meanwhile, various countries have different RE electricity generation targets [21–24]. RE target AsMeanwhile, costs fall, it various was recorded countries that have renewable different energy RE electricity markets generationcontinue to targets diversify [21 geographically–24]. RE target is is a defining feature of the global energy landscape. At the end of 2016, more than 176 countries alla over deﬁning the world feature [10 of– the14]. globalEurope energy remains landscape. an important At the market end of, 2016,as well more as an than innovat 176 countriesion center, around and around the world with at least one kind of RE target, which was about four-fold of 43 countries in also,the activities world with continue at least to one shift kind towards of RE target, other regions which was with about China four-fold again leading of 43 countries the world in in 2005. new 50% RE is 2005. 50% is Denmark’s target during the year 2020–2021 while in fact, most of this RE power comes powerDenmark’s capacity target installations during the in 2018 year 2020–2021[15–20]. while in fact, most of this RE power comes from wind from wind energy. Besides Denmark, wind energy market all over the world was brisk with a total energy.Meanwhile, Besides various Denmark, countries wind energy have different market all RE over electricity the world generation was brisk targets with a [21 total–24 of]. installationRE target of installation capacity of 39.125 GW by the end of 2017 [25]. is capacitya defining of 39.125feature GW of bythethe global end energy of 2017 [landscape.25]. At the end of 2016, more than 176 countries Hong Kong, by contrast, has been stagnant in this. The limitation of relevant incentives and aroundHong the world Kong, with by contrast,at least one has kind been of stagnant RE target, in this.which The was limitation about four of-fold relevant of 43 incentives countries andin policies in Hong Kong makes the local renewable energies contribute to an insignificant energy share 2005.policies 50% inis Denmark’s Hong Kong target makes during the localthe year renewable 2020–2021 energies while in contribute fact, most to of an this insigniﬁcant RE power comes energy [26]. According to the annual Hong Kong Energy End-use Data, which include the RE data from the fromshare wind [26]. energy. According Besides to the Denmark, annual Hong wind Kong energy Energy market End-use all over Data, the which world include was brisk the with RE data a total from year 2010, the weighting of RE in energy end-use was 0.6%. “The End-use Data 2018” indicated that ofthe installation year 2010, capacity the weighting of 39.125 of GW RE inby energythe end end-use of 2017 was[25].0.6%. “The End-use Data 2018” indicated the total RE was 1913 TJ with a weighting of 0.655% [27] and the RE weighting in electricity thatHong the totalKong, RE by was contrast, 1913 TJ has with been a weighting stagnant in of this 0.655%. The [ 27limitation] and the of RE relevant weighting incentives in electricity and consumption is only 0.1% (shown in Figure 2), which was with an unincreased percentage compared policiesconsumption in Hong is Kong only 0.1%makes (shown the local in Figurerenewable2), which energies was contribute with an unincreased to an insignificant percentage energy compared share with that of 2010, and was far behind the target of 1–2% energy share (HK RE Net, 2017). Among this [26].with According that of 2010, to the and annual was far Hong behind Kong the Energy target of End 1–2%-use energy Data, which share (HKinclude RE Net,the RE 2017). data Among from the this 0.6%–0.7%, the weighting of wind energy was less than 1%. year0.6%–0.7%, 2010, the the weighting weighting of RE of wind in energy energy end was-use less was than 0.6%. 1%. “The End-use Data 2018” indicated that the total RE was 1913 TJ with a weighting of 0.655% [27] and the RE weighting in electricity Electricity consumption is only Oil 0.1%& Coal Products (shown in Figure 2), which was with Biogas an unincreased percentage compared Town Gas & LPG Bio-diesel with that of 2010Green, and bars represent was the proportions far behind of the target of 1–2% energy Solar Energy share (HK RE Net, 2017). Among this renewable energy in this type of energy 28% Wind Energy & Hydropower 0.6%–0.7%, the weighting of wind energy3.2% was less than 1%. 0.2%

89.4% Electricity

Oil & Coal Products 0.1% Biogas 8.2% Town Gas & LPG 17% Bio-diesel Green bars represent the proportions of Solar Energy renewable energy in this type of energy 28% Wind Energy & Hydropower 3.2% 1.9% 0.5% (a) 55% 0.2% (b)

89.4%

Figure 2.2. Hong Kong Energy 0.1% End End-use-use Data: ( a) The The weighting weighting of RE RE (renewable (renewable energy) in respective 8.2% fuel type in 2016 and (b)) TypesTypes ofof RERE capacitiescapacities17% inin HongHong Kong.Kong.

1.9% How(a) about the 55% wind energy potential in HongHong(b) Kong?Kong? A comprehensive wind0.5% power potential analysis with the cost of energy (analysis) is indispensable for policy-makingpolicy-making in the decision-makingdecision-making Figure 2. Hong Kong Energy End-use Data: (a) The weighting of RE (renewable energy) in respective process for wind energy development strategies. To investigate the wind power potential of a specific specific fuel type in 2016 and (b) Types of RE capacities in Hong Kong. region or district, the chronological and probabilistic method are the commonlycommonly used in wind data analysis [[28,2928,29]. Studies emerge every year about different locations allall overover thethe world.world. Genç, M.S.’s How about the wind energy potential in Hong Kong? A comprehensive wind power potential team has forced forced the the topic topic of of wind wind energy energy power power potential potential combined combined with with other other systems systems,, as aswell well as analysis with the cost of energy (analysis) is indispensable for policy-making in the decision-making asthe the energy energy cost cost analysis analysis in Turke in Turkey,y, and and some some outstanding outstanding contributions contributions have have been been made made [30]. [For30]. process for wind energy development strategies. To investigate the wind power potential of a specific Forexample, example, the thewind wind energy energy power power potential potential and and wind wind characteristics characteristics in in Kayseri Kayseri are are evaluated evaluated [31] [31],, region or district, the chronological and probabilistic method are the commonly used in wind data and the economic analysis for separate wind energy conversion systems are conducted for different analysis [28,29]. Studies emerge every year about different locations all over the world. Genç, M.S.’s locations in Turkey [32,33]. Besides, the combined wind energy systems such as the water pumping team has forced the topic of wind energy power potential combined with other systems, as well as the energy cost analysis in Turkey, and some outstanding contributions have been made [30]. For example, the wind energy power potential and wind characteristics in Kayseri are evaluated [31], Sustainability 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 20 and the economic analysis for separate wind energy conversion systems are conducted for different Sustainability 2019, 11, 924 3 of 20 locations in Turkey [32,33]. Besides, the combined wind energy systems such as the water pumping system [34,35] and wind-electrolyzer fuel cell system [36], with their cost analysis, are provided, whichsystem give [34, 35comprehensive] and wind-electrolyzer ideas and fuel methods cell system for the [36 wind], with energy their cost system analysis, analysis. are provided, Bilgili, M. which and Besirgive comprehensive Sahin have also ideas studied and methodswind energy for the potential wind energy in Turkey system using analysis. Weibull Bilgili, and M. and Rayleigh Besir probabilitySahin have density also studied functions wind, as energy well potentialas WAsP in (Wind Turkey Atlas using Analysis Weibull an andd Application Rayleigh probability Program) whichdensity quantified functions, the as wellenergy as WAsPpotential (Wind in different Atlas Analysis regions and of ApplicationTurkey [37,38 Program)]. Wind whichenergyquantified potential inthe Taiwan, energy potentialEgypt, and in differentIndia are regions also evaluated of Turkey and [37 analyzed,38]. Wind [39 energy–41]. For potential Hong in Kong, Taiwan, the Egypt, wind energyand India potential are also is investigated evaluated and by analyzeddifferent researchers [39–41]. For with Hong some Kong, economic the wind analysis energy which potential will be is statedinvestigated in the following by different sections. researchers It is withbelieved some to economic be significant analysis that which Hong willKong be has stated great in thewind following power potentialsections. Itin isour believed previous to be studies significant [42–44 that]. However, Hong Kong the has exploitation great wind and power utilization potential of in wind our previous energy arestudies far behind. [42–44]. How However, to make the Hong exploitation Kong catch and up utilization with the of global wind push energy on are wind far energy behind. development, How to make isHong of great Kong significance catch up withfor energy the global independence push on wind and security, energy development, especially foris Hong of great Kong significance with its high for populationenergy independence density. and security, especially for Hong Kong with its high population density. ItIt was was found found that that wind wind energy energy d developmentevelopment is is highly correlated correlated with with local local electricity market market situationssituations,, which which means means that that developing developing wind wind power power is is a a response response to to high high electricity electricity demanddemand [45,46 [45,46].] . Meanwhile,Meanwhile, considering considering energy energy security security in in countries countries which which depend depend highly highly upon upon foreign foreign oil, the oil, volatilitythe volatility of oil of price oil price can also can alsoaffect affect wind wind capacity capacity development development [47,48 [47]. ,Developing48]. Developing wind wind energy energy can liberatecan liberate a country a country or region or region from from high high dependence dependence upon upon electricity electricity importation importation [49,50]. [49, 50 ]. Meanwhile,Meanwhile, from from the the aspect aspect of of environment, environment, the the average average temperatu temperaturesres of of Hong Hong Kong Kong in in selected selected yearsyears are are shown shown in in Figure Figure 33.. TheThe reportreport fromfrom thethe ObservatoryObservatory showedshowed that,that, inin 2015,2015, thethe hottesthottest JuneJune andand July July were were recorded recorded 130 130 years years since since records records began in in 1885. 1885. The The average average temperature temperature of of these these two two monthsmonths was was at at least least 1 1 degree degree Celsius Celsius higher higher than than the the long long-term-term average average one one with with many many hot hot days days and and nights.nights. It It means means that that people people need need to to beat beat the the heat heat by by turning turning on on their their air conditioning conditioning,, which which will will inevitablyinevitably use use moremore electricity electricity and and cost cost more more money, money initiating, initiating a vicious a cycle.vicious The cycle. electricity The e generatedlectricity generatedin Hong Kong in Hong relies Kong heavily relies on heavily imported on fossilimported fuels, fossil especially fuels, coal.especially Meanwhile, coal. Meanwhile, the more energy the more we energyuse, the we more use, greenhouse the more greenhouse gases we produce, gases we which produce, will accelerate which will global accelerate warming. global The warming. development The developmentof wind energy of canwind help energy Hong can Kong help to Hong halt this Kong and to prompt halt this it to and get prompt rid of energy it to get importation rid of energy with importationthe improvement with the of energyimprove securityment of [51 energy,52]. security [51,52].

30 ℃

25 1938 1997 1999 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 Year FigureFigure 3 3.. TheThe average average temperature temperature of of Hong Hong Kong Kong in June in selected years ( ℃◦C)) [53] [53]..

InIn this this paper, paper, both both the the electricity electricity market market and andthe wind the wind energy energy developing developing condition condition in Hong in KongHong will Kong be willanalyzed be analyzed with the with renewable the renewable energy policies energy policiesin Hong in Kong Hong related Kong to related wind toenergy. wind Hongenergy. Kong’sHong offshore Kong’s windoffshore power wind potential power will potential be investigated will be investigated by employing by employingone-year wind one-year data measuredwind data from measured the proposed from the offshore proposed wind offshore farm wind near farm Lamma near Island. Lamma Based Island. on Based the wind on the energ windy policyenergy reviews policy reviewsfrom other from countries other countries,, especially especially Denmark, Denmark, suggestions suggestions will be provided will be provided on driving on Sustainability 2019, 11, 924 4 of 20 driving the growth of wind energy in Hong Kong from the aspects of economics, public attitude, and political factors.

2. Wind Power in Hong Kong

2.1. Wind Power Potential of Hong Kong in the Literature In general, wind resources in Hong Kong are divided into two categories, including wind energy on land and offshore wind resources.

2.1.1. Wind Resources on Land The wind resources on land include the wind farms in rural locations and individual wind turbines in high-rise buildings. 1. Wind farm in rural locations Studies on wind power density in terms of energy per unit area (W/m2) in Hong Kong land area at a height of 65 m above ground level generated by WAsP show that high wind resources generally occur on top of mountains or hills [54] and based on these, considering the wind farm in rural areas are installed in a linear arrangement on mountain ridges, the estimated resource potential from this arrangement in Hong Kong is 2630 GWh/yr (26.3 × 108 kWh/yr), given the total area of the relatively high wind resource in Hong Kong is about 393 km2. Lu et al. has also conducted some research on the wind power in Hong Kong’s island which analyzed wind data in ﬁve typical locations in Hong Kong [55,56]. Results in these studies showed that there is great wind power potential on land in Hong Kong. 2. Individual turbines in high-rise buildings It is well known that high-rise buildings have the effect of enhancement on wind conditions. Small wind turbines may theoretically be installed on the rooftops of existing high-rise buildings. Lu et al. [57,58] investigated the wind aerodynamics and wind ﬂows over the buildings based on local meteorological data and local high-rise building characteristics. It was concluded that wind power utilization in high-rise buildings in Hong Kong is feasible theoretically. In the EMSD report [54] feasibility was determined under the following three assumptions: (1) Approximately 30,000 buildings in Hong Kong, with the height equal or greater than 65 m; (2) No constraints to installation of wind turbines on buildings; and (3) Installation of one turbine per building on average. The resulting theoretical wind resource for urban high-rise buildings in Hong Kong is therefore between 2 and 3 TWh/yr (20–30 × 108 kWh/yr).

2.1.2. Offshore Wind Resources A rough assessment of the total area of relatively high wind resource (larger than 200 W/m2) in Hong Kong offshore (about 744 km2) was also conducted in the EMSD report. The estimated wind power potential in this report is 8058 GWh/yr [54]. Figure4 shows the potential sites after considering all constraints in offshore wind farm development, which is colored in green. In our previous study, wind characteristics from the Hong Kong observatory were analyzed in the four selected offshore locations in different areas [42]. The 5 MW wind turbines are selected to be installed in the wind farm after the micro-siting by a multiple population genetic algorithm. Economic analysis considering different factors, i.e., the capital cost of wind turbines, ﬁxed charge rate, as well as maintenance charge, labor force, etc., are conducted. The cost of energy ranges from 1.87 HKD/kWh to 11.88 HKD/kWh with the payback periods ranges from 14.44 year to 75.89 year. Higher costs of energy and longer payback periods show that the water area near Sha Chau is not suitable for wind energy development and thus, results show that the potential offshore wind farm area in and beyond (2 km away from its Sustainability 2019, 11, 924 5 of 20 boundary) Hong Kong is 357.78 km2 and the annual wind power potential is 112.81 × 108 kWh, which Sustainabiliis 25.06%ty of 2019 the, 11 annual, x FOR electricityPEER REVIEW consumption of Hong Kong in 2011. 5 of 20

Shenzhen

East Ping Chau Tap Mun

New Territories 3

Kowloon Sha Chau Junk Bay 4 1 Lantau Island Hong Kong Island

Lamma Island Waglan Island

FigureFigure 4 4.. WindWind resources resources in in Hong Kong Kong Territorial Waters.Waters.

Li also conducted a study on the offshore wind power potential,potential, in which two types of turbine × × layout spacing spacing (10D (10D×10D,10D, 10D×5D) 10D 5D) are are selected selected in in a ahypothetical hypothetical offshore offshore wind wind farm farm in in the ssoutheasternoutheastern water area [59]. [59]. The results are concluded in Table1 1 with with somesome typicaltypical studiesstudies onon HongHong Kong’s wind power potential.

Table 1. Wind power potential in Hong Kong in literatures. Table 1. Wind power potential in Hong Kong in literatures. Category Total Area Total Annual Potential Category Total Area Total Annual Potential Wind power in Wind power in rural 393 km2 rural locations 2 393 km 8 EMSD’s Report locationsTurbines in 30,000 buildings in 126.8–136.8126.8× 10- 30.22%30.22% of 2011’s electricityof 2011′s EMSD’s [54] (kWh) consumption Turbineshigh-rise in high buildings-rise 30,000HK >buildings 65 m 8 electricity Report [54] Offshore wind - 136.8×10 buildingsTurbine Spacing in Total HK>65 Area m (kWh Total) Annual Potentialconsumption Offshore wind - 40% of 1998’s electricity Li’s Study [59] 10D × 10D - 14 TWh Turbine Spacing Total Area Total Annualconsumption Potential 72% of 1998’s electricity 5D × 10D - 25 TWh consumption40% of 1998′s 10D×10D - 14 TWh 25% of 2011’selectricity electricity Li’s StudyGao’s Study [42] Scatter - 112.81 × 108 (kWh) consumptionconsumption [59] 72% of 1998′s Note that the studies5D×10D on offshore wind power- potential in previous25 TWh studies are basedelectricity on the wind data measured by Hong Kong Observatory on land near the water area [60], suchconsumption as the Automatic Weather Station in Waglan Island. The limitations of wind data measured by Hong25% Kong of Observatory2011′s Gao’s 112.81×108 cannot represent the windScatter condition on the wind- farm site. Thus, site-measured windelectricity data has great Study [42] (kWh) advantages in evaluating wind power potential offshore. The ﬁeld measurement ofconsumption wind data will be introduced and analyzed in Section 2.2. Note that the studies on offshore wind power potential in previous studies are based on the wind2.2. Offshore data measured Wind Power by Potential Hong Kong Analysis Observatory Based on Field on Measurement land near the Using water LIDAR area [60], such as the AutomaticThe Hongkong Weather Station Electric in Co., Waglan Ltd. (HKIsland. Electric) The limitations proposed of building wind data an offshore measured wind by Hong farm whichKong wouldObservatory be located cannot at represent a 600-hectare the wind site condition about 3.5 on km the southwest wind farm of site Lamma. Thus, Island site-measured with the wind datamonitoring has great station advantages at the selected in evaluating wind farm wind [61 power]. A wind potential monitoring offshore. station The had field been measurement set up within of windthe proposed data will wind be introduced farm to pursue and analyzed a meteorological in section and 2.2. oceanographic data collection campaign in March 2012. Light Detection & Ranging (LiDAR) technology was adopted for wind monitoring. 2.2. OffshoreThe wind Wind monitoring Power Potential campaign Analysis aimed based to collect on Field additional Measurement data forusing optimizing LIDAR the offshore wind farmThe design. Hongkong The measurement Electric Co., rangeLtd. (HK of wind Electric) speed proposed of LiDAR building is 0–50 an m/s offsh withore thewind instantaneous farm which windwould speed. be located In this at paper, a 600 the-hectare one-year site wind about data 3.5 km from southwest March 2012 of to Lamma February Island 2013 with were the used wind for monitoringthe wind farm station optimization at the selected analysis. wind Diagram farm [61]. of theA wind one-year monitoring wind speed station at had the turbinebeen set hub up within height theof 82 proposed m is shown wind in farm Figure to5 pursue. Note thata meteorolo the windgical data and was oceanographic calculated using data the collection wind shear campaign formula. in MarchThe long 2012. term Light annual Detection average & windRanging speed (LiDAR) measured technology at the Southwest was adopted Lamma for wind offshore monitoring. is 7.03 m/s. The wind monitoring campaign aimed to collect additional data for optimizing the offshore wind farm design. The measurement range of wind speed of LiDAR is 0-50 m/s with the instantaneous wind speed. In this paper, the one-year wind data from March 2012 to February 2013 were used for the wind farm optimization analysis. Diagram of the one-year wind speed at the Sustainability 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 20

turbine hub height of 82 m is shown in Figure 5. Note that the wind data was calculated using the wind shear formula. The long term annual average wind speed measured at the Southwest Lamma Sustainability 2019, 11, 924 6 of 20 offshore is 7.03 m/s.

Wind Speed Distribution at 82.2m hub height

Frequency % Frequency 6

0 5 10 15 20 25 Wind Speed (m/s)

Figure 5. Wind distribution and speed probability. Figure 5. Wind distribution and speed probability. Results in our previous study which conducted the Hong Kong offshore wind power assessmentResults [42 in] ou showr previous that Lamma study Islandwhich hasconducted an intermediate the Hong windKong conditionoffshore wind compared power withassessment those three[42] locations. show that Meanwhile, Lamma Island considering has an the intermediate geographical wind of Hong condition Kong, Lamma compared Island with in the those Southern three waterlocations. which, Meanwhile, facing the considering South China the Sea, geographical can represent of Hong the wind Kong, conditions Lamma toIsland some in extent. the Sout Thus,hern inwater this paper,which combining, facing the the South field China measured Sea, can wind represent data, the the hypothetical wind conditions offshore to wind some farm extent. in Figure Thus,4 in markedthis paper, No. combining 2 was selected the field to conduct measured the wind assessment data, t ashe ithypothetical was at the sameoffshore locations wind farm with in the Figure Hong 4 Kongmarked Electric’s No. 2 was wind selected farm. to The conduct Multi-Population the assessment Genetic as it was Algorithm at the same program locations developed with the by Hong the authorKong Electric’sin previous wind studies farm. [42 The,62 ] Multi was- usedPopulation to search Genetic the optimal Algorithm layout program pattern developed of this selected by the windauthor farm in previous with the studies assessment [42,62 of] Hongwas used Kong to offshoresearch the wind optimal power layout potential. pattern Details of this areselected shown wind in Tablefarm2 .with With the the assessment optimal number of Hong of 25Kong turbines offshore (5MW) wind installed power inpotential. the wind Details farm, are the annualshown in power Table 8 generation2. With the is 5.78 optimal× 10 numberkWh, and of 25 the turbines cost of energy (5MW) (COE) installed is 1.55 in the HKD/kWh. wind farm, Compared the annual with power that conductedgeneration using is 5.78×10 the wind8 kWh, data and provided the cost by o thef energy Hong (COE) Kongobservatory is 1.55 HKD/kWh. [42], the Compared COE has decreased with that fromconducted 1.87 HKD/kWh using the wind to 1.55 data HKD/kWh, provided by which the Hong indicate Kong significance observatory of [42] the, the field COE measured has decreased wind data.from According 1.87 HKD/kWh to this, to the 1.55 total HKD/kWh, annual offshore which indicate wind power significance potential of inthe Hong field Kongmeasured is 14,449 wind GWh, data. whichAccording occupies to this, 32.02% the total of the annual electricity offshore consumption wind power of Hongpotential Kong in Hong in 2017 Kong [27]. is 14,449 GWh, which occupies 32.02% of the electricity consumption of Hong Kong in 2017 [27]. TableIt can 2. beOptimization seen that there results is a of significant the selected wind wind energy farm andresource Hong potential Kong offshore which, wind if captured power and exploited,potential would assessment. undoubtedly create a material contribution for the reduction of the environmental impact caused byNumber conventional of Total Power energy supplies.COE Potential Offshore % of Electricity Area (km2) Total (GWh) WTs (×108 kWh) (HKD/kWh) Area (km2) Consumption in 2017 Table16.86 2. Optimization 25 results 5.78 of the selected 1.55 wind farm 421.48 and Hong 14449 Kong offshore wind 32.02 power potential assessment. It can be seen that there is a significant wind energy resource potential which, if captured and Potential % of Electricity exploited,Area Number would undoubtedly Total Power create a materialCOE contribution for the reductionTotal of the environmental Offshore Consumption in impact(km2) causedof WTs by conventional (×108kWh) energy supplies.(HKD/kWh) (GWh) Area (km2) 2017 2.3.16.86 Current Situation25 of Wind5.78 Energy in Hong1.55 Kong 421.48 14449 32.02

2.3. ThereCurrent are Situation no indigenous of Wind Energy energy in resources Hong Kong in Hong Kong, and all energy sources are imported from overseas. Currently, two investor-owned companies, the China Light & Power Hong Kong LimitedThere (CLP) are and no theindigenous Hongkong energy Electric resources Company in Hong Limited Kong, (HK and Electric) all energy supply sources electricity are forimported Hong Kongfrom with overseas. their networks Currently, covering two investor different-owned areas. companies, Coals are the the main China fuels Light which & make Power up Hong about Kong half ofLimited total fuel (CLP) consumption and the Hongkong [63]. The Electric application Company of wind Limited energy (HK in HongElectric) Kong suppl isy at electricity the early for stage Hong of demonstration phase. Sustainability 2019, 11, 924 7 of 20

2.3.1. Wind Energy Application in Hong Kong Although there is great wind power potential in Hong Kong, the wind power utilization is barely satisfactory. As it is mentioned above, the weighting of wind energy provided by Hong Kong energy end-use data in 2016 was less than 1% of the total RE, while the weight of RE in Hong Kong was 0.56% in 2013 [27]. There are some small wind turbine projects supported by both government and non-government and proposed yet ultimately aborted offshore wind farms as well. 1. Small wind turbine projects Most small wind turbine projects in Hong Kong are rooftop turbines, or stand-alone power supply systems, probably in conjunction with PV panels. Some typical projects are listed in Table3. Note that the list given in Table3 is not meant to be exhaustive. No new projected has been installed after the year 2011.

Table 3. Examples of small wind turbine projects in Hong Kong [64].

Examples of Small Wind Turbine Projects by the Government Year Venue Installed Capacity Shatin Sewage Treatment 21 nos. of lamp pole mounted wind and solar PV hybrid system 2011 Works (each 0.41 kW wind turbine and 0.16 kW solar PV) Shau Kei Wan Government 2010 100W micro wind turbine system Secondary School 2007 EMSD Headquarters 1.5 kW vertical wind turbine Examples of Non-government Small Wind Turbine Projects in Hong Kong Year Organization Venue Installation Type Capacity Turbines providing Roof top of 2010 Tung Chung Catholic School electricity for building weather station Grid-connected Marsh Road 2008 HK Electric horizontal-axis 2 × 2.5 kW Station turbine Ho Koon Nature Education Building roof & Wind turbines and 2007 2 × 250 W 400 W Astronomical Centre campus solar PV modules Ma Wan Theme Grid-connected 2006 Sun Hung Kai Properties 2 × 6 kW Park wind power system

2. Large wind turbine projects The ﬁrst commercial-scale wind turbine in Hong Kong was installed by HK Electric. It is a Nordex N50/800 kW machine with a rotor diameter of 50 m and hub height of 46m. The rated power of the turbine is 800 kW and on average provides slightly over 100 kW of power, with a capacity factor of 13%. It is installed at Tai Ling on Lamma Island and was inaugurated in February 2006. It can offset 800 tonnes of CO2 emission every year on average [64,65]. 3. Offshore wind farm projects Two offshore wind farms were proposed by HK Electric and CLP at southwest Lamma waters (SLW) and Southeastern Waters (SEW), respectively [66,67]. The total capacity of the offshore wind farm at SEW was 100 MW, with 28–35 turbines rated 2.5–3.6 MW installed. If it is operated, its 100 MW capacity can generate about 170 million kWh per year, which can offset 62,000 tonnes of coal and 150,000 tonnes of carbon dioxide emissions. The EIA report of the SLW Offshore Wind Farm was approved in May 2010. HK Electric is carrying out wind monitoring work using LiDAR technology at the site to collect wind resources data [61]. The offshore wind farm is scheduled for completion by 2015; however, it was postponed due to capital-intensive consideration and critical voices from the public. Sustainability 2019, 11, 924 8 of 20

The above reactions happened for the SEW offshore wind farm as well, which is a double of the SWL Offshore Wind Farm’s. The proposed SEW has a capacity of 200 MW, with an area of 16 km2. More than 67 wind turbines of 3 MW or 40 turbines with 5 MW were suggested to be installed. It was reported that about 1% of total Hong Kong electricity needs in 2008 can be produced by this wind farm [66]. However, critical voices come from different parties on the environmental effects and longterm payback period. The public’s attitude towards wind energy in Hong Kong is negative. According to the government consultation document on the future of Hong Kong electricity, having an offshore wind farm to power 1–2% of the city will result in a 3–5% increase in the electricity tariff [68]. However, the high cost of offshore wind energy can be offset and decreased with maturation of the technologies.

2.3.2. Wind Energy Policy in Hong Kong In Hong Kong, the lack of government support and incentives remains the key limiting factor for the promoting of wind energy. Although sustainability was the theme of the Hong Kong Government’s environmental review paper from 1996 [63,69], extremely little had been mentioned and done for promoting renewable energy. In the “First Sustainable Development Strategy for Hong Kong” published in 2005 [70], a target of 1–2% of HK’s electricity supply met by RE by 2012 was set. However, compared with targets in other countries/regions shown in Figure2, this target is far from being satisfied. The “Scheme of Control Agreements (SCA) 2009–2018” was an agreement signed by the government and the two local power companies, in which an environmental incentive was proposed and it encouraged power companies to develop renewable energy. 11% of the average renewables net fixed assets was permitted to return. The SCA was theoretically effective because both the government and power companies can benefit and the government can realize its RE target while the power companies can get a higher permitted rate of return. Under the effect of SCA, both the offshore wind farm at SLW and SEW were proposed. However, it turned out that the SCA is not effective enough because of low average net fixed assets compared with the higher investment long time payback period. Unfortunately, in the “Public Consultation on Future Fuel Mix for Electricity for Hong Kong” in 2014 [71], there was no clear target for Renewable Energy while in “A Clean Air Plan for Hong Kong” in 2013 [72], only the goal of achieving the new Air Quality Objectives (AQOs) by 2020 was mentioned. It has been criticized that Hong Kong completely lacks legislation, strategies, and incentives for the integration of renewable energy. In general, except policy from the government, when developing RE in a specific region, four other factors should also be considered: technical personnel, geographical conditions, public attitude, and social capitals. For Hong Kong, the five aspects’ conditions, which affect the RE development is shown in Figure6. Hong Kong has abundant geographical conditions for wind energy development with enough technical personnel and social capitals; however, social consciousness is not very high. There is no pressure from the public to the government for developing RE technologies and also, both the government and power company react less positively to the long-time payback, high risk, and low return RE project. It is essential to learn from other countries/regions to raise passions of the social and power company, as well as to help the government to propose effective policies for RE development, especially for wind energy. Sustainability 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 20 Sustainability 2019, 11, 924 9 of 20

Figure 6. Factor analysis of development conditions for RE in HK.

3. Lessons for Effective Wind Energy Policy from Denmark Figure 6. Factor analysis of development conditions for RE in HK. 3.1. Typical Concepts in Wind Energy Policy 3. LessonsPolicy for Effective for promoting Wind Energy renewable Policy energy from is Denmark designed to reduce reliance on fossil fuels and ensure security of power supply, reduce environmental impacts such as greenhouse gas emissions, as well 3.1. Typicalas encourage Concepts new in Wind industrial Energy development Policy [73]. For countries with well-designed renewable energy Policypolicies, for substantial promoting environmental renewable energy and is economic designed benefits to reduce have reliance been obtained. on fossil However,fuels and ensure considering securitydifferent of power policy supply, approaches reduce leadingenvironmental to different impacts outcomes, such as the greenhouse most effective gas policyemissions is necessary, as well for a as encouragecountry whichnew industrial requires development better understanding [73]. For of countries the linkage with between well-designed policy mechanisms renewable energy and energy policies,developments substantial environmental [45,74,75]. Target and and economic incentive benefits are important have been for obtained. an effective However, policy. considering different policyTargets: approaches It is common leading for the to nationaldifferent government outcomes, the to setmost targets effective for the policy contribution is necessary that renewablefor a countryenergies which will require makes better to meet understanding overall energy of consumption.the linkage between It can bepolicy a reference mechanisms for the and government energy or developmentspublic to check[45,74,75 and]. measureTarget and renewable incentive energy are important development for an progress effective [ 24policy.,76]. Targets:Feed-in It is tariff common (FIT) for and the Renewable national portfoliogovernment standard to set (RPS): targets FIT for and the RPS contribution emerged and that were renewableregarded energies as the will most make significant to meet policies overall to energy promote consumption. power generation It can from be a renewable reference energies for the [73]. governmentThe FIT or is public a pricing to policycheck and mechanism measure which renewable guaranteed energy the development renewable energy progress generators [24,76]. a fixed price Feedfor the-in generatedtariff (FIT) electricity and Renewable [77]. The portfolio RPS is a standard quota system (RPS): that FIT requires and RPS power/electricity emerged and were suppliers regardedto source as the a most certain significant proportion policies of their to electricity promote power from renewable generation energy from [renewable78]. It is a quantityenergies regulation,[73]. The FITletting is a thepricing market policy determine mechanism a reasonable which guaranteed price for renewable the renewable energy energy technologies. generators The a fixed price and price quantity for the generated are the two electricity aspects of [77 electricity]. The RPS generated is a quota by system renewable that energy. requires In power/electricity FIT, the prices are set supplierspolitically to source and a thecertain quantity proportion is market of their driven, electric whereasity from in renewable RPS, the quantity energy [7 is8 established]. It is a quantity politically regulation,and the letting price the is determined market determine by the market. a reasonable price for renewable energy technologies. The price and quantityTo accelerate are the investment two aspects in of renewable electricity energy generated technologies, by renewable the FITenergy. offers In long-timeFIT, the prices contracts are setto politically electricity producers,and the quantity often from is market 8 to 15 driven, years, but whereas sometimes in RPS, as manythe quantity as 20 to is 30 established years, typically politicallyaccording and the to price the cost is determined of generation by the of market. each technology [79]. The goal of feed-in tariff is to offer Tocost-based accelerate compensation investment in to renewable renewable energy energy technologies, producers [80 the]. FIT offers long-time contracts to electricity Theproducers, FIT was often firstly from implemented 8 to 15 years, in thebut USsometimes in 1978 inas themany law as of 20 National to 30 years, Energy typically Act (NEA), accordingwhich to aimed the cost to encourageof generation energy of each conservation technology and [79 development]. The goal of newfeed- kindsin tariff of energyis to offer resources cost- [81]. basedAs compensation one of the five to separaterenewable Acts, energy the Publicproducers Utility [80] Regulatory. Policies Act (PUPRA) was established Theto grant FIT was a high firstly price implemented which was slowly in the dismantledUS in 1978 in by the liberalized law of National markets Energy in the US Act [82 (NEA)]. However,, whichin aimed the mid-1990s, to encourage in Denmark energy conservation and Germany, and utilities development were required of new to kinds purchase of energy electricity resources generated [81]. by As renewable one of the energy five separate at a price Acts, established the Public by the Utility government Regulatory which Polici wases regards Act (PUPRA) as the second was wave established to grant a high price which was slowly dismantled by liberalized markets in the US [82]. Sustainability 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 20 Sustainability 2019, 11, 924 10 of 20 However, in the mid-1990s, in Denmark and Germany, utilities were required to purchase electricity generated by renewable energy at a price established by the government which was regards as the of FIT [83]. The utilization of FIT can compensate the renewable energy developers for the high second wave of FIT [83]. The utilization of FIT can compensate the renewable energy developers for investment as well as the environmental benefits of generation. the high investment as well as the environmental benefits of generation. Trends and development related to FIT on different renewable energy resources vary from Trends and development related to FIT on different renewable energy resources vary from countries and regions. Taking China as an example, under series renewable energy law, for instance, countries and regions. Taking China as an example, under series renewable energy law, for instance, The Notice on Improving the Pricing Policy for On-Grid Solar Photovoltaic Power Prices and The The Notice on Improving the Pricing Policy for On-Grid Solar Photovoltaic Power Prices and The Notice on Improving Policy for On-Grid Wind Power Prices etc., the FIT rates for different renewable Notice on Improving Policy for On-Grid Wind Power Prices etc., the FIT rates for different renewable energy resources are concluded in Table4. Regardless of the types of renewable energy resources, energy resources are concluded in Table 4. Regardless of the types of renewable energy resources, research indicated that FIT can effectively promote renewable energy capacity development [84–86]. research indicated that FIT can effectively promote renewable energy capacity development [84–86]. See Figure7. See Figure 7.

1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5

RMB/kWh 0.4 0.3 0.2 Solar Wind Hydropower Biomass 0.16 0.14 0.12 0.10 0.08 USD/kWh 0.06 0.04 0.02 Biomass Solar Wind Hydropower Figure 7 7.. FeedFeed-in-in Tariff Tariff rates of different renewable energy resourcesresources inin ChinaChina [[8877]].. **FIT FIT rates rates in in China China are different inin differentdifferent site site location location of of power power generation. generation. In In this this table, table, a general a general estimation estimation of theof the FIT FITrates rates range range is collected. is collected.# The # The exchange exchange rate rate is CNY1 is CNY1=USD0.1564 = USD0.1564 (7th, (7th, June Jun 2018).e 2018).

A renewable portfolio standard is a policy instrument that requires increased production of electricity from renewa renewableble energy sources. It It has has other other common name namess such such as as renewable renewable electricity standard (RES) (RES) in US and renewable obligation in the UK [[7788,,8888]].. The difference between FIT FIT and RPS is that the RPS program tend tendss to encourage more price competition between differ differentent types of renewable energy. energy. The adoption of RPS will result in competition and innovation which will deliver renewable energy energy at the lowest possible cost, increasing the competitiveness of of renewable energy compared with cheaper fossil fuel energy sources.sources. RPS has been adopted in many countriescountries,, especially in the United StatesStates,, which is the most successful policy policy that has s stimulatedtimulated renewable renewable energy energy capacity in in US combined with federal production tax tax credits. credits. For For example, example, in California, in California, Governor Governor Jerry Brown Jerry signed Brown climate signed law climate mandating law mandating50% renewable 50% powerrenewable by 2030 power on Octoberby 2030 7,on 2015 October [89]. 7, For 2015 more [89] than. For a more decade, than California a decade, has California required hasutilities required to use utilities more renewable to use more energy renewable power energy and the power previous and targetthe previous is 33% renewabletarget is 33% power renewable by the powerend of by 2020. the This end targetof 2020. is Th a levelis target the utilitiesis a level are the conﬁdent utilities are they confident will meet. they The will increasing meet. The target increasing in the targetpast years in the (30% past by years 2020, (30% 40% by 2030,2020, and40% 70% by 2030, by 2040) and led 70% to by a construction 2040) led toboom a construction for wind farmsboom andfor windsolar powerfarms and plants, solar and power the 50%plant targets, and will the stimulate50% target renewable will stimulate energy renewab developmentle energy undoubtedly. development undoubtedly.It can be concluded that FIT performs better than RPS in the stage of cumulative wind capacity development,It can be concluded which can that promote FIT performs wind energy better than under RPS a long-termin the stage effect of cumulative while RPS wind can capacity provide developmentsome incentives, which to the can developers promote wind in the energy short under run [a45 long]. To-term stimulate effect while local RPS wind can energy provide capacity some incentivesdevelopment, to it the is better developers to combine in the these short two run policies [45]. by To the s governmenttimulate local to build wind a moreenergy predictable capacity development,investment environment. it is better to combine these two policies by the government to build a more predictable investmentFor wind environment. energy, effective and suitable energy policy could help to increase wind power generation as well as stimulate the energy industry. The existing successful energy policy for some Sustainability 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 20

For wind energy, effective and suitable energy policy could help to increase wind power Sustainabilitygeneration2019 as, 11 well, 924 as stimulate the energy industry. The existing successful energy policy for11 ofsome 20 countries can grant revelation and inspiration for Hong Kong’s wind energy promotion. For local policy design, it is important to learn successful experiences and practices from other countriescountries/regions. can grant revelationThe long-term and goal inspiration for Danish for Hongenergy Kong’s policy windis: the energyentire energy promotion. supply For including local policyelectricity, design, heating, it is important industry to, learn and transport successful is experiences to be covered and by practices renewable from energy other countries/regions. by 2050. The long-term goal for Danish energy policy is: the entire energy supply including electricity, heating, industry,3.2. Wind and Energ transporty Development is to be coveredin Denmark byrenewable energy by 2050. 3.2. WindThe Energy promotion Development of wind in Denmark power in Demark in the last three decades was very successful. It benefited from several factors, especially systematic government support, including effective The promotion of wind power in Demark in the last three decades was very successful. It beneﬁted economic tariff schemes and broad public support [90]. Figure 8 shows the total installed capacity of from several factors, especially systematic government support, including effective economic tariff wind project in Denmark. In 2014, wind energy accounted for 39.1% of Denmark’s electricity schemes and broad public support [90]. Figure8 shows the total installed capacity of wind project in consumption. Denmark. In 2014, wind energy accounted for 39.1% of Denmark’s electricity consumption.

Total installed capacity 6000

5000

4000 MW 3000

2000

1000

01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 Year FigureFigure 8. 8Total. Total installed installed wind wind project project capacity capacity in Denmarkin Denmark [91 [9].1]. 3.3. History and Evolution of Wind Energy Policy in Denmark: 7 phases 3.3. History and Evolution of Wind Energy Policy in Denmark: 7 phases Compared with other countries, Denmark has its unique and advantaged conditions for wind Compared with other countries, Denmark has its unique and advantaged conditions for wind energy development. The long-standing interests in wind energy (windmills) make the wind energy energy development. The long-standing interests in wind energy (windmills) make the wind energy in Denmark not only as an alternative energy but also a complementary source [73]. Even in the 1970s, in Denmark not only as an alternative energy but also a complementary source [73]. Even in the 1970s, there were many wind turbine manufacturers who had played signiﬁcant roles in wind energy policy there were many wind turbine manufacturers who had played significant roles in wind energy policy promotion and wind energy development [90,92]. Both the energy crises and the nuclear accident promotion and wind energy development [90,92]. Both the energy crises and the nuclear accident at at Three Mile Island in 1970s provided strong impetus for wind energy development in Denmark. Three Mile Island in 1970s provided strong impetus for wind energy development in Denmark. The The policy developing history is concluded in Table4. policy developing history is concluded in Table 4.

Table 4. Wind energy policy developing history of Denmark.

Phase No. / Time Description • Aim: reduce dependence on imported oil (90% on oil in 1973). Phase 1: First Energy Plan, • “Sketch for an energy plan in Denmark” 1976; (Dansk Energipolitik) /1976 • “Energy for the future: alternative energy plan” 1983; • Wind turbine is still too costly with a capacity of 55 kW. • Function: Simulate the growing of energy production. • Introduced subsidies for the construction and operation of WTs Phase 2: Second Energy while increase the taxes imposed on oil and coal. Plan (Energiplan81) /1981 • Incentive offered to families for generation power for their community. • Capital grants of up to 30% of the installation costs. Sustainability 2019, 11, 924 12 of 20

Table 4. Wind energy policy developing history of Denmark.

Phase No./Time Description • Aim: reduce dependence on imported oil (90% on oil in 1973). Phase 1: First Energy Plan, (Dansk • “Sketch for an energy plan in Denmark” 1976; Energipolitik)/1976 • “Energy for the future: alternative energy plan” 1983; • Wind turbine is still too costly with a capacity of 55 kW. • Function: Simulate the growing of energy production. • Introduced subsidies for the construction and operation of WTs while increase the Phase 2: Second Energy Plan taxes imposed on oil and coal. (Energiplan81)/1981 • Incentive offered to families for generation power for their community. • Capital grants of up to 30% of the installation costs. • Two orders of 100 MW wind power issued in 1985 and 1990 and 200 MW in 2000. • The first energy plans in the world without nuclear power. • Targets: reducing CO2 emissions by 20% in 2005 with providing 10% of electricity from wind turbines by 2005 [86]. Phase 3: Third Energy Plan (Energi • Fixed feed-in tariff: 85% of the retail electricity rate by 1992 [87]. 2000 [87]), Feed-in tariff/1990 • A refund of carbon tax for the first 5 years of operation. • Public hearings prior to any actual applications for turbine siting, was a significant help in getting public acceptance [87]. • Target: RE provide 12–14% consumption in 2005, 35% by 2030. Phase 4: Fourth Energy Plan • Offshore WF was set as a further planning regulations an additional 750 MW of OWP (Energi 21)/1996 (five offshore WF) in 1998. • A net exporter of energy. • In 1999, liberalise Denmark’s electricity market by 2002. • FIT was abandoned in 2004 and introduced a RPS mechanism [88]. • The WP development stagnated, only 129 MW in 2004–2008. Phase 5: Electricity market • ‘Energy policy statement of 2008 to address climate change’ increased the liberalisation/(1999–2008) development with a funding of EUR135 million/year [89]. • New target: Increase the utilization of RE to 20% of energy consumption by 2011 and the reduction of total energy consumption of 2% by 2011 and 4% by 2020 based on 2006. • Installation increase to 3482 MW [90]. • Environmental premium: for onshore wind: DKK 0.25/kWh for the first 22,000 full load hours. • For offshore, 0.45–0.52 DKK/kWh for first 10 years [91,92]. Phase 6: Rejuvenation and • For new offshore wind since 2009, the premium plus market will not exceed strengthening of the wind (depending on location) DKK 0.518 or DKK 0.629/kWh for up to 10 TWh with sector/2009–2012 20 years of grid connection. The maximum subsidy of systems financed by utility companies is DKK 0.353/kWh. An additional DKK 0.023/kWh was provided during the whole lifetime of the turbine to compensate for the cost of balancing [92]. • ‘Energy Strategy 2050’ in 2011 aim to achieve independence from coal, oil and gas by 2050, 50% from renewable energy by 2020 [93]. • Electricity production from renewables accounted for 53.4% of Danish domestic electricity supply in 2014 and in which, 38.8% from wind power [94]. Phase 7: • CO2 emissions have been reduced by 32.6% since 1990 [94]. Rapid development • A feed-in premium of DKK 0.25/kWh for onshore wind and the a feed-in premium of stage/2013-now DKK 0.25/kWh [95]. • Integration of wind power in the energy system is the key barriers to wind energy development in this stage

3.4. Experiences from Denmark Important conclusions can be drawn from the Danish experience: both the FIT and public attitude are important for the wind energy development. For FIT, the wind energy tariff depends on several factors: the location of the project (onshore/offshore), the start data of operations, and the number of full-load delivered. A market price element, a compensation for balancing, and a government subsidy, are included in the tariff. The wind energy market reacted closely to the tariff. It can also be observed from Figure8 that, after the FIT was abandoned in 2004, the market reaction to the abandoned FIT was that the wind power capacity declined rapidly (500 MW to over 3000 MW from 1993 to 2004 while only 129 MW from 2004 to 2008) and the wind market stalled until 2008, when a new support framework was introduced [93]. Besides the effective policies, the public had quite a significant role in wind energy development [94]. In 2009, the Danish Wind Industry Association conducted a survey on the Danish public’s opinion on energy production in the future. Results showed that 91% of the population thinks Sustainability 2019, 11, 924 13 of 20 that Denmark should expand the use of wind power and 85% support the wind energy expansion in their local areas [95]. Not surprisingly, this extensive support has a long historical standing in the period of consumer-owned windmills. In addition, the extensively liberalized and privatized Danish electricity markets have also facilitated wind energy installations [96–98]. It is also worth mentioning that universities and research institutions are important partners for the Danish wind industry, i.e., Risø National Laboratory for sustainable energy in Technical University of Denmark (DTU) [99], Danish Wind Industry Association [100] etc. The Danish government was Europe’s first country to bring in large subsidies for wind energy, including the feed-in-tariff system. Effective policies in Denmark were successfully replicated in Germany. Denmark is also one of the first countries to use environmental taxation to reduce air pollution and CO2 emissions and to support renewable energy development. The enabling conditions for wind industry development in Denmark attributed to the following aspects:

1. Effective rule of law and transparency in the administrative and permitting processes: A coherent and long-term policy framework has been in place for 30 years; 2. A clear and effective pricing structure (combination of market price and premium ensures); 3. Effective industrial development strategy-energy plans; 4. Provisions for access to the grid: priority access is guaranteed to renewable energy producers; 5. Expression of political commitment from government (e.g., targets); 6. A functioning ﬁnance sector (for example, most Danish offshore wind project are ﬁnanced by utilities.); and 7. Public acceptance.

4. Suggestions for Hong Kong for Wind Energy Development To stimulate the wind power development in Hong Kong, three aspects should be paid attention to, they are economics, public attitude, and political factors.

4.1. Economics Surveys show that both the government and power companies in Hong Kong react less for wind energy development because the high investment and long-time payback and also, the public do not want to pay HKD 1.8–2.3 per unit for wind power while the electricity price now is HKD 1/kWh. Thus, how to reduce the cost of energy (COE) is the main issue for Hong Kong when planning wind projects. With the maturation of technologies, wind project cost decreases [101,102]. When planning wind projects in Hong Kong, the following factors should be considered:

1. Based on the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL)’s report, the turbine cost of onshore and offshore wind project is 68% and 32% of the total capital [103]. So, the selection of a wind turbine which can produce significantly more power than other devices at the same wind speed is essential. For example, select turbines with new blade types, new control technologies, longer and lighter blades, or installed with taller wind towers, etc. 2. In Hong Kong, it was proved that there is great wind power potential with suitable geographical conditions for wind energy development [43]. At the stage of project planning, the location selection is important for the power generation of the project. Thus, windy locations with long-term wind resources observation and analysis are indispensable essential. 3. Reducing the operating cost can also significantly help to reduce the COE of wind energy. After the location is determined with specific turbines selected, the turbine layout optimization should be conducted and from which, the optimal turbine layout pattern can be obtained with higher power generation and decreased turbine interactions, and thus, the minimum COE can be obtained. Sustainability 2019, 11, 924 14 of 20

4. Other considerations, such as ﬁnancing costs, site-speciﬁc characteristics, availability, and cost of skilled labor, transportation and logistics, and other factors, should be considered.

4.2. Public Attitude Public attitude and social acceptance for wind energy is another important challenge. The public is always in a conﬂict and dilemma situation when facing the choice between wind turbines and landscape. In Great Britain’s study [104], this phenomenon is called a “green to green” dilemma, which means that locals living nearby a planned wind project have to choose between a global good and the local bad. They know that the wind project can reduce CO2 emissions, but they have to face the negative impact of turbines on the local landscape. Other studies [105–107] have also shown that public attitude towards wind projects based on broader factors relating to environmental, aesthetic, and socioeconomic dimensions. After considering all factors affecting the public attitude, it can be concluded that wind projects with minimal environmental impact and contribution to local economies, which are aesthetically pleasing, will be socially accepted. Factors contributing to society’s acceptance of a wind project include the ownership of the wind project, local information on the project, local network, as well as integration of the wind project developers. For Hong Kong, two activities can help to achieve local acceptance of wind project, as provided below:

1. Providing information and involving the public in the decision-making process and the actual project development and design process: for example, organizing seminars or workshops on the environmental and economic beneﬁts of wind projects and also, a public enquiry on the impact on the local landscape, etc. 2. Encouraging local ownership or ﬁnancial participation in the projects, including:

• Promoting local ownership: fund support for local groups or encourage wind projects to offer certain percent of ownership to locals; • Compensation for loss of value of real property: ﬁnancial compensation to individual property owners; • Providing fund support to locals, for example, enhancement of local scenic and recreational values.

4.3. Political Factors As the policy maker, the government should propose effective wind energy policy. In designing or adjusting wind energy policies, multiple goals should be taken into consideration together for the government. For Hong Kong, reducing oil dependence and carbon emissions to improve the air quality, relieving power supply pressure, setting up a new industry, as well as providing new job opportunities, are beneﬁcial. Therefore, the proposed energy strategy will include, but not be limited to the following items:

1. Proposing the Hong Kong Renewable Energy Law and setting up targets of wind electricity share from renewable energy, especially from wind energy in Hong Kong. Both a long-time and short-medium time target should be proposed and the target of 2–3%, which is out of date, should be totally abandoned. 2. Subsidy polices with detailed incentives and subsidies are appreciated:

• A fixed feed-in tariff: considering the large initial investment of a wind project, a higher fixed feed-in tariff can stimulate enthusiasm of investors. Previous incentives on wind projects, such as 11% of the average renewables net fixed assets was permitted to return’ from SCA proposed in 2008 can give experiences when determining the incentives. Sustainability 2019, 11, 924 15 of 20

• A continual supplement to the market price can make wind energy competitive with other traditional power until wind project technologies has matured enough to obtain a lower cost. • Environmental protection tariffs can be imposed on non-renewable energy resources.

3. When the policies are established, periodical evaluation on the socio-economic inﬂuences of the proposed policies should be conducted to ensure the policy effective; for example, regular seminars or workshops with public surveys held by the government or community can help policy-makers achieve immediate feedback for policy adjusting.

5. Conclusions and Policy Implications In this paper, a comprehensive analysis of Hong Kong’s wind energy from power potential to development constraints is conducted with the experiences from other countries as well as suggestions for local wind energy promotion. Detailed conclusions can be summarized as follows:

1. The power potential of wind energy in literature which is divided into three types (land, high-rising building and offshore wind) is reviewed. Great wind power potential in Hong Kong can be observed and concluded as to which represents a large part of annual electricity consumption. 2. The offshore wind power potential using field measured offshore wind data in the proposed offshore wind farm by Hong Kong Electric Co., Ltd. is conducted in this paper. Results show that the offshore wind power potential is estimated to be 14,449 GWh, which occupied 32.02% of electricity consumption in 2017. 3. The electricity market and power structure in Hong Kong is also reviewed with the existing policy related to wind energy development. Conclusions can be made that the renewable energy target in Hong Kong set in 2006 of 2–3% is out of date and until now, there is no specific policy on wind energy. 4. Wind energy utilization in Hong Kong is limited, although its potential has proved to be significant. The lack of effective policy for wind energy development in Hong Kong is the main constraint. The government, power companies, and public react little to wind project development. 5. The histories and evolutions of wind energy policies in Denmark are reviewed and discussed. It is concluded that both the detailed incentives, such as FIT and public attitude, are important for wind energy development. 6. Based on successful experiences in Denmark, suggestions are proposed for Hong Kong to develop wind energy. Economics, public attitude, and political factors are the three main aspects which can stimulate wind power development in Hong Kong. Detailed information and suggestions for these three aspects were investigated.

Author Contributions: Paper writing, X.G.; data analysis and figure drafting, L.X.; paper design, L.L.; data analysis and policy design, Y.L. Funding: This work is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No.51606068), a collaborative research grant from industry 8-ZG2L in Hong Kong, and ‘the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (2018MS101). The on-site wind data is provided by Hongkong Electric Co., Ltd. Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

1. Saidur, R.; Islam, M.R.; Rahim, N.A.; Solangi, K.H. A review on global wind energy policy. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2010, 14, 1744–1762. [CrossRef] 2. Li, P.; Han, Z.; Jia, X.; Mei, Z.; Han, X.; Wang, Z. Analysis and comparison on thermodynamic and economic performances of an organic Rankine cycle with constant and one-dimensional dynamic turbine efﬁciency. Energy Convers. Manag. 2019, 180, 665–679. [CrossRef] Sustainability 2019, 11, 924 16 of 20

3. Song, J.; Feng, Q.; Wang, X.; Fu, H.; Jiang, W.; Chen, B. Spatial Association and Effect Evaluation of CO2 Emission in the Chengdu-Chongqing Urban Agglomeration: Quantitative Evidence from Social Network Analysis. Sustainability 2019, 11, 1. [CrossRef] 4. Lindman, Å.; Söderholm, P. Wind energy and green economy in Europe: Measuring policy-induced innovation using patent data. Appl. Energy 2016, 179, 1351–1359. [CrossRef] 5. Alsharif, M.; Kim, J.; Kim, J. Opportunities and Challenges of Solar and Wind Energy in South Korea: A Review. Sustainability 2018, 10, 1822. [CrossRef] 6. Cory, K.S.; Couture, T.; Kreycik, C. Feed-In Tariff Policy: Design, Implementation, and RPS Policy Interactions; National Renewable Energy Laboratory: Golden, CO, USA, 2009. 7. Skiba, M.; Mrówczy´nska,M.; Bazan-Krzywosza´nska,A. Modeling the economic dependence between town development policy and increasing energy effectiveness with neural networks. Case study: The town of Zielona Góra. Appl. Energy 2017, 188, 356–366. [CrossRef] 8. Cheng, Y.; Gao, M.; Dong, J.; Jia, J.; Zhao, X.; Li, G. Investigation on the daylight and overall energy performance of semi-transparent photovoltaic facades in cold climatic regions of China. Appl. Energy 2018, 232, 517–526. [CrossRef] 9. International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA). IEA/IRENA Joint Polices and Measures Database. 2018. Available online: https://www.iea.org/policiesandmeasures/renewableenergy/ (accessed on 4 July 2018). 10. Doom, J. Poor Nations Go for Solar, Wind at Twice the Pace of Rich Ones. Renewable Energy World, 29 October 2014. 11. Bilgili, M.; Ozbek, A.; Sahin, B.; Kahraman, A. An overview of renewable electric power capacity and progress in new technologies in the world. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2015, 49, 323–334. [CrossRef] 12. Kim, J.; Guillaume, B.; Chung, J.; Hwang, Y. Critical and precious materials consumption and requirement in wind energy system in the EU 27. Appl. Energy 2015, 139, 327–334. [CrossRef] 13. García-Gusano, D.; Iribarren, D.; Garraín, D. Prospective analysis of energy security: A practical life-cycle approach focused on renewable power generation and oriented towards policy-makers. Appl. Energy 2017, 190, 891–901. [CrossRef] 14. Li, G.; Jin, Y.; Akram, M.W.; Chen, X. Research and current status of the solar photovoltaic water pumping system—A review. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2017, 79, 440–458. [CrossRef] 15. Geng, W.; Zeng, M.; Peng, L.; Liu, X.; Li, B.; Duan, Z. China’s new energy development: Status, constraints and reforms. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2016, 53, 885–896. [CrossRef] 16. Shen, J.; Luo, C. Overall review of renewable energy subsidy policies in China–Contradictions of intentions and effects. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2015, 41, 1478–1488. [CrossRef] 17. He, G.; Kammen, D.M. Where, when and how much wind is available? A provincial-scale wind resource assessment for China. Energy Policy 2014, 74, 116–122. [CrossRef] 18. Zhang, X.; Ma, C.; Song, X.; Zhou, Y.; Chen, W. The impacts of wind technology advancement on future global energy. Appl. Energy 2016, 184, 1033–1037. [CrossRef] 19. Zhang, L.; Liu, Y. Analysis of New Energy Vehicles Industry Policy in China’s Cities from the Perspective of Policy instruments. Energy Procedia 2016, 104, 437–442. [CrossRef] 20. Liu, Z.; Wu, D.; Li, J.; Yu, H.; He, B. Optimizing Building Envelope Dimensions for Passive Solar Houses in the Qinghai-Tibetan Region: Window to Wall Ratio and Depth of Sunspace. J. Therm. Sci. 2018, 1–14. [CrossRef] 21. International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA). Renewable Energy Target Setting. June 2015. Available online: https://www.irena.org/publications/2015/Jun/Renewable-Energy-Target-Setting (accessed on 4 July 2018). 22. Kaplan, Y.A. Overview of wind energy in the world and assessment of current wind energy policies in Turkey. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2015, 43, 562–568. [CrossRef] 23. Nordensvärd, J.; Urban, F. The stuttering energy transition in Germany: Wind energy policy and feed-in tariff lock-in. Energy Policy 2015, 82, 156–165. [CrossRef] 24. Knopf, B.; Nahmmacher, P.; Schmid, E. The European renewable energy target for 2030—An impact assessment of the electricity sector. Energy Policy 2015, 85, 50–60. [CrossRef] 25. GWEC (Global Wind Energy Council). Global Wind Report. 2018. Available online: www.tuulivoimayhdistys. fi/filebank/1191-GWEC_Global_Wind_Report_April_2018.pdf (accessed on 4 July 2018). Sustainability 2019, 11, 924 17 of 20

26. Zhang, X.; Shen, L.; Chan, S.Y. The diffusion of solar energy use in HK: What are the barriers? Energy Policy 2012, 41, 241–249. [CrossRef] 27. Electrical and Mechanical Services Department (EMSD). Hong Kong Energy End-Use Data; The Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region: Hong Kong, China, 2018. 28. Onea, F.; Rusu, E. Efficiency assessments for some state of the art wind turbines in the coastal environments of the Black and the Caspian seas. Energy Explor. Exploit. 2016, 34, 217–234. [CrossRef] 29. Rusu, L.; Ganea, D.; Mereuta, E. A joint evaluation of wave and wind energy resources in the Black Sea based on 20-year hindcast information. Energy Explor. Exploit. 2017, 36, 335–351. [CrossRef] 30. Genç, M.S.; Çelik, M.; Karasu, I.˙ A review on wind energy and wind–hydrogen production in Turkey: A case study of hydrogen production via electrolysis system supplied by wind energy conversion system in Central Anatolian Turkey. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2012, 16, 6631–6646. [CrossRef] 31. Genç, M.S.; Gökçek, M. Evaluation of Wind Characteristics and Energy Potential in Kayseri, Turkey. J. Energy Eng. 2009, 135, 33–43. [CrossRef] 32. Gökçek, M.; Genç, M.S. Evaluation of electricity generation and energy cost of wind energy conversion systems (WECSs) in Central Turkey. Appl. Energy 2009, 86, 2731–2739. [CrossRef] 33. Genç, M.S. Economic Analysis of Large-Scale Wind Energy Conversion Systems in Central Anatolian Turkey. In Clean Energy Systems and Experiences; Eguchi, K., Ed.; Intech-Sciyo: Vienna, Austria, October 2010; pp. 131–154. 34. Genç Mustafa, S. Economic Viability of Water Pumping Systems Supplied by Wind Energy Conversion and Diesel Generator Systems in North Central Anatolia, Turkey. J. Energy Eng. 2011, 137, 21–35. [CrossRef] 35. Paul, S.S.; Oyedepo, S.O.; Adaramola, M.S. Economic Assessment of Water Pumping Systems Using Wind Energy Conversion Systems in the Southern Part of Nigeria. Energy Explor. Exploit. 2012, 30, 1–17. [CrossRef] 36. Genç, G.; Çelik, M.; Genç, M.S. Cost analysis of wind-electrolyzer-fuel cell system for energy demand in Pınarba¸sı-Kayseri. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2012, 37, 12158–12166. [CrossRef] 37. Bilgili, M.; Sahin, B. Investigation of Wind Energy Density in the Southern and Southwestern Region of Turkey. J. Energy Eng. 2009, 135, 12–20. [CrossRef] 38. Sahin, B.; Bilgili, M. Wind Characteristics and Energy Potential in Belen-Hatay, Turkey. Int. J. Green Energy 2009, 6, 157–172. [CrossRef] 39. Ahmed Shata, A.S.; Hanitsch, R. Evaluation of wind energy potential and electricity generation on the coast of Mediterranean Sea in Egypt. Renew. Energy 2006, 31, 1183–1202. [CrossRef] 40. Chang, T.-J.; Tu, Y.-L. Evaluation of monthly capacity factor of WECS using chronological and probabilistic wind speed data: A case study of Taiwan. Renew. Energy 2007, 32, 1999–2010. [CrossRef] 41. Nouni, M.R.; Mullick, S.C.; Kandpal, T.C. Techno-economics of small wind electric generator projects for decentralized power supply in India. Energy Policy 2007, 35, 2491–2506. [CrossRef] 42. Gao, X.; Yang, H.; Lu, L. Study on offshore wind power potential and wind farm optimization in Hong Kong. Appl. Energy 2014, 130, 519–531. [CrossRef] 43. Gao, X.; Yang, H.; Lu, L. Investigation into the optimal wind turbine layout patterns for a Hong Kong offshore wind farm. Energy 2014, 73, 430–442. [CrossRef] 44. Wong, L.T.; Mui, K.W. Efficiency assessment of indoor environmental policy for air-conditioned offices in Hong Kong. Appl. Energy 2009, 86, 1933–1938. [CrossRef] 45. Dong, C.G. Feed-in tariff vs. renewable portfolio standard: An empirical test of their relative effectiveness in promoting wind capacity development. Energy Policy 2012, 42, 476–485. [CrossRef] 46. Ucar, A.; Balo, F. Evaluation of wind energy potential and electricity generation at six locations in Turkey. Appl. Energy 2009, 86, 1864–1872. [CrossRef] 47. Hamilton, J.D. This is what happened to the oil price-macroeconomy relationship. J. Monet. Econ. 1996, 38, 215–220. [CrossRef] 48. Dai, K.; Bergot, A.; Liang, C.; Xiang, W.; Huang, Z. Environmental issues associated with wind energy—A review. Renew. Energy 2015, 75, 911–921. [CrossRef] 49. Boey, A.; Su, B. Low-carbon Transport Sectoral Development and Policy in Hong Kong and Singapore. Energy Procedia 2014, 61, 313–317. [CrossRef] 50. Chipindula, J.; Botlaguduru, V.S.V.; Du, H.; Kommalapati, R.R.; Huque, Z. Life Cycle Environmental Impact of Onshore and Offshore Wind Farms in Texas. Sustainability 2018, 10, 2022. [CrossRef] Sustainability 2019, 11, 924 18 of 20

51. Lam, T.N.T.; Botlaguduru, V.S.V.; Du, H.; Kommalapati, R.R.; Huque, Z. Impact of climate change on commercial sector air conditioning energy consumption in subtropical Hong Kong. Appl. Energy 2010, 87, 2321–2327. [CrossRef] 52. Lee, W.L.; Yik, F.W.H. Framework for formulating a performance-based incentive-rebate scale for the demand-side-energy management scheme for commercial buildings in Hong Kong. Appl. Energy 2002, 73, 139–166. [CrossRef] 53. Hong Kong Observatory. 2018. Available online: https://www.hko.gov.hk/contentc.htm (accessed on 4 July 2018). 54. Study on the Potential Applications of Renewable Energy in Hong Kong-Stage 1 Study Report; Electrical & Mechanical Services Department, Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region: Hong Kong, China, 2002. 55. Lu, L.; Yang, H.; Burnett, J. Investigation on wind power potential on Hong Kong islands—An analysis of wind power and wind turbine characteristics. Renew. Energy 2002, 27, 1–12. [CrossRef] 56. Lu, L.; Yang, H. Wind data analysis and a case study of wind power generation in Hong Kong. Wind Eng. 2001, 25, 115–123. [CrossRef] 57. Lu, L.; Ip, K.Y. Investigation on the feasibility and enhancement methods of wind power utilization in high-rise buildings of Hong Kong. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2009, 13, 450–461. [CrossRef] 58. Lu, L.; Sun, K. Wind power evaluation and utilization over a reference high-rise building in urban area. Energy Build. 2014, 68, 339–350. [CrossRef] 59. Li, G. Feasibility of large scale offshore wind power for Hong Kong—A preliminary study. Renew. Energy 2000, 21, 387–402. [CrossRef] 60. Hong Kong Observatory, Information of Weather Station. 2018. Available online: https://www.hko.gov.hk/ contente.htm (accessed on 4 July 2018). 61. The Hongkong Electric Co., Ltd. (HK Electric). Building an Offshore Wind Farm near Lamma Island.Afﬁrms-Southwest-Lamma-Offshore-Wind-Farm. 2018. Available online: https://www.hkelectric. com/en/media-resources/press-releases/2010/02/05/EIA-Study- (accessed on 4 July 2018). 62. Gao, X.; Yang, H.; Lu, L.; Koo, P. Wind turbine layout optimization using multi-population genetic algorithm and a case study in Hong Kong offshore. J. Wind Eng. Ind. Aerodyn. 2015, 139, 89–99. [CrossRef] 63. Hui, S.C. From Renewable Energy to Sustainability: The Challenge for Hong Kong; Hong Kong Institution of Engineers: Hong Kong, China, 1997; pp. 351–358. 64. Electrical & Mechanical Services Department (EMSD). HK RE Net. Available online: 2018.https://re.emsd. gov.hk/english/wind/small/small_ep.html (accessed on 5 November 2018). 65. Electrical & Mechanical Services Department (EMSD). HEC wind turbine project on Lamma Island. 2018. Available online: https://re.emsd.gov.hk/english/wind/large/large_ep.html (accessed on 5 November 2018). 66. HK Offshore Wind Limited. Hong Kong Offshore Wind Farm in Southeastern Waters; HK Offshore Wind Limited: Hong Kong, China, 2009. 67. HK Offshore Wind Limited. Hong Kong Offshore Wind Farm in Southeastern Waters-Executive Summary; HK Offshore Wind Limited: Hong Kong, China, 2009. 68. Lin, Z. Renewable Energy in Hong Kong: Worth it or not? Harbour Times, 10 July 2015. Available online: http://harbourtimes.com/2015/07/10/renewable-energy-in-hong-kong-worth-it-or-not/ (accessed on 5 November 2018). 69. Heading towards Sustainability, The Third Review of Progress on the 1989 White Paper: Pollution in Hong Kong—A Time to Act, Planning, Environment and Lands Branch; Government Secretariat: Hong Kong, China, March 1996. 70. A First Sustainable Development Strategy for Hong Kong, in Sustainable Development Unit; Ofﬁce of the Chief Secretary for Administration: Hong Kong, China, 2005. 71. Public Consultation on Future Fuel Mix for Electricity for Hong Kong, T.G.o.t.H.K.S.A.R; Environment Bureau: Hong Kong, China, 2014. Available online: http://www.gov.hk/en/residents/government/publication/ consultation/docs/2014/FuelMix.pdf (accessed on 24 July 2018 ). 72. A Clean Air Plan for Hong Kong; Environment Bureau, The Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region: Hong Kong, China, 2013. 73. Lipp, J. Lessons for effective renewable electricity policy from Denmark, Germany and the United Kingdom. Energy Policy 2007, 35, 5481–5495. [CrossRef] Sustainability 2019, 11, 924 19 of 20

74. Shrimali, G.; Lynes, M.; Indvik, J. Wind energy deployment in the US: An empirical analysis of the role of federal and state policies. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2015, 43, 796–806. [CrossRef] 75. Dai, Y.; Xue, L. China’s policy initiatives for the development of wind energy technology. Clim. Policy 2015, 15, 30–57. [CrossRef] 76. Parker, A. Renewable Energy Target for Australia–The Role of Fuel Conversion Efﬁciency and Waste Biomass Valorisation. Energy Environ. 2015, 26, 847–851. [CrossRef] 77. Cory, K.; Kreycik, C.; Williams, E. A Policymaker’s Guide to Feed-In Tariff Policy Design; National Renewable Energy Laboratory: Golden, CO, USA, 2010. 78. Berry, T.; Jaccard, M. The renewable portfolio standard: Design considerations and an implementation survey. Energy Policy 2001, 29, 263–277. [CrossRef] 79. Sawin, A.L. Mainstreaming Renewable Energy in the 21st Century; World Watch Institute: Washington, DC, USA, 2004. 80. Couture, T.; Gagnon, Y. An analysis of feed-in tariff remuneration models: Implications for renewable energy investment. Energy Policy 2010, 38, 955–965. [CrossRef] 81. Hirsh, R.F. PURPA: The spur to competition and utility restructuring. Electr. J. 1999, 12, 60–72. [CrossRef] 82. Komor, P. Renewable Energy Policy; IUniverse: Lincoln, NE, USA, 2004. 83. Reiche, D. Handbook of Renewable Energies in the European Union: Case Studies of the EU-15; Peter Lang: Frankfurt am Main, Germany, 2005. 84. Butler, L.; Neuhoff, K. Comparison of feed-in tariff, quota and auction mechanisms to support wind power development. Renew. Energy 2008, 33, 1854–1867. [CrossRef] 85. Mendonça, M. Feed-In Tariffs: Accelerating the Deployment of Renewable Energy; Routledge: London, UK, 2009. 86. Mitchell, C.; Bauknecht, D.; Connor, P.M. Effectiveness through risk reduction: A comparison of the renewable obligation in England and Wales and the feed-in system in Germany. Energy Policy 2006, 34, 297–305. [CrossRef] 87. Strawn, W. (Ed.) Feed-In Tariff Handbook for Asian Renewable Energy Systems; WINSTON & STRAWN: Hong Kong, China, 2014. 88. WIKIPEDIA. Renewable Portfolio Standard. 2014. Available online: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Renewable_portfolio_standard (accessed on 24 July 2018). 89. Baker, D.R. Brown signs climate law mandating 50% renewable power by 2030. San Francisco Chronicle, 7 October 2015. 90. Meyer, N.I. Learning from wind energy policy in the EU: Lessons from Denmark, Sweden and Spain. Eur. Environ. 2007, 17, 347–362. [CrossRef] 91. GWEC. Global Wind Report 2015; Global Wind Energy Council: Brussels, Belgium, February 2016. 92. Garud, R.; Karnøe, P. Bricolage versus breakthrough: Distributed and embedded agency in technology entrepreneurship. Res. Policy 2003, 32, 277–300. [CrossRef] 93. Wang, W. Denmark: The Power of Feed-in Tariffs. 2013. Available online: http://www.cleantechies.com/ 2013/05/23/denmark-the-power-of-feed-in-tariffs/ (accessed on 24 July 2018). 94. Ratinen, M.; Lund, P. Policy inclusiveness and niche development: Examples from wind energy and photovoltaics in Denmark, Germany, Finland, and Spain. Energy Res. Soc. Sci. 2015, 6, 136–145. [CrossRef] 95. Publich Opinion. 2009. [Cited 2016]. Available online: http://www.windpower.org/en/policy/public_ opinion.html (accessed on 28 January 2019). 96. Toke, D.; Breukers, S.; Wolsink, M. Wind power deployment outcomes: How can we account for the differences? Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2008, 12, 1129–1147. [CrossRef] 97. Jamison, A.; Eyerman, R.; Cramer, J. The Making of the New Environmental Consciousness: A Comparative Study of Environmental Movements in Sweden, Denmark and the Netherlands; Edinburgh University Press: Edinburgh, UK, 1991; Volume 1. 98. O’Neill, M. Green Parties and Political Change in Contemporary Europe: New Politics, Old Predicaments; Dartmouth Pub Co.: Hanover, NH, USA, 1997. 99. WIKIPEDIA. Risø DTU National Laboratory for Sustainable Energy. 2016. Available online: https://en.wikipedia. org/wiki/Ris%C3%B8_DTU_National_Laboratory_for_Sustainable_Energy (accessed on 11 May 2018). 100. Danish Wind Industry Association: Copenhagen, Denmark, 2015. Available online: https://windpower. org/en (accessed on 24 July 2018). Sustainability 2019, 11, 924 20 of 20

101. Enevoldsen, P.; Sovacool, B.K. Examining the social acceptance of wind energy: Practical guidelines for onshore wind project development in France. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2016, 53, 178–184. [CrossRef] 102. Mundaca, L.; Markandya, A. Assessing regional progress towards a ‘Green Energy Economy’. Appl. Energy 2016, 179, 1372–1394. [CrossRef] 103. Moné, C.; Smith, A.; Maples, B.; Hand, M. 2013 Cost of Wind Energy Review; National Renewable Energy Laboratory: Golden, CO, USA, 2013. Available online: www.nrel.gov/publications (accessed on 24 July 2018). 104. Warren, C.R.; Lumsden, C.; O’Dowd, S.; Birnie, R.V. ‘Green on green’: Public perceptions of wind power in Scotland and Ireland. J. Environ. Plan. Manag. 2005, 48, 853–875. [CrossRef] 105. Roques, F.; Hiroux, C.; Saguan, M. Optimal wind power deployment in Europe—A portfolio approach. Energy Policy 2010, 38, 3245–3256. [CrossRef] 106. Jobert, A.; Laborgne, P.; Mimler, S. Local acceptance of wind energy: Factors of success identiﬁed in French and German case studies. Energy Policy 2007, 35, 2751–2760. [CrossRef] 107. Manwell, J.F.; McGowan, J.G.; Rogers, A.L. Wind Energy Explained: Theory, Design and Application; John Wiley & Sons: New York, NY, USA, 2010.

© 2019 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).