sign in sign up
<<
Home , Gay bishops, Mainline Protestant, Social Gospel, The Christian Century

A Force Overlooked: Mainline Churches’ Influence on American Civil Rights Movements since the Mid-Twentieth Century

Clayton Harrington Campbell University Faculty Mentor: Jaclyn Stanke Campbell University

ABSTRACT In recent years, Evangelical and have received a great deal of attention concerning their influence and impact on American society and culture over the last fifty years. Because of that, the impact and influence of Mainline Protestantism has frequently been overlooked. This essay examines both Evangelical and churches’ reactions and statements to three movements from the mid-twentieth century to the present: the , the Feminist Movement, and the Rights Movement. In doing so, I argue that Mainline Protestant churches have actually had a greater, though more subtle, impact on American society and culture than previously thought.

ince ’s beginnings, various one of these Protestant groups, which en- Ssects have existed, all vying for the hearts sured that many English speaking Christians and minds of humanity. While the Roman would embrace Protestantism in some form. Catholic and Eastern Orthodox traditions Various sects came to America beginning in remain largely homogenous, Protestantism the seventeenth century, especially dissenters has been historically divided. From its of the Anglican Church such as the very origins it fragmented into various de- and . During the next century other nominations whose views, while largely groups followed, bringing myriad versions similar, differ on varying matters of doc- of Protestantism as well as Catholicism to trine and dogma. The first evident “split” America, all contentiously practicing side by occurred in 1529 when and side. Ulrich Zwingli, two reformers, were unable It is from this background that two branches to agree on a set of theological issues, thus of Protestantism developed in twentieth cen- creating two separate reformed churches.1 tury America – Mainline and Evangelical. During the remainder of the century, various The sharp divide between the two arose with Protestant groups emerged with opposing the beginnings of Fundamentalism in the late views. The represented nineteenth century. Evangelical churches

1 R. Dean Peterson, A Concise , 3rd Edition (Belmont, C.A.: Wadsworth, 2007) 204-205.

1 Clayton Harrington embraced Fundamentalism and sought to – the Civil Rights Movement, the Feminist preserve what they considered true Christian Movement, and the Gay Rights Movement – teachings.2 Mainline Protestant churches gen- and examines the involvement and responses erally accepted Liberal Theology, a Christian of Mainline and Evangelical churches. By theology open to modern reason as well as examining the statements and reactions from personal, intellectual, philosophical, and ex- both Mainline and Evangelical Protestants, I istential reflection.3 These Mainline churches demonstrate the lasting and current influence claimed that while their teachings were up- of the Mainline churches in matters of social dated, they were nonetheless true. Moreover, justice and civil rights in America, by work- they argued that Fundamentalism’s emphasis ing within their churches to foster equality on literalism was now archaic. The two sides and by engaging in reform movements out- were also separated by Darwin’s theory of side their churches. evolution, as Mainline churches were more likely to accept evolution than Evangelical Background Information churches. Since the mid-twentieth century, the impact Mainline Protestantism includes most and influence of Evangelical Protestantism Methodists, Presbyterians, Lutherans, and on American society and politics have been Episcopalians, as well as other small denom- clearly visible. If one considers Christianity inations such as the .4 in the United States in the mid-twentieth cen- In his book, The Public Church, Martin Marty tury, one can quickly think of conservative describes the Mainline as having “known names, movements, and political stances: fewer difficulties than have others with the , pro-life movements, and op- public order, but greater problems with being position to gay marriage. But what about the church, with remaining intact as a cen- the Mainline churches? Mainline churches ter of loyalty to Christ.”5 Mainline churches actively participated in movements such have appealed to individuals who embrace as the Social and the Civil Rights the “priesthood of the believer,” but have Movement. Further, after the success of these weakened the churches’ focus on the Triune movements, the Evangelicals often joined, or God as revealed in , meaning they have at least consented to, the goals of the move- been less concerned with converting others to ments, revealing the Mainline’s subtle, but Christ. At the beginning of the twentieth cen- clear influence. tury, Mainline Protestants were characterized Evangelical Protestantism represents the by their acceptance or openness to Liberal larger of the two traditions and has received Theology, critical study of the , the the- the majority of attention and credit in shap- ory of evolution, and an emphasis on a social ing recent American society and culture. application of the Gospel.6 However, in the current essay, I argue that According to Paul Rasor, “liberal theology Mainline Protestantism’s influence has not tries to articulate a framework within which only been overlooked, but that its contri- one can be deeply religious and fully mod- bution to American civil rights reforms has ern at the same time.”7 Adolf von Harnack had a greater, though more subtle, impact on was a German Liberal theologian who wrote the development of American society from many works, including What is Christianity? the mid-twentieth century to the present. Characteristic of Liberal Theology, he wrote To do so, this essay addresses three crucial “that the earth in its course stood still; that movements within the twentieth century a she-ass spoke; that a storm was quieted

2 Peterson, A Concise History of Christianity, 328. 4 “Affiliations,” Church Statistics and Religious Affiliations - U.S. 3 Paul Rasor, Faith Without Certainty: Liberal Theology in the Religious Landscape Study - Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life, Twenty-First Century (Boston: Skinner House Books, 2005), 1. accessed November 4, 2013, http://religions.pewforum.org/affiliations/; for the division of denominations into Mainline or Evangelical. 5 Martin Marty, The Public Church: Mainline, Evangelical, Catholic (New York: Crossroad Publishing Company, 1981), 3. 6 Peterson, A Concise History of Christianity, 326-328. 7 Paul Rasor, Faith Without Certainty: Liberal Theology in the Twenty- First Century, 1. 2 Explorations |Humanities and Fine Arts by a word, we do not believe, and we shall word “εὐαγγέλιον” or “euangélion,” which never again believe.”8 In other words, mir- translates into English as “Gospel” or “Good acles were denied as impossible and (in the News.”11 The term must be qualified. In areas words of the Enlightenment philosophers) outside the United States, “Evangelical” is of- unreasonable. Liberal Theology sometimes ten used interchangeably with and more often questioned the divinity of Jesus, the accuracy than that of “Protestant,” without any of the of the , and elements connotations or meanings that “Evangelical” that seemed to be supernatural, such as the holds within the United States. American physical and his phys- Evangelical denominations include most ical . Those who supported Baptists and Nondenominationals, along with Liberal Theology also promoted critical some Lutherans and small portions of other study of the Bible, as with any other work of denominations.12 Marty describes modern literature.9 This involved research and exam- Evangelicals as “[having] less problem with ination as to how the current texts were orig- being the church in the sense of a called out inally written and by whom, how they were and set apart body. But they have had more passed down, and how they may have been difficulties with public consciousness, with edited and redacted. From a liberal perspec- discerning how they are called to serve God tive, evolution was less of a problem because beyond the specialized field of saving souls the Mainline churches tended to view the out of the world.”13 According to Marty, then, Genesis creation narratives as simple stories Evangelicals have succeeded at being a spir- that the ancient Hebrew people told to help itual community, but have been less success- them understand who they were in relation ful outside of their focal mission – “soul-sav- to God. These stories were merely theologi- ing.” Today’s American Evangelicals were cal narratives, not scientific ones. Moreover, heavily influenced by the Fundamentalist it seemed possible that God was the guiding movement of the early twentieth century and force behind evolution, fostering biological this is what helped create the two distinct progression and development.10 sides of Protestantism in America. Through Mainline Protestantism also advocated a the influence of Fundamentalism and cultural social application of the Gospel. The Social , Evangelicals were character- Gospel movement during the American ized by opposition to Liberal Theology, crit- constituted a of ical study of the Bible, the theory of evolu- society, one entreating Christians to live out tion, and a social application of the Gospel.14 the teachings of Jesus regarding the unprivi- Evangelicals rejected Liberal Theology. leged and employing American society as a They saw the Liberal theologians as eliminat- means to execute the will of God. Instead ing the “fundamental” truths of Christianity of just trying to save the souls of the dispos- and simply retaining a moral philosophy. sessed, the adherents of the Fundamentalist scholars enumerated the most hoped to uplift such individuals through po- important Christian doctrines and these were litical or physical means. often (but not always) what the Liberal theo- In response to these Mainline beliefs, logians had been calling into question. These Evangelicals contended that the truths of included “(1) the inerrancy of Scripture, (2) the Gospel were being lost to the modern- the Virgin Birth of Christ, (3) his substitution- izing trends of Liberal Protestantism. The ary atonement, (4) his bodily resurrection, word “Evangelical,” comes from the Greek and (5) the authenticity of the miracles.”15 In

8 Adolf Harnack, What is Christianity? (Minneapolis, M.N.: Fortress 11 , Understanding Fundamentalism and Press, 1986), 28. , 2. 9 Peterson, A Concise History of Christianity, 327. 12 “Affiliations,” Church Statistics and Religious Affiliations - U.S. 10 George Marsden, Understanding Fundamentalism and Evangelicalism Religious Landscape Study - Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life, (Grand Rapids, M.I.: W.B. Eerdmans, 1991), 36. accessed November 4, 2013, http://religions.pewforum.org/affiliations/. 13 Marty, The Public Church, 3. 14 Peterson, A Concise History of Christianity, 326-328.

3 Clayton Harrington this rejection of Liberal Theology and accep- Christianity, published several articles en- tance of Fundamentalism, the inerrancy of dorsing the movement. While it cannot be as- scripture often proved to be the most essen- sumed that all Mainline Protestants supported tial tenet of their faith. The Fundamentalists the views in the magazine, it can be inferred considered the “higher criticism” of the Bible that the majority of them did because the as antithetical to their convictions and as- publication reflected their interests and- be serted that those who searched for errors and liefs. Also, influenced called for such radical examinations of the the Mainline understanding of the events and Bible were obviously losing faith and could issues. As early as 1960, the magazine em- influence other Christians to challenge God’s braced the movement. An editorial concern- Word.16 Evangelicals saw Darwin’s theory of ing the sit-in protests wrote, “We expect the evolution as a false teaching culminating in turmoil to spread, but we do not expect this atheism.17 Evolution, they argued, was fun- nonviolent resistance movement to be de- damentally different from the Christian un- feated. When its work is done we will have derstanding of science, nature, and creation, a better America.”19 They recognized that so- with no chance of reconciliation. Finally, the cial justice might engender trouble, violence, Evangelicals rejected the social implemen- and chaos, but they believed in what the Civil tation of the Gospel and emphasized per- Rights Movement stood for and they saw sonal over societal change.18 The something worth fighting for (through civil Evangelicals agreed that Jesus loved people disobedience, of course). and wanted his followers to love other peo- Not only were Mainline churches support- ple, but then stated that the greatest expres- ive in morale, but they also participated in the sion of that love is to share the truth about movement. A group of fifty-three Episcopal God as revealed in Jesus in order to provide clergy and laymen traveled to , individuals an opportunity to accept God’s D.C., during October 1963 to support the pas- grace and avoid the fires of . sage of Civil Rights legislation. While it could have been expected that the group would be Examination of Reform Movements made up of all northerners, the group also in- Civil Rights Movement cluded representatives from southern states. The Reverend Arthur Walmsley, a partici- By the 1960s, the Civil Rights Movement pant on this venture, spoke and gave reason was beginning to build momentum and draw for their gathering: “From the standpoint of both support and opposition from Christian conscience, it is scandalous that it of every background including Christians. is necessary to require legislation to give part Many leaders of the movement were minis- of the people what all should have.”20 ters, but some of the harshest criticisms came The Lutheran Church in America proposed from the pulpit. Many factors came into play a resolution at its Biennial Convention in 1964 as to how Christians reacted to the move- that expressed ardent support for civil rights ment, including whether one was a Mainline and spoke harshly against those who discrim- or Evangelical Protestant. inated, even saying that those who used a Mainline Protestant churches drew upon biblical justification for discrimination had a a heritage of social activism. When the distorted view of God and Scripture. They Civil Rights Movement started in earnest, resolved that “the church must oppose any Mainliners were ready to go. The Christian law or governmental practice which under the Century, the leading magazine of Mainline guise of rightful authority perverts justice.”21

15 Marsden, Fundamentalism and American Culture, 117; other lists 19 “Resistance Movement Grows in South,” Christian Century, March 16, included the physical, imminent return of Christ, see Peterson, A 1960, 308-309, ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials, EBSCOhost, Concise History of Christianity, 328. accessed November 4, 2013. 16 Marsden, Fundamentalism and American Culture, 112. 20 “Group Promotes Civil Rights Legislation,” Diocesan Press Service, 17 Marsden, Understanding Fundamentalism and Evangelicalism, 37. November 3, 1963, in the Archives of the Episcopal Church, 18 Peterson, A Concise History of Christianity, 329. accessed November 4, 2013, http://www.episcopalarchives.org/cgibin/ ENS/ENSpress _release.pl?pr_number=XV-5.

4 Explorations |Humanities and Fine Arts

The Lutherans believed strongly that dis- race relations throughout the Civil Rights crimination against fellow humans went Movement, as it was often reaffirmed by against the law and love of God. Therefore, the SBC at subsequent Conventions.25 The civil disobedience was acceptable and even Baptist Press, the newspaper for the SBC, exemplary if it ended discrimination. The published several articles dealing with the clergy of the Episcopal Church proved quite Civil Rights Movement. An early article active. According to the Diocesan Press quoted the president of Mercer University, Service, an Episcopal priest was arrested on a Baptist institution, as calling for the en- April 24, 1964, in Chester, , for forcement of civil rights legislation in south- leading and participating in a demonstration. ern states. The reasoning for this was based He had even attempted to prevent an officer mostly on his assumption that if the southern from hitting an African American partici- states refused to act, further and stricter legis- pant by putting himself in between the two. lation regarding integration would be imple- Presiding Lichetenberger expressed mented by the US Government.26 That had to and support for the priest and the be avoided. 22 movement. Wayne Dehoney, president of the SBC in Evangelical churches responded to the 1964, argued that the SBC and its members Civil Rights Movement with less enthusi- should accept and follow the civil rights leg- asm. Some in fact chose to ignore the is- islation because God had instructed humanity sue. Evangelical denominations tended to to follow laws, as long as they did not vio- avoid social activism as a regular practice late God’s laws or one’s conscience. At first and instead they focused on mission work it seemed that this was all he had to say, as at home and abroad. As their name suggests, if the law should simply be obeyed from a they felt called to evangelize and to spread completely legal standpoint. However, he Christianity to the world and to those closer finished by saying that the gospel must con- to home. The Southern Baptist Convention tinue to work on the hearts of humanity to (SBC) issued a resolution dealing with race “eradicate the prejudice that spawns racial 23 relations in 1944. It stated: discrimination.”27 The Church of God responded to the Civil That this Convention would urge the pastors Rights Movement and legislation with a res- and churches affiliated with the Convention, olution which declared that constitutional and all our Baptist people, to cultivate and maintain the finest Christian spirit and- at rights should be recognized. However, the titude toward the Negro race, and to do ev- resolution did not call on Christians to advo- erything possible for the welfare of the race, cate for such rights.28 The Church of God rec- both economic and religious and for the de- ognized that all people are equal and should fense and protection of all the civil rights of have equality, but there was no call for action the race. 24 or participation. The Church of God appeared to have good intentions, but for the most part This statement guided the SBC’s stance on it remained out of the fray. Similarly in 1965,

21 Lutheran Church in America, “Race Relations: A Statement of the 25 See, Southern Baptist Convention, “Resolution on Race Relations,” Lutheran Church in America, 1964,” July 2-9, 1964, accessed Nove May 1948, accessed December 3, 2013, http://www.sbc.net/resolutions/ -mber 4, 2013, http://www.elca.org/Who-We-Are/History/ELCA- amResolution.asp?ID=884, and Southern Baptist Convention, Archives/Archival-Documents/Predecessor-Body-Statements/ “Resolution on Race Relations,” June 1961, accessed December 3, Lutheran-Church-in-America/Race-Relations.aspx. 2013, http://www.sbc.net/resolutions/amResolution.asp?ID=886. 22 “Episcopal Priest Held on $26,500 Bail in Racial Witness,” Diocesan 26 Press Service, May 6, 1964, in the Archives of the Episcopal Church, 26 “Right to Vote Cannot be Denied: Harris,” Baptist Press, May 4, accessed November 4, 2013, http://www.episcopalarchives.org/cgi- 1960, accessed November 4, 2013, http://media.sbhla.org.s3. bin/ENS/ENSpress_release.pl?pr_number= XXI-C. amazonaws. com/1038,04-May-1960.pdf. 23 While there are limitations to using the SBC as representative of 27 “Civil Rights Law Viewed as a Test,” Baptist Press, July 8, 1964, Evangelicals, this paper will often do so because it constitutes 25% accessed November 4, 2013, http://media.sbhla.org.s3.amazonaws. of the Evangelical tradition and is the most unified of the Evangelical com/1929,08-Jul-1964.pdf. denominations. Cf. “Affiliations,” Church Statistics and Religious 28 Church of God Evangel, LIV, August 31, 1964, 34, quoted in Julia Affiliations - U.S. Religious Landscape Study - Pew Forum on Religion K. Blackwelder, “Southern White Fundamentalists and the Civil Rights & Public Life, accessed November 4, 2013, http://religions.pewforum. Movement,” Phylon 40, no.4, (4th Qtr., 1979), 337, accessed November org/affiliations/. 4, 2013, http://www.jstor.org/stable/274530. 24 Southern Baptist Convention, “Resolution on Race,” May 1944, accessed October 21, 2013, http://www.sbc.net/resolutions/amResolu tion.asp?ID=882. 5 Clayton Harrington the SBC issued a resolution concerning civil civil rights of African-Americans.”31 While rights. An amendment was added that stated this is commendable, over thirty years passed that the members of the Convention “deplore between the 1964 Civil Rights Act and this the open and premeditated violation of civil resolution. The SBC realized it had not done laws, the destruction of property, the shed- enough and that the culture had gone on with- ding of human blood, or the taking of life as a out it. The Mainline denominations’ fight for means of influencing legislation or changing equality had become the fight of the nation. the social and cultural patterns.”29 Southern Given that, the Evangelicals acknowledged Baptists considered the demonstrations to be that they had been wrong and resolved not progenitors of social chaos and disruption, to let their prejudices influence their view of things with which they did not want to be God and humanity again. associated. In general, the Mainline Protestant Feminist Movement Churches proved more vocal, supportive, and participatory in the Civil Rights move- Just as had demanded ment than their Evangelical counterparts. that their rights and proper status in American While supportive in intentions, Evangelical society should be upheld, women too began churches rarely provided their members with to call for equality in the 1960s. Women any practical means to help bring about the wanted to change the way society, includ- equality they professed to support. While ing their churches, viewed and treated them. Mainline denominations gave express per- Most denominations at the time did not or- mission and direction to engage in the move- dain female clergy and these churches had ment because of their understanding of God long taught that women were to be submis- and the Bible, the Evangelical churches were sive to their husbands. Some women felt that not so direct in their calls for equality and Christianity and full gender equality were they generally did not advocate participation. incompatible.32 Others saw the Bible as per- It must be recalled that the Fundamentalist/ fectly suited for feminism, especially in the Evangelical influence had the greatest- in life and .33 The churches had fluence in the South and the majority of to make a choice: they could oppose, support, Mainline Churches were elsewhere. Thus the or ignore the Feminist Movement. South, Civil Rights, and religion were inter- While many Mainline denominations were weaved.30 Mainline Protestants were less af- considered progressive, at the beginning of fected by Southern attitudes towards minori- the 1950s most did not ordain female minis- ties, although that did not mean that Northern ters. Several Biblical passages assert the au- culture was free of prejudice. thority of men in both familial and religious In 1995, the SBC issued a resolution apol- matters and even expressly forbid women ogizing for its past endorsement of slavery, to teach men.34 As early as the 1850s some noting that “Southern Baptists [had] failed, United Church of Christ churches began in many cases, to support, and in some cases ordaining women to serve as clergy.35 As a opposed, legitimate initiatives to secure the denomination following Congregationalist

29 Southern Baptist Convention. “Resolution on Human Relations,” June 32 Marilyn J. Legge, “After Christianity,” Religious Studies and 1965, accessed October 21, 2013, http://www.sbc.net/resolutions/am Theology 16, no. 2, December 1, 1997, 109, ATLASerials, Religion Resolution.asp?ID=887. Collection, EBSCOhost, accessed November 4, 2013. 30 For maps showing areas of religious affiliation see: “Maps,” Church 33 Mardi Keyes, “Can Christianity and Feminism Agree?,” Journal of Statistics and Religious Affiliations - U.S. Religious Landscape Study- Christian Nursing: A Quarterly Publication of Nurses Christian Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life, http://religions.pewforum.org/ Fellowship 10, no.3, summer 1993, 11-13, accessed Novemeber 4, affiliations/. 2013. http://bx7pv2zc6r.search.serialssolutions.com/?ctx_ver=Z39. 31 Southern Baptist Convention, “Resolution on Racial Reconciliation 88-2004&ctx_enc=info%3Aofi% 2Fenc% 3AUTF-8&rfr_id on the 150th anniversary of the Southern Baptist Convention.” =info:sid/summon.serialssolutions.com&rft_val_fmt= info:ofi/ fmt:kev:mtx:journal&rft.genre= article&rft.atitle=Can+ Christianity+and+feminism+agree%3F& rft.jtitle =Journal+of+ Christian+nursing+%3A+a+ quarterly+publication+of+Nurses+ Christian+Fellowship&rft.au=Keyes%2C+M&rft.date=1993-01-01& rft.issn= 0743-2550&rft.eissn=1931-7662& rft.volume= 10&rft. issue=3&rft.spage=11&rft_id=info:pmid/8326476&rft. externalDocI D=8326476¶mdict=en-US. 34 See 1 Timothy 2:1-12; Ephesians 5:22-23.

6 Explorations |Humanities and Fine Arts polity, the UCC churches could decide on the example, in 1982 the Episcopal Church called issue independently of each other. A century “upon the Congress of the United States once later, the Methodist Church began to ordain again to enact the Equal Rights Amendment women in 1956.36 The Lutheran Church in [a proposed constitutional amendment to America began doing so in 1970 and the grant women full equal rights with men] and Episcopal Church in 1976, although a group submit it to the legislatures of the several of Episcopal women had been ordained un- states for ratification.”41 officially a few years prior.37 The effect of In the 1960s, Evangelical churches also the Women’s Right’s Movement is evident did not allow women to be ministers, usu- – most Mainline churches were not calling ally citing scripture as justification. For for change prior to the movement, but rather Evangelicals, the question proved responded to it. much more difficult to overcome than it was By the 1980s, Mainline denominations for Mainline churches. Evangelicals placed were actively working towards eliminating great emphasis on the authority of the Bible, sexism from their churches and fully incor- declaring it infallible. If scripture said that porating women into leadership positions. women were not to serve in leadership roles, The elected its first they would choose to obey even if their deci- female bishop in 1980.38 Not only had the sion was unpopular. In 1973, the SBC issued church decided that women could be spiritual a resolution concerning the role of women leaders of churches, but they could be part saying that its members of the hierarchy of the Church as well. In 1972, less than one percent of clergy in the reaffirm God’s explicit Word that (1) man Methodist Church were women, but by 2004 was not made for the woman, but the woman they made up nineteen percent of the clergy, for the man; (2) that the woman is the glory a significant increase.39 The Methodists had of man; (3) that as woman would not have existed without man, henceforth, neither obviously taken measures to turn what was would man have existed without the woman, once an exclusively male position and open they are dependent one upon the other--to the it up to women who felt called to ministry. glory of God. 42 In 2006, Episcopalians elected the first -fe male presiding bishop, revealing that their The SBC made it clear that it was sticking entire community of believers could be led to its Biblical understanding of gender and 40 by a female. Once the ordination question gender roles and that it had no intention of passed, Mainliners were more willing to call changing its structures to go against the un- for equality outside of their churches. For derstanding it held of Scripture. The SBC

35 Barbara Zikmund, “UCC Celebrates an Anniversary: 150 Years of 41 The Episcopal Church, “Call for Enactment of an Equal Rights Women Clergy,” September 2003, accessed September 5, 2014, http:// Amendment,” The Acts of the Convention 1967-2009, 1982, in www.ucc.org/ucnews/sep03/ucc-celebrates-an.html. the Archives of the Episcopal Church, accessed November 4, 2013, 36 United Methodist Church, “United Methodist Church Timeline,” http://www.episcopalarchives.org/cgi-bin/acts/ General Commission on Archives and History, accessed November actsresolution.pl? resolution=1982-B034. 4, 2013 http://www.gcah.org/site/c.ghKJI0PHIoE/b.3504153/k.48DE/ 42 Southern Baptist Convention, “Resolution on the Place of Women in United_ Methodist_Church_Timeline.htm. Christian Service,” June 1973, accessed November 4, 2013, 37 Lutheran Church in America, “Women: A Questioning of the Past http://www.sbc.net/resolutions/amResolution.asp?ID=1090. and Present: A Study Paper of the Lutheran Church in America, 1972,” July, 20 1972, accessed November 4, 2013, http://www.elca.org/Who- We-Are/History/ELCA-Archives/Archival-Documents/Predecessor- Body-Statements/Lutheran-Church-in-America/Women.aspx; The Episcopal Church, “Amend Canon III.9 [Add Sec. 1: Of General Provisions Respecting Ordination] and Renumber Accordingly,” The Acts of the Convention 1976-2009, 1976, accessed November 4, 2013, http://www.episcopalarchives.org/cgi-bin/acts/acts_resolution. pl?resolution=1976-B005. 38 United Methodist Church, “Key Moments in GCSRW History,” General Commission on the Status and Role of Women, accessed November 4, 2013, http://www.gcsrw.org/About/GCSRWhistory.aspx. 39 Carolyn H. Oehler, The Journey is Our Home: A History of the General Commission on the Status and Role of Women, 2005, accessed November 4, 2013, http://xntdnn.azurewebsites.net/Portals/4/The%20Journey %20is%20 our%20 Home.final.pdf. 40 The Episcopal Church, “Celebrate Women in Ministry,” The Acts of the Convention 1976-2009, 2006, in the Archives of the Episcopal Church, accessed November 4, 2013, http://www.episcopalarchives.org/cgi-bin/acts/ acts_resolution.pl?resolution=2006-A139 7 Clayton Harrington maintains its position on the ordination of movement and few Evangelical churches women for pastoral roles to this day, arguing welcomed women to the ministry. They were that it should remain true to scripture and not against the ordination of women pastors and allow the broader culture to influence its deci- also the Equal Rights Amendment because sions.43 Thus Fundamentalist theology of the of their commitment to Scriptural authority. inerrancy and infallibility of Scripture main- The Feminist Movement caused Mainliners tains its high place in Evangelical churches, to realize that they needed reform and that the even regarding the role of women. Finally, time for women in pastoral roles had come. the SBC resolved in 1980 that, “reaffirming Mainline denominations opened the doors the biblical role which stresses the equal to equality and moved forward to greater worth but not always the sameness of func- Christian unity. The SBC and Evangelicals tion of women, does not endorse the Equal remained less affected by the broader culture Rights Amendment.”44 and reacted against it, reiterating their be- Not all Evangelical traditions prohibited liefs about women even when they were not female ministers. Another Evangelical de- popular. nomination, the Oneness Pentecostal Church, promoted female pastors from their very be- Gay Rights Movement ginnings, as twenty-nine percent of all of their ministers were female in 1919-1920.45 It too Following in the wake of the Civil Rights believed in the infallibility of the Bible, but it and Feminist Movements, the Gay Rights also emphasized the power of the Holy Spirit movement emerged by the late 1970s. to overcome barriers such as discrimination.46 Homosexuals had been discriminated against However, this denomination represented less for decades and now they too began openly than three percent of Evangelicals as of 2007. voicing their demand for full equality and Given that, its decision cannot be viewed as acceptance in American society. In recent representative of most Evangelicals.47 years, they have successfully protested and Mainline Protestants and Evangelicals fought for legislation to allow them the same once again differed in their approach to a rights as heterosexuals, such as the right to civil rights matter – this time the rights of marry and equal opportunity employment women. Mainline Protestant churches were legislation. This has created a problem for greatly affected by the feminist movement. some religious groups as, in the opinion of Both the Lutheran and Episcopal Church some, the Bible expressly prohibited ho- began to ordain women during the Women’s mosexual behavior.49 How have Protestant Rights Movement (although the Methodist churches responded to yet another group de- Church had begun female ordination of min- manding its civil rights? While this is still an sters before that time). They supported the ongoing issue, the response has usually been passage of an Equal Rights Amendment, determined by whether the denomination is along with fifty-six percent of the country Mainline Protestant or Evangelical. in 1982.48 Evangelicals on the other hand Mainline denominations did not ordain ho- were not as heavily affected by the Feminist mosexuals before the Gay Rights Movement

43 Southern Baptist Convention, “Resolution on Ordination and the Role 48 Gallup, “Timeline Of Polling History: Events That Shaped the United of Women in Ministry,” June 1984, accessed November 4, 2013, http:// States, and the World,” accessed November 4, 2013, http:// www.sbc.net/resolutions/amResolution.asp?ID=1088. www.gallup.com/poll/9967/timeline-polling-history-events-shaped- 44 Southern Baptist Convention, “Resolution on Women,” June 1980, united-states-world.aspx accessed November 4, 2013, http://www.sbc.net/resolutions/amReso 49 See Leviticus 18:22; Romans 1:26-27; 1 Corinthians 6:9-11. lution.asp?ID=1091. 45 United Pentecostal Church International, “Diversity and Oneness in the Church,” August 2, 2013, accessed November 4, 2013, http:// www.upci.org/about-us/press-releases/diversity-and-oneness. 46 United Pentecostal Church International, “Diversity and Oneness in the Church,” August 2, 2013, accessed November 4, 2013, http:// www.upci.org/about-us/press-releases/diversity-and-oneness; United Pentecostal Church International, “Our Doctrinal Foundation,” May 24, 2011, accessed November 4, 2013, http://www.upci.org/about-us/ beliefs/21-about-us/beliefs/91. 47 Affiliations,” Church Statistics and Religious Affiliations - U.S. Religious Landscape Study - Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life, accessed May 28, 2014, http://religions.pewforum.org/affiliations/. 8 Explorations |Humanities and Fine Arts nor did they immediately begin to do so when felt that should be accepted the movement emerged in the 1970s. Still, by U.S. society, while only fifty percent of Mainline churches have made attempts to be all Americans felt that homosexuality should open to all members regardless of sexual ori- be accepted.53 This evidence revealed that entation. In 1976, the Episcopal Church de- Mainline Protestants have generally been clared that “homosexual persons are children more accepting and open to homosexuals of God who have a full and equal claim with than the general American public has. all other persons upon the love, acceptance, By 1979, interest was building as to and pastoral concern and care of the Church” whether Mainline churches should ordain ho- and “homosexual persons are entitled to equal mosexuals to ministerial roles. Once again, a protection of the laws with all other citizens, conflict over ordination began to divide the and calls upon our society to see that such churches. In 1979, the Episcopal Church is- protection is provided in actuality.”50 While sued a resolution after looking into the pos- this did not immediately prompt sweeping sibility of ordaining gays and lesbians. The changes and reform in the Episcopal Church, Episcopalians resolved to “re-affirm the tra- it does illustrate that the church was open to ditional teaching of the Church…[that] it is gays and lesbians and was taking steps to re- not appropriate for this Church to ordain a spect them. practicing homosexual.” The Presbyterian Mainline Churches try to accept homo- Church likewise agreed, but asserted that sexuals, even if they are unsure about the “Heterosexism, the oppression of this sexual homosexual orientation itself. In 1993, an minority, is not compatible with Christian article in the Christian Century argued that faithfulness.”55 Mainline churches tended to legislation banning gays from serving in the walk this tightrope, balancing a traditional military was discriminatory and a civil rights view of human sexuality with an acceptance issue, predicting that in several years this is- of the individual. sue would be resolved and make those who Years passed with no major developments sought to exclude gays “look uncivil and in any of the denominations until changes immature.”51 In 1994, the Episcopal Church swept through in 2009. First in July of that issued a resolution calling on local, state, and year, the Episcopal Church voted to allow federal government bodies to give same-sex homosexuals to be ordained into ministerial couples similar benefits as those enjoyed by roles, replacing a 2006 resolution that “urged married heterosexual couples.52 While this Episcopal leaders not to elect gay .”56 did not necessarily represent a call for ho- Just a month later the Evangelical Lutheran mosexual marriage rights, it did signify a Church in America (ELCA, a Mainline de- call for equality under the law. In a survey nomination despite the Evangelical in its completed in 2007, the Pew Forum found name) followed in the Episcopal Church’s that fifty-six percent of Mainline Protestants lead and also allowed for the ordination of

50 The Episcopal Church, “Recognize the Equal Claims of 53 “Church Statistics and Religious Affiliations – Comparisons –Social Homosexuals,” Acts of the Convention 1976-2009, 1976, in the and Political Views,” Pew Research, http://religions.pewforum.org/ Archives of the Episcopal Church, accessed November 5, 2013, comparisons#. http://www.episcopalarchives.org/cgi-bin/acts/acts_resolution.pl? 54 The Episcopal Church, “Recommend Guidelines on the Ordination resolution=1976-A069; The Episcopal Church, “Support the Right of of Homosexuals,” The Acts of the Convention 1976-2009, 1979, in Homosexuals to Equal Protection of the Law,” Acts of the Convention the Archives of the Episcopal Church, accessed November 5, 2013, 1976-2009, 1976, in the Archives of the Episcopal Church, accessed http://www.episcopalarchives.org/cgi-bin/acts/ acts_resolution.pl? November 5, 2013, http://www.episcopalarchives.org/cgi-bin/acts/ resolution=1979-A053. acts_resolution.pl?resolution=1976-A071. 55 John Dart, “Presbyterians do Turnaround on Gay Clergy,” Christian 51 James M. Wall, “A Matter of Civil Rights: Gays and the Military.” Century, May 31, 2011, 12, ATLA Religion Database with Christian Century, February 17, 1993 163-164, ATLA Religion ATLASerials, EBSCOhost, accessed November 6, 2013; Presbyterian Database with ATLASerials, EBSCOhost, accessed November 5, 2013. Church (U.S.A), “Presbyterians and Human Sexuality,” 1991, 51 The Episcopal Church, “Apologize for the Church’s Rejection of Gays accessed November 5, 2013, http://oga.pcusa.org/media/uploads/oga/ and Lesbians,” The Acts of the Convention 1976-2009, 1997, in pdf/human-sexuality1991.pdf. the Archives of the Episcopal Church, accessed November 5, 56 William Wan, “Episcopalians in Va. Divided Over Decision Allowing 2013, http://www.episcopalarchives.org/cgi-bin/acts/ acts_resolution. Ordination of Gay Bishops,” The Washington Post, July 16, 2009, pl?resolution=1997-D011. ccessed November 5, 2013, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp- 52 The Episcopal Church, “Call on US Government to Extend Benefits dyn/content/ article/2009/07/15/AR2009071503697.html. to Gay and Lesbian Couples,” The Acts of the Convention 1976- 2009, 1994, in the Archives of the Episcopal Church, accessed November 5, 2013, http://www.episcopalarchives.org/cgi-bin/acts/ acts_resolution.pl?resolution=1994-D006.

9 Clayton Harrington homosexuals.57 Less than two years following exclusion of gays arguing that it would be the ELCA’s assembly’s vote, the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) voted to permit homosexual detrimental to morale, unit cohesion, good ministers as well, “opening doors to qualified order, discipline, and mission accomplish- clergy and lay leaders without regard to sex- ment…[and] [h]omosexuality in the mil- ual orientation.”58 Thus, in an extraordinarily itary would endanger the life and health of military personnel by the increased exposure brief period of time, three large Mainline de- to sexually transmitted diseases and by en- nominations embraced gay clergy. Despite hanced danger of tainted blood in battlefield being the first major Mainline denomination conditions. 61 to ordain women to ministry roles, the United Methodist Church, the largest of the Mainline According to the 2007 Pew Forum survey, churches, still does not allow homosexuals to only twenty-six percent of Evangelicals be- be ordained, saying, “homosexuality is in- lieve homosexuality should be accepted by compatible with Christian teaching.”59 society, while fifty percent of all Americans At the beginning of the Gay Rights Movement, support acceptance of homosexuality.62 This the response of Evangelical churches was shows that Evangelicals are significantly similar to those of Mainline churches. In the more opposed to the homosexual lifestyle in same way that both groups were unsure how comparison to Americans in general. to address the issues raised by the Feminist Finally, when it comes to the ordination of Movement, they were similarly unprepared homosexuals, Evangelicals have rarely con- to deal with gay rights. Unlike Mainline sidered the matter. The only SBC resolution denominations, which tended to oppose the that dealt with the subject was passed in 1976 homosexual lifestyle while embracing the in- and prohibition of the ordination of gays was dividual, Evangelicals often used sharp and a side note in the resolution.63 There has been decisive language. The SBC issued a resolu- no other resolution that has even mentioned tion in 1980 stating its belief that “there is a homosexual ordination following this resolu- concerted effort by ‘Gay Activists’ and lib- tion. These obstacles were and still are too eral humanistic politicians to pass ordinances large for Evangelicals to foreseeably recon- which, under the deceptive guise of human cile homosexuality and ministry. rights, have the effect of giving public ap- While the Civil Rights Movement and proval to the homosexual lifestyle, making it the Women’s Rights Movement divided the equally acceptable to the biblical heterosex- Mainliners and Evangelicals, the Gay Rights ual family life style.”60 In addition to view- Movement has created even deeper divisions ing homosexuality as a spiritual problem, between the two. Even from the Gay Rights Southern Baptists also considered it a threat Movement’s beginnings, Mainline churches to society in general and urged secular lead- were supportive of homosexuals and pushed ers to prevent its acceptance. They denied for equal rights, even if Mainliners did not that the Gay Rights Movement was fighting agree with gays and lesbians’ sexual life- for civil liberties and supported the military’s styles. Evangelicals, on the other hand,

57 Evangelical Lutheran Church in America, “ELCA Assembly 61 Southern Baptist Convention, “Resolution on Homosexuality, Military Opens Ministry to Partnered Gay and Lesbian Lutherans,” ELCA Service and Civil Rights,” June 1993, accessed November 5, 2013, News Service, August 21, 2009, accessed November 5, 2013, http://www.sbc.net/resolutions/amResolution.asp?ID=613. http://www.elca.org/Who-We-Are/Our-Three-Expressions/Churchwide- 62 Church Statistics and Religious Affiliations – Comparisons –Social Organization/Communication-Services/News/Releases.aspx?a=4253 and Political Views,” Pew Research, http://religions.pewforum.org/ 58 John Dart, “Presbyterians do Turnaround on Gay Clergy” Christian comparisons#. Century, 12. 59 United Methodist Church, “What is the Denomination’s Position on Homosexuality?,” Book of Resolutions, 2008, accessed November 5, 2013, http://archives.umc.org/interior.asp?mid=1324. 60 Southern Baptist Convention, “Resolution on Homosexuality,” June 1980, accessed November 5, 2013, http://www.sbc.net/resolutions/ amResolution.asp?ID=608.

10 Explorations |Humanities and Fine Arts expressed their convictions of the sinful na- of African Americans. Although Mainline ture of homosexuals and the negative influ- churches largely implemented changes af- ence of homosexuality on American society. ter the Feminist Movement began, most Currently, the position taken by Mainline Mainline Protestants embraced the gifts and churches is seemingly in line with the pre- callings of its women and supported the vailing view of the nation, with the repeal of Equal Rights Amendment and the rights of “Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell” and the increasing all women, while Evangelicals fought against number of states allowing same-sex mar- such changes and sought to prevent the riage. Also, as the data from the Pew Survey ERA from passing. During the Gay Rights have shown, Mainline church members go Movement, Mainline churches did not always beyond the average American in their accep- agree with homosexuality, but they have led tance of homosexuality. 64 the charge for reforms outside of the church and within. Most Mainline denominations Conclusion eventually ordained homosexuals, which has demonstrated their commitment to equality. Although recent historical studies have em- Many of the Mainline Protestants’ current phasized the key role played by Evangelicals views on homosexuality are more in line in the rise of political and social conserva- with what seems to be the prevailing mood of tism in the United States, when it comes to the nation. Mainliners likely will continue to matters of civil rights and – be support gay rights into the foreseeable future, they based on race, gender, or sexual orienta- but Evangelicals are unlikely to change their tion – Mainline churches have played a sig- stance due to their commitment to the literal nificant role and continue to do so. During the interpretation of scripture. Civil Rights Movement, Mainline churches From the mid-twentieth century to the impacted American culture more than present, the views that the Mainline churches Evangelicals because they rallied support for have promoted dealing with civil rights and the movement and actively participated in it, social justice have become those of the ma- even allowing for the breaking of laws if they jority in America. By promoting these ide- could help another person. Mainliners called als, Mainliners have worked to create a bet- for the government to enact legislation and ter, more accepting America. Through all of actively supported the laws after they were this, Mainline Protestantism has remained an passed. The Mainline churches did not wait active force in American society, lively and for the populace to become more accept- committed to serving God, their members, ing of civil rights, but instead preceded the and the world. American people in calling for the equality

63 Southern Baptist Convention, “Resolution on Homosexuality,” 1976, accessed November 5, 2013, http://www.sbc.net/resolutions/amReso lution.asp?ID=606. 64 Church Statistics and Religious Affiliations – Comparisons –Social and Political Views,” Pew Research, http://religions.pewforum.org/ comparisons#.

11 Clayton Harrington

Bibliography Primary Sources Baptist Press (1950-Present). The Christian Century (1950-present). (1950-present). Church Statistics and Religious Affiliations - U.S. Religious Landscape Study - Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life.” http://religions.pewforum.org/. The Episcopal Church. Archives of the Episcopal Church. http://www.episcopalarchives.org/ (1962-2009.) Evangelical Lutheran Church in America. ELCA News Service. http://www.elca.org/en/News- and-Events The General Convention of the Episcopal Church. “All Resolutions.” http://www.generalconvention.org/gc/resolutions/ Harnack, Adolf. What is Christianity?. Minneapolis, M.N.: Fortress Press, 1986. Lutheran Church in America. http://www.elca.org/Who-We-Are/History/ELCA- Archives/Archival-Documents/Predecessor-Body-Statements/Lutheran-Church-in- America/ Oehler, Carolyn H. The Journey is Our Home: A History of the General Commission on the Status and Role of Women. The United Methodist Church, 2005. Accessed November 4, 2013. http://xntdnn.azurewebsites.net/Portals/4/The% 20Journey %20is%20 our%20 Home.final.pdf. Pinnock, Clark H., and Delwin Brown. Theological Crossfire: An Evangelical/Liberal Dialogue. Grand Rapids, M.I.: Zondervan Publishing House, 1990. Presbyterian Church (U.S.A). “Presbyterians and Human Sexuality.” 1991. http://oga.pcusa. org/media/uploads/oga/pdf/human-sexuality1991.pdf. Southern Baptist Convention. http://www.sbc.net/ United Methodist Church. http://archives.umc.org/ United Methodist Church. “United Methodist Church Timeline.” General Commission on Archives and History. http://www.gcah.org/site/c.ghKJI0PHIoE/b.3504153/k.48DE/ United_Methodist_Church_Timeline.htm United Pentecostal Church International. http://www.upci.org

Secondary Sources Braude, Ann. “A Religious Feminist—Who Can Find Her? Historiographical Challenges from the National Organization for Women.” The Journal of Religion 84, No. 4 (October 2004):555-572. Accessed November 4, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/422480 Coffman, Elesha. The Christian Century and the Rise of the Protestant Mainline. New York: Oxford University Press, 2013. Coogan, Michael David., Marc Zvi. Brettler, Carol A. Newsom, and Pheme Perkins, eds. “The Interpretation of the Bible: From the Nineteenth to the Mid-Twentieth Centuries” in The New : New : With the Apocrypha : An Ecumenical Study Bible. 4th ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010. Gallup, George H. Jr. ”Factors in the Slide of Mainline Churches.” February 4, 2003. Accessed October 22, 2013. http://www.gallup.com/poll/7726/Factors-Slide- Mainline-Churches.aspx Harris, Harriet A. Fundamentalism and Evangelicals. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007. Holifield, E. Brooks. God’s Ambassadors: A History of the Christian Clergy in America. Grand

12 Explorations |Humanities and Fine Arts

Rapids, M.I.: W.B. Eerdmans, 2007. Hollinger, David A. After Cloven Tongues of Fire: Protestant Liberalism in Modern American History. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2013. Keyes, Mardi. “Can Christianity and Feminism Agree?” Journal of Christian Nursing: A Quarterly Publication of Nurses Christian Fellowship 10, no.3 (Summer 1993): 11-17. Accessed November 4, 2013. http://bx7pv2zc6r.search.serialssolutions.com/ ?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&ctx_enc=info %3Aofi% 2Fenc% 3AUTF-8&rfr_ id=info:sid/summon.serialssolutions.com&rft_val fmt=info:ofi/fmt:kev:mtx: journal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Can+Christianity+and+feminism+agree%3F &rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Christian+nursing+%3A+a+quarterly+publication+ of+Nurses+Christian+Fellowship&rft.au=Keyes%2C+M&rft.date=1993-01-01&rft. issn=0743-2550&rft.eissn=1931-7662&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=3&rft. spage=11&rft_id=info:pmid/8326476&rft.externalDocID=8326476¶mdict=en- US. Legge, Marilyn J. “After Christianity.” Religious Studies and Theology 16, no. 2 (December 1, 1997): 109-112. ATLASerials, Religion Collection, EBSCOhost. Accessed November 4, 2013. Marsden, George. Fundamentalism and American Culture. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006. Marsden, George. Understanding Fundamentalism and Evangelicalism. Grand Rapids, M.I.: W.B. Eerdmans, 1991. Marty, Martin. The Public Church: Mainline, Evangelical, Catholic. New York: Crossroad Publishing Company, 1981. Peterson, R. Dean. A Concise History of Christianity, 3rd Edition. Belmont, C.A.: Wadsworth, 2007. Rasor, Paul. Faith Without Certainty: Liberal Theology in the Twenty-First Century. Boston: Skinner House Books, 2005. Tipton, Steven. Public Pulpits: Methodists and Mainline Churches in the Moral Argument of Public Life. : University of Chicago Press, 2007. Wan, William. “Episcopalians in Va. Divided Over Decision Allowing Ordination of Gay Bishops.” The Washington Post. July 16, 2009. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp- dyn/content/ article/2009/07/15/AR2009071503697.html. Zikmund, Barbara. “UCC Celebrates an Anniversary: 150 Years of Women Clergy.” September 2003. Accessed September 5, 2014. http://www.ucc.org/ucnews/sep03/ucc-celebrates- an.html.

13