NEWSLETTER

issued by the Council of the Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs Nobel Peace Prize 1995

Ruth Adams and Joseph Rotblat on the porch at Thinker’s Lodge, Pugwash, Nova Scotia, July 2003

Volume 42 ½ Number 1 ½ June 2005 TABLE OF CONTENTS

To the Pugwash Community: ...... 1

Pugwash Meeting no. 301 ...... 3 54th Pugwash Conference on Science and World Affairs: Bridging a Divided World Through International Cooperation and Disarmament Seoul, South Korea, 4–9 October 2004 Statement of the Pugwash Council Conference Schedule 54th Pugwash Conference Working Groups Address by Hon. Mohamed ElBaradei List of Participants

REPORTS ON RECENT PUGWASH WORKSHOPS

Pugwash Meeting no. 298 ...... 29 Pugwash Workshop on Security of the Russian Nuclear Complexes: International Assistance in the Liquidation Of Excess Fissile Materials St. Petersburg, Russia, 1–3 July 2004

Pugwash Meeting no.300 ...... 33 2nd Pugwash Workshop on Science, Society and Ethics Ajaccio, Corsica, France, 10–12 September 2004

Pugwash Meeting no.302 ...... 50 21st Pugwash Workshop on the Implementation of the Chemical and Biological Weapons Conventions Geneva, Switzerland, 4–5 December 2004

Pugwash Meeting no. 306 ...... 68 Third Pugwash Workshop on Threats without Enemies: The Security Aspects of HIV/AIDS Gordon’s Bay, South Africa, 29 April–1 May 2005

SPECIAL REPORTS: CHALLENGES TO THE NUCLEAR NON-PROLIFERATION REGIME Pugwash meeting no. 304, WMD in the Middle East, Cairo, Egypt, 29–31 January 2005 ...... 77 International Conference on Nuclear Technology and International Development, Tehran, Iran, 5–6 March 2005 ...... 78

Pugwash ...... Sir Joseph Rotblat—Appeal to Delegates of the 7th NPT Review Conference 81 Volume 42 ½ Number 1 Pugwash meeting no. 307, Pugwash Consultations on the 7th NPT June 2005 Review Conference, New York, NY, 7 May and 21 May 2005 ...... 83 Pugwash Council Statement on the Seventh NPT Review Conference ...... 83 Editor: Sir Joseph Rotblat, “The Fifty Year Shadow,” New York Times, May 17, 2005...... 86 Jeffrey Boutwell NATIONAL PUGWASH GROUPS: Argentina Research Assistants: Pugwash Meeting no. 299 ...... 87 Ben Towbin 2nd Regional Pugwash Workshop on Towards a Solution of Rob Boutwell Economic Inequities in Latin America and of their Social Consequences Jessy Cowan San Carlos de Bariloche, Argentina, 10–12 September 2004

Design and Layout: INTERNATIONAL STUDENT/YOUNG PUGWASH ...... 94

Anne Read PUGWASH HISTORY: ...... 95 Origins of the Russell-Einstein Manifesto, by Sandra Ionno Butcher Printing: Cardinal Press IN MEMORIAM: Ruth Adams (1923–2005)—Obituary and Tributes ...... 96 Fredericksburg, Virginia OBITUARIES: Hans Bethe, Bentley Glass, Ziro Maki ...... 101

Members of the Pugwash Council...... 103 Cover photo: Sandra Ionno Butcher Calendar of Future Meetings ...... inside back cover To the Pugwash Community

Sir Joseph Rotblat As this issue of the Pugwash Newsletter was being readied for publication, we received the very sad news that Jo Rotblat died in London on August 31 at the age of 96. Jo had been in declining health for several months, and was unable to join us in Hiroshima in July for the 55th Pugwash Conference, the first annual Pugwash con- ference Jo had ever missed. Although Jo was with us in spirit at the Hiroshima con- ference, through taped video messages and John Holdren’s keynote address in Jo’s honor, it was apparent that Pugwash was facing a future without its co-founder, past President, co-Nobel Peace Laureate, and guiding spiritual force. Tributes to the legacy of a remarkable human being have come in from all over the world, and we will devote a substantial portion of the December 2005 issue of the Newsletter to Jo and all that he represented in the quest for a more just and peaceful existence for all humankind. Below is the statement released by the Pugwash Council following Jo’s death.

In Memory of Sir Joseph Rotblat A Statement of the Pugwash Council 2 September 2005

he worldwide Pugwash community has lost a friend, cil member, Jo embodied the scientific rigor and ethical Tmentor and moral touchstone. conscience of all that the Pugwash movement aspired to in Jo Rotblat in so many ways was Pugwash, beginning calling on governments and political leaders to rid the with his organizing efforts for the first international scien- world of the menace of nuclear weapons. tific conference in Pugwash, Nova Scotia in 1957, to the Jo’s path to opposing nuclear weapons began earlier, of 54th Pugwash Conference held in Seoul, South Korea in course, when in 1944 he became the only scientist to leave October 2004 – the last he attended. the Manhattan Project and refuse to work further on the For these 47 years, as co-founder, President and Coun- atomic bomb once it was clear the Nazis were defeated. Then, in 1955, he joined Bertrand Russell and Albert Ein- 55th Pugwash Conference on stein in helping to formulate the seminal Russell-Einstein Science and World Affairs Manifesto, which became the founding document of the The December issue will also fully cover the proceedings Pugwash Conferences. As the sole surviving signatory of of the 55th Pugwash Conference on Science and World the Manifesto during its 50th anniversary this year, Jo felt Affairs that took place from 22-27 July 2005 in compelled to continue to stress its relevance to the nuclear Hiroshima, Japan. More than 160 participants from some dangers facing us today. 30 countries attended the conference, which was held just Whatever the political circumstances of the day, and weeks before the 60th anniversaries of the atomic bomb- despite criticism from some about his political idealism ings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The Hiroshima confer- and naiveté, Jo’s message remained steadfast: either the ence was truly a remarkable, and sobering, event, remind- world will eliminate nuclear weapons, or we face the ing us all of the urgency of efforts to ensure that nuclear prospect of such weapons eliminating us. The continued weapons are never again used against humanity. presence of such weapons in the arsenals of some coun- While in Hiroshima, the Pugwash Council began to tries, and their possible acquisition by terrorist groups, finalize plans for the 56th Pugwash Conference on Science means one thing: as long as such weapons exist, they will and World Affairs that will be held in Cairo, Egypt in some day be used. November 2006, and more information on that will also Beyond the nuclear menace, however, Jo believed fer- be included in the December 2005 issue. vently in the goal of eliminating war as a means of settling disputes. Accordingly, the Pugwash Conferences over the Challenges to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Regime years devoted as much effort to bringing together parties in conflict as it did to analyzing the feasibility and desir- In one of the final articles he wrote before his death ability of eliminating nuclear weapons. Inspired by Jo, (reprinted on page 87), Jo warned of the continuing Pugwash has continued to grow, with representation today threats posed by nuclear weapons, and also called on dele- in more than 50 countries around the world, and with gates to the 7th NPT Review Conference then meeting in active involvement in precisely those conflict areas where New York (see page 82) to heed these dangers and act the risk of nuclear weapons use is greatest. forcefully to take concrete steps aimed at eliminating More broadly, his eternal optimism and faith in the nuclear weapons. As printed in the New York Times on fundamental decency of human nature manifested itself in May 17, 2005, Jo’s article recalled the origins of the 1955 his continuous support for the young generation of Stu- Russell-Einstein Manifesto and observed how its 50th dent/Young Pugwash members and recently by the launch anniversary should be a time of serious reflection on how of an educational campaign about the danger of nuclear far we have to go to eliminate nuclear weapons and the weapons. sources of conflict. As it approaches its 50th anniversary, in 2007, Acknowledgments Pugwash will continue to strive for those ideals so won- derfully and eloquently articulated by Jo throughout his Pugwash is grateful to the following organizations for lifetime. We may have lost his companionship, humor and their continued support of the Pugwash Newsletter, as intellectual guidance, but we will never lose his steadfast well as other Pugwash publications and the Pugwash sense of purpose in knowing the right thing to do. website: the Italian National Research Council, the Ger- Nonetheless, we will miss him, dearly. man Research Society, the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation, and the Cyrus Eaton Foundation.

2 Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 PUGWASH MEETING NO. 301

Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs 1995 NOBEL PEACE PRIZE 54th Pugwash Conference on Science and World Affairs Bridging a Divided World Through International Cooperation and Disarmament 4–9 October 2004, Seoul, South Korea

these same countries seek to deny nuclear intentions that need to be Statement of the access to nuclear technologies to non- resolved through transparent fulfill- Pugwash Council nuclear weapons states, or—in the ment with IAEA obligations. In this 9 October 2004 case of the United States—threaten volatile region in the world, bold and carry out military pre-emption to steps are needed to support the pro- he Pugwash Council, meeting prevent the acquisition of nuclear posals for a WMD-free zone in the during the 54th Pugwash Con- weapons by other countries. Middle East as well as such initiatives Tference held in Seoul, Korea On the Korean peninsula—the site as the Arab Plan and the Geneva from 5-8 October 2004, expresses its of this year’s Pugwash Conference— Accord that can bring about effective grave concern that the international stability and the relaxation of tension regional security. community faces a critical turning is undermined by continued hostility In South Asia, India and Pakistan point in the threat to global security between the Democratic People’s continue to face each other with posed by nuclear weapons. Republic of Korea (DPRK) and the nuclear arsenals. Although significant The potential collapse of the United States and by the continued progress has been made in improving nuclear non-proliferation regime and crisis over the nuclear program of the relations between the two, there the weakening of the taboos in place DPRK. The DPRK’s withdrawal from remains the very real possibility of since 1945 on the use of nuclear the NPT in early 2003 poses a serious the resumption of open hostility and weapons, coupled with the very real challenge to the non-proliferation conflict. dangers of a terrorist group manufac- regime and must be solved through More broadly, the entire frame- turing and detonating a nuclear multilateral negotiation and coopera- work of nuclear weapons disarma- explosive device, combine to produce tion as soon as possible. ment is in danger of being swept a recipe for unmitigated disaster. In the Middle East, Israel’s policy away. Strategic arms control between Regarding the non-proliferation of opacity concerning its nuclear the US and Russia is moribund, the regime, the upcoming Seventh weapons program, while meant to Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty Review Conference of the Non-Pro- avoid embarrassing NPT-parties in (CTBT) has not entered into force, liferation Treaty—being held in the the region, does provide arguments to and serious negotiations have not spring of 2005—faces daunting chal- those who advocate nuclear weapons even started on a Fissile Material lenges. The original nuclear weapons programs in other countries. Israeli Cut-off Treaty (FMCT) to eliminate states (US, Russia, UK, France and policy also provides a justification to production of weapons-grade Highly China) have not lived up to their those in other countries who oppose Enriched Uranium (HEU) and pluto- obligations under Article VI of the the chemical and biological weapons nium. Moreover, too little is being NPT to move decisively toward the conventions, resulting in a net done to control and dispose of exist- irreversible elimination of their decrease, in our judgment, of Israel’s ing stockpiles of HEU that run the nuclear arsenals. Such inaction security. There are also grave uncer- risk of falling into the hands of ter- invites charges of hypocrisy when tainties and concerns with Iran’s rorist groups. No attention is being

Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 3 Pugwash Meeting No. 301

paid to large numbers of tactical democratic law and order in Iraq. Time is running out if a nuclear nuclear weapons that continue to At the 54th Pugwash Conference catastrophe is to be averted. Political exist in great numbers with no mili- in Seoul, all of these themes were solutions are urgently needed to tary rationale whatsoever, while the touched on by such speakers as Dr. resolve those conflicts that either deployment of weapons in space Mohamed ElBaradei, Director Gen- spawn international terrorism, or moves closer to reality. Adding fuel eral of the International Atomic increase the risk of nuclear weapons to this nuclear fire is the fact that the Energy Agency; Dr. Hussain Al- use, or both. Global security must be Bush administration in the US has Shahristani of Iraq, who was impris- based on international institutions increased the role of nuclear weapons oned by Saddam Hussein for refusing and the rule of law rather than on in US national security policy by its to work on nuclear weapons, and by unilateral action and an excessive renewed interest in nuclear war-fight- Nobel Peace Prize Laureates Kim reliance on military force. ing strategies, in possibly developing Dae-Jung, former President of South In looking ahead to the 2005 new nuclear weapons, and in a possi- Korea, and Dr. Joseph Rotblat, co- NPT Review Conference, the Pug- ble resumption of nuclear testing. founder and past President of the wash Council calls on national gov- At the same time as little progress Pugwash Conferences. ernments, multilateral institutions, is made toward the twin objectives of These speakers and others and international NGOs to lead the nuclear disarmament and nuclear stressed the need to reduce the ten- international community away from non-proliferation, the phenomenon sions that undermine global security, a misplaced reliance on nuclear of international terrorism continues whether between nuclear and non- weapons and the catastrophic dan- to cast a spectre over the interna- nuclear states, or between those who gers that await us if clear progress is tional community. The US-led mili- act unilaterally and those committed not made to decisively reduce and tary presence in Iraq has become a to a multilateral international legal eventually eliminate nuclear source of continued instability and order, or between those who continue weapons. loss of life and a focus for interna- to rely on the primacy of nuclear Contact: tional terrorists. We hope for an early weapons for security and those who mitigation of this violence and would reduce the insecurities that Dr. Jeffrey Boutwell, believe that a major step in this direc- stimulate interest in nuclear weapons Executive Director tion would be the transfer of author- in the first place. In particular, Dr. Pugwash Conferences on ity to a democratically-elected (under Hussain al-Shahristani spoke elo- Science and World Affairs UN supervision) and effective Iraqi quently from his own experience of 11 Dupont Circle, NW Suite 900 government. This government should the moral imperative of scientists not Washington, DC 20036 then be provided with all necessary to work on nuclear weapons and Phone: 1-202-478-3440 military support by the international other instruments of indiscriminate Email: [email protected] community in order to re-establish destruction.

54th Pugwash Conference Participants.

4 Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 54th Pugwash Conference on Science and World Affairs Bridging a Divided World Through International Cooperation and Disarmament 4–9 October 2004, Seoul, South Korea

Conference Schedule

TUESDAY 5 OCTOBER Moon Chung-in (Korea), 10:00–11:00 Opening Plenary Session Modern Korea Studies Institute Chair: Pan Zhenqiang Dr. Ralph Cossa (US), Asia-Pacific Forum (Member, Pugwash Council) Gen. Pan Zhenqiang (China), Welcome Park Seh-Jik, Chair, Member of Pugwash Council Organizing Committee 16:30–18:00 Working Groups Meet Keynote Kim Dae Jung, 19:30 Dinner hosted by Deputy Minister for Foreign former President, ROK Affairs Response Joseph Rotblat, THURSDAY 7 OCTOBER 2004 Pugwash President Emeritus 9:00–11:00 Plenary Session 5: 11:30–13:00 Plenary Session 1: Consequences of the Iraq War Report of the Pugwash Secretary General Chair: Prof. Paolo Cotta-Ramusino (Italy), Chair: Marie Muller Secretary General, Pugwash (Chair, Pugwash Council) Dr. Abbas Al-Hussaini (Iraq), Prof. Paolo Cotta-Ramusino (Italy), University of Westminster, London, UK Secretary General Dr. Steve Miller (US), 13:00 Lunch Harvard University, Cambridge, USA 14:30–16:00 Plenary Session 2: The Elimination of WMD—The Way Ahead Mahmood Vaezi (Iran), Institute of Strategic Studies, Tehran Chair: Douglas Roche, former Senator, Canada, and member of Pugwash Council Dr. Samir Al-Taqi (Syria), Institute of Security Studies, Damascus Amb. Sergio Duarte (Brazil), President-Designate, 2005 NPT Review Conf. 11:00–11:30 Coffee Break Randy Rydell (US), Office of Under-Secretary 11:30–13:00 Plenary Session 6: for Disarmament, United Nations Dorothy Hodgkin Memorial Lecture Amb. Henrik Salander (Sweden), Chair: Prof. Saideh Lotfian (Iran), Executive Director, WMD Commission, Member of Pugwash Council Dr. Christopher Chyba (US), Dr. Hussain Al-Shahristani (Iraq), Stanford University Iraqi National Academy of Science 19:30 Dinner hosted by the Minister of 13:00 Lunch Reunification, Chung Dong-Young 14:30–16:30 Working Groups Meet 17:00–18:00 Working Groups Meet WEDNESDAY 6 OCTOBER 2004 19:00 Dinner Hosted by the Mayor of Seoul, Lee 9:00–10:30 Working Groups Meet Myung-Pak 11:00–12:30 Plenary Session 3: Nuclear Weapons and the NPT FRIDAY 8 OCTOBER 2004 Chair: Dr. Jeffrey Boutwell, 9:00–11:00 Plenary Session 7: Executive Director, Pugwash Presentation of Working Group Reports Address Dr. Mohamed ElBaradei, Chair: Miguel Marin-Bosch (Mexico), Director General, IAEA Member of Pugwash Council Response Amb. Sergio Duarte (Brazil) 11:30–12:30 Plenary Session 8: 12:30–14:00 Lunch Presentation of Working Group Reports 14:00–16:00 Plenary Session 4: Chair: Prof. Marie Muller (South Africa), Security in Northeast Asia Chair of Pugwash Council Chair: Hwang Won-Tak, 12:30–13:00 Concluding Remarks: South Korea, Paolo Cotta-Ramusino, Secretary General, and Jeffrey Boutwell, Executive Director 13:00 Conference Adjourns

Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 5 54th Pugwash Conference on Science and World Affairs Bridging a Divided World Through International Cooperation and Disarmament 5–8 October 2004, Seoul, South Korea

Europe and is the only country that Report on Working Group 1 currently deploys nuclear weapons Eliminating Nuclear Weapons outside of its borders. Foremost Rus- Sverre Lodgaard, Miguel Marin Bosch, Co-Conveners sia, but also the United States and Masako Ikegami (Sweden/Japan), Rapporteur probably China maintain significant stocks of non-strategic nuclear arse- he NPT regime is in a critical cri- Pugwash should urge the non-nuclear nals. Pugwash could make a signifi- Tsis, on the verge of institutional states of NATO to join Canada in cant contribution by pressing for breakdown. The actual use of nuclear supporting the New Agenda’s resolu- removal and destruction of non- weapons seems to be a question of tion at the United Nation’s 3rd Com- strategic nuclear weapons as an when rather than if. With this sense mittee, and thus strengthen the center agenda item for the 2005 NPT of keen urgency, the Working Group (‘Moderate Middle’) of the nuclear Review Conference. One discussed four agenda: (1) weapons debate. Pugwash should • The continued deployment of thou- Nuclear disarmament and non-prolif- support the Middle Powers’ Initiative sands of nuclear warheads on alert eration, (2) Horizontal nuclear prolif- in its work to energize a global dia- by the United States and Russia, two eration and non-compliance prob- logue on nuclear weapon and build countries that are no longer enemies, lems, (3) Regional issues (North bridges between middle power coun- serves only to increase the risk of Korea and South Asia), and (4) Pug- tries to work together. their accidental use. Pugwash should wash profile. • Deeply rooted adherence to nuclear call for the de-alerting of the U.S. and 1. Nuclear Disarmament and weapons, not only by isolated states Russian operationally deployed Non-Proliferation suffering from the sense of insecurity, nuclear weapons. but even by NATO Europe as a ‘cred- Following factors were identified as • Highly enriched uranium (HEU) is ible means of military capability’. major causes of eroding the Nuclear more plentiful, more dispersed, easier The United States forward deploys Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT): to use and fabricate into a weapon 480 non-strategic nuclear bombs in • Nuclear Weapon States (NWS)’ and more difficult to detect than plu- failure to comply with Article VI which calls for good faith negotia- tions toward nuclear disarmament. The United States and Russia main- tain huge arsenals of nuclear weapons in violation of the spirit. NWSs are not committed to legally binding negative security guarantee vis-à-vis non-NWSs, which reduces the legitimacy of the NPT regime. Without NWS’s serious commitment for nuclear disarmament of the Arti- cle VI, the NPT lacks legitimacy and validity. Disarmament and non-pro- liferation are two sides of a coin, and have to be addressed simultaneously.

6 Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 Pugwash Meeting No. 301 tonium. Excessive HEU increase the cannot claim the monopoly of ply side’s approach is not sufficient potential that terrorist could acquire nuclear enrichment without legally and the demand’s side’s issue is to be a nuclear weapon or fissile material binding guarantee of providing more addressed. The UNSC Resolu- to fabricate a nuclear explode device. nuclear fuels to non-NWSs. Discrimi- tion 1540 has urged a rule of technol- Pugwash should call for elimination native approach causes much distrust ogy export control, but it only deals of excessive HEU and to rapidly con- among developing countries, stimu- with state-based actors, and may not solidate, secure and eliminate mili- lating their incentives for more self- be sufficient to deal with non-state tary stocks of HEU. Pugwash should reliance. Prudent measures are actors such as A.Q. Khan’s global also seek ways to resolve impedi- needed to balance the NPT Article IV nuclear network. Also the export ments that have prevented universal and ensuring peaceful use of nuclear control regime needs more dialogue adoption of a Fissile Material Cut-off fuels. Pugwash could make signifi- between developed and developing Treaty (FMCT). cant contribution by supporting the countries. IAEA’s efforts to achieve universal • Whether the comprehensive nuclear 3. Regional Issues (North Korea, adherence to the Additional Protocol, test ban treaty (CTBT) will enter into India, Pakistan, Israel) by closing existing safeguards loop- force is another major concern for holes and encouraging the UN Secu- • North Korea’s alleged HEU the future course of nuclear disarma- rity Council to take appropriate steps program stalemates the 6-party ment. The greatest threat is the fail- to enforce the NPT/IAEA safeguards talks. More clarification of N. ure of the United States to ratify the requirements. Korea’s HEU program is necessary, CTBT and the risk that the United and with this regard, the Pugwash States will resume nuclear testing to • Pakistani nuclear scientist, A. Q. could propose to send Pugwash certify the reliability of deployed Khan’s confession has disclosed a scientists to North Korea. warheads or new designs, e.g., global syndicate of nuclear weapon- Consequences of North Korea’s low–yield weapons or new earth pen- related technologies and materials. violation of the NPT have serious etrating nuclear warheads. Contrary to the industrialized coun- international implications. The 1994 2. Horizontal Nuclear tries’ erroneous perception that they Agreed Framework was destined to Proliferation and monopolize advanced technology, fail, because it did not address North Non-Compliance Problem such technology is now widely avail- Korea’s sever sense of insecurity, but able. A.Q. Khan’s incident implies • Integration of the NPT is seriously only providing economic that global complex of nuclear challenged by North Korea’s viola- compensation. North Korea’s serious weapon-related technologies are, just tion of and withdrawal from the violation of the NPT jeopardizes its like the case of drug- or human traf- treaty, and the secret development of future. At the same time, peaceful ficking, hard to be tackled by conven- a gas centrifuge uranium enrichment resolution of the nuclear crisis may tional state-based institutions. New capability by Iran in violation of its not be possible without restoration institutions are yet to be created to ticularly IAEA safeguards agreement. Yet to of the NPT regime, par meet increasingly globalized nature be explored is how to deal with a regarding Article VI and NWS’s of the proliferation issue. The control case of non-compliance within the negative security guarantee. capacity of state-based institutions is NPT and the UN Security Council Pugwash should call for peaceful limited. A complementary approach (UNSC) framework. In the 1994 resolution of North Korean nuclear may be to encourage the industry and Agreed Framework, the US-North crisis and support six-party talks, in individual’s voluntary compliance Korea bilateral agreement superseded the understanding that the nuclear with the international framework of the NPT. crisis is linked to the future of the controlling sensitive technologies NPT. How the 6-party talks and • Enrichment and reprocessing of (code of conduct) by information- IAEA/NPT can co-work in a nuclear fuel by certain non-NWSs is spreading and providing incentives. complementary way, is an open another concern. The NPT Article IV For tackling with the proliferation question. stipulates no limit in civil use of issue, more credible and effective nuclear technology, and the NWSs export control is necessary. The sup-

Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 7 Pugwash Meeting No. 301

• In India, majority of the public and international nuclear commerce; and • To call for the withdrawal of extra- elites are comfortable with nuclear (3) work for nuclear disarmament. territorial nuclear weapons and a weapons, and even the recently This is an untenable solution. The review of present military doctrines revitalized India-Pakistan peace talks recognition of a black market in which incorporate nuclear weapons; do not deal with their nuclear sensitive nuclear technologies has elimination of tactical nukes. arsenals, never mentioning about highlighted the need to draw all • To support the establishment of mutual inspection of nuclear sites. If states into the non-proliferation NWFZ/WMD-Free-Zones in the the current status continues, both of regime. To broaden the coverage of Middle East and nuclear test morato- the countries will deploy 100-150 the regime, the states might be asked rium; to oppose weaponization of nuclear weapons in a few years to to behave ‘as if’ they were parties to space; To call for the CTBT to enter possess excessive nuclear weapon the NPT. This could take the form of into force. capacity. Thus, ‘capping of nuclear unilateral adherence to an additional arsenals’ is critical in South Asia, if protocol to the treaty. There are a • With regard to the New Agenda not disarmament, as a valid and number of other ways, not implying Coalition toward the 2005 NPT feasible approach. India does not recognition of India and Pakistan as Review conference, energize middle have to compete with China on NWSs, toward the same objective. A powers through new partnership for nuclear weapon capability. FMCT debate is needed to explore the cooperative efforts to stop erosion of may also well agreed upon in South options, clarifying their feasibility, the NPT, urging the NWSs to comply Asia. A serious challenge for the and remove the inertia that with Article VI. NPT is again a double standard; surrounds these issues. Call on Concluding Remarks while violation by NPT members ‘holdouts’ to accede to the NPT as such as Iran and North Korea are NWSs has led nowhere. The NPT regime is in crisis. Its essen- severely accused, there is virtually no 4. Pugwash Nuclear Disarm- tial double structure has eroded the limitation or constraint on Indian ament Profile: Suggestions for legitimacy of the regime, reaching the and Pakistani nuclear weapons. Such 2005 Hiroshima Conference & point of system-breakdown. The lack double structure erodes the NPT NPT Review Conference of legitimacy has evoked resistance regime. De-nuclearization of short- • To raise the visibility of the dangers from dissatisfied countries such as range ballistic missiles deployed of nuclear weapons and promote Iran and North Korea in the form of along the India-Pak border, understanding that the possession of non-compliance and expansion of combined with conventional forces nuclear weapons is immoral; Efforts clandestine nuclear weapon technol- reduction, may facilitate ‘capping’ of to de-legitimize nuclear weapons; To ogy network. Imposition of the rules South Asian nuclear weapons. In a call for minute of silence in every by the privileged NWSs led by the regional context, intertwined country in memory of Hiroshima and United States is not a valid measure correlation between conventional Nagasaki victims. to address this system crisis. The forces and nuclear weapons is a key NPT could be saved only by restoring to understand the mechanism of • Nuclear disarmament should seek it as an institution for mutual security nuclear proliferation; both North the physical elimination of nuclear guarantee: i.e. the NPT non-nuclear Korea and Pakistan developed weapons in a transparent, verifiable weapon states are to be better nuclear weapons to make up their and irreversible way; To promote a secured than non-NPT member states inferior conventional forces. declaration of existing fissile material with nuclear weapons. Serious com- nuclear-weapon stocks; To explore • Engaging non-NPT nuclear mitment for nuclear disarmament in possible verification technologies and weapon states: Different from all the tandem with strengthened non-prolif- schemes for a global nuclear disarma- parties of the NPT, Israel, India and eration measures is an essential key ment treaty; To call for elimination of Pakistan are under no legal to save the NPT. Otherwise in theory, excessive HEU. obligation to (1) refrain from assists the future nuclear anarchy may not others in acquiring nuclear weapons; • To call for the non-first use of be excluded. (2) abide by the rules of nuclear weapons and the de-alerting nuclear weapons

8 Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 Pugwash Meeting No. 301

threat is perceived as even bigger than Report on Working Group 2 what it may actually be. And this Building Cooperative Security: the Case of the Middle East tends to make insecurity grow instead Paolo Cotta-Ramusino, Steve Miller, Co-Conveners of moving towards a solution. Hugo Estrella, Rapporteur The different standards applied by the US are also a concern for Arab countries. There have been signals ur group began by discussing understanding from the US side to the that there must be changes urgently the way threats to peace and expectations and ways of relating of O done at the domestic level. The post security are perceived by the people the local people in relation with the 9/11 World shows a determination from the participants’ countries. Western model. It is hard to extrapo- from the US administration not to The first concern expressed was late today’s Western Democratic sys- tolerate the previous state of affairs about the consequences of the Ameri- tems to other realities. Therefore, a and is directly requesting an active can presence in Iraq. The current sense of having a regime imposed on role in dismantling organizations events there are sending signals to the people is capable of generating more considered as terrorist. But this is whole region and the consequences rejection than support. There was also hard to do, because national and side effects of the war have an also concern for the pretension of governments are being in some cases impact for the security of each controlling the oil reserves in the long caught between confronting parties nation. An aggressive American pol- run, thus making systems more unsta- that have little to do with their own icy is viewed by some as implying ble due to the fear of invasion. More- decision-making capacity. The mis- consequences in the short and the over, some terrorist groups that were takes done in Iraq are also triggering longer run. being disarmed and dismantled in a internal unrest, and making it hard to There is, for instance, consistent first phase, are now seemingly gaining keep stability. The case of self deter- support as it was clear in the begin- strength despite the Iraqi administra- mination in Iraq, which is a generally ning of the conflict, to the proclaimed tion and the coalition troops’ state- expressed aspiration, has to be better goals of: ments. This poses a direct danger to defined in certain cases. It may imply • disarming a country that had a the neighbours. not just following the national proven record of aggression A capital point for instability is boundaries, but the aspirations of towards others. the lack of chances for dialogue. people that live across those bound- • stopping terrorism that, backed by Some countries feel threatened, or aries and also of those who are over- the Hussein’s regime, was attacking even actually are, by others. But there coming a conflict. Foreign actors may neighbouring countries . is lack of channels for expressing con- well help in gaining understanding • removal of Saddam and regime cern and discuss solutions, so the change. This last also made other countries’ leadership fearful that it might set a precedent to be repeated in other situations. • Strengthening democracy. The pro- motion of a more democratic region is welcomed by people who are going through democratization processes, and also as a cooperation for peacebuilding. Democratic administrations are seen as more eager to peacefully solve their dif- ferences with other democracies.

Disagreement and fear appear at con- fronting what is regarded as a lack of Paolo Cotta-Ramusino, flanked by Kim Dae Jung and Joseph Rotblat.

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and establishing measures of the uled in early 2005. But at the same In any case, today’s terror is a progress being achieved as such time, those elections are seen as the result of postponing the institutional- changes take place. turning point in their future stability. ization of Iraq, not a cause for it. A The case of Israel is seen in a dual If carried on solely by the present government regarded as legitimate by role, for some it places instability, administration, they will probably Iraqi people will be defended and whilst for others it’s a power that not be accepted and may trigger strong. It will have the legitimacy to requires a proper balance. If it is to instability and domestic fight. If they control and combat terrorist groups, be balanced, then they pursue an are carried on with a strong support as it is happening today at the local upgrading in their own forces in and presence from the UN and sup- level. The national administration order to counter such military might. port from the US, as well as with the does not seem to be efficient at con- But Israel is also seen as the privi- good will of the regional organiza- trolling terrorists, while local people leged partner of the US and the only tions, then the chances for success are feel the need to defend themselves capable of influencing the US policy major. Many people who have the from both sides, and they do. So for the whole Middle East. will to take part in the building of hopes for a democratic stable Iraq are For Israel, on the other hand, that Iraqi democracy have been avoiding high if elections are held on time and same perception is what makes them participating because they fear lack under international guarantees. The insecure. They rely on themselves for of fair play. They welcomed the end UN so far is in desperate need of sup- defending their country, and despite of Saddam Hussein’s regime, but did port to accomplish such a task. Call- the relation with the US, feel that not find a chance to continue an ing upon the SHIRBRIG (Multi- nobody is going to do what they have active involvement under the occupa- national Standby Force High to do in order to achieve security. In tion and growing violence. Readiness Brigade For UN Opera- case of cooperation with the other Elections are going to bring to the tions) headquartered in Denmark is countries from the region, they would Assembly all parts involved in Iraqi probably the best way to supply per- be a good partner in terms of using citizenry, and it is to be hoped that sonnel to carry on such task. their long standing dialogue with the free and fair elections will help build The nuclear problem US at delivering the message other confidence between them. Also, other countries are not feeling able to. actors have to stay out of the process. Iran considers itself in full compli- But the overall situation shows Today’s Iraq shows a multiplicity of ance with the provisions of interna- that US is aiming for a radical interests that have become growingly tional law and the IAEA missions are reshape of the Middle East system in violent in some cases. The concern welcome. Their case is also seen a order to change it into something for an unstable Iraq has attracted source of instability for their neigh- more compatible with North Ameri- other countries to play a role that bors, who fear a situation like one in can interests. They want first friendly diminishes the chances for peace. If Iraq may be replicated. Iran wishes to regimes, and hopefully democracies. they respect the electoral process and possess nuclear technology and at the The past role played by the US in the decisions and commitments made same time advance in a positive dia- supporting regimes far from democ- at an assembly, Iraq may well become logue with the US. This may help in ratic makes people skeptic about that a peaceful country. But there is also a getting to a commitment that ensures statement. There has also been need from the West to respect the the continuity of the Iranian govern- expressed a concern for the lack of way Iraqis chose for themselves to be ment and some base for future coop- other basic aspects that foster organized. And the type of democ- eration with the US. Human Security, and they are in the racy they want to establish. It may On the other hand, what hap- basis of democratic change and not be a western type, but in the long pened with the Osirak reactor made national stability. run it may develop into something other countries aware of the need for similar. Basically Iraqis want to live building separate compounds in Democracy in Iraq their way, and fear what may happen order to prevent the destruction in a Iraqis are hoping to move towards if the result of elections does not single attack. To prevent such attack democracy, and the first step is the seem to match the interests of the Iran claims to have the will for open- need for elections to be held as sched- Coalition. ing all their facilities for inspection.

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Israel, on turn, having nuclear many chances for independent deci- The case of the Geneva accords, military capability poses a threat to sion-making. It lacks, for instance, on the contrary, seem not to be other nations in the Region, and they basic resources under their control. accepted by large numbers of the feel that if they gain some nuclear They range from water supplies to Israeli public opinion, but is a good capacity they will prevent an attack. freedom of movement. And they also step forward in trying to reestablish The five nuclear powers have a fear that this is going to trigger more negotiations. It is not the representa- record in not attacking countries that conflicts in the West Bank. Israeli tion of states but the will of partici- have nuclear capabilities. So possess- government, on the contrary, claims pating individuals. If the accords are ing nuclear technology make other that as Gaza has clear borders it is revived, they can provide the particu- nations feel safer. Some consider easy to move out from it, and it will lars that are missing in the Arab Iran’s government as eager to harbor open the gate for the withdrawal League’s proposal. The failure of the terrorists, and it would be a reason from the West Bank. In this case, the Road Map, on the other hand, is a for the West to be concerned if there government of Israel says, borders shared responsibility, and it proves are not safeguards of a change of atti- are subject to further negotiation and the need for leadership and trust. tude in that respect. to be agreed upon. The case of Gaza There was agreement in the group is to be understood, according to that trust can only be rebuilt with the The Israeli /Palestinian situation Israeli claims, as the beginning of a intervention of a Third Party, as The decision by the government of process and not the end of it. stated above. Europe, despite its past Ariel Sharon to unilaterally withdraw Both parts consider that reliable errors, may be today a party beyond from Gaza is a major move for Israeli Third parties could be welcome to the suspicion that the US poses for domestic policy. The clash with co-operate in the effort to establish some Palestinians. groups of settlers claiming for their conditions for dialogue, after so Weapons of Mass Destruction right to stay is viewed as the major many years of Intifada, retaliation Free Zone domestic fight Israel has to face in the and lack of mutual trust. Egypt is quest for Peace. This power struggle, if seen as a necessary partner, because The commitment to bring about a successful to the government, will of the proximity to Gaza and because WMDFZ in the Middle East is a long open the gate for a future support for its the only nation capable to safe- time aspiration. Despite the fact that the peace process. Withdrawing uni- guard the Philadelphia corridor. But nuclear weapons are not willing to be laterally was a decision claimed to be other cooperating parties may also be discussed so far, some advances have taken as a need for concrete steps welcomed. Non-governmental actors, been made in the case of Chemical towards the solution of the problem, like Pugwash, could play an impor- and Biological weapons, and coun- and also claimed as a result of the lack tant role in setting up the conditions tries that before were reluctant to of a partner from the Palestinian side. for dialogue and to help bringing accept their possession, today seem Israeli officials think that this decision about a reliable partner in Peace. to be willing to admit their posses- will call upon Palestinian leadership to The initiative of the Arab League sion and destroy their arsenals. It take their responsibility on running is a major shift in Middle East policy, would be a major step forward if the Gaza, and therefore forcing them to because entitles the acceptance of the five states that have not yet ratified move towards the establishment of a Two State solution by the Arab the relevant conventions consider government capable of running the states. It is considered as very gen- doing so. place. Some Israeli Peace advocates eral, and the particulars are still to be In any case an agreement from the support the withdrawal because the discussed. The Syrian position 5 Nuclear States is needed. A complete dismantlement of settlements will help accepting the provisions of the pro- reconsideration of all the nuclear to overcome a major obstacle for the posal is a major change. For Israelis a weapons deployed in the Region Two State Solution, as requested by the similar attitude from Iran would be could be a major step forward. UN and agreed in Oslo. needed. While Iran says that it’s to Palestinians are skeptical of their the Palestinians to make the decision, prospects to run a place that for some and they will respect whatever com- is considered as a trap, with not promise is made.

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nals initiate reactions from each side Report on Working Group 3 (when describing the relationship International Terrorism and Consequences between state and non-state actors). of the “War on Terror” State terrorism was raised especially Talat Masood and Gabi Baramki, Co-Conveners as more serious and a more impor- Thomas Johansson, Rapporteur tant problem to tackle in the field of terrorism. One question that was posed was: Introduction Someone else preferred not to where does this circle begin and con- errorism in the form of 9/11 and label the actor but instead look at the sequently where does the chain of Tsince, has seriously destabilized approach each actor takes, a con- events originate? A further question the international community and frontational or accommodational, to was, what form do these signals take regions of the world. The consequent a specific adversary. This way vio- – i.e. what do they consist of ? If war on terror has further deterio- lence comes in focus as the destruc- media (i.e. reports/coverage) consti- rated the situation and made enemies tive factor in any relation (no matter tutes one signal – is it then media we out of old friends. A new front has who is the actor). should be focusing on ?1 (What is the opened between the Muslim world It was also stated that terrorists role of the media when it comes to and western countries. Working using the pretext of Islamism cause initiating actions ?). Can we identify group no 3 tried to analyze why this should be regarded as political other “signals” ? happens, how the events and actors activists – not terrorists. The discussion further focused The scope and magnitude of are interconnected and how we could terrorism today break the vicious circle. around dichotomies such as state Some consider that new(-style) ter- This report is divided into seven actors vs non-state actors, legitimate rorism is replacing old(-style) terror- sections. In the first we look at defini- vs illegitimate violence and national ism; hierarchical groups with tradi- tions. In the second the motives of ter- vs international terrorism. tional modus operandi are being rorism are explored. Third, the scope On the origins of terrorism (root replaced by loose networks financed and magnitude of terrorism is looked causes/ rationale behind it) by private sources (including transna- at. In the fourth, WMD-terrorism is Motivations for terrorists vary a lot tional ones) rather than states. discussed. Fifth, responses to terror- and can be divided into three cate- A number of trends were identi- ism are suggested. In the sixth section gories: fied as being at work among domes- responses to the US administration • Psychological – i.e. terrorism for tic terrorist groups. Those were are discussed. In the last section the personal reasons (hate, desire for trends… discussion on the situation in the power) • towards huge bomb attacks on city Middle East is summarized. • Ideological – which encompasses centers On definitions religion or philosophies and pro- • towards mass-lethality attacks grams. The discussion started on the nature • towards attacks designed to inflict • Strategic – the logical result of a of terrorism. massive damage on national eco- group’s objectives – as the best One definition that was given nomics means of achieving a specific objec- was: “A terrorist targets non-combat- • of hostage-taking tive. ant civilians to achieve a political • of a more extensive and closer col- In addition, it was stressed that goal. Those who undertake political laboration between political groups terrorism is in many ways the result actions that target civilians are terror- and international organized crime of a circular interdependence where ists.” The key words seem to be The following international different processes act and react to “civilians” and “violence”. It was trends were mentioned: each other. One model that was pre- further stated that “…Terrorism is a • an upsurge in the number and sented uses the metaphor of a (bio- result of a failed politics or failed severity of ethnic and ethno-reli- logical) reciprocal system where sig- democracy”. gious conflicts…

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• the emergence and consolidation of • also it would fit with the trend Thirdly, it has to be recognized terrorist-groups wholly or in part towards mass-lethality attacks that the use of military force has to motivated by religious fanaticism be used with great discretion to break One view that was presented was terrorism otherwise it can prove In the future the international that we should focus our attention on counterproductive. The policy of community will probably be faced the most probable scenario (i.e. our fighting terror militarily has had only with a mixture of different actors focus should be shifted away from very limited successes, because it “new” as well as “old”. Some of the the worst case scenario). Thus largely fails to address the root trends referred to above prove to be WMD-terrorism, for example is a causes. Terror that largely reflects more long-term, while others major threat but it is not very proba- prevailing social, political and eco- disappear. ble. The difficulties and risks men- nomic circumstances can only be Exactly what the future holds is tioned above together with the tight fought on those same terrains, and difficult to say – but that terrorism is security around stockpile, agents and not primarily in the military arena. and will remain a serious, and per- other vital resources all add to this. Fourthly, to create a safer world haps the most serious, threat to Against this, it was pointed out that for the future we need to make it world security seem fairly certain. the consequences are so enormous more just. It is important to note that and so are the risks. They cannot be WMD-terrorism perceived deprivation of civil and ignored. It would be irresponsible not political rights can be far more of a WMD in the hands of terrorists to look at the risk probability. danger to stability than purely mater- would be catastrophic. Luckily it is ial deprivation. Respect for interna- difficult both to acquire ready-made Responding to terrorism (counter-terrorism) tional human rights and international weapons and to put together by a law will foster citizens in all states, small group of people.2 Lot of How do we deal with terrorism? It religions and groupings to promote resources has been spent on detec- was suggested that there are many democratic values. Through this tion-equipments along borders, on pathways away from terrorism: It minority-rights will be respected and airports, etc all over the world – to was agreed though that: motives for terrorism will weaken detect and contain quickly. Still there First we need to avoid seeing ter- are large gaps in this security-net and rorism as something associated with and so would the public support. During the discussion it increas- the costs measured in lives as well as the Muslim world as such (and the economics would be tremendous in a Muslim world is not one cohesive ingly emerged that democracy as a case of an attack. unit either!). However it is true that system, but also as a method, is the There are though certain factors most non-state acts of terror best way of countering the causes of that might refrain terrorists from presently originate from groups terrorism, as well as its consequences. We must be able to handle the prob- acquiring and using WMD; within the “Muslim world”. Why is lem of terrorism within the borders • conventional weapons are more this the case ? of democracy. By ensuring that the available • The Governments are not represen- interests of minority groups are taken • the risk for the user is substantial tative in these countries into account, that human rights are • the risk of a public backlash • Conflict situations where Muslims protected for all people, and by coun- • the risk of security crackdown that regard themselves as being particu- tering terrorist violence with an inter- might eradicate the organization larly vulnerable are found in these parts of the world (Chechnya, the est in its origins, we can stop the sig- There are also factors that speak Middle East, India-Pakistan, etc). nals to the non-state actors. It is, for WMD-terrorism; however, more difficult to stop the • one is that irrational actors might Second the outspoken goal of the signals from state actors. Participants value mass destruction more than USA of regime change also in Iran pointed out though that terrorism the negative consequences and Syria needs to be reversed. This from non-state actors springs from • another is the enormous damage on policy creates insecurity, hostility and terrorism from state actors. economy destabilizes the region further. Fifthly, in order to avoid getting stuck in the pessimistic vision of

Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 13 Pugwash Meeting No. 301 world war and disaster we need the • The discussions returned time and terrorism. The risk of this terrorism political will to make priorities that again to the US war on terror and spreading outside the region is seen are based on low probability and its ethnocentric foreign policy as a as clear and present. The reciprocal great costs such as with WMD-ter- direct cause of and not just an signals that were mentioned above rorism. For this to happen we must aggravating factor to the situation are easily seen in this region in forms be able to show decision-makers the today, but also as an independent of propaganda, provocations and magnitude of the risk and conse- “breeding ground” for future ter- arrogance. Ultimately day-to-day vio- quences in case of the prevailing rorism. A new Administration was lence works as the most effective sig- international politics. not perceived to have the ability to nal. State violence leads the smaller Sixthly, today there are no rules change the current US foreign pol- actor into frustration, despair and that govern the relationship between icy. It was suggested that the only hopelessness. The perfect feeding- war (war on terrorism) and between way of changing this is to seek an ground for terrorism. Most of the states and terrorists. The gray zone imminent dialogue with the US motives in the first section above are that exists is freely exploited, e.g., by administration, based on American there. Consequently terrorism kills the USA and the UK who then fail to security needs. Furthermore, it and spreads terror among civilians. accept (responsibility of) the out- would be constructive to seek to To break this spiral the state actor come. We need rules that govern this influence the prevalent view in the has to initiate alternative approaches. situation. US administration that a restriction Democratic means would halt the of liberty is counterproductive violence and slowly take away the Responding to US policy (since the shortcomings in connec- motives for further terrorism. It was agreed that: tion with 9/11 were associated with In the case of Israel and Palestine • The war on terror is wrong and shortcomings in the intelligence and the only solution to end the spiral counterproductive: Violence can security bodies rather than short- would be to end the occupation and never solve the problems. It will comings in the open society). create an independent Palestinian only further aggravate. The US state side by side with Israel. For Iran The situation in the Middle East administration needs to understand and Syria (and maybe others) USA that it is against its own security Terrorism as well as security takes needs to quiet the war-drums and interests. different shapes in different regions. convince that there will be no more • To confront the US administration The Middle East has seen terrorism violent regime changes in the region. on this will not change the situa- for many years. Here as well as Could others than the USA change tion. We need to approach in a dif- everywhere else both form and scope the situation ? The answer to this is ferent way; An imminent dialogue changed after 9/11. 4 years ago a no. Support would be useful from the is needed that focuses on American normalization process was under way EU. It is mainly the US administra- security interests and their position between USA and Iran. Today suspi- tion that needs to act though. as world power. cion and propaganda stand between To initiate this process it was • Moral errors. We should make the them. In Iran as well as other coun- strongly suggested that we condemn US administration aware of these tries in the region people worry that the suicide bombings and other ter- errors. they will be next on the list after Iraq. rorist acts in the region. • In order to convince the US admin- The US administration at the same istration to take part we need to time feel threatened by Iranian improve the international system. nuclear aspirations and seem frus- 1 For example the role and responsibility UN weaknesses and limitations trated by Iran because they cannot of Al Jazeera. have to be acknowledged. Today succeed in Iraq. Israel tends at the 2 It is though far from impossible for the US administration hesitates same time to slash out in a similar someone with the knowledge and right equipment to put together and explode understandably to take part in a way, unable to understand the coun- a nuclear device. When it comes to bio- system that can not take care of terproductive consequences from logical weapons it is much more diffi- Rwanda, Sudan, the Balkans, etc . using violence. All this feed the nega- cult to spread to affect a larger tive spiral of more violence and new population.

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of Tripartite Cooperation by China, Report on Working Group 4 Japan and South Korea. Each of Economic Cooperation and Security in East Asia these agreements advances trade lib- Ambassador Yang Chengxu and eralization in East Asia and strength- Professor Heung-Soo Park, Co-Conveners ens the process of so-called “10 + 3” Donald G. Gross, Rapporteur cooperation among the ten ASEAN countries, China, Japan and South Korea. The tripartite collaboration Introduction and They recognized that: has facilitated discussion by China, working group focus • The trade between China and Japan and South Korea of a Free ASEAN countries has grown annu- he working group agreed that Trade Agreement (FTA) among these ally by approximately 20% since Tthe East Asia region is a place of three countries. By finding effective the late 1980s. In 2004, trade great economic opportunity and measures to handle sensitive trade among these countries is expected promise that has already become an issues, such as agricultural tariffs, the to surpass $100 billion for the first engine for world economic growth. countries will also build mutual polit- time. In the context of rapidly increasing ical trust. • In 2003, the volume of trade trade and investment, countries in the Working group members noted between China and Japan reached region have successfully strengthened that while economic cooperation in more than $133 billion, an increase their diplomatic cooperation on eco- Asia has increased in the last several of 33% over the previous year. For nomic issues since the Asia financial years, it still is encountering chal- the first half of 2004, the trade vol- crisis of 1997-98. lenges. As one example, although ume of more than $92 billion Against this positive background, China, Japan and South Korea have between China and Japan exceeded however, countries still possess deep launched government research pro- trade between Japan and the United suspicions of each other’s strategic jects to create a three-way Free Trade States. China has now become the intentions, giving rise to fears of Agreement, they have so far been largest trade partner of Japan and future confrontation. How to provide unable to endorse any of their Japan is China’s leading trade part- security assurances to the Democratic experts’ recommendations. These ner. Peoples Republic of Korea (DPRK) countries will need the same kind of • For the first half of 2004, trade vol- and end the DPRK’s program to political will to succeed that was ume between South Korea and develop nuclear weapons is of great- shown in reaching the China-ASEAN China exceeded $43 billion, and est concern to countries in the region Free Trade Agreement. They can China became South Korea’s largest because this issue could result either build on their “binding market funda- trade partner. in a highly destructive military con- mentals,” which highlight the mutual flict or trigger a nuclear arms race. This statistical data reflects the benefits of regional economic cooper- Working group members believed economic vitality of East Asia in pro- ation, as a means of overcoming their that the current six-party talks on the ducing wealth and prosperity that political differences and sensitivities. DPRK’s nuclear program cannot be will significantly raise the standard of Working group members recog- allowed to fail. Settlement of the living of people in the region. The nized that China’s astonishing eco- nuclear issue will permit the parties data also highlights the mutually ben- nomic development will likely be to address other regional security eficial economic diplomacy that has accompanied by greater democracy concerns over time and facilitate occurred since the Asia financial cri- in the not too distant future. This stronger economic cooperation as sis of 1997-98. beneficial effect will likely result from well as greater economic prosperity. Among the most promising recent the rapid development of internal Economic progress and developments are the signing of the communication in China, including cooperation 2002 Framework Agreement on cell-phones and cable television. These networks will contribute to The working group reviewed various China-ASEAN Comprehensive Eco- more openness and the greater measures of economic progress in the nomic Cooperation and the 2003 exchange of ideas. The large number region during the last several years. Joint Declaration on the Promotion

Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 15 Pugwash Meeting No. 301 of Chinese students studying abroad, self-interested competitive attitudes achieve political reconciliation and as a result of China’s economic devel- and do not cooperate, they will be overcome deep-rooted suspicions opment, will also engender greater unable to solve their common energy growing out of Japan’s colonization political openness in the country. problems in the future. policy, World War II and the Cold In addition to strengthening their The DPRK has especially dire War. East Asia faces a range of poten- multilateral frameworks for eco- needs in the field of energy. It now tially catastrophic problems if eco- nomic cooperation, countries in the depends on the shipment of petro- nomic rivalries and power politics region would benefit from reaching leum from far away sources to meet spin out of control. more bilateral Free Trade Agree- its energy needs. One of the few bene- Working group members agreed ments. Bilateral FTAs can valuably fits of this situation is that it has that this complex situation made it support and complement the multi- forced the DPRK to concentrate on all the more important for economic lateral approaches. developing renewable energy cooperation measures to foster It would be beneficial if the resources in advance of other coun- greater political trust and thus a United States would clarify its policy tries that may face the same kind of reduction of security threats among toward new frameworks for multilat- problem in the future. The DPRK is countries in the region. If it becomes eral economic and security coopera- now investigating the extensive use of possible to institutionalize a mecha- tion in East Asia. Sometimes the U.S. windmills in ten percent of the coun- nism for ongoing economic coopera- has supported such approaches, tryside which may greatly improve tion, this arrangement could lead to a where it has a liaison relationship but the electricity supply at the local level. future regional security organization. not member status, as being in the The security issue on which work- Security concerns and the best interests of regional economic ing group members concentrated DPRK nuclear issue growth and trade liberalization. most of their discussion was the cur- Other times, the U.S. has indicated it Despite the great promise of East rent six-party talks on the DPRK’s would only support such regional Asia’s economic growth and real nuclear weapons program. They had multilateral frameworks – especially progress in developing a framework a clear consensus that these multilat- those that address security issues – if for economic cooperation, the region eral negotiations have made progress the U.S. is a full member. faces serious security challenges. in achieving a peaceful resolution of A critical area of economic con- Unlike European countries, most East this difficult issue and must not be cern for the future is the potential Asian nations have been unable to allowed to fail. One of the greatest shortage of energy. Given current lev- els of consumption, the world will run out of petroleum in 40 years, nat- ural gas in 60 years and coal in 220 years. East Asian countries can meet these shortages through increased reliance on renewable fuels and pro- duction of peaceful nuclear energy as well as by taking energy conservation measures. Importantly, these potential energy shortages can spur greater economic cooperation among coun- tries in the region. It would be highly beneficial if Russia, China, Japan and South Korea, in particular, collabo- rated effectively to develop means of remedying potential energy short- ages. If these countries instead adopt Korean DMZ.

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accomplishments of these negotia- sides. They should avoid, at all costs, workshop, in an unofficial capacity, tions, to date, has been establishing rhetorical statements which merely representatives of the six parties, the universally accepted principle raise tensions while lowering the the European Union, the IAEA, as that the Korean peninsula should be chance for resolution of substantive well as various technical experts on permanently free of nuclear weapons. issues. nuclear weapons and verification. Working group members regret- One working group member sug- In so doing, Pugwash could help lay ted that the round of six-party talks gested that the parties to the six-party the groundwork for progress at the scheduled for late September 2004 talks could achieve a breakthrough at next round of six-party talks. One was delayed. They believed that the their next round by adopting “recip- specific agenda item for this work- negotiations can succeed if all the rocal unilateral measures” – indepen- shop could be the recently reported parties – especially the main protago- dent actions taken by the parties to actions of South Korean scientists nists, the United States and the DPRK the negotiations to reach their shared in conducting fissile material exper- – adopt a spirit and attitude of com- objectives. Instead of relying at the iments in the early 1980s and 2000. promise. A settlement will not be outset on formal treaty agreement – • Undertaking a research effort and possible unless each party takes into which will be difficult to achieve series of workshops on developing account the concerns, fears and aspi- under current circumstances – the collaborative approaches in East rations of the other parties and shows parties can give their negotiations Asia to meeting potential energy some flexibility in addressing those strong momentum by taking signifi- shortages. Experts could consider issues. To date, a sincere willingness cant, coordinated, unilateral actions. the advantages and disadvantages by the United States and the DPRK to For example, the DPRK’s decision to of cooperative development of oil reach a compromise has not been evi- freeze all its nuclear facilities and pipelines, renewable energy sources dent. The governments of both coun- allow inspections, as a first step and peaceful nuclear power in tries have occasionally engaged in toward ultimate dismantlement, resolving this potentially serious sharp rhetoric which has heightened could be reciprocated by a combina- problem. the atmosphere of tension between tion of security assurances, confi- • Conducting more regional work- them. dence-building measures and eco- shops to address divisive economic Working group members believed nomic assistance from the other and security issues that could the United States needs to be more parties. undermine regional stability and, if forthcoming in providing security The European Union, though not not addressed, lead to military con- assurances and security guarantees to a party to the six-party talks, can flict. One of these workshops could the DPRK, which still deeply fears an nevertheless play a critical role in specifically discuss the prerequisite attack by the United States. The U.S. achieving a settlement. By endorsing measures for institutionalizing should also take the DPRK off its list an agreement reached at the talks, the regional economic and security of countries supporting terrorism so EU would provide a valuable assur- cooperation in East Asia. the DPRK can receive assistance from ance to the DPRK of that agreement’s multilateral financial institutions. For credibility. its part, the DPRK should adopt a Recommendations more flexible attitude toward inspec- tions by the International Atomic Working group members believed Energy Agency (IAEA) in the context Pugwash should pursue several of the six-party talks, realizing that important efforts to advance eco- IAEA is a highly respected interna- nomic cooperation and the resolution tional organization in the view of the of outstanding security issues in East great majority of countries. All of the Asia. These measures include: parties to the talks should show the • Conducting a workshop this Fall, utmost patience, adopt a constructive following the U.S. presidential elec- approach and exhibit a readiness to tions, on the the DPRK nuclear hear out the arguments of the other issue. Pugwash could invite to this

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demographics in society. It is a Report on Working Group 5 “weapon of mass destruction” that Non-Military Threats to Security will be around for at least 150 years. Marie Muller and Pierre Canonne Co-Convernors Communication with the public Peter Meincke Rapporteur through media and education is essential in the war on HIV/AIDS

Introduction threats to security. It concludes with a Obesity number of recommendations. The list orking Group 5 considered a The global epidemic of obesity is of threats and activities is not com- Wwide but not complete range spreading at an alarming rate from plete and does not include climate of non-military threats to security as western industrialized countries to change well as a number of activities that the developing world where it often should help to reduce the usual mili- Non-military threats sits side by side with malnutrition. tary threats. Some members of Pug- Obesity is a risk factor that is part of HIV/AIDS wash may wonder at the relevance of what is called “Metabolic Syndrome” In July 2000, UN Security Council such a wide range of topics to the and leads to diabetes and cardiovas- Resolution 1308 established a direct goals of Pugwash. Members of the cular disease. Obesity, like smoking and formal link between its responsi- working group are unanimous in can be treated by changes in lifestyle bility for maintaining international their support of maintaining such a rather than imposing additional peace and security and the HIV/AIDS working group because it alerts Pug- strains on health care. wash to the wide range of other epidemic. Pugwash Council agreed to threats to human security and new the proposal of the South African Nuclear waste management Pugwash Group to convene two ways of thinking about the problems, As more and more countries opt for exploratory workshops in 2004. including contributions from a wide nuclear power to reduce greenhouse WG5 agreed that the epidemic does variety of disciplines and sources. gas emissions from burning fossil threaten security by using up all the This report begins by reviewing the fuels to generate electricity, the need capacity of the health care system, non-military threats that were identi- for global nuclear waste management killing at the most economically pro- fied as well as a number of actions is urgent. Finland is the first country ductive time of life and distorting that should reduce the causes of to ratify formally plans for the final disposal of spent nuclear fuel which must be handled, stored and perma- nently disposed of in Finland.

Misinformation in the media WG5 discussed the threats to human security from misinformation in the media. Misinformation about HIV/AIDS can lull people to compla- cency about high risk behavior. The South African Pugwash has tried to counter misinformation by a journal- ist. Concern was expressed about the role of the media in the lead up to the invasion of Iraq.

Natural resource conflicts Conflicts over natural resources are a potential threat to security but much

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more hard information is required flict, there is evidence that a marked public and decision makers and to before one can deal with them difference between rich and poor is phrase the main conclusions of their properly. part of a network of inter-related fac- research in a way that reflects the tors that may lead to violence. uncertainties and to improve commu- Approaches to reducing threats nication on complex issues. Pugwash to security Building bridges between opposing must get more involved with public Involving multinational enterprises paradigms (World views) education and correcting the danger- (MNEs) in global security Although Kuhn argues that discus- ous misinformation in the media. WG5 agreed with the need to involve sion between such different para- Recommendations MNE’s in global security issues and digms is next to impossible, it was supported the concept of a quadruple felt that strengthening the debate on • That the Pugwash Council consider bottom line which includes security the theoretical limits of economics a workshop on involving multina- in addition to economic, social and and making ethics a necessary tool tional enterprises in Global Security environmental factors. for coping with complex economic in ways that do not overlap with issues would help bridge the divide the World Economic Forum or the Education, especially of women between the “alterglobalists” and tra- Global Compact. WG5 explored how education espe- ditional economists. There was great • That Pugwash establish closer ties cially for women is very effective in interest in a proposal for expanding with economists and organizations reducing violence, empowering the role of the Citizen in a five stage such as Economists Allied for Arms women, reducing birthrates and rate process of conflict resolution Reduction (ECAAR ) as well as of AIDS infection all of which reduce ethicists and involve them in future threats to security. Promoting ethical responsibility of meetings scientists, engineers, economists, etc. • That Pugwash promote a dialogue Empowering the poor and reducing WG5 explored proposals for self- among all the stakeholders regard- wealth differentials policing by the scientific community ing the conduct of research in the WG5 learned about the Information of the conduct of research and com- life sciences and the assessment of Village Research Project in munication including involving ethical emerging technologies. Pondicherry run by the M.S. Swami- considerations and codes of conduct. • That Pugwash devote more time nathan Research Foundation and its and resources to communications success in empowering the rural poor. Improving communications • That the working group on non Although there is no hard evidence There is an urgent need for scientists military threats be continued but that poverty is a direct cause of con- to build appropriate bridges with the with a reduced number of topics

Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 19 Pugwash Meeting No. 301

54th Pugwash Conference on Science and World Affairs Bridging a Divided World Through International Cooperation and Disarmament 5–8 October 2004, Seoul, South Korea

Nuclear Weapons and the Search for Security STATEMENT AT THE 54TH PUGWASH CONFERENCE ON SCIENCE AND WORLD AFFAIRS by IAEA Director General Dr. Mohamed ElBaradei

iplomacy versus coercion. Recent Lessons In Nuclear Collective versus unilateral Verification Daction. Security achieved The first lesson—and perhaps the through isolation and containment most important lesson not only for versus security achieved through dia- the IAEA but also for the interna- logue and integration. tional community—is that verifica- These debates are not new. But tion and diplomacy, used in conjunc- they have taken on new life as new tion, can be effective. When generations struggle at regional and inspections are accompanied by ade- global levels to cope with renewed quate authority, aided by all available fears and insecurities, in unfamiliar information, backed by a credible forms and dimensions: the resurrec- compliance mechanism, and sup- tion of old conflicts, the rise in terror- ported by international consensus, the ism, and the ever-present and ever- verification system works. The Iraq evolving threat of weapons of mass Still, for those of us who have experience has demonstrated that destruction. worked as “custodians” of the Treaty inspections—while requiring time and The Treaty on the Non-Prolifera- for over three decades, it is clear that patience—can be effective even when tion of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) the events of the past few years have the country under inspection is pro- remains the global anchor for human- placed the NPT and the regime sup- viding less than active cooperation. ity´s efforts to curb nuclear prolifera- porting it under unprecedented stress, A key aspect of this effectiveness tion and move towards nuclear disar- exposing some of its limitations and — adequate authority — can only be mament. There is no doubt that the pointing to areas that need to be achieved in those countries that implementation of the NPT continues strengthened and adjusted. Today I accept the so-called “additional pro- to provide important security bene- would like to discuss some of the tocol” as a supplement to their NPT fits—by providing assurance that, in lessons that can be taken from the safeguards agreement. The additional the great majority of non-nuclear- experience of the IAEA in verifying protocol provides the Agency with weapon States, nuclear energy is not undeclared nuclear programmes in significant additional authority with being misused for weapon purposes. Iraq, Iran, Libya and the Democratic regard to both information and physi- The NPT is also the only binding People´s Republic of Korea. And cal access. As illustrated by the agreement in which all five of the because I have an audience that IAEA´s experience in Iraq before the nuclear-weapon States have commit- shares my conviction that interna- first Gulf War, without the authority ted themselves to move forward on tional peace and security cannot be provided by the protocol, our ability disarmament. Although the NPT is achieved without effective arms con- to verify nuclear activities is mostly sometimes mis-perceived as a Western trol, I will share a few ideas on the limited to the nuclear material already project, its benefits extend across any roles each of us can play – as scien- declared — with little authority to North-South or East-West geopoliti- tists, policy makers and other mem- verify the absence of undeclared cal divide. bers of civil society. nuclear material or activities. Even

20 Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 Pugwash Meeting No. 301

with the additional protocol, IAEA nuclear items. The relative ease with continued good intentions as the verification capabilities are not with- which a multinational illicit network basis for the adherence of these coun- out limitations; but our recent efforts could be set up and operated demon- tries to their non-proliferation com- in Iran, Libya and elsewhere have strates the inadequacy of the present mitments. And good intentions can made clear how much can be uncov- export control system. The fact that rapidly be over-run by a heightened ered when the protocol is applied. so many companies could be sense of insecurity. Obviously, the The second lesson, illustrated by involved (more than two dozen, by narrow margin of insurance this the evolution of the North Korean last count) — and that, in most cases, affords is worrisome. situation, is that we cannot afford this could occur apparently without Lesson four: insecurity breeds not to act in cases of non-compliance. the knowledge of their own govern- proliferation. It is instructive that The Democratic People´s Republic of ments — points to the shortcomings nearly all nuclear proliferation con- Korea (DPRK) took seven years to of national systems for oversight of cerns arise in regions of longstanding fulfill its obligations under the NPT sensitive equipment and technology. tension. In other words, nuclear pro- to conclude a safeguards agreement Moreover, international cooperation liferation is a symptom, and the with the Agency. And since 1992, on export controls relies on informal patient cannot ultimately be cured as shortly after this agreement was con- arrangements that are not only non- long as we leave unaddressed the cluded, the DPRK has been in non- binding, but also limited in member- underlying causes of insecurity and compliance with its NPT obligations. ship, and many countries with grow- instability — such as regional rival- In January 2003, the DPRK capped ing industrial capacity are not ries, the chronic lack of good gover- that non-compliance by declaring its included. And at present, export con- nance, the divide between rich and withdrawal from the NPT. Naturally, trol information is not systematically poor, and cultural schisms based on all of these actions were promptly shared with the Agency. ethnic, racial or religious differences. reported by the Agency to the Secu- Clearly, we must change our It is in this context that I have rity Council — but with little to no assumptions regarding the inaccessi- also begun to stress not only the response. This type of reaction by the bility of nuclear technology. In a value but also the limitations of the Council may be setting the worst modern society characterized by elec- IAEA´s role. While the Agency can precedent of all, if it conveys the mes- tronic information exchange, inter- use verification effectively to bring to sage that acquiring a nuclear deter- linked financial systems, and global closure questions of compliance with rent, by whatever means, will neu- trade, the control of access to nuclear legal and technical requirements, the tralize any compliance mechanism weapons technology has grown long term value of these efforts can and bring about preferred treatment. increasingly difficult. The technical only be realized to the extent that On the other hand, I would note that barriers to mastering the essential they are followed by the necessary verification and diplomacy have been steps of uranium enrichment — and political dialogue among concerned an important part of the success so to designing weapons — have eroded States to address underlying issues of far in Iran and Libya, and in that over time. Much of the hardware in insecurity, and to build confidence sense I can only hope that the contin- question is “dual use”, and the sheer and trust. uation of the six-party talks on the diversity of technology has made it Exploiting the Window of DPRK nuclear programme will yield much more difficult to control or Opportunity results that will include, inter alia, even track procurement and sales. full IAEA verification. We can only conclude that the Whatever value the concept of The third lesson is that interna- control of technology is not in itself a nuclear deterrence may have served tional efforts to inhibit the spread of sufficient barrier against further pro- during the Cold War, as the volatile technology through the use of export liferation. For an increasing number currency on which the standoff controls have not been effective. The of countries with a highly developed between two superpowers was bal- most disturbing insight to emerge industrial infrastructure — and in anced, it should be clear that nuclear from our work in Iran and Libya has some cases access to high enriched weapons today serve only as an been the revelation of an extensive uranium or plutonium — the NPT obstacle to peace and security. They illicit market for the supply of community must rely primarily on have become the ultimate “elephant

Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 21 Pugwash Meeting No. 301 in the parlor”. For the five countries a viable alternative to the doctrine of weapons. I would like to spend my recognized as nuclear-weapon States nuclear deterrence as the basis for remaining minutes outlining what I under the NPT, their nuclear arsenals international security. Nuclear see as the role of leadership in each of are increasingly becoming either a weapons will not go away until a these spheres. focal point for resentment or cyni- proven collective security framework cism among the nuclear “have-nots”, exists to fill the vacuum. The after- The Political Front: Roles for Policy or, worse, a target for emulation for math of the Cold War should have Makers and Political Leaders States that wish to pursue clandestine served as the logical lead-in to such Let me first turn to the political and WMD programmes. Russia and the an effort. The resulting changes to policy front. In this area, responsible United States have long ago lost their the international security landscape leadership must be focused on restor- appetite for mutually assured have been obvious; it is only that we ing and strengthening the credibility destruction, and now find themselves have lacked the vision and the initia- of multilateral approaches to resolv- in the absurd situation of collaborat- tive to adapt to these changes. ing conflicts and threats to interna- ing to guard against accidental If there is any silver lining to this tional security. The system of collec- launch while simultaneously main- dark cloud, it is that the window of tive security hoped for in the United taining, as a stubborn legacy, a hair opportunity is still open. The efforts Nations Charter has never been made trigger readiness for catastrophic to counteract Iraq´s phantom fully functional and effective. This exchange. In the Middle East and weapons of mass destruction, to must be our starting point. here on the Korean Peninsula, unveil a clandestine nuclear weapon The Security Council must be able nuclear weapons — as well as real or programmes in Libya, to understand and ready to engage effectively in perceived nuclear weapons ambitions the extent and nature of Iran´s both preventive diplomacy and — are a stumbling block that trips up nuclear programme, to bring the enforcement measures, with the tools attempts to resolve regional tensions. DPRK back to the NPT regime, and and methods in place necessary to It is the height of irony that, in to prevent nuclear terrorism have all cope with existing and emerging today´s security environment, the brought worldwide attention to bear threats to international peace and only actors who presumably would on issues of nuclear non-proliferation security. This should include mecha- find the world´s most powerful and nuclear security. That energy is nisms for preventive diplomacy to set- weapons useful — and would deploy ours to harness. If we are ever to tle emerging disputes within and them without hesitation — would be build a global security culture based among nations — which, if left a sub-national or extra-national on human solidarity — a collective unchecked, would, in the language of extremist group. A nuclear deterrent security framework that will serve the UN charter, “lead to threats to is absolutely ineffective against such the interests of all countries equally, international peace and security”. The groups; they have no cities that can and make reliance on nuclear Security Council should also have, at be bombed in response, nor are they weapons obsolete — the time is now. the ready, “smart” sanctions that can focused on self-preservation. But target a government without adding The Responsibility for Action even as we take urgent measures to misery to its citizens; and adequate protect against nuclear terrorism, The question remains, how? Whose forces to deal with the foreseeable even as more and more analysts dis- role is it to create this collective secu- range of situations — from maintain- cuss the likelihood of these efforts rity framework? Is this an initiative ing law and order, to monitoring bor- being thwarted and such a nuclear for policy makers? The UN Security ders, to combating aggression. “nightmare” occurring, we remain Council? The scientific community? A functional system for collective sluggish and unconvinced about the The answer, of course, is yes. It security is the only alternative to the need to rapidly rid ourselves of the will take all of us. Progress must be reliance that some nations, including 30 000 nuclear warheads around the made on all fronts — political, scien- nuclear weapon States and their world, poised for use. tific and social. We must all take the allies, now place on nuclear deter- Why? The answer, in my view, is responsibility for action. I do not pre- rence — in a “good guys versus bad that the international community has sume to have all the answers, but I do guys” approach that inevitably leaves not been successful to date in creating know that the answer is not nuclear some nations out in the cold and

22 Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 Pugwash Meeting No. 301

seeking to achieve parity. A func- States cannot withdraw from the to develop innovative tools for tional system for collective security is NPT without clear consequences, nuclear verification, mechanisms for the only alternative to the current including prompt review and appro- reducing the proliferation potential hodge-podge of approaches to priate action by the Security Council. of nuclear material and technology, addressing security issues — ranging Each of these measures would be in and techniques for dismantling and from inaction or late action on the keeping with a collective security destroying nuclear weapons. part of the international community, framework that aims simultaneously In the area of nuclear verification, to unilateral and “self-help” solu- to curb nuclear proliferation and to for example, advances in environ- tions on the part of individual States achieve nuclear disarmament. mental sampling and analysis tech- or groups of States. Striving for nuclear disarmament niques are enabling IAEA inspectors With a viable system of collective is not an idealistic march towards an to determine, with far greater preci- security in place, policy makers and unachievable Utopia. Just last month, sion, the nature and origin of individ- political leaders may find it easier to seven prominent policy makers, the ual particles of uranium — and make progress on other vital objec- foreign ministers of Brazil, Egypt, Ire- thereby to slowly unravel the tangled tives, such as bringing into force the land, Mexico, New Zealand, South pathways of the illicit nuclear pro- Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Africa and Sweden spoke out jointly, curement network. Satellite imagery Treaty, negotiating an internationally saying: “Today, we are more con- technology and advanced informa- verifiable Fissile Material (Cut-Off) vinced than ever that nuclear disar- tion analysis techniques have also Treaty, and putting in place a con- mament is imperative for interna- broadened the range of inspection crete roadmap for irreversible nuclear tional peace and security.” They capabilities. disarmament, involving not only the added, “Nuclear non-proliferation It is important, in our search for NPT nuclear-weapon States but also and disarmament are two sides of the security, that we not forget the posi- India, Pakistan and Israel. same coin, and both must be energet- tive aspect of “Atoms for Peace” — The development and demonstra- ically pursued.” I could not agree namely, ensuring that peaceful uses of tion of a collective security frame- more. It is this type of leadership that nuclear energy remain available to work will not occur overnight, and is urgently needed. all. Nuclear science plays a key role the difficulty of achieving our ulti- in enabling humanitarian benefits mate objective — the elimination of The Scientific Front: Roles for essential to development, such as: all nuclear weapons — should not be Researchers and Inventors diagnosing and curing cancer used, in any sense, as a pretext for The second front is one with which patients; studying child nutrition; failing to achieve the intermediate many of you are familiar — the role providing higher yielding, disease step of drastic reductions in existing of scientists in advancing non-prolif- resistant crops to farmers in develop- nuclear arsenals. In addition, there eration and disarmament objectives. ing countries; characterizing and are a broad range of actions we In reflecting on the responsibility for reducing airborne and waterborne should actively pursue to strengthen action that lies with the scientific pollution; analysing climate change; the existing non-proliferation regime, community, I cannot be more elo- and, not least, producing 16% of the including: urging all States to bring quent than Sir Joseph Rotblat — world’s electricity, with almost no the additional protocol into force; when he said that concepts of science greenhouse gas emissions. The tightening and formalizing the con- as a politically or morally neutral importance of continued scientific trols over the export of nuclear mate- activity are “remnants of the ivory achievement in these and other areas rials and technology; working tower mentality, although the ivory should not be underestimated. towards multilateral control over the tower [of science] was finally demol- Scientific research and invention sensitive parts of the nuclear fuel ished by the Hiroshima bomb.” is needed, however, to make the cycle — enrichment, reprocessing, Science brought us the atom nuclear fuel cycle more sustainable and the management and disposal of bomb. And if we are to rid ourselves and more proliferation resistant. spent fuel — while guaranteeing the of nuclear weapons, we will need an Advanced power reactor fuel cycles reliability of supply to legitimate equally intensive effort on the part of are under development that would would-be users; and ensuring that scientific researchers and inventors — use fissile and fertile materials more

Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 23 Pugwash Meeting No. 301 efficiently, enhance proliferation 54th Conference Participants resistance through the use of new fuel types and configurations, and miti- Dr. Clark Abt, Chairman, Abt Associates Prof. Gabriel Baramki, Consultant to the gate the volume and radio-toxicity of Inc., Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA; Palestinian Ministry of Higher Education, high level and long lived wastes. Associate, Belfer Center for Science and Jerusalem; President, Palestinian Council International Affairs, Kennedy School of for Justice and Peace ; Member, Pugwash The Social Front: Roles for Every Government, Harvard University Council Concerned Citizen Gen. (ret.) Mansour Abu Rashid, Chair- Mrs. Haifa Baramki, Director, Palestinian The third front is that of society — man, Amman Center for Peace and Center for Education for Life, a branch of the battle for hearts and minds — in Development, Amman, Jordan the International Foundation of Educa- tion for Life which every concerned citizen shares Amb. (ret.) Ochieng Adala, Member, a distinct responsibility for action. In Pugwash Council; Africa Peace Forum Dr. Kayhan Barzegar, Assistant Professor countries ranging from the most (APFO), Nairobi, Kenya of International Relations, Islamic Azad University, Science and Research Branch; powerful to some of the least indus- Prof. Ulrich Albrecht, Department of Scientific and Research Deputy, Faculty trially developed, the voice of the citi- Political and Social Sciences, Free Univer- of Law and Political Science; Editor-in- zen is increasingly a weapon in the sity, Berlin, Germany chief, Journal of law and politics affiliatd political debate. It is vital that we Dr. Abbas Al-Hussaini, Senior Lecturer with the faculty; Senior Research Fellow, engage individuals from all sectors of and Researcher, School of Architecture Center for Scientific Research and Middle society in a public dialogue — to and the Built Environment, University of East Strategic Studies, Tehran; Associate remind them of the continued extant Westminster, London, UK; Chair of Iraq Editor, Discourse: an Iranian English lan- danger of nuclear war, to explain to Higher Education Organising Commit- guage quarterly; Associate Fellow, Center tee, UK for Strategic Research (CSR), Tehran them the alternatives available, and to offer avenues for involvement. Dr Athem Alsabti, Research Dr. Kennette Benedict, Director, Interna- This dialogue must be stimulated not Fellow/Astrophysics, University of Lon- tional Peace and Security Area, Program don Observatory/University College Lon- on Global Security and Sustainability, only in large Western States but in don, UK; Vice Chairman, Cornwall The John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur countries across the globe. Organiza- Astronomical Society; Vice Chairman, Foundation, Chicago, Illinois, USA; tions like Pugwash should continue Laplace Institute on Asteroids; President, Senior Advisor in Philanthropy to work to develop and refine pro- British Mandaean Council (Charity Dr. Jeffrey Boutwell, Executive Director, Organization); CEO for the International posals for action, to bring them to Pugwash Conferences on Science and Conference on Higher Education & the attention of governments and World Affairs, Washington, DC, USA; Research in Iraq; Founding member, Iraqi opinion leaders, and to promote Member, Pugwash Executive Committee Academy of Sciences informed public discourse on nuclear Ms. Hanna Hill Brunius, Deputy Sinolo- Prof. Hussain Al-Shahristani, Chairman non-proliferation and disarmament gist, Embassy of Sweden, Beijing, China of Standing Committee, Iraqi National that will become too forceful and too Academy of Sciences; Visiting Professor, Dr. Adele Buckley, Chair, Canadian Pug- authoritative to be ignored. University of Surrey wash Group; Vice President, Technology The nuclear genie is out of the box & Research, Ontario Centre for Environ- Prof. Samir Al-Taqi, Institute of Strategic — but it remains, at least at present, mental Technology Advancement Studies, Damascus University, Syria; (OCETA), Toronto, Ontario, Canada at the bidding of its human makers. Political analyst and former Syrian law- May it not ultimately be said of our maker Prof. Francesco Calogero, Member, Pug- society that we created the inventions wash Council; Professor of Theoretical Ms. Carin Atterling Wedar, Lector, Theo- Physics, University of Rome “La that led to our own demise. logical Faculty, University of Gothenburg; Sapienza”, Rome, Italy Secretary-General, Swedish Initiative for Copyright 2003-2004, Peace, Security and International Rela- Col. (ret.) Pierre Canonne, Member, Pug- International Atomic Energy Agency, tions (SIPSIR), Stockholm wash Council ; Senior Lecturer, Disarma- P.O. Box 100, Wagramer Strasse 5, ment and Arms Control, Univ. Marne-la- A-1400 Vienna, Austria Vallés/Paris, France Telephone (+431) 2600-0; Facsimilie (+431) 2600-7; E-mail: [email protected]

24 Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 Pugwash Meeting No. 301

Amb. Sergio Duarte, Ambassador-at- large of Brazil for Disarmament and Non-proliferation Matters

Dr. Lynn Eden, Member, Pugwash Coun- cil; Associate Director for Research/Senior Research Scholar, Center for International Security and Coopera- tion (CISAC), Institute for International Studies, Stanford University, Stanford, California; USA, Co-Chair U.S. Pugwash Group

Dr. Mohamed ElBaradei, Director Gen- eral, International Atomic Energy Com- mission (IAEA), Vienna, Austria Mr. Hugo Daniel Estrella, Executive Committee Member, International Net- work of Engineers and Scientists for Global Responsibility, Dortmund BR, Sir Joseph Rotblat. Germany; Executive Director, South American Peace Research Institute Ms. Chen Huaifan, Director, General Prof. Paolo Cotta-Ramusino, Secretary- Dr. Nihal Fahmy, Professor of NGOs and Office, Chinese People’s Association for General, Pugwash Conferences on Sci- International Organizations, Cairo Uni- Peace and Disarmament (CPAPD), Bei- ence and World Affairs; Member, Pug- versity and the Arab Academy for Science jing, China wash Executive Committee; Professor of and Technology, Graduate School of Mathematical Physics, University of Mr. Chen Jifeng, Member, Pugwash Business; Member of the Foreign Rela- Milan, Italy; Director, Program on Disar- Council; Convener, Pugwash Group of tions Committeeof Egypt’s National mament and International Security, Lan- China; Vice President, China Arms Con- Council for Women; Columnist in El- dau Network – Centro Volta, Como, trol and Disarmament Association; Exec- Khaleej newspaper (daily Arabic newspa- Italy utive Vice-President, China Association per of the United Arab Emirates) for Promotion of International Science Dr. Parvin Dadandish, Head of Women’s Prof. Njidda Gadzama, Professor of and Peace; Adviser, Chinese People’s Committee, Secretariat of the Expediency Zoology, Biotechnology Center, Univer- Association for Peace and Disarmament Council, Tehran, Iran; Secretary, Alumni sity of Maiduguri, Nigeria; Pro-Chancel- (CPAPD) Association, Al-Zahra University lor and Chairman of Council of National Prof. Cho Soon-Seung, Ulsan University Prof. Bastiaan (Bas) de Gaay Fortman, Open University of Nigeria; Vice-Presi- Chair in Political Economy of Human dent, Nigerian Academy of Science Dr. Christopher Chyba, Co-Director, Rights, Faculty of Law, Utrecht Univer- Center for International Security and Dr. Narsi Ghorban, Director, Interna- sity, Monsignor Willy Onclin Professor of Cooperation, Stanford Institute for Inter- tional Institute for Caspian Studies, Comparative Canon Law, Catholic Uni- national Studies, Stanford University, Tehran, Iran; Vice Chairman, Azar versity Louvain, and Emeritus Professor USA; Associate Professor, Department of Energy; Managing Director, Narkangan of Political Economy, Institute of Social Geological and Environmental Sciences, Gas to Liquid International Company Studies, The Hague, Netherlands, The Stanford University; Carl Sagan Chair, Netherlands; Chair, Working Program on Dr. Victor Gilinsky, Energy Consultant, SETI “States and Societies”, Netherlands Glen Echo, Maryland, USA Dr. Thomas B. Cochran, Director, Research School for Development Studies Prof. Galia Golan-Gild, Professor of Gov- Nuclear Program, Natural Resources (CERES) ; Member of the Advisory ernment, Interdisciplinary Center (IDC), Defense Council (NRDC), Washington, Council for International Affairs (NL) ; Herzlia, Israel; Professor Emerita, DC, USA Chair of Pugwash Nederlands Department of Political Science, Hebrew Mr. Ralph Cossa, Executive Director, Prof. Nola Dippenaar, Professor, Dept. of University of Jerusalem Pacific Forum CSIS, Honolulu, Hawaii, Physiology, School of Medicine, Faculty Mr. Donald Gross, Senior Counsel, Akin, USA; Executive Director, US Committee, of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Gump, Strauss, Hauer & Feld, Washing- Council for Security Cooperation in the Pretoria, South Africa; Vice-Chair, South ton, DC, USA Asia-Pacific (CSCAP) African Pugwash Group

Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 25 Pugwash Meeting No. 301

Dr. Karen Hallberg, Member, Pugwash Gen. (ret.) Dr. Mohamed Kadry Said, Deputy Director, Center for Scientific Council; Research Fellow, National Member, Pugwash Council; Head of Mil- Research and Middle East Strategic Stud- Council of Science and Technology, itary Studies Unit and Technology Advi- ies, Tehran Argentina; Professor, Balseiro Institute sor, Al-Ahram Center for Political and Prof. Stefan Luby, President of Slovak (Bariloche, Argentina) Strategic Studies, Al-Ahram Foundation, Academy of Sciences, Bratislava, Cairo, Egypt; Professor of Missile Prof. Paul Hamel, Associate Professor, Slovakia; Professor of Slovak Technical Mechanics of Flight, Military Technical Faculty of Medicine, University of University College (MTC), Cairo Toronto, Canada Lt. Gen. Dr. Bhupal Singh Malik Dr. Kang Daeseok, Assistant Professor, Dr. Tom Børsen Hansen, Guest Professor, PVSM,AVSM, Independent Analyst & Division of Environmental System Engi- Centre for Philosophy of Nature and Sci- Advisor; Member, IISS & RUSI (UK); Life neering, Pukyong National University, ence Studies, University of Copenhagen, Member, IDSA and USI (India) Busan, So. Korea Denmark; Member, Executive Commit- Dr .Miguel Marin-Bosch, Member, Pug- tee, International Network of Engineers Dr. Ayman Khalil, Center for Research on wash Council; Professor, Universidad and Scientists for Global Responsibility Arms Control and Security (CRACS), Iberoamericana, México, D. F., Mexico (INES) Amman, Jordan Prof. Masatsugu Matsuo, Director, Insti- Dr. Gert Günter Harigel (Germany), Dr. Kim Byung-Koo, Director, Technical tute for Peace Science, and Professor of Senior Physicist Emeritus, CERN, PH- Cooperation, International Atomic Peace Studies, Graduate School of Inter- Division, Geneva, Switzerland; Secre- Energy Agency (IAEA), Vienna, Austria national Development and Cooperation, tary/Treasurer, Geneva International President Kim Dae-Jung, 2000 Nobel Hiroshima University, Japan Peace Research Institute (GIPRI), Geneva Peace Prize Laureate Lt.-Gen. (ret.) Talat Masood, Indepen- Dr. David Harries, Associate Professor, Prof. Michiji Konuma, Professor Emeri- dent Columnist, Commentator and Ana- Royal Military College of Canada, tus of Physics, Keio University; Honorary lyst, Islamabad, Pakistan Kingston, Ontario; Senior Advisor, Direc- Member, Hungarian Academy of Sci- torate of learning Management, Cana- Prof. Amitabh Mattoo, Vice Chancellor, ences; Trustee, Tokyu Foundation for Bet- dian Defence Academy; Manager, Inter- University of Jammu, Jammu, India; Pro- ter Environment; Special Adviser to the national, National Research Council of fessor of Disarmament Studies, Jawahar- Association of Asia Pacific Physical Soci- Canada Office for Technology Foresight lal Nehru University (JNU), New Delhi; eties (AAPPS); Advisor, International Stu- Member, National Security Advisory Prof. Robert Hinde, former Royal Society dent/Young Pugwash; Visiting Board appointed by the Prime Minister of Research Professor (now retired) Researcher, International Peace Research India Institute, Meiji Gakuin University, Tokyo; Prof. Hu Weixing (Richard), Department Secretary General, Committee of Seven Prof. Anne McLaren, Member, Pugwash of Politics & Public Administration, Uni- for World Peace Appeal Council; Principal Research Associate, versity of Hong Kong, China; Director, Wellcome Trust/Cancer Research UK, MPA Programme, University of Hong Prof. Le The Que, Vietnam Peace Com- Institute of Cell and Developmental Biol- Kong mittee, Vietnam National University ogy; Member, British Pugwash Group; (VNU), Hanoi Amb. Hwang Won-Tak, South Korea Member, European Commission’s Life Hon. Lee Man-Hee, South Korea Sciences Group and European Group on Dr. Masako Ikegami (Sweden/Japan), Ethics; former Foreign Secretary, The Associate Professor and Director, Center Mr. Georges Le Guelte, Director of Royal Society for Pacific Asia Studies (CPAS), Stock- Research, Institut des relations interna- holm University, Stockholm, Sweden; tionals et stratégiques, Paris, France Mr. André L. Mechelynck, retired Engi- Guest Lecturer, Faculty of International neer, now Consultant in Energy Matters, Prof. Liu Gongliang, Professor, Institute Studies, Meijigakuin University, Tokyo Huldenberg, Belgium of Applied Physics and Computational Mr. Thomas Johansson, Security Policy Mathematics (IAPCM), Beijing, China Mr. Pini Meiden-Shani, Businessman, Analyst, Swedish Armed Forces Head- Tav-Rom Ltd, Israel; also involved in cri- Mr. Sverre Lodgaard, Director, Norwe- quarters, Stockholm, Sweden, Executive sis management and homeland security gian Institute of International Affairs Secretary; Swedish Pugwash Group (NUPI), Oslo; Dr. Peter Meincke, President Emeritus, Dr. Venance Journé, Researcher, National University of Prince Edward Island, Prof. Saideh Lotfian, Associate Professor Scientific Research Council (CNRS), Canada of Political Science, Associate Dean for Paris, France; Research, Faculty of Law and Political Acad. Jorma K. Miettinen, Academician Science, University of Tehran, Iran; and Emeritus Professor of Radiochem- istry, University of Helsinki, Finland; President, Finnish Pugwash Group

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Dr. Steven Miller, Director, International Prof. Hitoshi Ohnishi, Member, Pugwash Amb. Henrik Salander, Swedish Ministry Security Program, Center for Science & Council; Vice President, and Professor of for Foreign Affairs; Secretary-General of International Affairs (CSIA), Harvard International Relations in the School of the Weapons of Mass Destruction Com- University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Law, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan mission (WMDC); Ambassador for Dis- USA; Editor-in-Chief, International Secu- armament, Geneva (1999-2003); Deputy Senior Col. Ouyang Wei, Associate Pro- rity; Member, Pugwash Council; Co- Permanent Representative of Sweden to fessor, Teaching & Research Division of Chair, U.S. Pugwash Group [formerly: the UN, New York (1993-99) Strategic Studies, National Defense Uni- Senior Research Fellow, SIPRI; Assistant versity (NDU), PLA, Beijing, China Prof. Carlo Schaerf, Professor of Physics, Professor, Defence and Arms Control University of Rome “Tor Vergata”, Studies, MIT] Gen. Pan Zhenqiang, Member, Pugwash Rome, Italy; President and Director, Executive Committee; Professor, Institute Prof. Moon Chung-In, Chairman, Presi- International School on Disarmament of Strategic Studies, National Defense dential Committee; Professor of Political and Research on Conflicts (ISODARCO), University, PLA, Beijing, People’s Repub- Science, and Director of the Modern Rome lic of China Korean Studies Institute, Yonsei Univer- Dr. Walter Scheuer, now retired sity; Adjunct Professor, Asia-Pacific Stud- Prof. Park Heung-Soo, South Korea ies Institute, Duke University; Advisor to Prof. Behzad Shahandeh, Professor, Fac- Mr. Park Seh-Jik, Chairman, Korean Pug- the National Security Council of the ulty of Law and Political Science, Tehran wash Group, Seoul Office of the President, the Ministry of University, Tehran, Iran; Advisor to the Foreign Affairs and Trade, the Ministry Deborah N. Pearlstein, Esq., Senior Advi- Managing Director, Kish Free Zone, Kish of National Defense, and the ROK Air sor, U.S. Law and Security Program, Island, Iran Force; President, Korea Peace Studies Lawyers Committee for Human Rights, Amb. Mohamed Shaker, Vice Chairman, Association Washington, DC, USA; Visiting Fellow, Egyptian Council for Foreign Affairs Center for Democracy, Development and Prof. Marie Muller, Dean, Faculty of (ECFA), Cairo; Chairman, Sawiris Foun- the Rule of Law, Stanford University Humanities, University of Pretoria, South dation for Social Development; Chair- Africa; Council Member, Academy of Sci- Dr. Rajesh Rajagopalan, Assistant Profes- man, Regional Information Technology ence of South Africa; Chair, Pugwash sor CIPOD, School of International Stud- Institute (RITI) South Africa; Member, Pugwash Council ies, Jawaharlal Nehru University (JNU), Prof. Ivo Slaus, Member of the Croatian New Delhi, India Prof. Giuseppe Nardulli, Professor of Parliament, Zagreb Theoretical Physics, University of Bari, Prof. Ramamurti Rajaraman, Professor Dr. Mark Byung-Moon Suh Italy Emeritus of Theoretical Physics, School (Germany/South Korea), Member, Pug- of Physical Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru Dr. Götz Neuneck, Member, Pugwash wash Council; Senior Researcher, Free University (JNU), New Delhi, India Council; Senior Fellow, Institut für University of Berlin, Berlin, Germany; Friedensforschung und Sicherheitspolitik Prof. J. Martin Ramirez, Professor of Psy- President, Korean Pugwash Group an der Universität Hamburg (IFSH), chiatry, and Head, Psychobiology Depart- Dr. Olga Sukovic, Freelance Consultant Hamburg, Germany ment, & Institute for Biofunctional Stud- on Security and Disarmament matters ies, Universidad Complutense, Madrid, Prof. Nguyen Van Dao, Vice-President, Spain Dr. Tatsujiro Suzuki, Visiting Professor, Vietnam Peace Committee, Vietnam Graduate School of Law & Politics, Uni- National University (VNU), Hanoi; Senator Douglas Roche, O.C., The Senate versity of Tokyo 21st Century COE Pro- Chairman, Council for Training and of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario; Member, gram; Senior Research Scientist, Central Research, VNU Pugwash Council; Visiting Professor, Uni- Research Institute of Electric Power versity of Alberta, Edmonton; Chairman, Dr. Alexander Nikitin, Member, Pugwash Industry (CRIEPI), Tokyo; Co-Founder, Canadian Pugwash Group; Chairman, Council; Director, Center for Political and Peace Pledge, Japan Middle Powers Initiative; International Studies (CPIS), and of the Prof. Takao Takahara, Professor of Inter- Center for Euro-Atlantic Security, Sir Joseph Rotblat, Emeritus Professor of national Politics and Peace Research, Fac- Moscow, Russia; Deputy Chair, Russian Physics, University of London, UK; 1995 ulty of International Studies, Meijigakuin Pugwash Committee Nobel Peace Prize Laureate; Member, University, Yokohama, Japan Pugwash Executive Committee Mr. Niu Qiang, Secretary General, Chi- Mr. Kari Takamaa, Legal Advisor, nese People’s Association for Peace and Dr. Randy Rydell, UN Department of Researcher, National Defence College, Disarmament (CPAPD), Beijing, China Disarmament Affairs, New York, NY, Department of Leadership, Helsinki, Fin- USA land; Visiting Lecturer/Examiner, Univer- sities of Helsinki and Tampere; Secretary-

Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 27 Pugwash Meeting No. 301

General, Finnish Pugwash Committee; ISYP Ms. Wakana Mukai, Graduate Student, Senior Legal Advisor, Finnish Forensic Mr. Ranieri Argentini (Italy), PhD student Graduate School of Public Policy, Univer- Expert Teams in computational physics & chemistry, sity of Tokyo, Japan Ms. Mariko Taniuchi, Journalist, Tokyo, van’t Hoff Institute for Molecular Sci- Mrs. Satoe Nakahara, Part-time Lecturer, Japan ence, University of Amsterdam, The Chukyo University, Nagoya-city, Aichi, Netherlands Japan Dr. Mahmood Vaezi, Deputy of Foreign Policy and International Relations Mr. Thomas Brown, Graduate student in Mr. Nagappan Parasuraman, Asian Department (FPIRD), Center for Strategic applied mathematics, St. John’s College, Board Member, International Research, Tehran, Iran Cambridge CB2 1TP, UK Student/Young Pugwash, Chennai, India; Research Assistant, M.S. Swaminathan Dr. Bob van der Zwaan, Senior Mr. Cheong Wook-Sik, Civil Network for Research Foundation, Chennai, India Researcher, Harvard University, Cam- a Peaceful Korea, Seoul, Korea bridge, MA, and Energy Research Center Mr. Luca Ciciani (Italy), PhD Student in Mr. Juan Pablo Pardo-Guerra, Physicist of the Netherlands (ECN), Amsterdam Environmental Engineering, Imperial from the National University of Mexico, currently graduate student at El Colegio Acad. Alexey Vasilyev, Russian Academy College, London, UK; Member of Steer- de Mexico (Economics); Chair, Interna- of Sciences (RAS) Corresponding Mem- ing Committee for WMD Awareness Pro- tional Student/Young Pugwash ber; Director, Institute for African and ject, Student Young Pugwash UK; Mem- Arab Studies, RAS; Editor-in-chief, Asia ber of Societ for Radiological Protection Dr Arthur Petersen, Senior Policy Analyst and Africa Today monthly magazine; Mr. Mads Fleckner, Student, Department and Director, Methodology & Modeling Chief of foreign policy experts under of Political Science, University of Copen- Program, Netherlands Environmental Chairman of Council of Federation (Sen- hagen, Denmark Assessment Agency-RIVM, Bilthoven, ate) of the Russian Parliament, Moscow The Netherlands; Treasurer, International Mr. Andreas Henneka, PhD Student in Student/Young Pugwash; Board Member, Prof. Frank von Hippel, Professor of Pub- Political Science, Freie Universität Berlin, Pugwash Netherlands lic and International Affairs, Program on Germany Science & Global Security, Princeton Uni- Mr. Benjamin Rusek, Research Associate, versity, USA; Chairman-elect, Panel on Mr. Fabian Jachmann, PhD Student, Paul Committee on International Security and Public Affairs, American Physical Society; Drude Institute for Solid State Electron- Arms Control (CISAC), National Acad- Chairman, editorial board, Science & ics, Berlin, Germany emy of Sciences, Washington, DC, USA Global Security Jiang Ling, Researcher, Renmin Univer- Mr. Robert Sancton, Pearson Peacekeep- Amb. Yang Chengxu, Chair, China sity of China, Beijing, China ing Centre, Saint John, NB, Canada National Committee for Pacific Eco- Dr. Kang Jungmin, Freelancing Nuclear Mr. Johan Thomas, Student in Human nomic Cooperation, Beijing Analyst, Seoul, Republic of Korea Geography, Department of Cultural Ms. Yu Meihua, Director, Department of Dr. Kim Kyung Sool, Research Fellow, Geography, Uppsala University, Sweden; Northeast Asia Studies, China Reform Korea Energy Economics Institute Chairman, Student Pugwash Sweden Forum, Beijing (KEEI), Kyunggi-Do, South Korea Ms. Anna-Maria Virolainen, Master’s Prof. Zha Daojiong, Chairman & Associ- Mr. Brian Kirk, Student, Princeton Uni- student in industrial energy technology, ate Professor, Department of Interna- versity, New Jersey, USA Helsinki University of Technology, Fin- tional Political Economy, School of Inter- land; Public Relations Consultant (part- national Studies, People’s University of Ms. Ryoko Kusumi, Graduate student, time), Finnish Energy Industries Federa- China, Beijing University of Tokyo, Japan tion Dr. Alexander Zhebin, Director, Center Mr. Rian Leith, Research Assistant and Ms. Zhang Jia, Researcher and Officer for Korean Studies, Institute of Far East- Master’s degree candidate in Diplomatic for American Programs, China Reform ern Studies, Moscow, Russia Studies, University of Pretoria, South Forum, Beijing, China Africa; Lecturer in Contemporary His- STAFF Dr. Aharon Zohar, Senior Consultant on tory, Tshwne University of Technology, national planning to the National Plan- Pretoria; Researcher, South African His- ROME PUGWASH OFFICE— Mimma ning Administration, and Head of the tory Online, Pretoria de Santis and Claudia Vaughn construction of 8 Bedouin new towns; Consultant, Regional and Environmental Lt. Col. Mei Wang, Associate Professor, LONDON PUGWASH OFFICE—Jean Planning, Carmei-Yosef, Israel Teaching & Research Division of Mili- Egerton and Sally Milne tary Political Work, National Defense University (NDU), Beijing, China

28 Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 PUGWASH MEETING NO. 298

7th Pugwash Workshop on the Future of the Nuclear Weapons Complexes of Russia and the USA: Security of the Russian Nuclear Complex: International Assistance in Liquidation of Excess Fissile Materials 1–3 July 2004, St. Petersburg, Russia

Session 1. Priority of the issue of the waste; rehabilitation of territories; Report by elimination of decommissioned dismantlement of surface ships with Vitaly Fedchenko nuclear submarines, their reactors nuclear reactors or relevant to and the reprocessing of fuel within nuclear waste disposal). the context of upgrading security of he International Pugwash the nuclear complex Session 2. Anti-terrorist aspect of Conferences on Science and excess fissile materials issue and the World Affairs in coopera- Discussion began by focusing on the T Scandinavian initiative tion with the Russian Pugwash Com- issue of the safe decommissioning of mittee, Russian Academy of Sciences, nuclear submarines. Participants dis- Discussion began with the presenta- Center for Political and International cussed new dismantlement technolo- tion of the report “Eliminating Stock- gies and international assistance piles of Highly Enriched Studies under support from Friedrich implementation in this area. Atten- Uranium: Options for an Action Ebert Stiftung organized and con- tion was once again drawn to the fact Agenda in Co-operation with the vened a three-day meeting on July that it is not enough just to dismantle Russian Federation” prepared by the 1–3, 2004 on the possible options to the submarine itself. From the point international HEU Elimination Study secure excess fissile materials in of view of safety and the security of Group. The report concerns a study Russia, namely, its stocks of highly fissile materials, it is also important conducted for the Swedish Nuclear enriched uranium (HEU). The meet- to properly dispose of submarines’ Power Inspectorate (SKI) and submit- ing was held in St.Petersburg, Russia. fresh and spent nuclear fuel, which ted to the Swedish Ministry for For- Pugwash is also grateful for the help often contains the HEU. It was again eign Affairs. It aims at establishing and cooperation of the “Rubin” confirmed during the discussion that options for a European contribution Central Design Complex for Marine priority should be given to the safety in the field of eliminating HEU. The Technology. Over 30 participants of the most proliferation-attractive study emphasizes that the pace of from nine countries attended the materials. Participants of the seminar HEU elimination should be increased meeting, which consisted of twelve also briefly reviewed seven specific substantially as HEU is by far the areas that urgently needed for further most direct way for rogue actors to panel sessions. The panels covered a submarines dismantlement but are seek nuclear explosive capabilities, variety of issues relevant to the reduc- poorly funded (security upgrades for while the uncertainties concerning tion of the threat of proliferation of submarines that are in disrepair; con- Russian HEU holdings alone amount excess fissile materials, including a struction of a long-term storage for to hundreds of tons. The report con- detailed discussion of the issue of reactor compartments in Russia’s Far cludes that HEU represents the prioritization of threat reduction East; haulage of submarines sched- largest fissile material threat to inter- activities. uled for dismantlement to designated national security and stability, and dockyards; construction of regional proposes schemes for its elimination. facilities for the disposal of solid Papers on possible structures for nuclear waste and relevant chemical deals on rapid HEU blend-down and

Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 29 Pugwash Meeting No. 298 its costs were also presented to the Additionally, the progress of reform discussed was whether only Russia participants during the session. The slowed down the pace of assistance and the US believe that GP funding importance of the HEU security was implementation. should be increased, while other once again stressed in the context of donor states believe that a $20 billion the threat of its use in terrorist Session 4. Differences in the percep- “ceiling” should be enacted. Partici- attack. However, some participants tion of priorities in Europe, USA and pants agreed that those differences in questioned the urgency of the issue in Russia: distribution of efforts and priorities create major obstacles for by drawing attention to the prolifera- funds between HEU, Pu, CWC and assistance implementation process, tion of the low enriched uranium nuclear submarine tasks. and that a clear roadmap is needed (LEU) and radioactive sources and for each project. Participants noted This session focused on the differ- making the point that radiological that this roadmap should be created ences in the perception of priorities dispersal devices are more attractive collectively by donors and recipients. among states contributing to Global to terrorists and therefore the priority Partnership. For example, the Russ- should be given to security of Session 5. Technical, political and ian Federation identified the four radioactive materials and LEU. administrative aspects of announcing most urgent tasks it would like solved extra quantities of Russian HEU as through the framework of Global Session 3. Modern status and prob- excessive. Partnership: the destruction of chemi- lems of implementation of “10+10 cal weapons, the dismantlement of This session began with a statement over 10” international assistance pro- decommissioned nuclear submarines, by a participant that a political will is gram initiated by the G8. the disposal of fissile materials and necessary for the declaration of a cer- Participants began by reviewing the the employment of former weapons tain quantity of the HEU. Another process of development of the Global scientists. Russian interpretation of participant noted that the announce- Partnership initiative since its incep- documents of Kananaskis summit is ment of an extra quantity of the HEU tion and then discussed statements that $20 billion pledged for Global as excessive should be based on the and declarations made at the G8 Partnership are to be spent on these analysis of the following details: summit on Sea Island, Georgia. The four priorities, while the funding for First, it should be decided if the HEU relevant paper “Ten plus ten over ten: other projects under the Global Part- is excessive only for military pro- G8 promises and Russia’s concerns” nership framework should be allo- grams, or, if it is also unneeded for was presented during the session. cated separately. Another major dif- commercial use after down-blending. Some participants concluded that the ference in priorities that participants Second, every internationally-funded majority of documents adopted at the summit are declaratory by nature, while very little was done for actual implementation of pledges. More- over, even the initial goal to pledge 20 billion US dollars was not met. Special attention was drawn to the issue of the reshuffling of the Russian government, initiated in March 2004 by the decree of President Putin. It was noted that key agencies in charge of the implementation of interna- tional assistance were downgraded during the reform. Therefore, it became difficult for these agencies to promote the goals of Global Partner- ship inside the Russian government. Konstantinovsky Palace during reconstruction.

30 Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 Pugwash Meeting No. 298 project dealing with “excessive” “slow but sure” pace of the deal. Par- prevent, directly or indirectly, this job HEU should have means of verifica- ticipants came to the conclusion that from being done swiftly. Addition- tion that the material is of weapons the HEU-LEU contract is being regu- ally, participants also discussed origin. Third one must first identify lated by economical rather than non- Nuclear Cities Initiative, Initiatives the overall quantity of HEU, in order proliferation considerations in Russia for Proliferation Prevention, pro- to calculate the exact quantity of the and in the US. grams of ISTC and social programs HEU designated as “excessive,” a of European states. very costly, time-consuming and tech- Session 7. Studies of technical and nically difficult procedure. Fourth, organizational aspects of fissile mate- Session 9. Prospects for advancement this issue depends on Russia’s Armed rials reprocessing. of existing and additional programs Forces classified plans for rearma- of the European Union aimed at During this session the the Kurchatov ment and reequipment. Participants upgrading of the nuclear security in Institute’s study was presented. This therefore concluded that it would be Russia. study, which focused on the assess- very difficult to calculate an exact ment of the proliferation risk (and A variety of separate issues were dis- quantity of excessive HEU, especially the danger from the point of view of cussed during this session including using open sources. usability in explosive devices) of a the idea of the internationally-acces- number of nuclear materials. This sible database of researchers and Session 6. Russian HEU-LEU deal: study came to a conclusion that sur- engineers with sensitive background results of first 10 years and prospects prised many participants: LEU is far for ensuring their employment in of expediting in its second decade. more dangerous than HEU, and non-sensitive areas and threats to This session focused on the results therefore should be given greater pri- Russia from nuclear or radiological that Russia and the US want to ority. Although HEU is easier to be terrorism, etc. achieve through the implementation use in a bomb, LEU is far more wide- of the HEU-LEU deal. It was men- spread and therefore easier to obtain. Session 10. Regional aspects of inter- tioned that Russia needs to increase Participants participated in a heated national interaction in the nuclear the overall profit from the deal, debate on the issue and remained sphere. ensure its stability, increase the divided on their assessment of the Three topics were discussed during income of personnel stationed at study’s results. this session. First, participants nuclear facilities, decrease the distor- focused on China and nuclear non- tion of other revenues, decrease the Session 8. Upgrading security of the proliferation, discussing China’s atti- risk of proliferation, and guarantee Russian nuclear complex: situation in tude towards the nonproliferation of its national security interests. The “nuclear cities”, technical, economic HEU. Participants were also United States, in turn, is interested in and social aspects of the issue. informed that People’s Republic of a cost-efficient project to decrease the During this session, participants dis- China has no excessive HEU whatso- risk of nonproliferation hopefully cussed that the topic includes two ever. Second, attention was paid to making it possible to ensure the sta- separate issues: materials protection, nuclear problems on Korean Penin- bility of the uranium market. Addi- control, and accountability sula and their influence on the Russ- tionally, it was explained that for (MPC&A), as well as social issues ian nonproliferation policy. Partici- Russian nuclear complex there is no associated with “closed cities.” Spe- pants were reminded of the role of technical obstacle to increasing the cific details of the MPC&A program the USSR in DPRK’s nuclear program pace of the HEU down-blending dra- and the pace of implementation of and discussed the current position of matically. However, Russian uranium “comprehensive” and “rapid” secu- the Russian Federation on the six- enrichment and down-blending facili- rity upgrades were reviewed. Partici- party talks on the DPRK nuclear ties are more interested in preserving pants concluded that the pace of issue. Last, participants were a stable source of income rather than upgrades depends not only on the informed of Pugwash efforts to pro- reducing the amount of HEU swiftly. level of financing, but also on issues mote dialogue between India and Therefore, Minatom is interested in a of access and damage liabilities that Pakistan on nuclear issues.

Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 31 Pugwash Meeting No. 298

Participants

Eugeniy Avrorin, Academician, All-Russ- Nikolai Komarov, Chief of Department Ivan Safranchuk, Head of Representation ian Scientific Research Institute for for Modeling of Nuclear Processes, Radi- of the Center for Defense Information in Experimental Physics (in Sarov) ological Institute named after Russia V.G.Khlopin, S.-Petersburg Nikolai Bobylev, Assistant Professor, Dr. Domitilla Sagramoso, Research Fel- Saint-Petersburg Polytechnic University Dr. Ma Zhibo, Assistant Professor, Insti- low, Centre for Defence Studies, King’s tute of Applied Physics and Computa- College, University of London, UK Alexander Buchnev, Program Coordina- tional Mathematics (IAPCM), Beijing, tor, Center for Political and International Vladimir Shmelev, Deputy Director, Sci- People’s Republic of China Studies (CPIS), Moscow entific-Technical Agency “Non-Prolifera- Dr. Morten Bremer Maerli, Researcher, tion” Prof. Francesco Calogero, Professor of Norwegian Institute of International Theoretical Physics, University of Rome Dmitry Suglobov, Laboratory Chief, Affairs (NUPI), Oslo, Norway “La Sapienza”, Rome, Italy Radiological Institute named after Dr. Steven Miller, Director, International V.G.Khlopin, S.-Petersburg Prof. Paolo Cotta-Ramusino, Secretary- Security Program, Center for Science & General, Pugwash Conferences on Sci- Mr. Anthony Wier, Research Associate, International Affairs (CSIA), Harvard ence and World Affairs; Professor of Project on Managing the Atom, Belfer University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Mathematical Physics, University of Center for Science and International USA; Editor-in-Chief, International Secu- Milan, Italy; Director, Program on Disar- Affairs, JFK School of Government, rity; Member, Pugwash Council; Co- mament and International Security, Lan- Cambridge, MA, USA Chair, U.S. Pugwash Group [formerly: dau Network – Centro Volta, Como, Senior Research Fellow, SIPRI; Assistant Robert Yakovlev, Laboratory Chief, Italy Professor, Defence and Arms Control Radiological Institute named after Vladimir Dvorkin, Maj.-General (Ret.), Studies, MIT] V.G.Khlopin, S.-Petersburg PIR-Center Expert Council member Dr. Alexander Nikitin, Member, Pugwash Alexander Zhebin, Senior Research Fel- Mr. Vitaly Fedchenko, Visiting Council; Director, Center for Political and low, Institute of Far Eastern Studies, Researcher, Stockholm International International Studies (CPIS), and of the Russian Academy of Sciences Peace Research Institue (SIPRI), Solna, Center for Euro-Atlantic Security, Acad. Zhu Jianshi, Professor and Acade- Sweden; Post-graduate student in the Moscow, Russia; Deputy Chair, Russian mician, Institute of Applied Physics and Institute for World Economy and Interna- Pugwash Committee Computational Mathematics (IAPCM), tional Relations (IMEMO), Moscow, Mr. Pavel Perebeynos, Trainee at the Cen- Beijing, People’s Republic of China Russia ter for Euro-Atlantic Security, Moscow PUGWASH STAFF: Prof. Yuri Fedorov, Professor of Political State Institute of International Relations, Science, Department of Political Science, Moscow Ms. Claudia Vaughn, Program Coordina- and Director, War and Peace Studies Cen- Vladimir Petrovsky, Professor, Moscow tor, Pugwash Conferences ter, Moscow State Institute of Interna- State Institute of International Relations tional Relations of the Russian Foreign under Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Rus- Ministry, Moscow; sia Mr. Albert Gozal (France), First Counsel- Alexander Pikaev, Head of Department lor, European Union, Delegation of the of International Security, Institute of European Commission to Russia World Economy and International Rela- Valery Govorukhin, “TechSnabExport” tions, Russian Academy of Sciences Agency Mr. Jan Prawitz, Visiting Scholar, Mikhail Ignatiev, Director of the Institute Swedish Institute for International for Cybernetics and Artonics, S.-Peters- Affairs, Stockholm, Sweden burg Vyacheslav Sadchikov, Department for Daniil Kobyakov, Research Fellow of Defense Industries, Government of Rus- PIR-Center, Coordinator of “Global Part- sia nership Studies” Project

32 Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 PUGWASH MEETING NO. 300

2nd Pugwash Workshop on Science, Ethics and Society Ajaccio, Corsica, France 10–12 September 2004

Background Similarly, the Chairman raised Report two specific areas for consideration by Barbara Seiders At the first workshop on the subject of possible courses of action for dis- and Marion Nowicki of “Science, Ethics and Society” con- vened by Pugwash in Paris in June cussion at the workshop: forestalling 2003, participants discussed ques- the misuse of science and enhancing he workshop was attended by tions of morality and ethics, neutral- public understanding of science. 28 participants coming from ity of science, the responsibility of Options suggested for forestalling the 17 countries, including some T scientists and society; secrecy and misuse of science included codes of students. On September 9th, during a conduct, early warning systems for public evening organised at the Palais counterterrorism, codes of conduct des Congrés, Francesco Calogero, and education. The first workshop questionable research, and processes Jacques Diezi, Jean-Pascal Zanders established the foundation for a dis- for voicing ethical concerns. The and Gabriel Galice spoke about dif- cussion that was continued in a sec- workshop discussion covered addi- ferent aspects of the social responsibil- ond workshop, held in Ajaccio, Cor- tional possibilities: prior review of ity of scientists, and this session was sica from 10 – 12 September 2004. research and publications; education followed by a discussion with the pub- in ethics; communication of ethical lic (200 attendants). Furthermore on In bringing together workshop issues; identifying communities that September 13th, Pierre Canonne gave participants to continue the work a class on Science, Ethics and Society begun at the first workshop, the can serve as models to establish sys- to high school students. Chairman raised specific issues tems or standards of ethics within sci- The organisation of this work- within the context of science and ence; identifying and encouraging shop was fully supported by the ethics, and elicited consideration of nontraditional channels of communi- Mouvement pour la Corse du 21ème possible courses of action. Among cation; and strengthening treaties siècle and benefited from grants from the specific issues raised in prepara- that control science and technology the Ajaccio Chamber of Commerce tion for the workshop were questions accessible for weapons development. and Industry, the Mayor of Ajaccio, of “science for defense” and “science Discussion on these potential courses the Territorial Organisation of Cor- for sale”. These directed issues of action – and the breadth of partici- sica, the Corsican Tourism Office focused consideration on special pants’ views — were wide ranging. and the General Council of South questions of ethical conduct of sci- Assumptions Corsica. ence within the defense and commer- Not surprisingly, the workshop par- The workshop was officially open cial sectors. In the course of the ticipants differed in their assumptions by the Prefect of Corsica, in the workshop, considerable attention regarding the general area of science, présence of the Mayor of Ajaccio, the was focused on possible misuse of ethics and society. Among the Rector of the Corse University and biological science in production of assumptions, both implicit and other authorities. biological weapons as a particular explicit, that were highlighted in the The participants were honoured challenge with respect to the ethical course of discussion are the following: by a message from Sir Joseph Rotblat issues associated with the advanced • Ethical conduct is universal and that was read at the beginning of the state of the science and the malicious independent of cultural context; first session (see attachment 1). intent to which that science could be • Science is universal and should be applied. universally shared;

Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 33 Pugwash Meeting No. 300

• Science, or “pure research”, can be • different countries and cultures standard. Moral standards may be value-neutral; attribute different value to the lives based on achieving the greatest hap- • Only in the application of results of of animals than they do to humans, piness; discharging duty or obliga- “pure” science do ethical issues leading to different policies relating tion; or striving for human perfec- arise; to use of animals in scientific exper- tion. Within a given sociological • Sponsored research cannot be con- iments and testing of pharmaceuti- group, culture, ideology and religion ducted objectively, that is, it cannot cals on animals; all influence what is considered ethi- be “pure”; • countries of different cultures have cal behavior – depending on whether • Academic science is more “pure” different ethical standards for the the standard invoked derives from than science sponsored by commer- majority relative to the individual; inherent qualities, a deity, human cial organizations, government and nature, or rational thought. agencies, and especially military • ethical standards in laboratory The role of culture is generally a departments; research may differ from ethical passive, observed quality of a group • Research sponsored by the military standards of the public at large. or society, not a driving force in and is ethically questionable; of itself with respect to individuals The conclusion drawn by some is • Increased public familiarity with within that group or society. that, with respect to culture, there is science is a good thing; Nonetheless, culture can be a deter- no universal standard of ethical • Increased education of scientists on mining factor in differences in the behavior in science. As noted above, ethics would produce more ethical expression of ethical standards of ethical behavior is defined within the behavior; and behavior, as illustrated for example in context of local culture, even though • As technology advances, the possi- Jane Jacobs’ perspective on the mutu- that culture can be geographically ble consequences of danger from ally exclusive “Guardian” moral syn- dispersed. What constitutes an ethical misuse increases. drome and “Commercial” moral syn- practice can be perceived differently drome. The former is an observed Of particular value in this work- from culture to culture. Even within a moral code that Jacobs attributes to shop was the process of bringing culturally homogeneous group, ethi- governments and religious institu- these assumptions to the table in cal responsibilities that exist at differ- tions; the latter she attributes to sci- order to better appreciate which ent levels of education or authority, entists, business owners, and artists. assumptions were generally shared — for example, can conflict. And, it was In contrast to culture, both reli- few!; and which had divergence of suggested, culture specific biases can gion and ideology can and often do view — most! generate patterns of ignorance. include an active quality; a driving By culture, we refer to observed Ethics and Culture, Ideology force within the group sharing the patterns of behavior and thinking and Religion religious or ideological beliefs that shared among groups, including their can impact others not identified in As noted by one workshop partici- language, traditions, art, technology, the group or society. The workshop pant, ethical behavior in science is style of dress, religion, political and discussion included both positive and not just about science, it is informed economic systems, in addition to negative implications of the role of by ideology, religion, and culture. rules of behavior. Ideology describes religion and ideology on ethical The different assumptions regarding the system of beliefs, values, and behavior. Invoking particular stan- the subject of the workshop reflect ideas that form the basis of a social, dards of ethical behavior by one differing views on the relationships economic, or political philosophy or group or society or culture may be among ethics, culture, ideology and program held by an individual or seen by others as an attempt to religion, each of which impacts group determining how they think, impose control or assert a system of recognition of standards of ethical act, and understand the world. power, appropriately or not. This is behavior. Behavior may be judged as ethical particularly true when the standards The relationship between ethical or “good,” either as an inherent qual- at issue derive – or are even perceived behavior and culture was highlighted ity of the activity itself or because it to derive – from a religious or ideo- by several examples offered by par- conforms to an acknowledged moral ticipants in the course of discussion: logical basis.

34 Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 Pugwash Meeting No. 300

Just as philosophers argue that ing of knowledge across cultures is tists to publish their work in their some actions may be “good” and important, and requires that cultural mother tongue as a contribution hence ethical by their very nature, differences be acknowledged. Work- towards the local scientific commu- some scientists hold the view that shop participants discussed the need nity and in some way to the public at there is a concept of “pure” science to recognize that ethical behavior large. untouched by potential conflict from cannot be dictated either to the pub- Issues in Context sponsoring organization(s). There lic or the community of science, but was a sense conveyed by some at the that there must be dialogue on issues “Science for defense”: Research workshop that research sponsored by of importance in these cultures and Funded by Defense Ministries a scientific foundation is more communities. This recognition Context “pure” than that sponsored by a gov- impacts possible courses of action. At the direction of the Workshop ernment agency, military department For example, while promotion of a Chairman, the participants consid- or a commercial enterprise. Others single “universal” scientific language ered science and ethics within specific raised issues with the concept of the offers consistency and conformity of contexts. The first of these specific inherent value-neutrality of science, information, it does not reflect the contexts was in special circumstances noting that even scientific founda- diversity or cultural difference among surrounding the conduct of science in tions have their own political and societies in the scientific community. support of national defense. The technical motivations. The diver- Endorsement of such a proposal by Chairman raised several aspects of gence of view among even this those whose culture includes the lan- these special circumstances as a foun- thoughtful group indicates that guage could be legitimately driven by dation for contributions to the work- adherence to the concept of the altruism, whereas scientists from cul- shop and subsequent discussion, value-neutrality of science can repre- tures without a tradition in the pro- including: sent an obstacle to productive dialog posed language could legitimately see • The undeniable connection between of the ethical implications of basic the proposal as an attempt to assert science and war; research. control by countries that speak that • Motivations of government (or To the extent that a universal language. At this stage, it could government related) scientists and quality of science is important, shar- almost be considered a duty for scien- ethical threshold; • Influence of leaders/managers of government-sponsored, national security related research; • Transparency of the goals; • Ethical concerns and legitimacy; • Problems of a legal, ethical nature in connection with security-related research as well as research for mil- itary purposes; and • Need for strategic thinking, guide- lines, and definitions.

Discussion of these topics elicited a wide variety of issues associated with science, national and international security. There was some discussion of the implications of nanoscience for human health, privacy, and environ- mental protection. Members of the group also discussed the idea of a broader definition of “security” that

Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 35 Pugwash Meeting No. 300 might help shift the emphasis of weapons from other classes of sial drugs or therapies – in which key sponsored research in support of weapons is the nature and speed of sectors of the public have a strong more peaceful endeavors. For exam- developments in biology and biotech- and often emotional interest. ple, in biological arena, broader defi- nology. Another issue that was raised in nition of biological security would How the unique qualities of biol- the context of “science for sale” is look to protect human health from ogy, biotechnology, biological the inherent conflict between the all biological threats, not just protect weapons and biological defense can value of publishing scientific findings against those agents that might be be addressed in recommended to make them widely available and used as weapons in the hands of a courses of action will be discussed the need for commercial purposes to belligerent. within specific sections below. maintain control of intellectual prop- Although these and other topics erty that might accrue from such sci- “Science for sale”: Research Funded were discussed that related to “Sci- entific findings. by Corporations ence for Defense,” the predominance Among the potential courses of The second special context offered by of the workshop discussion revolved action discussed, examples were the Workshop Chairman for consid- around biological weapons. raised that apply to the issue of the eration was that of “Science for ethical conduct of science in the com- Biological Weapons Sale,” raising ethical issues associated mercial sector and will be described Contributions provided by several with research sponsored by private in the sections below. participants reinforced the unique commercial corporations. In charging circumstances surrounding biological the Workshop participants to con- Potential Courses of Action science as it relates to the threat of sider this special context, the Chair- A critical objective in convening a biological weapons, as well as poten- man raised two issues in particular: second workshop was to further tial ethical issues associated with sci- • Transparency of the goals of such elaborate on potential courses of entific programs to provide for research, and action touched on in the first work- defense against biological weapons. • Ethical concerns and legitimacy. shop that could be taken by Pug- Biological weapons have proper- Much of the discussion in this wash, individual scientists, organiza- ties that make them very different area focused on the example of phar- tions, and governments. The from other classes of weapons. One maceutical research and develop- Chairman offered topics for consider- of the key properties of biological ment. The premise of this area of dis- ation as potential courses of action, weapons is that they can be produced cussion is that business practices including 1) increasing public under- entirely using materials, equipment needed to maintain a commercially standing of science, and 2) fore- and facilities that have other, com- viable organization may result in eth- stalling the misuse of science by pletely legitimate uses. Furthermore, ically questionable activities. Incom- establishing early warning systems, the technology used to provide a plete or inaccurate information such as implementing codes of good defense against biological weapons is regarding clinical trials may be made practices and conduct, encouraging largely the same as the technology public; companies advertise the free expression of scientists and that would be used to produce the promise of developmental drugs that mechanisms for reporting ethical weapons; the distinction between have not been fully tested; advertising concerns, and education on ethical offensive and defensive biological to promote sales may influence the issues for scientists, leaders, and deci- research is very fine. Whereas twenty use of drugs under inappropriate cir- sion makers. years ago, the threat of biological cumstances; and known side effects Topics identified by the Chair as weapons seemed to have been limited may be misrepresented in the inter- possible “Early Warning Systems” to the arsenals of a few nation states, ests of sales of the drug. Communi- that may help to prevent the misuse the anthrax attacks of 2001 demon- cating complex technical information of science are given below. In addi- strated that a one or a few individ- accurately and ethically is made more tion to the specific recommendations ual(s) can deploy them effectively difficult when information relates, from the workshop chair are two against an entire country. Another for example, to the relative advan- others: one that combines considera- property that distinguishes biological tages and disadvantages of controver- tion of facilitating the communica-

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tion of ethical issues by scientists and • Provision by scientists of accurate tial course of action, there were seri- the other noting the suggestion to information about research facts ous issues raised and discussed. Some strengthen national and international and their social and ethical implica- participants noted that it is not trivial laws and treaties that control science tions, responsibility of scientific to interact with the public to increase and technology that can be used for institutions to the citizens, require- their awareness and understanding of weapons. The following topics, can- ment for transparency and out- science, and that there are practical didates for consideration as early reach; issues that interfere with effective warning measures to deter redirec- • Establishing links to communicate communication. For example, partic- tion of science to weapons develop- research findings and put them in ipants noted that many scientists are ment, are discussed in detail below: perspective; unable, ill-disposed or ill-equipped to • Critical review of all the types of • Developing scientists’ communica- communicate effectively with the research/experiment before they are tion skills; public, the press, or political leader- carried out • Integrating and understanding of ship. Even those scientists inclined to • Precautionary principles and audit society’s values by scientists in their attempt communication with the of the risks involved assessment of technological risks; press are often limited in the amount • Realistic ethical framework for • Increasing communication among of time they can devote to developing early identification of novel present scientists on ethical issues; and the relationships of trust and mutual and future technoscience develop- • Communication of scientists to the respect that are necessary to ensure ments media: influence of media pressure, that neither the scientists nor the • Institutionalisation: possible nature scientists and the “star system”. press will be in a position to exploit of the institutions for alert at vari- the other. In some cases, and with Discussion ous levels regard to some areas of science, the Previously, it was noted that work- • Role and responsibilities of press can be hostile — or at the least, shop attendants recognized that it is research institutions and funding aggressive — to the point that it not possible or appropriate to agencies inhibits productive interaction. An attempt to dictate terms of ethical • Creation of a national body (Coun- example of such an area of science practice either to the public or the cil for Science and Society) as a where there is often an adversarial community of science. For there to be guide to public policy in this matter relationship between scientists and effective interaction, there must be • Facilitate ability of scientists to the media is when the issue for dialog between the various parties communicate ethical concerns, reporting is related to the ethical and communities impacted. Thus, it opposition to sponsored research, foundation of a particular scientific would seem that increasing public and providing legal protection and activity. Participants discussed the awareness of science and the ethical social support for whistle-blowers difficulty of ensuring scientific accu- issues that science frequently entails • Strengthen treaties that control sci- racy in the press when it is the legiti- is a straightforward suggestion to ence and technology accessible for macy of the science that is being increase dialog, and ultimately reduce weapons development called in to question. There was con- the potential negative impact of occa- siderable discussion of the inherent sions when ethical issues arise. A bet- Increase Public Awareness and merits of informing the public, when ter informed public would seemingly Understanding of Science scientists might expect that an be better able to participate in deci- informed public would be more Context sion making; they might be less sus- accepting of risk or ethical ambigu- To stimulate discussion in this area, ceptible to “spin doctoring” of scien- ity; sometimes the opposite is true. the Chairman provided the following tific information, whether as a result One workshop participant suggestions for consideration prior to of unethical practices or simple over observed that scientists’ ability to talk the workshop as possible activities exuberance on the part of the scien- to media is often subject specific. He that could be undertaken with a view tist(s). noted that in his country, when scien- to increasing public involvement in However, even with respect to tists transitioned from research asso- the scientific enterprise: this seemingly straightforward poten- ciated with atomic energy to space

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research, they were able to adopt a of the press and structure their inter- monolithic entities. One course for more media-friendly approach. This actions accordingly. For example, in more effective communication with highlights the challenge of this work- the discussion of the difficulty of both is to recognize that there are dif- shop, whose objective is to explore developing relationships of trust and ferent sectors of the public and the those very areas of science which are respect between the media and scien- media and that it is necessary to tai- likely to raise ethical issues – and tists, one participant noted that ulti- lor the interaction accordingly. This hence difficulty in communication. mately, members of the media are includes the need to interact with One participant raised a challeng- seeking truth. This participant sug- both the lay public and generalists ing issue: how can scientists work to gested that over time, it undermines who may have very limited apprecia- achieve different effects in their inter- their credibility to provide reporting tion for the field of science on which actions with the public, the press and they are reporting. Workshop partici- policy makers? By way of illustra- pants noted that such reporters will tion, she noted that in responsible Increasing public awareness continue to report the news as they communication about the threat of are able, whether or not responsible of science and the ethical issues terrorism, the goal is to stress the scientists take the effort to maximize need for vigilance, without paralyz- that science frequently entails is the accuracy of the information. ing the public in fear. In contrast, in The discussion at the workshop a straightforward suggestion to some countries, the press is being included not only what could be used by policy makers to underem- increase dialog, and ultimately done on an institutional level, but phasize situations – such as the also what individual participants reduce the potential negative prevalence of HIV/AIDS – which sci- could do, or do better. In the discus- entists and physicians see as demon- impact of occasions when sion of the practical challenges of strably catastrophic. In this circum- dealing with the press, especially ethical issues arise. stance, the goal is to motivate the when there is an expectation they will public out of the state of compla- be hostile, participants discussed cency encouraged by policy makers alternatives. For example, there is an to engage in the process of addressing that is found to be untrue. Being able endless need in virtually every com- this disaster that affects families, to recognize imperfect understanding munity for scientifically trained indi- communities, regions, nations and of complex technical issues on the viduals to become more involved in the world. part of a responsible reporter for issues of local importance. Interac- In the course of the discussion on what it is, rather than an attempt to tion with concerned non-scientists increasing the awareness and under- misrepresent the information, can within a community can bolster a standing of science by the public, help to build a relationship of trust. more coherent advocacy that can there were a number of positive notes As another example, scientists who address a difficult issue collectively. A and some suggestions for courses of recognize that reporters are fre- second alternative for improving action. quently responding to very short communication with the public when One participant noted that in deadlines and are willing to work the press is hostile is to recognize that some countries, there is a growing with them on an urgent basis often scientists can provide advice and trend to add interaction with the find that they have helped to develop counsel directly to policy makers by a press as an evaluation criterion for a relationship of appreciation and variety of mechanisms. One mode of scientific recognition. As with other trust that may be important when communication occurs from scien- skills, the more training and practice issues of ethics and accuracy are the tists to the press, the press to the pub- scientists receive, presumably, the more compelling considerations on lic, the public to policy makers; scien- better able they will be to communi- another day. tists can improve the quality of cate with the public effectively. Much of the discussion about information available to policy mak- In another line of discussion, raising awareness of the press and ers by direct communication. Addi- workshop participants noted the public referred to “the public” and tional considerations in the area of need to recognize the legitimate needs “the press” as if they were each better informing lawmakers and deci-

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sion makers are described below. individuals with both formal and ers, the Fink Committee recom- Finally, participants noted that it is informal leadership roles. Partici- mended that the United States under- possible to use to advantage tech- pants also noted the importance of take to establish a National Science nologies and modes of communica- working with leadership in a variety Advisory Board for Biosecurity tion to achieve a degree of communi- of capacities: institutional leadership, (NSABB) specifically to advise and cation never before possible, via such scientific leadership, as well as elected guide the government in issues asso- mechanisms as the internet and in the or appointed political leadership. ciated with advances in biotechnol- newly emerging phenomenon of the ogy, and the security, health and ethi- Discussion “Café Scientifique”. cal issues they may entail. In one presentation, the activities of a One presentation offered in sup- For the United States to under- particular committee of the US port of the discussion of informing take measures such as those recom- National Academy of Science (NAS), the public highlighted the need to mended by the Fink Committee is the Committee on Research Stan- temper release of scientific informa- important, but the workshop discus- dards and Practices to Prevent the tion, cautioning that it is possible to sion reinforced that attempts to Destructive Application of go too far in communication of sci- reduce the risks associated with Biotechnology, chaired by Gerald R. ence to the public. In a study of the biotechnology must ultimately be Fink were described. The Fink Com- eventual disposition of medical international in scope, because the mittee addressed a number of specific research presented as abstracts at sci- technologies that could be misused issues discussed within the workshop entific meetings, and reported on by are available and being developed including the issue of increasing the media, researchers found that a throughout the globe. awareness of science on the part of substantial portion of the studies rep- institutional and elected leadership. resented remain unpublished. Increase Prior Review of Proposed Although the National Academy Because the information is presented Research and Publications of Science is not a government as preliminary in the form of meeting agency, recommendations by its com- Context abstracts, there is no opportunity to mittees are generally persuasive to Workshop participants devoted a sig- exercise peer review of the reported key policymakers within the United nificant amount of discussion to the results. This situation suggests a States government, the governments need for and possible mechanisms to more prudent approach to scientific of other countries, and other organi- be used in the review of scientific reporting may be appropriate, and zations. In the case of the Fink Com- results prior to publication, as well as additional courses of action are dis- mittee, their deliberations resulted in the need for review of research objec- cussed below in the area of prior seven recommendations that are very tives prior to undertaking studies of review of research and publication. similar to aspects of the discussion of ambiguous ethical foundation. An Increase Awareness and the current workshop. important aspect of this suggestion Understanding of Science by Local, With respect to the current poten- was recognized by the Fink Commit- Regional, National and tial course of action, increasing tee: which is the need to develop and International Governing Bodies awareness of science by policy mak- promulgate guidelines for the appro-

Context Table 1. Recommendations of the Committee on Research Standards and A special case of “increasing public Practices to Prevent the Destructive Application of Biotechnology awareness of science” is to increase 1. Educating the Scientific Community awareness on the part of members of governing bodies. Discussion and 2. Review of Plans for Experiments presentations also touched on the 3. Review at the Publication Stage need to recognize different roles of 4. Creation of a National Science Advisory Board for Biodefense leadership that apply in scientific 5. Additional Elements for Protection Against Misuse organizations that call for communi- 6. A Role for the Life Sciences in Efforts to Prevent Bioterrorism and Biowarfare cation at a variety of levels, targeting 7. Harmonized International Oversight

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priate communication of dual use entific community should develop With respect to prior review of research methodology and research procedures for such review of proposed research, one participant results. research and publications, drawing described an approach based largely In discussing the importance of on the experience during the emer- on the findings of the Fink Commit- increasing public awareness of sci- gence of the field of biotechnology tee. The Fink Committee identified ence, workshop participants also rec- with respect to oversight of recombi- seven classes of “experiments of con- ognized that in some cases, full dis- nant DNA research. In the view of cern” (see Table 2) that illustrate the closure might be counter to sound workshop participants, it seems types of research that should undergo ethical practice. In one example given important to be able to rely on self- review and discussion by informed previously, participants described governance by scientists and scientific members of the scientific and medical research in which medical research journals to review experiments and community before they are under- studies were featured prominently in publications for their potential taken or, if carried out, before they the media on the basis of abstracts national security risks. Participants are published in full detail. The Fink presented at scientific meetings, even saw it as important that such review Committee proposed a system that when the studies were not eventually be undertaken by the scientists them- would establish a number of stages at supported by full, peer-reviewed pub- selves for a variety of reasons: main- which scientists would review experi- lication. This situation suggests the taining the autonomy and integrity of ments and eventually their results to possible need for review of scientific science; ensuring that the review provide reassurance that advances in findings prior to their release to the would be carried out by those most biotechnology with potential applica- public. In addition to calling into knowledgeable about the subjects at tions for bioterrorism or biological question the practice of prematurely issue; the need to specify standards weapons development receive releasing scientific findings that are appropriate in each field of inquiry; responsible oversight. not borne out by complete experi- and the desire to forestall unwieldy In research institutions in the mentation or peer review, there is the and inappropriate government- United States, an appropriate body question of publication of informa- imposed measures. Self-regulation for the first formal review of pro- tion that can be exploited by terror- within the scientific community posed research is the Institutional ists and others to cause harm. Discus- would require involvement of indi- Biological Safety Committee (IBC). sion on this topic seemed to reflect vidual scientists, research organiza- Institutional Biological Safety Com- similar views of scientific journal edi- tions, and scientific publishers. Edi- mittees are responsible within organi- tors and authors, who felt, as related tors of journals should constrain zations carrying out biological by one participant, information if in their judgment the research for oversight of research a fundamental view, shared by information has a reasonable poten- involving etiological agents, select nearly all, that there is infor- tial to do harm. A difficult – and agents, and agents requiring biologi- mation that, although we can- potentially unanswerable – question cal containment measures. By recom- not now capture it with lists or for both authors and editors is mendation of the National Institutes definitions, presents enough whether the risk outweighs the likely of Health, the IBC includes participa- risk of use by terrorists that it benefits. tion by the public in the form of com- should not be published. How and by what processes it might Table 2. Fink Committee Experiments of Concern be identified will continue to challenge us, because it is also 1. Demonstrate how to render a vaccine ineffective true that open publication 2. Confer resistance to therapeutically useful antibiotics or antiviral agents brings benefits not only to 3. Enhance the virulence of a pathogen or render a nonpathogen virulent public health but also in efforts 4. Increase transmissibility of a pathogen to combat terrorism. 5. Alter the host range of a pathogen The general view of the workshop 6. Enable the evasion of diagnostic/detection modalities seemed to be that members of the sci- 7. Enable the weaponization of a biological agent or toxin

40 Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 Pugwash Meeting No. 300 munity members of the committee. In education and training in biosecurity area of ethical concern, but who research institutions in the United issues for all scientists and laboratory needs help in how to address it. The States, the IBC may be able to pro- workers at federal as well as federally individual observed that scientists vide an assessment of research at its funded institutions. need a system for analyzing ethical earliest stages, when the direction implications of the potential course Discussion and objectives of questionable of action, and that making such a While workshop participants seemed research can be redefined as needed. tool more readily available would to have a general sense that this was a As noted above, also among the contribute to the goal of improving good and straightforward recommen- recommendations of the Fink Com- the familiarity of scientists with ethi- dation, it also raised issues. Among mittee was the recommendation to cal analysis. the immediate questions raised were, harmonize international oversight of Although education is of utmost whose system of ethics? Who should biotechnology-related research. Some importance, other factors cannot be teach? Is it possible to teach ethics participants in the workshop forgotten: for example in the end, without turning the instruction into endorsed the concept of creating an engineers are responsible to those in ideological indoctrination? Who is to international forum to work toward charge of their project, rather than to be responsible for such a course of a common understanding of security humanity. In fact, there was a con- instruction? Are there empirical stud- concerns and eventually, an interna- cern that courses might become refer- ies of the impact of the courses that tional norm against misuse of genetic ences set in stone, rather than meth- suggest such training would con- information. Others, however, felt ods of approaching ethical issues (a tribute to an improved environment that the system described under set of rules rather than a set of tools). of ethical practice? At what age development in the United States was should a person’s ethical training extremely intrusive. Some of these Establish Codes of Conduct start? participants noted that international In the view of one participant, Context harmonization should include har- ethical behavior could only be In introducing this line of inquiry monization appropriate to different expected to be handed down from into the workshop, the Chairman risk levels. In the view of these partic- elder to younger scientists. This view raised a variety of questions regard- ipants, for developing countries to highlighted differences of view as to ing recommendations to establish adopt such intrusive measures with- the likelihood of scientists at different codes of conduct, specifically: out a commensurate risk would stages in their career, their lives and • Role in combating the diversion of divert effort and funds from other their training to act ethically (or not). science advances into activities that productive activities. There was general agreement, how- threaten global security and peace Increase Education on Ethical and ever, that young scientists have both • Obligations under international Biosecurity Issues the capacity for and interest in ethical treaties: links between codes of con- analysis, and that early education in duct and/or codes of good practices Context ethics may help shape culture of sci- and international agreements aimed Prior sections of this report have entists and reduce culture-specific at preventing illegal weapons devel- described discussion within the work- biases. This agreement among work- opment and use shop of the need for education of the shop participants did not settle the • Is an international consensus possi- press, the public and policy makers in question, however, of how best to ble? science. The workshop also covered enhance the degree and quality of • Need for a Scientific “Hippocratic” the need for a different area of educa- training in ethics for scientists. Oath tion, specifically, the need to provide One participant offered a practi- Discussion education on ethics and biosecurity cal example of circumstances in On this issue, workshop participants to scientists. This concept was also which educational support in the held widely divergent views. A num- raised in the context of the Fink field of ethics could be of help, specif- ber of participants expressed the view Committee recommendation to ically, to provide aid and assistance that codes of conduct were an appro- develop and implement programs for to the scientist who has identified an priate step to attempt to encourage

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ethical behavior among scientists. actions of others. It was noted that only way for codes of conduct to be Some of these participants described many scientists are unable to assess effective is if they are world-wide and specific formulas for possible codes, the positive uses to which their sci- binding. Important questions were as well as general guidelines that ence can be immediately applied, raised with respect to binding codes might be used to develop appropriate much less anticipate an indefinite of conduct, specifically, how would codes of conduct. One participant future. codes be enforced and who would be suggested that emphasis in the devel- Related to this concern is that the responsible for their enforcement? In opment of codes of conduct should time that is sometimes required for the view of some workshop partici- be on individual scientists; codes of basic research to be translated into pants, based on experience with conduct should not dictate permitted application can be substantial, even other informal international agree- or prohibited experiments but rather when those applications are targeted ments, it is better not to have safe- guide acceptable or unacceptable early in the process of research and guards than safeguards that are intent for research. In the discussion, development. Asking scientists to be unsafe, in the same way that it is bet- there were suggestions to compile responsible for the duration of the ter not to have laws which are examples of such oaths or codes, or developmental process is impractical breached too often. the rules by which groups sought to at best. In the medical field, stan- N.B. As a follow-up to the work- define them. In the view of some par- shop, two participants, Margaret ticipants, codes of conduct are seen Somerville and Ron Atlas, have pro- to be reflective and reinforcing of a The time that is sometimes posed an interesting “Code of ethics norm of ethical practice, and hence for persons and institutions engaged required for basic research to be valuable. One possible path to imple- in the life Sciences which could be menting codes of conduct is con- translated into application can be used as a basis for future discussion. tained in the report of the Fink Com- (see attachment 2) substantial, even when those mittee, where they suggest that development and adoption of codes applications are targeted early in Facilitating the Communication of of conduct lies with governance of Ethical Issues by Scientists the process of research and relevant professional societies: Discussion [The Committee] believes that it is development. While several of the documents pre- the responsibility of the research com- pared to support discussion at the munity, including scientific societies workshop addressed the issue of pro- and organizations, to define what tecting scientists who raise ethical these reasonable steps entail and to dards are legally binding. However issues, and how to facilitate the com- provide scientists with the education, this doesn’t allow for intuitive judge- munication of such concerns, the dis- skills, and support they need to honor ment, nor for considering the individ- cussion on this point was interwoven these steps. These principles should be ual cases. throughout other elements of the added to the codes of ethics of rele- Whereas some see establishment workshop. For example, as reported vant professional societies. of codes of conduct as reinforcing previously, one example was offered Not all workshop participants norms of ethical behavior, others in which educational support in the viewed the development and adop- note that this applies only to the field of ethics could be of help, specifi- tion of codes of conduct as useful. extent that the norms are shared. In cally, to provide aid and assistance to Some noted that asking scientists to the case of ethical practices, it has the scientist who has identified an act to prevent the use of their science already been noted that there are area of ethical concern, but who for questionable purposed implies many bases for judging the ethical needs help in how to address it. The calling on them to predict the future, quality of activities. The extent to individual observed that scientists to anticipate how the product of their which norms are not shared or stan- need a system for analyzing ethical scientific enterprise might be used to dards used to judge ethical practices implications of the potential course of nefarious ends at some unspecified differ, calls into question the value of action, and that making such a tool time in the future, and to control the codes of conduct. Some felt that the

42 Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 Pugwash Meeting No. 300 more readily available would con- participant that such exclusions were sight of dual use research; fostering tribute to the goal of improving the unhelpful in that they opened the the extension of biosecurity policies familiarity of scientists with ethical door for use under other circum- to the international arena; adopting analysis. As another example, discus- stances. restrictions on access to dangerous sion of facilitating raising of ethical One issue acknowledged among pathogens; and self policing of life issues by concerned scientists, it was the workshop participants is that sciences research and information to observed that communities in which international treaties such as the limit potential misuse. norms or codes of conduct are recog- BWC or CWC are binding on states; nized set the stage for such scientists but these weapons are accessible to Identify Communities that to be able to speak out when they see groups and individuals, possibly Represent Ethical Scientific activities at odds with those norms. without the knowledge or involve- Conduct ment of the state party government. Discussion Strengthen National and Because the weapons can be obtained In the course of interactions at the International Laws and Treaties that by individuals and groups without workshop, one participant suggested Control Science and Technology that knowledge of government, it raises looking to examples within the scien- can be used for Weapons questions of accountability. This issue tific community with prior experi- Discussion ence developing and refining stan- The Workshop participants discussed dards of ethical practice. That Communities in which norms the role of the Biological and Toxin participant described the field of Weapons Convention (BWC) and the or codes of conduct are recognized medicine as one scientific community Chemical Weapons Convention that has evolved standards and prac- set the stage for scientists to be (CWC) in efforts to reduce the use of tices of ethical conduct. She indicated biological research and development able to speak out when they see that evolution of the system of med- for weapons purposes. It was pointed ical ethics has been ongoing for 30 activities at odds with out that these treaties reflect norms years, and it may be appropriate to of behavior, which is positive. those norms. consider what elements of the sys- There is a need for international tems of ethics that has emerged in agreements such as the BWC to be medicine has applications elsewhere. made flexible enough to address tech- It could be appropriate to consider in turn suggests the need to engage nological advances. One participant what lessons may be learned that the widest possible community of cited the provisions of the CWC and would be better not to repeat in other leadership in order to maximize the BWC in banning weapons outright, communities. For example, the cur- likelihood that illicit activities will be and raised the question of the rela- rent practice of ethics in medicine seen and recognized as illicit by tionship of non-lethal chemical or arose from an emphasis on differ- someone who has the knowledge and biological weapons under the ences, spawning litigation, as tools to do something about it – Treaties. In his view, as an outright opposed to an emphasis on the basis whether the response is reporting to ban, these treaties eliminate these of consensus or agreement. Also, law enforcement, corporate manage- classes of weapons from military doc- there used to be a separation between ment, municipal or other elected trine of those nations who abide the pure research and therapeutic medi- political leadership. terms of the treaties. By maintaining cine which does no longer exist. Along the lines of empowering a technological exclusion to the lower levels of leadership to recog- treaty, such as non-lethal chemical or Identify and Encourage nize and act to prevent unethical use biological weapons, parties can main- Nontraditional Channels of of science, the Fink Committee tain the capacity to use weapons. The Communication included among its recommendations CWC has a technological exclusion the merit of developing and promul- Discussion for agents used domestically for law gating national guidelines for local In various contexts, both in the pre- enforcement; it was the view of this (e.g. institutional) and federal over- pared materials for the workshop

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and in the discussion, it was • On its own, issue a letter on the a) If science or technology creates a acknowledged that ethical conduct is ethical responsibilities of scientists circumstance that poses potential a responsibility at all levels of an or sponsor a book on the subject threats to global or human security organization, national and interna- which would lay out the choices then we, as scientists, have a tional leadership. One participant available. responsibility to do something posited that some systems of leader- • Establish a website, either for dis- about it; ship may be more susceptible to chal- cussion of ethical issues among sci- b) If a complex problem is emerging, lenges to ethical conduct of science, entists or as a mechanism to share or a simple problem has to be so that the issue must be engaged at information about educational ini- looked at in a complex context, all levels, not just at the level of tiatives and materials suitable for and engagement with it is not pos- national leadership or just at the level use in ethics training. sible without thinking in a new of individuals. Participants discussed • Endeavor to institutionalize early way; the need for creative approaches to warning functions against the mis- c) If new technologies are required to encourage ethical standards of behav- use of science, by actively partici- deal with a problem; and ior, partly for reasons already dis- pating in activities whose objectives d) If issues are systematically forgot- cussed, e.g. imposition of control are to strengthen in international ten or suppressed. measures from outside a country or arms conventions, provide informa- Given the breadth and complexity culture or organization may be less tion about the physical and social of the area, future work of Pugwash effective than controls put in place risks of new technologies, and in Science, Ethics and Society could internally because the former could increase societal support for include establishing a working group be perceived as inappropriate attempt whistleblowers. on “Early warning and preventive to control. Finally, it may not be ade- • Engage the Student Pugwash group, action on emerging technologies”. quate to pursue formal, traditional as suggested in their paper. Topics for review within such a modes of engagement, because rogue An important general issue working group could be: the charac- states, terrorists, and criminals may remains for potential exploration in ter of the early warning institutions distance themselves from regulated Pugwash: how to identify and discuss and the scientific analysis of exam- environments. The community of sci- novel technological and scientific ples of potential threats from emerg- entists conducting similar research developments as they appeared over ing technologies—downside conse- may have the best (albeit limited) the horizon, before their social impli- quences of nanotechnology, window into activities others may try cations had become widely recog- biomedical technology etc., and secu- to hide. nized, to provide a realistic ethical rity and privacy issues related to ICTs One particularly intriguing pro- framework and a reliable factual (Echelon etc.). The analysis should posal offered at the workshop, con- background for this type of discus- include contextual aspects (commer- sistent with looking for nontradi- sion? How to set up a realistic ethical cial, religious, and ideological etc.) tional channels of communication, framework for early identification of surrounding emerging technologies, was to consider using art as a means novel present and future technologi- as well as account for the epistemo- to convey ethics. cal and scientific developments? logical and historical meta-assump- Future work Future work could continue to tions on which they are built. - - The possibilities discussed for future explore these questions, possibly fol Discussion at the second work orking Group 5 shop on the possible implementation work of Pugwash in the area of Sci- lowing the work of W of a website included a number of ence, Ethics and Society are wide from the 2003 Halifax Pugwash potential uses, not all of which were ranging. They included recommenda- Annual Conference. In their report, WG5 identified specific guidelines to foreseen in the first workshop. Most tions brought forward from the 2003 judge circumstances that may war- of the discussion also revolved workshop, which specifically sug- rant attention with respect to their around establishing a website to gested that Pugwash could: ethical foundation: serve as a repository for resources that could be shared, including:

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• A collection of examples of codes that analysis of codes of conduct als for joint activities would proceed of conduct; might also be interesting as a disser- very far. • Educational materials and refer- tation project for a student in scien- A significant amount of discus- ences; tific ethics. It may be appropriate to sion at this workshop focused on the • Professional materials and refer- include the issue of whistle-blowing scientific and ethical issues associated ences, as illustrated by the webpage protection into the code of conduct. with biological research and its for the Public Assistance Hospitals Several papers contributed for the potential use in making weapons. of Paris (see www.APHP.fr); workshop suggest the possibility of Participants at the workshop dis- • Programs, training, tools, experi- preparing a Pugwash position paper cussed the value of identifying a spe- ences on communicating science to on the dangers in biology research. cific topical theme to stimulate addi- the press and public; Participants asked whether it would tional discussion in the net phase of • History and philosophy of science be possible and/or appropriate to activity. The principle topic that and ethics; and draft an appeal by an international arose in the discussion among partici- • A directory of experts in science group of high-level scientists regard- pants that was a significant issue and ethics. ing the conduct of research and the within society with implications of communication in the life sciences for science, technology, society and ethics In addition to its possible uses as a self.-policing by the scientific com- was the response to the HIV/AIDS a repository of information, the munity, using an agreed upon and epidemic worldwide. This topic workshop participants discussed internationally harmonized frame- seemed to be an excellent possibility whether it might be feasible to work, as has been done for recombi- for focusing additional future analy- exploit the internet for its collabora- nant DNA research. sis among Pugwash workshop mem- tive and dynamic interaction tools. A variation on the theme of bers. Examples of such nontraditional preparing a special paper under for- The Chairman discussed a possi- tools that might spur a new form of mal Pugwash sponsorship was to ble time and location for the next interaction for Pugwash on these assemble the papers prepared for this meeting and identified June of 2005 issues include shared server workshop into a book. as a possible date, with the third resources, such as SharePoint sites, or The subject was raised of collabo- workshop possibly to be held again tools that depend on interaction rative efforts between Pugwash and in Corsica, France. within a community for its value, other organizations, in particular the such as the free internet encyclope- International Council of Science dia, Wikipedia. It was asked whether (ICSU). From the perspective of an there was merit in organizing a dis- organization like ICSU, there is cussion network on the issue of early potential added value of working warning systems, and it was noted with Pugwash, given their comple- that this might be a subject for inter- mentary membership and outstand- net-based interaction as well. ing reputation. It was suggested that Related to the suggestion to use there was common interest of the two an internet site to accumulate exam- organizations in relation to science ples of codes of conduct, it was sug- and society that might warrant gested that future wok could include 1 National Research Council of the potential for future partnerships on sponsoring and endorsing a Pugwash National Academies of Science, Com- specific projects. In this regard it was mittee on Research Standards and Prac- student project to accumulate and noted that a substantial element of tices to Prevent the Destructive Applica- analyze variations of codes of con- the reputation of Pugwash arose tion of Biotechnology, chaired by duct. In future activities, Pugwash Gerald R. Fink, 2005. specifically because it maintains its could encourage students or junior autonomy and objectivity, and absent 2 “Uncensored exchange of scientific Pugwashites to explore creating their a compelling reason to change this results,” Proceedings of the National own pledge or /code of conduct. Par- Academies of Science, Journal Editors practice, it was unlikely that propos- ticipants in the workshop discussed and Authors Group, February 18, 2003.

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ATTACHMENT 1 ATTACHMENT 2 Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs Code of Ethics for Persons and Institutions Engaged From: in the Life Sciences Professor Sir Joseph Rotblat FRS London Office 63A Great Russell Street, London WC1B 3BJ Whereas: e-mail: [email protected] Ethics must be embedded in all Colonel Pierre Canonne and all participants at the aspects of scientific research from its 2nd Pugwash Workshop on Science Ethics and Society inception; Ajaccio, 9–12 October 2004, 03 September 2004 All persons and institutions engaged Dear Friends, in science and medicine must first I deeply regret not to be able to be with you all in person. You are going to dis- seek to do no harm and where possi- cuss a most important aspect of Pugwash activities. Indeed, I would say that ble to do good; working out a sound relationship between science and society is the raison The power of science to result in d’être for Pugwash, a feature distinguishing us from other anti-war and anti- harm, if it is not governed by strong nuclear organizations. It was my fervent hope to be with you in Ajaccio, but ethical standards, has been vastly unfortunately the state of my health does not allow me to make the journey augmented, in particular, by advances from London. This will be the first Pugwash symposium on this topic that I in molecular biology and informatics will have missed. and especially in the context of the You have a very comprehensive agenda, embracing a number of problems that life sciences; have arisen as a result of the application of the fantastic progress in science and Society has entrusted all people technology. Most of these applications have proved to be of benefit to human engaged in all aspects of science, in society, but others have posed new dangers, threats to our civilization, and per- particular, scientists, physicians, haps even to our very existence. Science is playing an ever increasing role in other researchers and scientific insti- every walk of life, and this puts an extra obligation on scientists to be account- tutions, to undertake it in such a way able for their deeds. as to show respect for all life, espe- Unfortunately, there are still many scientists who do not accept their social cially, for all people, including future responsibility. The task of the scientist – they say – is to search for knowledge, generations; and how his or her knowledge is applied is not the business of the scientist. Safeguards are needed to ensure ful- Moreover, some believe that the search for knowledge overrides all other con- fillment of the public trust and the siderations and that scientists should be entitled to ignore the ethical elements fiduciary obligations it engenders, of their work. and to protect against breach, in par- The harm to society that has resulted from such attitudes has brought science ticular, to ensure that science is not into disrepute, and action is needed to restore the proper image of science. The used in the cause of biowarfare or introduction of a “hippocratic” oath is our example of such action, but it bioterrorism; should perhaps be given more than a symbolic value. Perhaps the time has A code of ethics, setting out the prin- come for a binding code of conduct, where only those who abide by the code ciples that collectively form the stan- should be entitled to be practicing scientists, something which applies now to dards of conduct that define the medical practice. essentials of ethical behavior for all Dear friends, I have touched on only one of the issues on your agenda, in order people engaged in all aspects of sci- to illustrate the great task for you during your time in Ajaccio. I wish you an ence, in particular, scientists, physi- intense but friendly discussion and full success in your deliberations. cians, other researchers and scientific institutions, is needed to contribute Yours sincerely, to the protection of present and Joseph Rotblat future generations of humans, other living creatures and our planet

46 Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 Pugwash Meeting No. 300 against the misuse of science, espe- A code of ethics will support the pro- Some breaches of ethics can concur- cially the life sciences; tection of people who act in accor- rently constitute contravention of dance with its requirements to bring existing law and, because codes of The standards of behavior embodied breaches of ethics in scientific conduct and ethical principles that in a code of ethics will help to protect research or the misuse of science to are broadly accepted by one’s peers against the misuse of science, espe- the attention of relevant authorities are often used by courts to establish cially the life sciences; or the public; legal standards, violations of a code Compliance with a code of ethics and of ethics could result in legal penal- Scientists, physicians, other adherence to its principles is both the ties as well as censures for breaches researchers and scientific institutions individual and collective responsibil- of ethics. who fail to act ethically are at high ity of all people engaged in all aspects risk of losing the respect of their A code of ethics based upon strong of science, in particular, scientists, peers and the respect and the trust of principles will facilitate transmitting physicians, other researchers and sci- society as a whole, which would have the values that must govern scientific entific institutions; harmful consequences, not only, for research to trainees and students and A code of ethics will underline the them, but also, for scientific research, provide them with both guidance for importance of ethics review of pro- all people and institutions engaged in themselves and benchmarks against posed scientific research and the science, and society; which to assess the conduct of their monitoring of on-going research; teachers and mentors

Pierre Canonne, Marie Muller, Francesco Calogero, Claudia Vaughn, Venance Journé, Barberine Nicoli.

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Therefore, all people and institutions biowarfare or bioterrorism and, in dual use information or knowledge engaged in all aspects of scientific particular, the misuse or potential to those who need to know. research and development, in particu- misuse of one’s own discoveries, Ethically justify undertaking any lar, in the life sciences, must: teachings, knowledge, or scientific given scientific research or develop- advancements for such purposes; and Work to ensure that their discoveries, ment, in particular, through ethics to call to the attention of the public, knowledge, and application of those and safety reviews; that is, the persons or the appropriate persons or bodies, discoveries and knowledge, first do engaged in any aspect of scientific unethical research or misuses or no harm, in particular, to the well- research have the burden of proof of potential misuses of science or scien- being of humankind and life on the its ethical acceptability and safety tific information for such purposes. Earth. where there is doubt about its poten- While facilitating, to the fullest extent tial to do harm, or whether its devel- Work for the ethical and beneficent possible, the exchange of biological opment or potential uses are within advancement, development and use materials for peaceful purposes, take legitimate peaceful purposes, or of scientific knowledge. prudent steps to assure biosecurity by whether the legitimate benefits being Refuse to engage in any research, seeking to ensure that only individu- sought outweigh its risks and harms. development or use of science that is als for whom there are reasonable Abide by prevailing laws and regula- unethical, in particular, that is grounds to believe will not misuse tions that apply to the conduct of sci- intended to facilitate—or when there them are provided with biological ence, unless doing so would be is a real possibility of its being mis- agents that could be used unethically, unethical. If an individual believes used to facilitate—biowarfare or in particular as weapons; and by that certain laws and regulations bioterrorism, both of which violate restricting access to such agents breach the obligations set out in this the fundamental moral values of within laboratories and collections to code, he or she must work through humanity. individuals with bona fide needs for the relevant societal institutions to them for ethical research, clinical Never, under any circumstances, change those laws and regulations so diagnostics, or other medical uses. knowingly or recklessly to contribute as to become consistent with the ethi- to the development, production or While facilitating, to the fullest extent cal principles set forth in this code. acquisition of microbial or other bio- possible, the generation and And logical agents or toxins, whatever exchange of biological, scientific, and their origin or method of production, technological information and Faithfully transmit the duties and of types or in quantities that cannot knowledge for peaceful purposes, in obligations embodied in this code of be justified on the basis of their being those rare cases where there is rea- ethics, and the principles upon which necessary for prophylactic, protec- sonable concern that information or it is based, to students, trainees and tive, therapeutic, or other peaceful knowledge could be readily misused others who are, or may become, purposes. to do harm, in particular, to develop engaged in the conduct of science. Take steps to prevent any research or biological weapons or for use in Drafted by Margo Somerville and use of science that is unethical, espe- biowarfare or bioterrorism, seek to Ronald Atlas, 20th November 2004 cially that which could facilitate restrict the dissemination of such

48 Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 Pugwash Meeting No. 300

Participants

[Affiliations listed are for information Dr. Lydie Koch-Miramond, Scientific Mr. Decio Ripandelli (Italy), Director, only. All participants to Pugwash meet- Advisor, French Atomic Energy Commis- Administration and External Relations, ings take part in their personal capacity.] sion (CEA), Direction des Sciences de la International Centre for Genetic Engi- Matiere (DSM), Paris, France; Chairper- neering and Biotechnology (ICGEB) Dr. Ronald Atlas, Dean, Graduate son, Human Rights Committee of the School, and Co-Director, Center for the Dr. Carsten Rohr (Germany/UK), Gov- French Physical Society; Convener, Euro- Deterrence of Biowarfare and Bioterror- ernment Scientist (sustainable energy pol- science Working Group “Ethics in Sci- ism, University of Louisville, Louisville, icy/energy efficiency analysis), Depart- ence” (2001-) Kentucky, USA ment for Environment, Food and Rural Prof. Marilyn Monk, Professor Emeritus, Affairs, Sustainable Energy Policy Divi- Prof. Francesco Calogero, Professor of London University; Honorary Professor, sion, London, UK; Member, British Pug- Theoretical Physics, University of Rome Melbourne University wash Executive Committee “La Sapienza”, Rome, Italy Prof. Marie Muller, Dean, Faculty of Dr. Barbara Seiders, Program Manager, Col. (ret.) Pierre Canonne, Member, Pug- Humanities, University of Pretoria, South Chemical and Biological Defense wash Council ; Senior Lecturer, Disarma- Africa; Council Member, Academy of Sci- Research, National Security Directorate, ment and Arms Control, Univ. Marne-la- ence of South Africa; Chair, Pugwash Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Vallés/Paris, France South Africa; Member, Pugwash Council Richland, Washington, USA Mr. Peter Cwetanski, Fellow, European Dr. Alexander Nikitin, Member, Pugwash Dr. Carthage Smith, Deputy Executive Organization for Nuclear Research Council; Director, Center for Political and Director, International Council for Sci- (CERN), Geneva, Switzerland International Studies (CPIS), and of the ence (ICSU), Paris, France; Ex-Officio Prof. Jacques Diezi, Full Professor, Dept. Center for Euro-Atlantic Security, Representative on the UNESCO World of Pharmacology & Toxicology, Univer- Moscow, Russia; Deputy Chair, Russian Commission on the Ethics of Scientific sity of Lausanne, Switzerland Pugwash Committee Knowledge & Technology (COMEST) Dr. Park Doing, Postdoctoral Associate, Ms. Marion Nowicki (France), MPhil Prof. Margaret A. Somerville, Samuel Bovay Program in History and Ethics of Student, Cambridge University, Engineer- Gale Professor of Law; Professor, Fac- Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, ing Department, Cambridge, UK ulty of Medicine; Founding Director, NY USA Centre for Medicine, Ethics and Law, Dr. Yasuhiro Oue, Senior Researcher, Tei- McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Ms. Lillian Eriksen, Project Coordinator jin Pharma Limited, Institute for Biomed- Canada; Fellow, Royal Society of (on leave), The National Committees for ical Research, Tokyo, Japan Research Ethics in Norway, Oslo; Presi- Canada Mr. Juan Pablo Pardo-Guerra, Physicist dent of Foodfirst Information and Action Dr. Malur Srinivasan, Member, National from the National University of Mexico, Network (FIAN, Norway), a human Security Advisory Board; Senior currently graduate student at El Colegio rights-based organization working for the Adviser/Consultant, Tamilnadu, India; de Mexico (Economics); Board Member, human right to feed oneself Member, Consultative Group of Senior International Student/Young Pugwash; Eminent Scientists, Government of Dr. Serge Franchoo (Belgium), Editor, Pugwash Mexico Magazine Researcher, Institut de Physique (PMM), an online publication of the Ms. Susan Veres, Executive Director, Nucléaire d’Orsay, France Mexican Student Pugwash Group Student Pugwash USA (SPUSA), Wash- Dr. Gabriel Galice, Director, Fondation (www.pugwashmexico.org) on Pugwash- ington, DC related topics GIPRI (Geneva International Peace Dr. Mark Wheelis, Senior Lecturer, Sec- Research Institute), Geneva, Switzerland Dr. Stuart Parkinson, Executive Director, tion of Microbiology, University of Cali- Dr. Tom Børsen Hansen, Guest Professor, Scientists for Global Responsibility fornia, Davis, California, USA (SGR), Folkestone, Kent, UK Centre for Philosophy of Nature and Sci- Dr. Jean Pascal Zanders, Director, ence Studies, University of Copenhagen, Dr Arthur Petersen, Senior Policy Analyst BioWeapons Prevention Project (BWPP), Denmark; Member, Executive Commit- and Director, Methodology & Modeling Geneva, Switzerland tee, International Network of Engineers Program, Netherlands Environmental STAFF and Scientists for Global Responsibility Assessment Agency-RIVM, Bilthoven, (INES) The Netherlands; Treasurer, International Claudia Vaughn, Program Coordinator, Dr. Venance Journé, Researcher, National Student/Young Pugwash; Board Member, Pugwash Conferences, via della Lungara Scientific Research Council (CNRS), Pugwash Netherlands 10, I-00165 Rome, Italy, Tel. (++39-06) Paris, France 687-2606, Fax: (++39-06) 687-8376, Mobile: (++39-333) 456-6661, E-mail: [email protected]

Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 49 PUGWASH MEETING NO. 302

21st Workshop of the Pugwash Study Group on the Implementation of the Chemical and Biological Weapons Conventions: The BWC New Process and the Sixth Review Conference Geneva, Switzerland, 4–5 December 2004

December 2004 and the Third Meet- comprising 105,000 inspector days, Report ing of Experts and of States Parties in have taken place in 68 states parties by Scott Spence 2005. The workshop also looked at 785 facilities. Optimisation was ahead to the Sixth BWC Review also discussed as a means of keeping Conference in 2006 and beyond. up with the pace of chemical Introduction The meeting opened with a wel- weapons destruction and in particu- his was the eleventh of the come by Professor Jean-Pierre Stroot lar the anticipated increase in the current Pugwash workshop of the Geneva Pugwash Office, Presi- number of continuously-operating Tseries on countering chemical dent of the Board of the Geneva Inter- chemical weapons destruction facili- and biological weapons to be held in national Peace Research Institute, and ties that will be on line at any given Geneva. It was jointly convened by former Director of Research, IISN, moment. It was observed that there the Pugwash Study Group on the Belgium. Professor Stroot honoured has been discussion about the need to Implementation of the Chemical and the memory of Martin Kaplan by ask- increase and further focus verifica- Biological Weapons Conventions and ing the workshop participants to tion of other chemical production the Harvard Sussex Program on observe a moment of silence. facilities (under Article VI of the CBW Armament and Arms Limita- CWC) because approximately ten per tion, and hosted by the Swiss Pug- Reports cent of them are highly versatile in wash Group. The meetings were held The Chemical Weapons terms of equipment, design and on the campus of the Graduate Insti- Convention: Progress in chemistry used, and could have the tute of International Studies, Univer- implementation potential to be converted to make sity of Geneva. A report was given on the status of chemical weapons agent. Over fifty people attended the implementation of the Chemical The action plan on national workshop, by invitation and in their Weapons Convention, including a implementation of Article VII obliga- personal capacities, from 19 countries snapshot of how many chemical tions was discussed. It was noted that (Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, weapons have been destroyed thus it had been adopted by the Confer- Germany, India, Iran, Ireland, Israel, far: as at 31 October 2004, some ence of the States Parties at its eighth Italy, the Netherlands, New Zealand, 10,000 out of 71,000 agent-tonnes of session (20-24 October 2003) and Pakistan, Russia, South Africa, Swe- chemical weapons (14 per cent) have that its obligations must be met by the den, Switzerland, the United King- been destroyed in addition to 2.14 tenth session (7–11 November 2005). dom, and the United States). This out of 8.7 million munitions (25 per Such obligations include establishing report does not necessarily reflect a cent). Though destruction of chemi- or designating a National Authority consensus of the workshop as a whole cal weapons is behind schedule, it and adopting national implementing or of the Study Group. was observed that the destruction, or legislation and administrative or reg- The focus of the workshop was in some cases conversion, of chemical ulatory measures. Indicators of com- the BWC Inter Review Conference weapons production facilities has pliance with implementation of the Process, sometimes referred to as the been timely. Convention include submissions of New Process, and, in particular, the With regard to verification, it was annual declarations, submission of Second Meeting of States Parties in noted that some 1,900 inspections, information further to reviews of

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key step in achieving universality was and an agreement on a format for Libya’s accession to the CWC; it was submission of information regarding added, however, that this was not national protective programmes. necessarily a result of the action plan Education and outreach were dis- but of several years of hard work. cussed including a recommendation Regarding achieving universality at by the Scientific Advisory Board con- the regional level, it was noted that cerning a joint project with IUPAC, the African Union and other interna- which will include addressing how Jeanne Guillemin. tional organisations have been play- codes of conduct should reflect chem- ing an important role in Africa and ical weapons prohibitions and intro- other regions. Gaps in universality ducing awareness and requirements were highlighted, particularly in the of the CWC into chemistry educa- trade measures, and submission of Middle East, and on the Korean tion. information about national protec- peninsula, as well as in Africa and the In response to this update on tive programmes. It was emphasised Pacific and Caribbean regions. implementation of the CWC, it was that the action plan is not an assis- Turning to optimisation (of the observed by one participant that the tance plan but that assistance is avail- use of verification resources), a Meeting of States Parties in 2003 did able from other states parties, the report on this topic was discussed. It not follow a similar approach to the Technical Secretariat, and the Net- was noted that optimisation for OPCW in adopting an action plan work of Legal Experts. A progress chemical weapons storage facilities, for implementation of the BWC. Fur- report to the Conference at its ninth chemical weapons production facili- ther to the discussion of the univer- session (29 November–2 December ties, and old and abandoned chemical sality action plan, another participant 2004) was discussed in which it was weapons will be based on risk assess- noted that activities by states parties made clear that much work remains ments to determine how many and the Secretariat used to be discon- to be done. With the addition of new inspections will be needed, the fre- nected but that this has changed, in states parties in the last year, it was quency, and the size of the team. part because of greater involvement observed that there will need to be However, a key area will be destruc- by regional organisations, including additional momentum to meet the tion-related inspections: the focus the African Union and the Organisa- deadline for the action plan. It was will be on reducing team sizes tion of American States. It was added also observed that there is overlap through increasing instrumental that such assistance has also been between the plan and UN Security monitoring/recording and surveil- useful in some cases in informing Council resolution 1540 (2004). In lance/containment of exit passages at countries about what their obliga- particular, both emphasise the impor- chemical weapons destruction facili- tions are once they join the Conven- tance of implementing legislation ties. Sequential Article VI inspections tion. Another participant agreed, not- whereas to date, only 32 per cent of were also mentioned. ing that it was a good policy choice the CWC states parties have compre- On the matter of international to start working on implementation hensive legislation in place. The cooperation and assistance, it was assistance with states not party importance of having transfer mea- stated that there is no final agreement before they even joined the Conven- sures in place was also noted in the on a full programme of activities but tion. With regard to demarches by context of the resolution. that some programmes are in place. It states parties, there was some discus- Turning to the universality action was added that some states parties sion as to whether they have been plan, adopted by the Executive want an evaluation of the current useful or not; it was argued that they Council at its twenty-third meeting menu of activities and perhaps some have been. It was added that univer- (21 and 24 October 2003), the new ones as well. Attention was sality is slowly being achieved by speaker first noted that it “was brought to specific programmes focusing not on the disadvantages of inspired by the idea” of full univer- including implementation support for joining, but by going through sality of the Convention by 2007. It Article VII efforts, assistance and regional organisations and emphasis- was observed that in the last year, a protection including ASSISTEX 2, ing the importance of the Convention

Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 51 Pugwash Meeting No. 302 and of adhering to it. It was noted, mon understanding and effective tions of alleged use but it was gener- however, that the remaining states action. It was noted that three back- ally agreed that the Meeting was suc- not party require a different ground papers on mechanisms for dis- cessful. One participant noted, in approach. For example, one partici- ease surveillance, mechanisms for particular, that he was encouraged by pant observed there has been little responding to disease outbreaks and the quality and level of participation contact with North Korea and it will, mechanisms for investigations of and that the Meeting met its man- therefore, be difficult to determine alleged use and for assistance had date. It was added that BWC states whether they will become a state been prepared by the Conference Sec- parties are continuing to take a close party or not. It was added that, with retariat. However, there was no men- look at the threat of use of biological regard to Egypt, things are changing tion of the CWC and its mechanisms weapons and must consider their use in the Middle East due to Libya’s for investigations of alleged use. by non-state actors and those outliers accession to the CWC and Iraq’s indi- that have yet to join the BWC. It was cation that it would adhere. added that although use of biological There was also some discussion BWC states parties are weapons by non-state actors is not about the pace of destruction. There explicitly addressed by the BWC the was widely shared concern that the continuing to take a close look Final Declaration of the Fourth 2012 extended deadline for complete at the threat of use of biological Review Conference had recognised destruction of chemical weapons that this could be dealt with through would not be achieved, but it was weapons and must consider their proper implementing legislation, emphasised that the focus now use by non-state actors and which was also discussed at the 2003 should be on ways to help some pos- Meetings. It was also noted that the sessor states parties with financial those outliers that have yet to participation of IGOs throughout the assistance and by stimulating the nec- join the BWC. 2004 Meeting, i.e., WHO, FAO and essary political will for destruction OIE, was purposeful because their activities. activities informed topics of discus- sion at the Meeting including disease The Biological Weapons It was observed that there were outbreaks, distinguishing between Convention: Outcome of the representatives from 87 states parties, natural and manmade outbreaks, and Meeting of Experts, July 2004 along with delegates from WHO, responding to such outbreaks. A report was given on the Meeting of FAO and OIE. NGOs were able to Another participant observed that Experts, which took place in Geneva make statements at an informal ses- there was a significant amount of dis- from 19 to 30 July 2004, under the sion and 83 working papers were cussion at the Meeting on biosurveil- auspices of the Inter Review Confer- submitted to the Meeting. The out- lance but that there was little in ence Process. The following two top- comes of the Meeting included respect of investigations of alleged ics were on the agenda: (i) enhancing chronological lists on each topic of use. He added that improving biosur- international capabilities for respond- considerations, lessons learned, rec- veillance is necessary and that inter- ing to, investigating and mitigating ommendations, and conclusions, national organisations must be the effects of cases of alleged use of which were attached to the Meeting involved in this process, nevertheless biological and toxin weapons or sus- report as Annex II. It was noted that the problem lies in what to do with picious outbreaks of disease and (ii) this annex would lay the groundwork such a system: to use it to protect strengthening and broadening for the Meeting of States Parties, populations or to use it in the field to national and international institu- which took place the week after the determine, for example, whether bio- tional efforts and existing mecha- Pugwash workshop. logical weapons have been used. On nisms for the surveillance, detection, In response to this report, there a different note, a growing lack of diagnosis and combating of infectious was some discussion as to why the coherence was noted in respect of diseases affecting humans, animals CWC was not mentioned in the Con- how the international community is and plants. The mandate of these ference Secretariat’s third briefing responding to bioterrorism, including meetings generally is to promote com- paper on mechanisms for investiga- UN Security Council resolution 1540

52 Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 Pugwash Meeting No. 302 and efforts by the G-8, and a reinte- parties had offered assistance and, years. There will also be the problem gration of these efforts within the more recently, VERTIC and the of UN member states being in vary- BWC framework was encouraged. ICRC had drafted a checklist and ing levels of compliance with the res- There was some discussion on model law to implement the BWC. olution. Nevertheless, it was noted this latter point. One participant The model law incorporates provi- that, at the very least, the resolution queried whether the BWC should be sions from several states parties’ leg- requires BWC states parties to do the central point for countering the islation, elements of the OPCW what is already obligatory, i.e., to threat of bioterrorism and if the mat- National Legislation Implementation implement it at the national level. ter should be looked at from a wider Kit and elements from UN Security What is novel about it is that it perspective, including UN reform. Council resolution 1540. It was requires non-states parties to imple- Another noted that international noted that the model law targets ment legislation which hitherto only cooperation is already underway and small states with no biotechnology CWC and BWC member states had includes such initiatives as PSI, 1540, industry and with common law sys- to adopt. CSI, EU programmes, etc. In other tems, and that it is intentionally sim- words, many countries have moved ple and can serve as a framework for Second Meeting of States Parties, beyond the BWC format. In further measures if necessary. 6–10 December 2004 response, it was noted that this may A presentation was given on UN Enhancing international capabilities be due in part to the lack of an inter- Security Council resolution 1540, to respond to alleged use or suspi- national organisation to implement adopted in April 2004, and its impact cious outbreaks the BWC. on the BWC and the CWC’s states A presentation was given on investi- parties. It was first observed that the gations of alleged use under Article X International CBW Criminalisation resolution is binding on all UN mem- of the CWC and, more generally, on The status of the criminalisation pro- ber states, whether parties to the OPCW assistance and protection ject was briefly discussed. It was BWC or CWC, or not. The resolu- activities. A description of current noted that there was a preparatory tion requires states parties to report activities was given including meeting in Sussex in anticipation of a on the status of its implementation: national capacity building as well as conference in The Hague possibly 90 out of 191 UN member states had capacity building at the institutional involving the Hague Academy of done so by the time this presentation level in the OPCW. It was noted that International Law to promote the was given. Some concerns about res- a decision had been taken by the criminalisation convention. It was olution 1540 were noted including: Executive Council on a new format also noted that a commentary had the Security Council acting as a law- for submissions of information on been prepared and that it was being maker in adopting the resolution; its national protective programmes (at finalised for publication, but that the adoption under Chapter VII of the its twenty-fourth meeting, 24 impact of UN Security Council reso- UN Charter which suggests that there November 2004), that a databank on lution 1540 would still have to be will be repercussions if states do not, national protective programmes was taken into account. for example, file their reports or file being developed and that there were inadequate ones; and nuclear, biolog- The BWC New Process projects underway, including at the ical and chemical weapons being regional level, to help states parties The workshop participants revisited lumped together. In response, it was build national and regional capacities one of the topics discussed under the observed that resolution 1540 raises in respect of protection. It was added auspices of the 2003 Inter Review a barrier to terrorists in their that some of the regional projects Conference Meetings, namely, attempts to obtain nuclear, biological have a three-year timeline. Training national implementation of the BWC, and chemical weapons and will for first responders was also dis- including penal legislation. It was encourage states parties to join the cussed including events in Saudi Ara- noted that many states parties still CWC and BWC. On the other hand, bia, ASEAN member states and Cen- lack basic implementing legislation as it was observed that effective and tral Asia. With regard to institutional required under Article IV. It was comprehensive implementation of the capacity building, it was observed added, however, that eleven states resolution may take around five

Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 53 Pugwash Meeting No. 302 that the OPCW is developing its noted, including those trained in by the end of 2005, the Technical international response programs and forensics, biomedical sampling and Secretariat will be devoid of expertise programs for delivery of assistance. analysis, and crisis management. in this area. In addition, it was noted Turning to investigations in partic- Turnover of staff was noted as one that there is an understanding now ular, it was noted that procedures cause of this and as being detrimental that there must be assistance and pro- under Articles IX and X take into to the Secretariat’s capacity to carry tection activities involving chemical account those used in routine inspec- out investigations of alleged use. industrial facilities. Allegations of tions, however, it was emphasised There was some discussion in chemical weapons use in Darfur were that investigations of alleged use dif- response to this presentation, includ- briefly discussed, however, it was fer. It was noted that the UN Secre- ing on whether WHO and the observed that little more could be tary-General can request help for alle- OPCW cooperate and on whether the said about the matter at this time. gations involving states not party. OPCW would be able to respond to Investigations may involve chemical chemical weapons attacks in coun- Strengthening national and and explosive ordnance reconnais- tries beyond Europe. It was also international efforts for surveillance sance and environmental and biologi- queried whether assistance should, and combating infectious diseases cal/chemical sampling and analysis. therefore, be centralised or region- It was observed in the first paper pre- However, it was observed that the alised. One participant stressed that sented under this topic that a possible OPCW’s capacity at this time is lim- the tenure policy was a grave mistake role for UNMOVIC, in implementing ited in respect of biomedical sampling in light of the impact that it was the BWC in the absence of an OPBW, and analysis. It was added that there already having on assistance and pro- might not be possible. Rather, it was are labs that undertake this work but tection activities. In response, it was argued that it would make more there is no Conference decision as of noted that there is some sense now to set up a body through yet on this matter. Another aspect WHO/OPCW cooperation but that it the UN General Assembly and put it requiring further work was identified, is ad hoc and unstructured. Another under the Secretary-General’s con- namely, the ability to interview wit- participant noted that investigations trol. This way all UN member states nesses and casualties including, in of alleged use have public health would have a say on the matter and some cases, refugees. It was noted implications and this implicates have the option of using it for issues that more work also remains to be WHO, but that it should not under- that are not necessarily related to done on fine-tuning command post take investigations and, in many international security, for example, operations but that work has been cases, lacks the necessary technical clarification. It was added that there done in respect of administration and resources to respond to alleged use of would be no conflict with the OPCW logistics support. The need for more chemical, or for that matter, biologi- or CWC, rather, this proposal would work, however, on support in the cal weapons. It was also observed only be filling a gap in the BWC event of a terrorist attack was that requests for assistance from regime. It was noted that the United stressed. Particular attention was WHO should in many cases be Kingdom made a proposal to the brought to the insufficiency of avail- directed towards the OPCW and vice Meeting of Experts in 2004 to able equipment and facilities used in versa and that there is similar lack of strengthen the power of the Secre- routine inspections for investigations coordination within governments. In tary-General to authorise investiga- of alleged use; rather, what is needed response to the comment that assis- tions of biological and chemical are pre-packaged modules. It was also tance and protection should perhaps weapons use. Regarding biological noted that the OPCW Technical Sec- be regionalised, it was noted that weapons use, in particular, it was retariat faces problems with regard to there is a two-track process under- observed that there would have to be the export of dangerous goods neces- way whereby the OPCW is helping certain criteria in place regarding sary for some investigations and lacks states parties develop their own training, geographical distribution enough money to do real-time exer- national protection capacities while and confidentiality arrangements, cises: the current focus is on scenar- also working on its own institutional and that there would have to be ios, and new ones need to be devel- capacity. With regard to the tenure equipment under the control of the oped. Lack of qualified experts was policy’s effects, it was observed that investigating body and a body which

54 Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 Pugwash Meeting No. 302 would be ready to go on mission on updating the General Assembly reso- it does not have a mandate to do short notice. It was noted that, at the lution 42/37 lists of labs and experts. what is needed in this area, and (iii) it moment, the UN Secretary-General On the other hand, it was observed would be advisable to start with the has the authority to act but no fund- that it was unlikely UNMOVIC Security Council and Secretary-Gen- ing and that there are no standing could accept the mandate of BWC eral because they already have the arrangements for an inspections verification. Another participant authority to order inspections. The body; the UK proposal would correct agreed, noting that UNMOVIC and Security Council, for example, could this. It was also noted that a General UNSCOM were set up for specific authorise an inspection under Chap- Assembly resolution was recently purposes, and adding that it was nec- ter VII of the UN Charter, demand adopted which sets up a panel in essary to distinguish between alleged compliance, and enforce measures in 2006 to explore verification and the use and assurance of compliance. He extraordinary circumstances. It was UN’s role in it. added that the IAEA and OPCW give added that there could be a small bio- A role for the Security Council assurances of compliance with regard logical weapons-inspection body lim- was discussed: it could make use of to nuclear and chemical weapons and ited to alleged use, but having the the body described above if there was that a similar mechanism is needed capability to train existing inspectors. a threat to international peace and for the BWC. Other participants In practice, it could consist of a small security. It was also noted that the argued that it was important to pre- permanent staff that can call upon Security Council should, in light of serve UNMOVIC’s capacity in experts with appropriate expertise the recent UN reform report, take respect of biological weapons-related who are trained to work together and advantage of the Secretary-General’s inspections, especially in the event take a multidisciplinary approach. roster of experts for biological that a state is uncooperative and Additionally, the body should be weapons-related matters. intrusive inspections are necessary. insulated from UN politicization; for Another issue that was discussed Another noted that UNMOVIC’s ver- example, it should not be under was how such a body would avoid ification expertise was broad and UNDDA control. In short, it was undermining the IAEA and OPCW. It that there is no other body of experts argued that this proposal could be was noted that the UN Secretary-Gen- with this integrated knowledge, but part of an evolutionary process eral can already call upon inspectors, the question remains of how to keep towards an OPBW until such time as as he did for Iraq, who function inde- it alive. It was added that arguments one is established. pendently of the weapons treaties and against a standing inspection capacity Another presentation addressed their respective institutions, and who were undermining the NPT and the 1948 Arab-Israeli war and can conduct significantly more intru- CWC regimes with their own inspec- alleged use of biological weapons. It sive inspections. The focus, of course, tion teams for nuclear and chemical was argued that allegations of biolog- would be on biological weapons weapons. On the other hand, it was ical weapons use are often unresolved because there is currently no OPBW observed that a standing regime with in the absence of formal admissions nor other standing arrangements in intrusive powers beyond those of the in internal and international con- place for verification of the BWC. It IAEA and OPCW teams, in respect of flicts, even if there is an investigation. was added that having such arrange- nuclear and chemical weapons, Examples were given of events that ments would be a deterrent and an would not be supported by states are still disputed including the alleged alternative to military action. parties. It was generally agreed that sabotage of water wells with disease- One participant raised the issue of the focus should, therefore, be on cre- causing organisms by Israeli soldiers how verification of the BWC would ating an institution for inspections in Acre, near Haifa, and Gaza. It was be achieved, whether through related to biological weapons. argued that it is difficult to prove bio- UNMOVIC or through the Secre- In response to all of these com- logical weapons use unless the perpe- tary-General’s rosters of biological ments, it was noted that (i) a new trators are caught in the act and that and chemical weapons disarmament body for biological weapons-related this is compounded by the fact that and verification experts. It was inspections is needed because there is the act does not necessarily need to observed that, on the last point, the not one at this time, (ii) UNMOVIC be complex. In response, it was noted Meeting of Experts recommended cannot continue indefinitely because that there is often a loss of facts dur-

Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 55 Pugwash Meeting No. 302 ing wartime, especially in places dual-use agents and technology that on, inter alia, ethical standards, and where literacy is low and records are can be used for peaceful as well as ethics should be taught to life scien- poor or not kept. It was added that harmful purposes in the life sciences. tists at an early stage. Participants there has been much progress since It was argued that religious and non- appreciated that this approach con- then, for example, information can religious traditions, including tenets siders values but emphasised that now be obtained through forensic of Catholic social teaching, may codes should also take into account analysis. influence the development of codes of the sensitivities of some societies. conduct. It was observed that, Other participants cautioned, how- Third Meeting of Experts and of whereas laws are hard and enforce- ever, that a multicultural approach to States Parties, 2005 able, ethics are personal and belief- codes of conduct could be compli- based. It was noted, in particular, cated and create tension between dif- Codes of conduct for scientists that it would be difficult for legisla- ferent groups or, alternatively, such Considerable attention was given by tors to legislate ethical codes for life codes might offend by imposing one the workshop participants to this scientists given their unfamiliarity particular set of beliefs or be too flat topic, particularly because it will be with the field, accordingly, such for fear of offending. In response, the the focus for discussion during 2005 codes must come from scientists speaker noted that development of in the context of the Inter Review themselves. Turning to specifics, the codes of conduct should be open to Conference Process and related Meet- participant noted that Catholic social debate. With regard to the problem ings of Experts and States Parties. A teaching already provides several of imposing one set of values on oth- brief presentation was given on the tenets which could serve as a basis ers, it was noted that the Catholic development of the ICRC’s “Princi- for an ethical code in the life sciences, church does not consist solely of ples of Practice”, which are directed including the norm against killing, practitioners from the West and that towards individuals working in the justification for defending oneself in input from other religious traditions life sciences. It was noted that the the event of a just war, rejecting the would be welcome. development of these principles is arms race and terrorism, and pro- A presentation followed on a part of a broader ICRC effort known moting peace. It was observed that practical approach to codes of con- as the Biotechnology, Weapons and science and technology are not duct. In particular, it was suggested Humanity project launched in Sep- morally neutral, therefore life science that Recommendation 21 of the UN tember 2002. The principles are projects should be evaluated based working group on the UN and Ter- intended to raise awareness among those working in the life sciences of the dangers of misuse of biotechnol- ogy and to make a link between legal and ethical norms and best practices in the field. A query was raised as to the definition of ‘webs of prevention’. In response, it was noted that several actors, each acting with an awareness of the need to prevent the misuse of biotechnology, strengthens the over- all effort. It was added that aware- ness of ICRC’s “Principles of Prac- tice” was being promoted through bilaterals with large companies, let- ters, meetings in Brussels, posters to labs, etc. Another participant discussed an ethical approach to the dilemma of Ian Kenyon, Matthew Meselson, Julian Perry Robinson, Graham Pearson.

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rorism be taken into account, which satisfy the requirements of the gen- can create trouble, and one cannot addresses codes of conduct for scien- eral purpose criterion which only plan or prioritise responses when tists engaged in work relating to permits peaceful uses of biotechnol- unknown agents are involved. weapons of mass destruction tech- ogy. Another participant noted that Rather, generic responses with a nologies. The aim of this proposal different contexts raise different legal short lead time have to be developed would be to ensure that activities issues but that, ultimately, biodefence but it was noted that such a system, involving biological toxins and and industry, in addition to inadver- regardless, could be beneficial for agents are used for peaceful purposes tent and advertent activities, must be public health purposes. For the in line with the BWC’s general pur- covered by codes of conduct. moment, it is simply too expensive to pose criterion. Target communities Related to this final point, a pre- move unknown agents into the would include academia; the public, sentation was given on how codes of slightly more manageable grey zone. animal and plant health communi- conduct should be informed by The speaker observed that threat ties; industry; and government. It was biodefence considerations. As an ini- assessments must include identifying observed that it would be unrealistic tial matter, it was noted that scientists threats in order to develop counter- to assume that there will be a new measures. At the moment, however, code of practice in respect of dual-use there is a gap between what can be biotechnology, rather, existing Different contexts raise different dealt with today and what may arise requirements could be integrated into tomorrow, even though threat assess- rules for the life sciences. Examples legal issues but ultimately ments must be accurate and reliable. of existing codes in the United King- biodefence and industry, in It was added that certain agents, in dom that could serve as models were particular, will require advance lead also noted, including those for health addition to inadvertent and time but, in respect of their use by and safety at work (especially risk advertent activities, must be terrorists, there is still time to address assessment procedures), protection of the matter. It was also observed that the environment, export control, and covered by codes of conduct. codes of conduct will be a crucial animal experimentation. It was added part of this process. In conclusion, it that international regulatory frame- was argued that if the knowledge works should be considered, for must follow processes that confer gained by studying certain agents will example, EU regulations. In conclu- legitimacy on the programmes they have a positive impact on biodefence sion, it was noted that this practical work on. It was added that this then it could be pursued. However, it approach focuses on whether certain requires review, a search for truth, was argued that there should never- activities are lawful, while picking up and scepticism. As a practical matter, theless be a strategic and operational considerations in respect of nuclear, biodefence codes of conduct must be framework which forces life scientists biological and chemical weapons and informed by threat and risk assess- to think through the entire process. with the added benefit of being cost- ment. In addition, the operational In response to this presentation, it effective. Participants noted that response framework must be consid- was first argued that there is a ten- what may be best practice in the ered, which covers everything from dency to exaggerate threats. It was United Kingdom may differ else- known or anticipatable agents and added that certain kinds of attacks where. The problem of inadvertent agents falling in a grey zone, to are hypothetical but that, neverthe- activities, which could be enormously unknown or novel agents. It was less, we must consider the probability destructive, was also flagged in light explained that known or anticipat- that a certain event will happen and of the BWC’s general purpose crite- able agents are predictable and exist consider whether the people we are rion. It was suggested in response within a limited threat space. worried about have the capability to that there should be an ethical review Unknown agents, on the other hand, carry out worrisome events. Another process whereby life scientists’ work are unpredictable and the threat participant noted that threat assess- is reviewed to determine whether it is space is infinite. It was added that the ments differ in different countries harmful in or out of the lab or has lead time for responding to known and that this influences the kind of hostile purposes, and that this would agents is long, agents in the grey zone work that is undertaken. It was

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observed, for example, that in Swe- biosafety commissions in the United how scientists will have to take the den small programs are looking at States. It was noted that these com- initiative in regulating themselves, real threats whereas, in the United missions operate under guidelines not including applying ethical practices, States, threat analysis tends to be law, yet they review bioresearch and in light of the explosion of activity in governed by politics which then biosecurity projects. The survey was the life sciences and the dual-use affects government scientists and undertaken in light of a recommen- nature of biotechnology. The their work. In light of this, it was dation by the National Academy of speaker’s reservations about ethics added that discussions of threat Science, with an initial focus on the were noted, however, including con- assessments are truly difficult in mul- commissions’ transparency. It was cerns about who is the ultimate tilateral contexts. A participant noted that 90 per cent of the regis- authority in this area and different observed that institutional review tered commissions were asked to cultures having different moral princi- boards already exist in the United complete the survey and then asked ples. A problem-oriented approach States and that there are available to comply with biosafety guidelines. was proposed, based on a model by models in the Departments of However, it was observed that very Wölfgang Binder, whereby the life sci- Defence and Health and Human Ser- few of the commissions responded to entist makes an assessment of the vices for the life sciences. In response, the survey even though their records aims and benefits of his or her work one participant noted that there is must be made public to be eligible for and based on a set of rules. To take much more money in the United funding. It was added that, in some vaccines as an example, their develop- States for work in the life sciences so cases, this was because the commis- ment is legitimate but one must also less attention is paid to threat assess- sions simply do not exist or do not look at the means used in developing ments, in contrast to the situation in meet if they do. In short, it was them to obtain a greater safety model. Europe where careful thinking must observed that this system of biosafety Accordingly, if there are devastating come first. Another participant also commissions has been in existence effects as a result of developing a cer- responded by noting that a large for some thirty years and has been tain vaccine, it must be rejected even amount of money is going to biode- charged with overseeing dual-use though there may be some benefits. fence, sometimes at the expense of bioresearch, but it does not function On the other hand, the risk of aban- public health and that many scientists well at all. Several examples of this doning the project must be weighed, simply follow the money. It was were provided including meetings at especially if that risk is greater than added that review boards are largely which no minutes were prepared and the one posed by continuing the inactive in important labs in the commissions that met for the first experiments. Practically speaking, it United States. With respect to codes time in response to the survey. Other was argued that licensing of all facili- of conduct, in particular, it was noted commissions had only met once, ties and scientists working with that the governments funding the sci- agreed to meet again, and never did. potential biological warfare agents is entists should also be subject to their The speaker described the conclu- necessary, and that periodic inspec- standards and that it was unfair to sions drawn from the survey includ- tions would also be appropriate. It direct them just against scientists ing: the recommendations of the was added that all scientists must interests’. In response to these com- National Academy of Science must receive training on the BWC and on ments, the speaker agreed that the be implemented because the system is models for decision-making. In other root of the problem internationally is in disrepair, this voluntary system is words, licensing programs should not that threat analysis differs through- stronger than codes of conduct but just address biosafety but also the out the world. So, for example, a US many institutions do not use it even requirements of the BWC so that sci- solution is needed for US problems. though they have been directed by entists are aware of their responsibili- He also agreed that institutional the National Institutes of Health to ties during the course of their pro- review boards are weak right now release information, the lack of lab jects. In response to this presentation, but could work if they functioned in biosafety laws in the United States is a workshop participant observed that the context of codes of conduct. untenable, and the guideline system is many scientists feel that they have lit- A presentation was given con- not working. tle opportunity to make individual cerning a survey of institutional A paper was presented next on decisions because they are part of

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large research programmes, and that codes of conduct for scientists doing workshop participant proposed a they must excel to ensure career biodefence work. It was added that basket of approaches, addressing recognition and to make money. In the issue may be informed by inputs ethics, the legal framework, and other words, it was suggested that from highly regulated developed codes of conduct. individual experiments should not be States Parties but that areas needed to Several other participants contin- the only consideration here. be identified requiring self-regulation ued to discuss this matter. One noted The next presentation under the by scientists. Turning to what might that codes of conduct have their lim- topic of ‘Codes of Conduct’ empha- be discussed at the Meetings in 2005, its and are not a panacea, rather, they sised that the overall aim of standard it was observed that the States Parties should only be one part of several operating procedures (SOPs) for labs have different approaches on the measures. It was added that the entire should be biosafety and biosecurity. legal aspects of codes of conduct, as situation needs to be looked at from It was noted that SOPs have already well as wide versus narrow views of an ethical point of view, that is, is it changed in labs because of a height- them. In particular, it was noted that ethical to develop biotechnology for ened threat of misuse of toxins, if the discussions focus on practice harmful purposes or to protect one’s organisms and other dual-use bio- versus conduct, no decisions will be country? The participant also raised technology. It was added that codes reached. It was added that there will the issue of how to bring the message of conduct can be beneficial, but that be no progress if the discussions start to the appropriate targets, for exam- there must also be regulations with from the point of view of ethics nor if ple, through education with sanctions for violations thereof. The they focus on who will be subject to UNESCO playing a role or through speaker observed that the biosafety the codes. It was stressed that the ISO standards for labs. In response, a framework in the United States, in Meetings must be pragmatic and its participant noted that both ideas particular, emerged out of work on results must apply to all those have been looked at but the relevance the matter in the 1950s. It was, there- involved with the life sciences, up to of the BWC to UNESCO and the ISO fore, suggested that the wheel should and including CEOs of companies was unclear. It was suggested that not be reinvented in 2005 during the setting up dual-use biotechnology education should begin with states Meetings of Experts and of States projects. It was added that the codes parties. Another participant agreed Parties. It was also observed that the must be informed by scientists’ views, that ethics play a major role in the framework for biosecurity is already including an understanding of process, noting that they do not contained in Article I of the BWC, i.e. whether what they are doing is wise always differ from one group to the general purpose criterion. In light versus whether it is allowed, which is another nor necessarily have to start of these considerations, it was sug- more of a legal issue. The notion of with religion. There was agreement gested that from this existing frame- whether a particular project is wise from others on the latter point. He work the focus should be on duties, requires a scientist to determine added that ethics and codes of con- and that anything less might imply whether a project is beneficial or not. duct must come from within a com- that there is some question as to the It was argued that, practically speak- munity and not be imposed from the agreement on the universality of the ing, the discussions should not be outside, and that the process starts norms against chemical and biologi- focussed on top-down approaches with training and getting life scien- cal weapons. (government initiatives) but rather on tists to think about the consequences In response, it was noted that a bottom-up approaches (scientist and of what they are doing. In response framework based on moral agency industry initiatives). In other words, to this point in particular, one partici- assumes that nothing goes wrong. It governments should take notes, take pant noted that some scientists are a was also argued that the US model is them home and let scientists and long way from recognizing that there a failing one, yet is being promoted in industry sort out how they should is even a problem. other countries. Another participant proceed. It was added that it would Some participants turned to gave a lengthy intervention, starting also be useful to make scientists and mechanisms versus processes, argu- with the observation that in 2005 the industry representatives aware of ing that codes of conduct should be mandate of the Meetings will be their duties and for them to come to looked at from both points of view, codes of conduct for scientists, not the 2005 Meetings. In short, the that is, from outside in and vice

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versa. Another participant noted that that, in response to the threat of ter- speaker noted that the mechanisms to it would be problematic for scientists rorism in the United States, experi- prevent terrorists from misusing to define standards for themselves ments of concern, including DNA biotechnology are overstated, rather, because this would lack a context, experiments, have been added to the greater threat is inadvertent dam- which codes need. It was added that National Institutes of Health guide- age, arising out of great advances in codes are broader benchmarks for a lines for research related to biotech- science. Accordingly, though codes of process and that they cover those nology. It was also noted that a new conduct would be consciousness-rais- matters that cannot be regulated, biosecurity panel will be established ing, the codes of practice described whereas regulations are tightly under the guidelines, and that they above would be part of a binding and defined and, once promulgated, are establish national and local oversight enforceable system. hard to change. Thus, codes are just and codes of conduct. The speaker In response, it was noted that one part of the process and education observed, however, that these guide- the proposal above is limited to about codes is another. lines are only voluntary and con- pathogens/infectious disease agents One participant argued that the sciousness-raising but do not go far but that some things, for example, issue should be looked at from an enough because certain industries and the agent used in the Moscow the- economic point of view, that is, government research (including classi- atre, do not fall into this category. In biotechnology as a ‘service’ with other words, the proposal appears to clients and providers. He added that be more about controlling dangerous because marketplaces are inherently Codes are broader benchmarks research. Another participant noted amoral, codes of conduct will be for a process and cover those that the proposal seems more con- trumped by the marketplace even if cerned about inadvertent rather than the codes are desirable, and that they matters that cannot be regulated, deliberate consequences. Accordingly, only increase the value of the ‘ser- whereas regulations are tightly it was queried why we should be con- vices’ by reducing the available sup- cerned about terrorists if they cannot ply. He concluded that there must, defined and, once promulgated, do this work. With regard to peer therefore, be a system of sanctions to are hard to change. review in particular, it was noted that back up the codes. Another partici- it only looks at the science but not pant observed that one fundamental necessarily the broader biosafety/ issue the BWC states parties could fied research) are excluded, which are biosecurity context. Another partici- talk about is what is legal and illegal two key sectors of the life sciences pant agreed noting that scientists’ under the BWC. She noted, however, community. It was added that the estimation of risk differs from that of that they have yet to reach an agree- guidelines are only advisory, not other people and that peer review ment on this and cannot, therefore, legally binding, and do not address may not necessarily be useful as a possibly ask scientists to behave in the international angle of this prob- consequence. It was added that what certain ways in conformity with lem. The speaker argued for a com- is needed are denominators of risk, codes of conduct. In other words, sci- prehensive, mandatory, binding and that is, a determination of how many entists cannot do their work without global set of uniform procedures and people have nothing to do with governments doing theirs first. standards with licensing and peer biodefence work or are working on The speaker on the final paper review of experiments before they are select agents. It was observed that the under this topic argued that the focus undertaken. The system would build other problem is how to have effec- of codes should be on addressing the on existing institutions and be a tiered tive constraints on research when sci- gap in regulations for the conduct of system with a national review board ence and industry are international research. It was added that there are as well as an implementing body at and so many governments are ethical codes, codes with voluntary the global level to oversee the most involved, especially if there is no guidelines and codes of practice with dangerous work, similar to WHO’s transparency at the state level. The enforceable requirements: each of oversight over smallpox research in speaker responded to these comments these types of codes are distinct but the United States and Russia. With by first suggesting that whether interrelated and needed. It was noted regard to codes of practice, the industry will opt into the guidelines is

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an open question but that the about biological weapons that goes juncture. A participant responded by National Institutes of Health has said against the essential value of life sci- noting that scientists tend to underes- that they will become mandatory if ences being for the benefit of human- timate risk and queried whether it they do not. On the question of ity. Turning to the paper, the speaker was wise to let them do the decision- whether the proposal covers research noted that secrecy in respect of dual- making on their own, particularly using nonpathogens, it was noted use biotechnology is simply wrong. because they stand to gain from their that as the proposal develops, the Examples were given, including own risk assessments. The speaker process needs to be adaptable to new experiments by the Japanese in China agreed, and added that they do not threats. The speaker confirmed that which had negative consequences for see the consequences nor the career the threat of terrorists using existing the Chinese. As a result of the secrecy implications of doing classified work. knowledge for harmful purposes was surrounding the experiments, how- The next speaker observed how less likely than new knowledge being ever, their claims were not considered the dual-use problem has changed the inadvertently and wrongly applied. legitimate after the fact. Other dan- regulatory landscape such that the With regard to the comments about gers were pointed out, namely, the object of control now is technology, peer review, it was observed that sci- manipulation of information to versus weapons, and the actors sub- entists must play a role in this process obscure threats or the manipulation ject to these measures are not tradi- but that oversight would have to of threats. It was argued, for exam- tionally associated with security involve other actors as well. Finally, it ple, that information regarding the issues. It was added that the ques- was noted that the dual-use problem anthrax letters event was manipu- tions that arise are whether these is not limited to biodefence work lated by the government, obscuring actors are being addressed correctly alone, and that an international the threat to postal workers and oth- and if the concept of ‘dual-use’ is response to the dual-use problem ers. It was argued that the govern- being clearly explained to them. It could include codes of conduct as ment also manipulated the smallpox was noted that the paper was part of well as internationally agreed rules threat using fear, leading to a call for a larger work focusing on technology and procedures, perhaps in the form vaccinations. A website developed by studies, which reconceptualises the of a treaty, with obligations that states students, in response to the construc- relationship between technology and parties must implement nationally. tion of a biotechnology lab at Boston science. In other words, technological University, was discussed as an exam- development is a complex activity Towards the Sixth Review ple of ways to promote transparency with links to science. It was observed Conference and Beyond in this field. This was considered that technology can be seen as having Is the dual-use problem changing? especially important in light of scien- three interacting parts: the physics of The first paper under this topic dis- tists’ naïveté with regard to accidents the artifact, which determines how cussed the overriding need for full in labs and the hazards of doing clas- technology behaves; an imposed transparency to ensure biosecurity. It sified work. In concluding, the function that guides people’s interac- was noted that people are placed at speaker observed that disease models tions with the technology and deter- greater risk if there is little or no elicit complex responses which cross mines how it should behave; and a transparency along the biosecurity organisational boundaries, including technological regime within which chain. Some initial observations were the health, military, and intelligence the other two parts operate. An made, for example, it was observed fields and that these organisations example was given of the CD, which that biological weapons are different also have possible international link- can be used for different, even unin- from nuclear and chemical weapons ages. It was emphasised that the pub- tended purposes, accordingly, the because they are associated with dis- lic can be placed in jeopardy if vital change in use is associated with ease and temporal delay. It was information is distorted or hidden. It intention and the key is the appropri- added that there are institutions to was argued that comprehensive ateness of the use. The speaker protect public health against disease efforts at transparency are therefore argued that if the dual-use dilemma is but that this is not true for chemical needed among the CDC, the FBI and translated into the technology debate or nuclear weapons. It was argued other intelligence agencies, and local there are parallels, however, technol- that, accordingly, there is something communities to reduce risk at every ogists do not see dual-use as an inher-

Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 61 Pugwash Meeting No. 302 ent property. That is, they do not per- ments regarding the previous two ceive that technology can be auto- presentations. With respect to the matically used for weapons purposes, argument that technology is neither rather, it depends on the context such inherently good nor bad, a partici- that technology can be used for good pant observed that the intent under- and exploited, or for bad if banned lying biodefence work in the United and proliferated. States could always be claimed to fall Another paper was given under under Article I of the BWC. He this topic on whether risk assessment added that using dual-use technology can be a useful method for governing for beneficial purposes is a matter of dual-use research. It was asserted trust, accordingly, it would be useful from the outset that risk assessment if scientists could build this trust. On Jeanne Guillemin and Matthew Meselson. can be useful if its limits are recog- a final note, he observed that the nized, and that it is only one tool legitimacy of risk assessment is ques- among others. It was noted that the tionable because it cannot be sepa- discussion during the intersessional paper looked at dual-use in context rated from politics. Another observed period, known as the New Process. A and offered a definition of risk. Risk that we have moved from a century brief description of the Inter Review assessment, in particular, was defined of development to a cornucopia of Conference process, including the as a way of looking at how to man- dual-use technology, and that the Meetings of Experts and of the States age risk, including giving risks a problem is not just a single experi- Parties, was given. The question was value in order to rank and compare ment but entire programs, including also raised of how successful these them. It was observed, however, that ones that should not be pursued. In meetings have been so far for discus- these values cannot be scientifically response, the first speaker noted that sion of each of the topics and promo- proven. It was noted that the ques- if we do not assign the properties of tion of common understanding and tion of how to harmonise risks arises good and bad to technology, we have effective action. It was observed, for from the results of risk assessments. to look at context and intent. It was example, that the language in the Practically speaking, risk assessment argued that a good way forward, Fourth Review Conference document requires an analysis of the nature and from funding to the end of the pro- regarding the implementation of location of the risk in question, the ject cycle, would be to assess context, penal legislation was stronger than probability of the risk occurring, vul- use, and intention. The second that in the document arising out of nerability, and the resources with speaker agreed that risk assessment the 2003 Meetings, and that there which to manage the risk. Lack of models could work at the research was no action plan for national data was highlighted as a potential program level, not just at the level of implementation of the BWC similar problem in respect of the probability the discrete experiment. to the OPCW’s. The speaker noted, element. On the other hand, it was however, that there was real promise noted that analyses of vulnerability What outcome would be regarded as for a positive outcome at the 2004 and the resources to manage risks are successful? Meeting of the States Parties, based fairly easy to determine. Alternatives Several papers were presented on this on the Meeting of Experts document, to risk assessments were noted crucial topic. The first speaker as well as for the 2005 Meetings including vulnerability studies and observed that the first four review (Codes of Conduct). The speaker scenarios. The speaker concluded by conferences successfully adapted asserted that the Sixth Review Con- noting that risk assessment can be a themselves over the years to address ference needs a final declaration to useful tool for policy makers, espe- the important issues at the time. On reaffirm and further extend common cially because it highlights gaps in the other hand, it was noted that the understandings and that a failure to respect of addressing dual-use tech- Fifth Review Conference, held in do so would erode the BWC regime. nologies. The limits of its usefulness 2001 and resumed in 2002, was He added that an institution is were nevertheless emphasised. focussed on rescuing the BWC regime needed to carry the regime forward Participants had several com- and concluded with five topics for because it needs strengthening, and

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that there was a need for a legally UN Security Council resolution 1540 ence declaration which points the binding instrument to strengthen the may speed things up). He asserted way forward, including, at the very effectiveness and improve implemen- that the European Union and associ- least, formal meetings, mandatory tation of the BWC. He acknowl- ated and like-minded states parties and new CBMs, and a processing edged, however, that there is still must outline a constructive and real- unit for declarations. some tension in respect of these mat- istic way forward, starting now, with In response to these presentations, ters. Turning to planning, the speaker the help of the NGO and scientific a participant observed that all of the asserted that stakeholders must start communities. It was added that there proposals were good. However, he thinking now about the Inter Review must be support and a continued observed that following the 2001/2 Conference process outcomes, confi- process for meetings where groups of Review Conference, efforts were dri- dence-building measures (CBMs), states parties can identify and evalu- ven by concerns about anthrax and a legally binding instrument. He ate measures to strengthen the BWC, attacks and terrorism and became a added that there must be early con- for example, a VEREX-like group, highly fragmented process. He sideration of several outstanding which could take into account new argued that stakeholders must go issues, that the states parties’ political initiatives and how they relate to the back to see how activities surround- commitment of 1998 must be BWC. He added that these measures ing the BWC can be integrated into recalled, and that there must be a must be evaluated in order to deter- it. He added that if this is not success- contingency plan in case the Sixth mine which would fit in the BWC ful, what is left must be evaluated, Review Conference is unsuccessful. framework and which could stand namely Article I and its preservation In the second presentation, it was alone. These might include: reviewing in the face of changes in biotechnol- observed that a successful outcome to work on legislation, evaluating ogy and what has already taken place the Sixth Review Conference depends progress on Article V and how to under the auspices of biodefence. on where you stand, for example, make the consultation process work, With regard to national implementa- from within the US or UK govern- possible revision of CBMs, the estab- tion of the BWC, he asserted that res- ments or from the point of view of an lishment of a scientific advisory olution 1540 does not let this work NGO. He added that events between panel, assistance and protection in take place within the context of the now and 2006, including individual the event of use by non-state actors Convention. He also observed that it agendas, will shape matters. For (taking into account what WHO is will be difficult to continue with example, CBMs were successful already capable of doing), and work CBMs if there is not agreement on because they were planned by some on establishing an OPBW prepara- them already. A participant disagreed states parties. The speaker argued tory commission. Complementary that BWC activities were taking place that a line needs to be drawn under measures were also suggested or con- in other fora and that what has hap- the past and that mention of the Pro- firmed including those in respect of pening under resolution 1540 was tocol, a legally binding instrument or national oversight, a CBW criminali- unclear, but the Review Conference international negotiations on these sation convention, a biosecurity con- could comment on whether states topics could be problematic. On the vention, industry involvement, a veri- parties were in compliance with Arti- other hand, he observed that there fication mechanism under the UN cle IV. Another participant argued are still available options and that it Secretary-General, work under reso- that the focus of the Sixth Review would be impossible to dodge negoti- lution 1540, surveillance of disease, Conference must be on the minimum ations on a 2006 Review Conference PSI, biosafety regulations, and licens- so that it does not collapse. She declaration. ing. With regard to CBMs, in particu- added that annual meetings could be A third speaker under this topic lar, it was suggested that electronic useful. The possibility of a modular observed that the Inter Review Con- filing could be considered, the poor approach to implementation and ver- ference process has been an interim numbers of returns should be ification systems was raised, includ- ‘something’ but that there is still no addressed, and perhaps some of them ing a BWC technical support unit set progress, for example, on national could be made mandatory. In con- up outside the treaty regime, which implementation of the BWC cluding, the speaker emphasised that could assist with universality, imple- (although he added that adoption of there must be a Sixth Review Confer- mentation, coordinating meetings,

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and serving as an information clear- regional and bilateral offers. Another at the periphery once again as it was inghouse for all BWC states parties. participant raised the question of in 2001. Based on past practice, he She added that such a body may not what will be discussed at the Sixth suggested that the Sixth Review be necessary as a result of resolution Review Conference in respect of the Conference review the BWC regime 1540. However, she noted that it Inter Review Conference process, and in toto. could be a modest start for institution queried what the point would be of building. meetings after the Conference if How to deal with outcomes of the Another participant noted that nothing arises from the intersessional Inter Review Conference process? discussion of a legally binding instru- Meetings. It was emphasised by A presentation was made under this ment at the Sixth Review Conference another participant that there are cer- topic on how to remedy the BWC’s was not completely unreasonable tain things that must be done before institutional deficit. The speaker because there was willingness to dis- the Sixth Review Conference, includ- observed that organisations are cuss it before July 2001. It was sug- ing the reaffirmation of the BWC’s needed for practical reasons, such as gested that, alternatively, negotia- basic prohibitions and political to carry out those things states par- tions on sensitive topics could take action by states parties willing to take ties must do collectively, rather than place elsewhere if not at the Review the risk, as well as more publicity what they can only accomplish at Conference. The participant added about the BWC and the upcoming review conferences. He added that that a list of agents to be controlled Conference. He suggested that it is the BWC in fact needs an OPBW, but could be the basis for a decision. too early to predict what the Confer- that it would be unrealistic to try to Another participant noted with ence will look like, but that it would establish one at the 2006 Review approval that civil society was ahead be a good idea to develop several Conference. Accordingly, he sug- of the states parties in respect of car- action scenarios. gested that less ambitious arrange- rying the BWC regime forward, but Turning in particular to the ments are needed, perhaps a body observed that at least there was some impact of the Protocol’s collapse in that could carry out some of the pro- multilateral process in place for the 2001, a participant observed that it posals highlighted by earlier speak- time being, i.e., the Inter Review was easy to blame the United States ers, as well as older stream activities Conference process. He added that in the beginning for it but that, ulti- and those arising from the Inter some state parties would have liked mately, all states parties were respon- Review Conference process. He to put a verification mechanism on sible. He recommended that the ple- observed, however, that such a con- the agenda for the Review Confer- nary session in 2006 decide on how fluence will not happen without care. ence and that there was disappoint- to move ahead and not revisit the Regarding the final declaration of the ment over the failure of the Protocol, shadow of 2001. He also suggested 2006 Review Conference, he noted but that resolution 1540 may have that the results of the Inter Review that it may not be confined to prod- imposed some limits on what can be Conference process be focussed on ucts of the Inter Review Conference done for now. It was suggested by a strengthening the Convention, and process, and that they would only be participant that perhaps it is not a that the states parties must decide one set of many inputs. He added bad thing that biological weapons how they want to do this. Another that the Review Conference should issues are moving away from the participant agreed that there was a range over the entire BWC regime BWC to where the power is, and that danger of the 2006 Conference being and that this should be reflected in it is critical that the Sixth Review informed by what happened in 2001 the final declaration. Concerning Conference strengthen the norm and in assigning blame to one state results of the Inter Review Confer- against misuse of dual-use biotech- party for the collapse of the Protocol. ence process, he observed that some nology. In response to this comment He agreed that a modular approach states parties are already discussing and concerned about the fragmenta- to strengthening the BWC regime annual meetings, and added that one tion of the BWC, a participant would be acceptable, if voluntary. He topic for these meetings could be sci- observed that it would be useful to added that it is in the states parties’ entific and technological develop- have a body such as the DDA to hands in 2006 as to whether they ments. It was noted that a scientific house offers of assistance, including want the BWC to be at the centre, or advisory panel might be useful for

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enabling states parties to have early Another speaker discussed a the need to enhance regulations gov- warning of threats to the BWC report that had been prepared for the erning genome data, particularly in regime and that it could report to the Dutch presidency of the EU indicat- light of their dual-use potential. He annual meetings. As a fallback, the ing what Europe could do for the noted that thought should be given to speaker asserted that a bureau could Sixth Review Conference. It was formal methodologies and risk be authorised to hold open-ended noted that Europe had several assessments for evaluating the bene- meetings at its discretion, which options: the first was to aim high and fits and costs associated with genome would combine a nucleus of responsi- call for some kind of verification and data, and added that there should be bility with breadth of participation. compliance mechanism but it was a review of how this data could be He added that efforts of the Confer- cautioned that this could create ten- used by terrorists and of its availabil- ence Secretariat prior to the Sixth sion with the United States. The sec- ity on the internet, and of whether it Review Conference should be consol- ond would be a minimalist approach is subject to export controls. With idated into the Secretariat in the years with a bland final declaration and an regard to the transparency of genome following the Conference, short of agreement to meet again in 2011. data, he noted that some information turning it into an OPBW. Finally, he The third was a middle approach probably must be withheld but that noted that the suggestions above whereby Europe could, through its we must be satisfied as to why it has would not require any kind of soft power and under its WMD strat- been, who has made the decision, amendment process, rather, they are egy, put a non-proliferation clause in and what has been kept back. within the power of the Review Con- trade agreements. It was added that The final speaker at the 2004 ference to adopt. the EU could also create expertise workshop on the BWC discussed The within the EU and encourage infor- BioWeapons Prevention Project How to deal with unfinished mal assistance efforts in respect of (BWPP) – a global civil society activ- business? implementing the BWC with the ity – and its aims and objectives. It Confidence-building measures objective of something more formal was observed that non-governmental (CBMs) were the first item to be dis- down the road. On the other hand, it organisation participation in moni- cussed under this topic. The speaker was noted that submissions of CBMs toring the BWC is limited, accord- started by giving a brief history of were down in Europe, making it hard ingly, BWPP is addressing this short- these measures and noted that, thus for it to look serious about the BWC. age of attention by creating a global far, only 89 out of 152 current states Accordingly, the speaker argued that network to strengthen the norm parties had submitted any. He also it might be useful to take a look at against misuse of biotechnology. The discussed one state party’s efforts in who has called for an OPBW but has success of the project in South Africa respect of CBMs, including a hand- not been submitting their CBMs. He was briefly discussed, including posi- book, demarches to states parties on added that it would also be useful to tive responses from government, submissions of CBMs, technical assis- start identifying members of the industry, scientists, and academia. It tance, bilateral approaches during diplomatic corps who will be in posts was noted that a course had been meetings, and highlighting CBMs during the Sixth Review Conference prepared on the norm against misuse during speeches. The speaker urged for contact and long-term decision of biotechnology, regulations and that, in moving forward, more CBMs making. ethical decision-making, and that should be submitted and in a timely The next speaker briefly men- BWPP hopes to make this course manner. He added that there is a lack tioned the United Kingdom’s sugges- available to all life science students. of analysis of what has been submit- tion at the Fifth Review Conference BWPP’s efforts to mark the upcoming ted and noted that translation costs for meetings at which scientific and 30th anniversary of the BWC were were considerable, but argued for technological developments can be also noted. more assistance in preparing CBMs, discussed. He noted that his paper translation, discussion of the mea- reviews these developments over the sures at meetings, greater accessibility course of some of the earlier confer- to them, and greater transparency to ences. Related to this, another improve accountability. speaker discussed a report calling for

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Participants

Affiliations are listed for identification Mr. Daniel Feakes (UK), Research Fellow, Ministry for Foreign Affairs, Department purposes only, all participants take part Harvard Sussex Program SPRU-Science for Global Security, Stockholm, Sweden in their personal capacity.] & Technology Policy Research, The Free- Mr. Magnus Hellgren, Minister for Disar- man Centre, University of Sussex, Dr. Eitan Barak, Lecturer, The Depart- mament and Non-proliferation, Perma- Brighton, UK [formerly: HSP Researcher ment of International Relations, The nent Swedish Mission in Geneva (1997-2000), OPCW, The Hague] Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel; Ms. Melissa S. Hersh, Secretariat of the Adjunct Lecturer, The Faculty of Law, Amb. John Freeman, Email: john.free- Biological and Toxin Weapons Conven- Tel-Aviv University [email protected] tion and Doctoral Student at the Univer- Amb. Serguei Batsanov, Member, CBW Dr. Jozef Goldblat (Sweden/Switzerland), sity of London, London School of Steering Committee, formerly: Director, Vice President, Geneva International Hygiene & Tropical Medicine/University Special Projects, Organization for the Peace Research Institute (GIPRI), of Bradford, Department of Peace Stud- Prohibition of Chemical Weapons Geneva, Switzerland; Consultant, United ies, UK (OPCW), The Hague, The Netherlands Nations, Geneva [formerly: Leader, Arms Prof. Barry Kellman, DePaul University Control Studies, SIPRI (1969-89)] Col. Dr. Volker Beck, Adviser to Foreign College of Law, Chicago, IL, USA Office, Berlin, Germany Ms. Chandre Gould, Network Co-ordi- Mr. Aftab A. Khokher, First Secretary, nator, Bioweapons Prevention Project, Ms. Sarah Broughton, CBW Section, Permanent Mission of Pakistan to the South Africa Counter Proliferation Department, For- United Nations, Geneva, Switzerland eign and Commonwealth Office, London, Prof. Jeanne Guillemin, Senior Advisor, Dr. Jez Littlewood, Research Fellow, UK Massachusetts Institute of Technology Mountbatten Centre for International (MIT) Security Studies Program, Cam- Dr. Vladimir S. Bundin, Senior Coun- Studies, Department of Politics, Univer- bridge, MA, USA; Professor of Sociology, selor, Department of Security & Disarma- sity of Southampton, Southampton, UK Boston College Institution ment Affairs, Ministry of Foreign Affairs [formerly: UK HM Armed Forces; Secre- of the Russian Federation, Moscow Mr. Richard Guthrie (UK), Project tariat of the BWC Ad Hoc Group/Fifth Leader, CBW Project,. Stockholm Inter- Review Conference (1999-2001)] Dr. Ottorino Cosivi (Italy), Project national Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), Leader, Preparedness for Deliberate Epi- Mr. Dominique Loye, Deputy Head, Solna, Sweden demics, Global Alert and Response, Mines-Arms Unit, International Commit- Department of Communicable Disease Mr. Edward H. Hammond, US Director tee of the Red Cross (ICRC), Geneva, Surveillance and Response (CSR), World of the Sunshine Project, Austin, Texas Switzerland [formerly: Technical Adviser, Health Organization (WHO), Geneva, ICRC, Geneva] Dr. Gert Günter Harigel, Senior Physicist Switzerland (Emeritus), European Laboratory for Par- Mr. Donald A. Mahley, Deputy Assistant Prof. Paolo Cotta-Ramusino, Secretary ticle Physics (CERN), Geneva, Switzer- Secretary of State for Arms Control General, Pugwash Conferences on Sci- land Implementation, US State Department, ence and World Affairs; Professor of Washington, DC Special Ms. Elisa D. Harris, Senior Research Mathematical Physics, University of Scholar, Center for International and Ms. .Neelina Hermina (Ineke) Malsch, Milan, Italy; Director, Program on Disar- Security Studies at Maryland, School of Director, Malsch TechnoValuation, mament and International Security, Lan- Public Policy, University of Maryland, Utrecht, The Netherlands; part time stu- dau Network – Centro Volta, Como, College Park, dent at the Catholic Theological Univer- Italy sity, Utrecht, The Netherlands Mr. Shaukat Hasan, Minister (Technical), Prof. Malcolm Dando, Professor of Inter- Permanent Mission of Pakistan to the Prof. Robert Mathews, Principal national Security, Department of Peace United Nations, Geneva, Switzerland Research Scientist, Defence Science and Studies, University of Bradford, Bradford, Technology Organisation, Australia ; UK Dr. René Haug, Counsellor/Military Associate Professor, Asia Pacific Centre Advisor, Permanent Mission of Switzer- Ms. Michelle Fadelli (Australia/ Italy), for Military Law, University of Mel- land to the UN Office and other interna- Programme Officer, Biotechnology, bourne tional organizations in Geneva Weapons and Humanity Initiative, Inter- Dr. Hassan Mashhadi, Head, Assistance national Committee of the Red Cross, Mr. Niklas Hedman, Deputy Director and Protection Branch, International Geneva, Switzerland (biological weapons, outer space affairs), Cooperation and Assistance Division (ICA), Organisation for the Prohibition

66 Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 Pugwash Meeting No. 302 of Chemical Weapons (OPCW), The (SPRU), University of Sussex, Brighton, tional Studies (MIIS), Washington, DC Hague, The Netherlands UK 20036, USA Ms. Kathryn McLaughlin, Research Fel- Mr. Roger Roffey, Director of BW- Dr. Emmanuelle Tuerlings (Belgium), low, Landau Network-Centro Volta Defence Research, Swedish Defence Programme for Preparedness for Deliber- (LNCV), Como, Italy Research Agency, FOI NBC-Defence, ate Epidemics (PDE), Department of Umeå, Sweden; and Ministry of Defence, Communicable Disease Surveillance and Dr. Caitriona McLeish (Ireland), Unit for International & Security Affairs, Response, World Health Organization, Research Fellow, Science & Technology Stockholm; Member of the Board, Geneva, Switzerland Policy Research (SPRU), The Freeman Swedish Pugwash Group Centre, University of Sussex,, Brighton Ms. Angela Woodward (New Zealand), BN1 9QE, UK Dr. Barbara Hatch Rosenberg, Division Arms Control & Disarmament of Natural Sciences, State University of Researcher (Chemical & Biological), Ver- Ms. Loulena Miles, Staff Attorney, Tri- New York (SUNY), Purchase, New York, ification Research, Training and Informa- Valley CAREs, Livermore, CA, USA USA; Chair, Federation of American Sci- tion Centre (VERTIC), London, UK Dr. Piers Millett (UK), Associate Political entists Working Group on BW Verifica- Dr. Jean Pascal Zanders, Director, Officer, Secretariat of the 2004 meetings tion BioWeapons Prevention Project (BWPP), of the Biological Weapons Convention, Mr. Mohamed Sharif, Head, Biotechnol- Geneva, Switzerland; CBW Project Department of Disarmament Affairs, ogy Research Center and Bioethics & Leader, SIPRI, Solna, Sweden United Nations Office, Geneva, Switzer- Biosafety Committee, Tripoli, Libya land; Consultant on science and technol- PUGWASH STAFF: ogy for the ICRC project on Biotechnol- Mr. Nicholas Sims, Reader in Interna- ogy Weapons and Humanity tional Relations, London School of Eco- Rome Office: Mimma de Santis, Pugwash nomics and Political Science (LSE), Uni- Conferences, Accademia Nazionale dei Dr. Ali Akbar Mohammadi, Manager for versity of London, London, UK Lincei, via della Lungara 227, I-00165 Vaccine Discovery Research, WHO/TDR, Rome, Italy, Tel. (++39-06) 6872 606, and Member of Council of Ethics of Mr. Scott Spence (USA), Harvard Sussex Fax: (++39-06) 6878 376, E-mail: pug- WHO, Geneva, Switzerland Program Hague Researcher at the [email protected] (and) [email protected] OPCW, The Hague, The Netherlands Dr. Roque Monteleone-Neto, Professor, [Attorney, NY office of the law firm Federal University of Sao Paulo, Sao Freshfields, Bruckhaus Deringer] Paulo, Brazil; Commissioner to UNMOVIC Mr. David Steuerman, BW Policy Officer, Non-Proliferation, Arms Control and Prof. Kathryn Nixdorff (USA/Germany), Disarmament Division (IDA), Foreign Dept. of Microbiology and Genetics, Affairs Canada, Ottawa, Ontario Darmstadt University of Technology, Darmstadt, Germany Dr. Ben Steyn, Chemical and Biological Defence Advisor to the Surgeon General, Counsellor (Disarmament) Indra Mani SANDF, Centurion, South Africa ; Mem- Pandey, Permanent Mission of India, ber of the South African Delegation to Geneva, Switzerland the Ad Hoc Group Dr. Alan Pearson, Director, Biological & Prof. Jean-Pierre Stroot Chemical Weapons Control Program, (Belgium/Switzerland), retired Physicist ; Center for Arms Control & Nonprolifer- Geneva Pugwash Office ; President of ation, Washington, DC, USA the Board of the Geneva International Prof. Graham S. Pearson, Visiting Profes- Peace Research Institute (GIPRI), sor of International Security, Department Geneva, Switzerland of Peace Studies, University of Bradford, Dr. Ralf Trapp (Germany), Senior Plan- Bradford, West Yorkshire, UK; Member, ning Officer, Office of the Deputy Direc- HSP Advisory Board tor-General, Organisation for the Prohi- Mr. Guy Roberts, Principal Director, bition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW), Negotiations Policy. Department of The Hague, The Netherlands Defense. Washington, DC, USA Dr. Jonathan B. Tucker, Senior Prof. Julian Perry Robinson, Sussex Researcher, Center for Nonproliferation Director, Harvard-Sussex Program, Sci- Studies, Monterey Institute of Interna- ence & Technology Policy Research

Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 67 PUGWASH MEETING NO. 306

Third Pugwash Workshop on Threats without Enemies: The Security Aspects of HIV/AIDS Learning lessons from the first wave of HIV/AIDS Gordon’s Bay, South Africa, 29 April–1 May 2005

tional peace and security. The report cialists from the Indian sub-continent. Report and selected materials relating to this Beyond India, the Pugwash by Sandy Rowoldt Shell workshop are also available online.2 Group believes that this knowledge must also be made available authori- The third exploratory workshop aving invited the partici- tatively and swiftly to those firmly in pants to introduce them- The particular purpose of this third the path of the pandemic in Russia, Hselves, Professor Gwyn meeting was to share the experiences Central Asia and China. The Pug- Prins of Columbia University and the and lessons, both good and bad, wash Group believes that this work- London School of Economics and learned thus far in the management shop offered the first opportunity for Political Science (LSE) opened pro- of the pandemic in South and South- an inter-continental exchange of this ceedings by giving the background to ern Africa with countries that could nature. Given India’s vast population the workshop and setting the ratio- be considered to be experiencing the of 1,1 billion, coupled with the speed nale for the agenda. “second wave” in the global spread of the spread of the pandemic on the of the HIV/AIDS pandemic. African sub-continent, there is no Background to the workshop In view of the many similarities of time to waste. There is a compelling In response to a proposal made by the pandemic shared between South- need for the urgent sharing of knowl- the South African Pugwash Group to ern Africa and India—particularly in edge, skills and experience. There is convene two exploratory workshops terms of clade, aetiology and, to a as much to be learned from what has to examine the different dimensions certain extent, the degree of denial at not been done or has been done of the HIV/AIDS pandemic as a secu- both leadership and grassroots levels poorly in the Southern African region rity issue, the Pugwash Council —the Pugwash Group believed there as from what has been effective. agreed and these workshops took is a specific urgency to engage, in the Four papers were selected for the place during 2004. first instance, with appropriate spe- workshop that would describe the The first workshop was held at Betty’s Bay in the Western Cape Province, South Africa from 7-9 Feb- ruary 2004. The report and selected materials relating to the workshop are available online.1 The second of these workshops was held near Warmbaths in the Limpopo Province, South Africa from 25-28 June 2004. This second workshop probed more deeply into the political, epidemiological, statisti- cal and national policy ramifications of HIV/AIDS as a threat to interna-

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South and Southern African experi- That HIV is developing into an that will replicate the progression of ence to date, with two invited Indian increasingly complex molecular pan- viral infectivity in humans. Ethical delegates given the opportunity to demic was recognized at the Interna- issues preclude the use of “live atten- respond. tional AIDS Conference in Bangkok uated” HIV vaccines in trials. The first paper would present a in 2004 with an acknowledgement Poor immunogenicity results in status report on HI virological that the virus is changing at an even humans have hindered progress in research and future prospects for the more rapid pace than had been so far the development of a successful DNA virus in Southern Africa. Subsequent understood. vaccine and the current hot topic in papers would deal with the arrival Adding to the seemingly insur- immunology revolves around toll-like and vectoring of the virus in South mountable challenges of combating receptors. Despite this hope, virolo- Africa, the controversies around the virus on a grand scale, surveil- gists must conclude that there is AIDS statistics and a history of the lance levels remain poor internation- unlikely to be any major successful political management of the AIDS ally with only specific pockets of vaccine in the immediate future. pandemic in South Africa. Responses populations being targeted. What is ARVs and prevention presently must and comparisons would follow from needed is more and better surveil- remain the most effective strategies to the Indian delegates on HIV/AIDS lance of populations, especially combat HIV. and security in India. among the newly infected and over The arrival and vectoring of the time. Innovative and ethically accept- Virological challenges virus in South Africa able methods of testing wider popu- Any comprehensive understanding of lation ranges need to be developed The second Pugwash workshop held the present state of the pandemic in and implemented before the full at Betty’s Bay in February 2004 dis- South and Southern Africa needs an impact and vectors of the thrust of cussed the challenges posited by dissi- appreciation of the changing nature the pandemic can be assessed. dents contributing to the AIDS of the virus and the attendant chal- There is growing recognition that debate who have attempted to dis- lenges facing virological research certain genetic strains of the virus are credit the quality of datasets used in nationally and internationally. transmitted more easily and more scientific descriptions and projections Accordingly, the first paper looked at rapidly. Clade C, responsible for of the pandemic. The importance of preventive strategies and vaccine approximately 50% of the world’s being able to demonstrate the developments. HIV infections, including among the integrity of the data used in the The greatest challenge to the populations of South Africa and analysis of the pandemic was dealt development of a successful range of India, is the most readily transmitted. with in the next presentation that vaccines or any other form of viral This clade of the HI lentevirus began with a rigorous interrogation control is that viral diversity is exhibits a lower replicative capacity of a specific range of datasets gath- becoming a growing characteristic of that leads to slower progression of ered in Region A of the Eastern Cape the HIV pandemic. This diversity is the disease. This, in turn, allows for a and used to track the arrival and vec- increasing as fast as it can be mea- longer time for possible exposure and toring of the virus in the region. sured. The presentation of one case therefore a greater number of oppor- The impetus for gathering the study served as a reminder “that HIV tunities for transmission. data that comprises the primary remains a frighteningly versatile foe, A further challenge to the devel- dataset came in 1988 through the one that can mutate to escape im- opment of an effective HIV vaccine is efforts of the then Medical Officer of mune attack or to acquire drug resis- the HLA (human leucocyte antigen) Health in the Nelson Mandela Metro- tance with surprising speed …”. diversity of a population, com- pole who recognized the growing Virologists were faced with the real- pounded by the existence of dual impact of the pandemic and the need ity of the development of a “super infections and the growing phenome- to be able to track and measure it strain” of the virus exhibiting multi- non of super-infection. over time. Using the offices of the drug resistance and extremely rapid The massive immunological chal- AIDS Training Information and development in its clinical course to lenge is complicated by the absence Counseling Centre or ATICC, case- AIDS. of successful means of animal testing level data recording HIV-positive

Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 69 Pugwash Meeting No. 306 patients were submitted by various demic between 1992 and 1994. Since the mid-1980s, there has agencies in Region A including ante- Recruits who had been called up to been a range of interest groups who natal clinics, medical practices, insur- do national service simply returned have joined the battle over HIV and ance companies, District Surgeons, to their homes without any exit test- AIDS statistics. Conflicting numbers Medical Officers of Health, hospitals, ing or counselling. This process have been posited in the media by army bases, police and prison records established an additional possible different interest groups regarding and the Eastern Province Blood vector for the spread of the virus. the number of HIV-positive individu- Transfusion Service. The data, cumu- This hypothesis is evidenced in the als, the numbers of AIDS deaths per lating over time to nearly 30,000 records of the Region A datasets annum and the numbers of AIDS suf- cases by 2000, was analysed in terms described above. ferers. These groups range from out- of 43 variables and, given its twelve- If South Africa had followed the right HIV/AIDS dissidents, who year span, offers the opportunity of example of Cuba, which rigorously denounce the figures as being inflated tracking the pandemic from infection tested their troops on their return for financial gain by the pharmaceu- to death. from their engagement in Angola, the tical industry, to various AIDS lobby Added to this primary dataset HIV pandemic might have been groups who tend to exploit exagger- was data from graveyard records and arrested in this country as it was in ated figures generated by less than an additional set from undertakers Cuba. However, there was no testing. reputable sources to foster support back to 1974, pre-dating the onset of Worse, the blood transfusion services for their causes. the pandemic. continued soliciting blood donations The presenters argued that in set- Ratepayers’ lists, telephone direc- from the military establishment until ting the ground rules for HIV statis- tories from 1988-2000 and TB 1985. There was no HIV screening of tics, it is essential to gain an under- records from SANTA augmented and the blood supply in, for example, the standing of what is being measured, endorsed the primary dataset build- Eastern Cape, until 1988 (tests only of the nature of the HIV test itself ing in total a composite set of became available in South Africa in and of the construction of the sample irrefutable, case-level data. 1985). The blood supply of the East- being tested. One of the main reasons why ern Cape was therefore potentially With regard to testing, the typical HIV/AIDS has spread so rapidly in open to HIV contamination for protocol would involve an initial plus Africa is that the continent has been almost a decade after the first incur- a confirmatory test of a blood sam- embroiled in twenty years of inter- sions into Angola by South African ple. Only if both tests were positive, mittent military violence in several troops in 1976. would the case be recognised as HIV regions such as Angola, Burundi, the Researchers remain largely oblivi- positive. In practice, if properly Democratic Republic of Congo, ous, even resistant, to the obvious applied, HIV testing has proved Eritrea, Ethiopia, Liberia, Mozam- military epidemiology. There has yet highly accurate. bique, Namibia, Rwanda, Somalia, to emerge an alternative and convinc- The issue of sampling is perhaps South Africa, Sudan, Uganda and ing explanation for the pronounced of even greater importance. Given Zimbabwe. As has been argued in regional variance in the provincial that it is seldom possible to test an many studies, war creates favourable breakdowns. Accordingly, it is entire population, the most common conditions for the transmission of argued that the military should be way to study a large population is by HIV. South African Defence Force considered seriously as an additional means of sampling. It is essential that troops and the liberation armies, vector in the spread of the pandemic. samples are properly constructed or which were deployed in neighbouring conclusions will be drawn for the The battle over HIV and AIDS countries during the liberation wars, entire population that, at best, could statistics were subsequently merged into the be misleading. South African National Defence The third presentation followed the It is therefore extremely impor- Force and distributed to army bases interrogation of HIV data with an tant in the battle of HIV statistics to across the country. These became an analysis of the battle over HIV and understand exactly how a sample has almost perfectly randomly distrib- AIDS statistics, raising the question: been constructed and so be assured uted set of sites for the incipient pan- “Do the models reflect reality?” that extrapolations from this sample

70 Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 Pugwash Meeting No. 306 to the greater population will have as weight loss and oral infections. In numbers of AIDS deaths. However, any degree of certainty. Any sample stage 4, HIV-positive individuals there is a relatively close fit between will have an element of bias to the experience a range of more severe the number of deaths estimated by extent that it is not truly representa- conditions such as pneumonia, extra- the ASSA2002 model compared with tive of the entire population being pulmonary TB and wasting syn- the number of registered deaths sampled. Primary errors relating to drome. These conditions are collec- issued by Statistics SA. HIV statistics (and therefore the tively referred to as AIDS. The ASSA2002 AIDS and demo- source of “battles”) lie in the way in It is clearly important to be able graphic model directly models five which sample data is extrapolated to to distinguish diseases that can cause interventions that affect the pan- large populations. symptoms similar to those exhibited demic: (i) Information and education It was critical to recognize the dif- in AIDS. In doing this, one of the crit- campaigns; (ii) Improved treatment of ferences between HIV statistics, ical requirements for an AIDS diag- sexually transmitted diseases; (iii) Vol- which are virtually all based on data nosis is a measurement of the CD4 untary counselling and testing; (iv) sampling, and AIDS statistics that are cell-count, which measures the Mother to child transmission preven- gleaned from individual patient clini- strength of the body’s immune sys- tion; and (v) Antiretroviral treatment. cal records. Because AIDS is a syn- tem. Stigma, poor administration and All five of these interventions will drome and not a single disease, there lack of resources can all contribute to have an impact on the pandemic in is no single test available to classify the difficulty in collecting accurate future, which could in part lead to the presence of AIDS. Instead, it is AIDS data. additional uncertainty around HIV- common for researchers to use the Concomitant with the difficulties prevalence rates and AIDS mortality. staging system used by the World experienced in the collection of Four of the interventions will have a Health Organisation, which have AIDS-prevalence data is the under- reducing impact on the HIV-preva- defined four stages of the disease reporting of AIDS deaths. Over the lence rate by reducing new infections. from acute HIV infection (WHO last few years, the topic of AIDS These four are: (i) information and stage 1), through early disease (WHO deaths has become a subject of con- education campaigns; (ii) improved stage 2), followed by late disease siderable controversy. AIDS dissi- treatment of sexually transmitted dis- (WHO stage 3) to AIDS (WHO stage dents and denialists have compared eases; (iii) voluntary counselling and 4). The first two of these stages are figures of modelled AIDS deaths to testing; and (iv) mother to child trans- largely asymptomatic while Stage 3 the figures of actual deaths in South mission prevention. The remaining sees the onset of opportunistic infec- Africa and have concluded that some intervention, namely antiretroviral tions and attendant symptoms such models vastly overstate the actual treatment, will result in HIV-positive people remaining HIV-positive for a longer period of time and will there- fore increase HIV-prevalence rates. With the introduction of anti- retroviral treatment, it has become necessary to consider a fifth and even a sixth disease stage in the modelling process. Without treatment or other intervention, HIV-positive individuals progress through each of the four WHO disease stages, but individuals who experience their first AIDS- defining illness are assumed to move to stage 5 when they will receive ART. Stage 6 represents those indi- viduals who have discontinued ART. A final stage, stage 7, is AIDS death.

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Key conclusions from the first demographic models for South United Nations Programme on HIV part of this presentation included: Africa; the lack of some models to and AIDS (UNAIDS 2004) were • There are sufficient data points and validate their estimated AIDS and cited: time series of HIV data to extrapo- total deaths to recorded deaths; the • more than 5.3 million South late HIV data to estimates at the controversy around statistics caused Africans were HIV-positive at the population level with a high degree by AIDS dissidents; and a misunder- end of 2003; of confidence. standing of the statistics and the • AIDS is killing the population at a • There IS a large-scale epidemic of modelling process. rate of between 600 and 1,000 peo- HIV infection in South Africa. It is an incontrovertible fact, how- ple each day; • AIDS sickness and mortality statis- ever, that South Africa has an HIV • the country will have around two tics are still subject to many sources epidemic of massive proportions, of million AIDS orphans by 2010; and of uncertainty and error. In addi- which the impact will be felt by gen- • between 1,400 and 2,000 addi- tion, the positive impact of treat- erations into the future. It is impor- tional South Africans are becoming ment will now start to change the tant to acknowledge, however, that infected daily. profile of AIDS statistics continu- the country has developed consider- Without effective treatment for ously from a modelling and extrap- able local skills in quantifying the HIV and AIDS—i.e. without the olation point of view. extent of the epidemic. Efforts to comprehensive and systematic rollout • More rigorous AIDS treatment pro- argue about the data should be redi- of ARVs—the need to implement an grammes will now start to enhance rected more constructively towards urgent and appropriate public pro- the value of AIDS data significantly. dealing with and preventing the con- grammatic response is patently clear. • There is currently NO clear picture sequences of this massive pandemic. Examining the reasons why suc- of the real level of AIDS sickness A history of the political cessive South African governments and mortality in South Africa. management of the AIDS have failed in combating the HIV The battle over HIV and AIDS epidemic in South Africa 1982- pandemic, an inability to identity the 2005 statistics has developed in part as a true nature of the problem has been result of the differences between the This presentation addressed the issue identified as a root cause. The statistics produced by different AIDS of how successive polities in South National Party government regarded and demographic models. The two Africa have handled the HIV/AIDS HIV and AIDS primarily as a moral principal AIDS and demographic pandemic. Despite some good policy issue leading to an unwritten policy models currently being used to esti- plans, the principal problem with response steeped in a moralist dis- mate the current and future impact of both the former National Party gov- course rather than identifying and the HIV/AIDS epidemic on South ernment and the current government responding to the problem in bio- Africa are Spectrum and EPP, used by has been one of implementation. Fail- medical terms: according to the gov- UNAIDS and the ASSA2002 model ure of leadership to deal effectively ernment, those affected were homo- developed by South African actuar- with the problem has led to attempts sexuals, intravenous drug users, ies, which is based, in turn, on the by civil society to bypass the adminis- commercial sex workers and black Doyle model, the original actuarial tration by appealing to the courts to migrant workers, who could be model developed by Peter Doyle of enforce the implementation of regarded as aberrant members of the Metropolitan. declared AIDS policies. The rift population. However, when the virus The factors that have resulted in a between sectors of civil society trying began to affect those in what the gov- battle around HIV and AIDS statis- to deal effectively with the pandemic ernment regarded as ‘normal’ South tics in South Africa need to be under- and the government grows ever wider. African society, the growing epidemic stood to avoid similar debates in The root of the problem is seen as the became increasingly identified with countries where the epidemic is still failure of South African governments the black sector of society, thus serv- in its initial stages. These factors have to define the AIDS policy problem ing to racialise and politicise the epi- included: the differences between consistently and correctly. demic. The apartheid government estimates from the main AIDS and Statistics released by the Joint could use AIDS as an excuse to

72 Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 Pugwash Meeting No. 306 exclude foreign mine workers, and ceutical companies for continuing be seen as mutually exclusive but could throw the blame on liberation and increasingly disastrous projec- rather complementary. movements for infiltrating South tions of the prevalence of the virus. • Research should be conducted to African society with AIDS as a new Mbeki’s and his minister of health’s explore ways in which technical weapon. stubborn resistance to the empirically knowledge and discourses can be When it became obvious that proven scientific evidence surround- democratised to avoid the present HIV/AIDS was entering white South ing the virus and the pandemic, com- situation where the state seeks to African society as well, the govern- bined with an almost inexplicable exclude non-state policy actors ment gradually reconceptualised heel-dragging regarding the rollout of from exercising the right to make AIDS as a biomedical problem, creat- essential anti-retroviral treatment, statements on and define the very ing medical bodies and legislation to has led to nation-wide confusion and problem of AIDS policies them- facilitate a biomedical response to the delay. The policy problem remains selves. growing epidemic. In a rapidly firmly an area of contention and it There are, however, some chinks changing political landscape, with the would seem that the President and of light in the darkness of state institution of South Africa’s first the health ministry may become intransigence including moves by the democratic government and radical increasingly isolated even within the ministry of finance to bankroll constitutional changes looming, gov- broader governing alliance—the improved ARV rollout, evidence of ernment policy shifted to allow African National Congress—regard- increased capacity to provide essen- greater room for human rights-based ing policy and strategies to combat tial services in some of the provinces perspectives on the epidemic, culmi- the epidemic. Increasingly, sub- and local authorities, the successful nating in the formation of the national bodies (provincial and local bypassing of the highest and most National AIDS Co-ordinating Com- levels of government) are working intransigent by civil society in the cre- mittee of South Africa (NACOSA) with members of South Africa’s civil ation of programmes and infrastruc- and the accompanying process of society in an effort to ensure the roll- tures, and several new appointees 1992-1994, which led, in turn, to the out of treatment strategies. HIV and within the national health depart- drafting of the democratic National AIDS arguably constitute the most ment who appear to be committed to AIDS Plan (NAP) of 1994. politicised issues in South Africa accelerating measures to combat the But the National AIDS Plan today. spread of HIV and AIDS. proved to be over-ambitious and the Regarding the way ahead, there new Mandela government reverted to would seem to be three identifiable AIDS in Africa: a biomedical conceptualisation of the groups of issues requiring further three scenarios to 2025 AIDS policy problem. A series of pro- examination: Three scenarios were presented that found errors were made, including • The problem identification phase is were posited as a result of three the Virodene debacle (1997) and the an essential and under-valued step workshops involving UNAIDS, mishandling of the Sarafina II scan- in the process of AIDS policymak- UNDP, IBRD, ADB, ECA and Shell dal (1996), which effectively cor- ing and needs closer examination International’s Global Business Envi- rupted the AIDS policy environment. and resolution. ronment (GBE) Team. The three sce- When President Thabo Mbeki • A chasm has developed between the narios were based on the question took office in 1999, he exacerbated respective perspectives of the gov- “Over the next 20 years, what factors the situation by questioning the fun- ernment and AIDS civil society on will drive Africa’s and the world’s damental tenets of medical science. the most appropriate way forward responses to the AIDS epidemic, and His obdurate declarations denying for AIDS policy design: the govern- what kind of future will there be for proven medical and scientific findings ment is pushing for the continual the next generation?” In developing on HIV and AIDS forced politics to drafting of AIDS prevention strate- these scenarios, consideration had to enter the biomedical domain. Mbeki gies, and the TAC, in particular, is be given to how the crisis was per- re-conceptualised the problem largely emphasising the importance of ceived and by whom, and whether as a monetary issue, blaming the treatment strategies. AIDS preven- there would be both the incentive and profit motives of the large pharma- tion and AIDS treatment should not capacity to deal with it.

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Scenario One: HIV/AIDS and security: The US National Intelligence a case study of India Tough Choices: Africa takes a stand Council (USNIC) estimated that, by A story in which African leaders The final contribution to the work- 2002, there were between 5 and 8 choose to take tough measures that shop dealt with India’s response to million HIV-infected people in India. reduce the spread of HIV in the long HIV/AIDS. As an emerging power, The People’s Health Organisation in term, even if it means difficulties in India is faced with many obstacles Mumbai claims that infections are the short term. Leaders and commu- along the path to potential great doubling every 18 months to two nities come together. power status. One of the most urgent years and that it is possible that there and serious of these dangers is pre- are between 10 and 12 million HIV- Scenario Two: sented by the fact that there are positive people across the country Traps and Legacies: the whirlpool presently 5.1 million Indians infected today. A story in which Africa as a whole by HIV/AIDS translating to close to High-risk populations who are fails to escape from its more negative one per cent of the country’s adult acknowledged to be contributing to legacies, and AIDS deepens the traps population. the spread of the pandemic include of poverty, underdevelopment, and India has recognised that, in female sex workers and truckers, but marginalisation in a globalising terms of the progression of the pan- other carriers have also been identi- world. demic, it stands today where South fied. While strong social stigma Africa stood some fifteen years ago. makes accurate assessment impossi- Scenario Three: Similarities abound. The very small ble, there are reportedly high num- Time of Transition: Africa overcomes number of sentinel sites set up by the bers of homosexuals who are testing A story of what might happen if all National AIDS Control Organisation HIV positive. In addition, blood and of today’s good intentions were trans- across the country means that sur- blood products pose an additional lated into the coherent and integrated veillance is woefully inadequate in risk. The World Health Organisation development response necessary to India. Full-blown AIDS cases, people estimated in 1998 that up to one-fifth tackle HIV and AIDS in Africa. whose ages fall outside the grouping of all of India’s infections were due to of 15-49 years and sex workers are improperly screened blood and blood None of the African representa- not currently included in the surveil- products. Currently, Indian health tives supported any of the scenarios lance net, nor are those attending pri- authorities acknowledge that 8% of outlined above. vate hospitals, which cater for HIV infections are transmitted There was a fourth scenario approximately 80% of healthcare in through infected blood. dubbed “Mama Africa”, rooted in the country. There are also questions High population mobility and the the African experience, but it was dis- regarding the quality of HIV testing uneven sex ratio are further contribu- carded by the northern sectors of the standards. tory factors increasing the spread of team. While not perceived as entirely successful, there were key lessons that could be learned from this exer- cise. As part of the process, a clear need emerged to establish and main- tain legitimacy, to be honest about who the client is and about norma- tive agendas, to listen to the partici- pants, to respect them, to cultivate them as future champions, to locate the project in Africa and to be sensi- tive to North-South issues. Above all, there was a need to beware of cul- tural and intellectual arrogance.

74 Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 Pugwash Meeting No. 306

HIV/AIDS. Poor health facilities, par- countries such as Nepal are becoming to alternative and even violent ways ticularly among the rural poor, give strained under accusations that of securing their livelihood. further cause for concern. Nepalese migrant workers return Within the current Indian mar- Three principal factors were iden- home having contracted HIV while riage system, where caste, astrology tified that would transform employed in India. and dowry remain factors for consid- HIV/AIDS into a security threat to While there are no systematic and eration, HIV status is set to become a India: poverty, ignorance about the comprehensive studies to date detail- major issue . There are already moves disease and social stigma leading to ing the economic effects of a rapidly to draft legislation making HIV test- widespread denial. increasing HIV pandemic on India, it ing compulsory before marriage in India has in the region of 1.3 mil- is clear that the pandemic will have some states. lion military personnel who are an adverse impact on the Indian It is hoped that the South and deployed across wide swathes of the economy and productivity both in Southern African experience in country including in the north-east- the short term and in the long term. understanding, describing and com- ern regions where many Border Secu- There are particular social and bating HIV/AIDS (including the rity Force personnel are testing HIV cultural effects that may become evi- errors and inadequacies) may prove positive. Similarly, police personnel dent as the pandemic spreads useful signposts for those in India deployed in India’s metropolitan throughout India. It is possible that who are engaged in the fight against cities are considered to be high-risk HIV/AIDS, with the passage of time, the onslaught of the pandemic. populations. International peace- could produce yet another new and keeping forces are regarded as unique caste of “untouchables”. This 1 Pugwash meeting no. 291: responsible for spreading the virus could, in turn, provoke violence and http://www.pugwash.org/reports/ees/so among the population in their areas civil strife. A growing population of uth-africa-2004/south-africa-2004- of deployment. India, in turn, has a AIDS orphans would imbalance soci- workshop-report.htm commendable record of sending etal structures and security. Alienation 2 Pugwash meeting no. 297: troops to other countries on UN from their societies through stigma http://www.pugwash.org/reports/ees/so peacekeeping missions. and social shunning could also lead to uth-africa-2004/sa- Relations with neighbouring growing numbers of people resorting workshopreport.htm

Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 75 Pugwash Meeting No. 306

Participants

Dr Jeffrey Boutwell, Executive Director, Mr Happymon Jacob, Lecturer, Centre Dr J (Jayanti) Ravi, Deputy Secretary: Pugwash Conferences, 11 Dupont Circle, for Strategic and Regional Studies (CSRS) National Government of India (Indian NW, Suite 900, Washington, DC 20036, University of Jammu, Jammu and Kash- National Advisory Council), K-712 R K USA mir, India Puram, Sector 13, New Delhi –66, India

Prof Pierre Canonne, Retired; French Mrs Rieko (Suzuki) Kitaoka, researcher Dr Martin Rupiya, (Zimbabwe), Senior Pugwash, Pugwash Council, 16 rue des (Japan), 860 United Nations Plaza #29E, Researcher, Institute for Security Studies, Gentanes, F.39400 Morbier, France New York, New York 10017, USA Pretoria, South Africa

Ms Mary Crewe, Director of the Centre Professor Duard Kleyn, Dean: Faculty of Professor Robert Shell, Extraordinary for the Study of AIDS, University of Pre- Law, University of Pretoria, Pretoria professor in Historical Demography, Uni- toria, University of Pretoria 0002, South 0002, South Africa versity of the Western Cape, and/or: 7 Africa Gordon Street, Gardens 8001, South Ms Nyameka Mankayi, Psychologist, Africa Ms Desiree Daniels, Executive Manager: Military Academy, Private Bag X2 Sal- Metropolitan AIDS Solutions, Metropoli- danha 7395, PO Box 1598, Saldanha Ms Sandy Rowoldt Shell (Rapporteur), tan PO Box 2212, Bellville 7535, South 7395, South Africa Head: African Studies Library, UCT, 7 Africa Gordon Street, Gardens 8001, South Professor R A (Andy) Mogotlane, Vice- Africa Professor Nola Dippenaar, Chair of Principal (Health Sciences) University of South Africa Pugwash Group, Depart- Pretoria, Pretoria 0002, South Africa, Professor Hussein Solomon, Professor, ment of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, and/or: Box 216 Pyramid, Pretoria 0120 Director of CIPS and Deputy Chair of the University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0002, South African Pugwash Group, Depart- Professor M E Muller, Dean and Profes- South Africa ment of Political Sciences and Centre for sor in the Department of Political Sci- International Political Studies, University Mr Peter Doyle, CEO Metropolitan ences, Chair of the Pugwash Council, of Pretoria, Pretoria 0002, South Africa, Group, PO Box 2212, Bellville, 7535, Faculty of Humanities, University of Pre- and/or: 501 Lenchen Street, Erasmia South Africa toria, Pretoria 0002, South Africa 0183, South Africa Dr. Col. Cornelius Engelbrecht, Ms Nathea Nicolay, AIDS Solutions, Mr Gus Stewart, Director: Research HIV/AIDS Programme Manager, SA Metropolitan, AIDS Risk Consultant and Development and Policy Development Department of Defence (SADOD), PO Actuarial Specialist Metropolitan London School of Economics and Politi- Box 30103, Sunnyside 01321, South Employee Benefits, South Africa cal Science (LSE), Houghton Street, Africa Professor Gwyn Prins, Alliance Professor, London WC2A 2AE, United Kingdom Dr PP (Pieter) Fourie, Dept of Politics & Columbia University and London School Ms Sue Valentine, Director: Media Governance, University of Johannesburg, of Economics and Political Science (LSE), Program, Open Society Foundation (OSF PO Box 524, Auckland Park 2006, LSEAIDS, Room V912, Tower Two SA) and/or: PO Box 23161, Claremont and/or: 8 First Ave, Melville 2092, South Houghton Street, London WC2A 2AE, 7735, South Africa Africa United Kingdom Dr Lynne Webber, Clinical Virologist for Ms Lindy Heinecken, Deputy Director, Dr Peet Rautenbach, Acting Head: Lancet Laboratories, associate lecturer, Centre for Military Studies, Military Department of Community Health, Uni- University of Pretoria and Medunsa, Academy, Private Bag X2, Saldanha versity of Limpopo, Medunsa Campus, and/or: PO Box 39224 Garsfontein East 7395, and/or: PO Box 7, Saldanha 7395 PO Box 39224, Garsfontein East 0060, Pretoria 0060, South Africa South Africa South Africa

76 Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 SPECIAL REPORTS: Challenges to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Regime

PUGWASH MEETING NO. 304 WMD in the Middle East Cairo, Egypt, 29–30 January 2005

Weapons of Mass Destruction Elimination: n 29–30 January 2005 in Cairo, Pugwash partici- A Middle Eastern Perspective Opated with the Blix Commission on WMD in con- a joint meeting of the Weapons of Mass Destruction vening a meeting bringing together some 60 experts from the Middle East and internationally for informal discus- Commission chaired by Dr. Hans Blix, the Pug- sions of ways and means of promoting a WMD-free zone wash Conferences, the Egyptian Council on For- in the Middle East. Pugwash participants included Secre- eign Affairs, and the Friedrich Ebert Stiftung tary General Paolo Cotta-Ramusino, Executive Director Jeffrey Boutwell, and Council members Mohamed Kadry Said, Gen. Pan Zhenqiang (a member of the Blix Commis- sion) and Steven Miller.

Dr. Steven Miller, Dr. Tariq Rauf, Dr. Harald Mueller, and Amb. Abdel Moneim, Dr. Hans Blix, and Amb. Henrik Salander Dr. Dewi Fortuna Anwar

Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 77 PUGWASH TRIP REPORT International Conference on Nuclear Technology and Sustainable Development Tehran, Iran, 5-6 March 2005 And Visit to the Esfahan Nuclear Facility of the Atomic Energy Organization of Iran Esfahan, Iran, 7 March 2005

Report by Jeffrey Boutwell

nder the sponsorship and at the invitation of the Cen- Uter for Strategic Research (CSR) of the Expediency Council of the Islamic Republic of Iran, an International Conference on Nuclear Technology and Sustainable Development was held in Tehran from 5-6 March 2005, with the co-sponsorship of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Atomic Energy Organization of Iran (AEOI), and the Ministry of Science, Research and Technology. Given the controversy over the scope and ultimate aims of Iran’s nuclear program and activities, and the importance for regional and international security of resolving the challenges posed to the nuclear non-prolifer- ation regime by this controversy, the conference could not The conference consisted of four plenary and four have occurred at a more critical time. break-out sessions each for two working groups (one on Some 25 international experts attended the conference, Application of Nuclear Technology in Medicine, Industry which was presided over by Dr. Mahmood Vaezi of the and Agriculture, and the second on International Peace CSR, and which included the opening keynote address by and Security: Challenges and Threats), with more than 20 Dr. Hassan Rohani, Secretary of the Supreme National papers given by Iranian and international participants Security Council of Iran, and closing remarks from Ayatol- (including all four of the Pugwash participants). The con- lah Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani, Chairman of the Islamic ference was characterized by a very open and candid Republic of Iran’s Expediency Council. Also attending was exchange of views among all participants. Substantive dif- a diverse group of more than 40 Iranian participants, ferences of opinion over the nature, rationale and interna- including members of the government, scientists, acade- tional ramifications of Iran’s nuclear program were aired mics, researchers, and journalists. in both the plenary and break-out sessions, with the result Pugwash participants at the meeting included Prof. being a genuine dialogue. For more information on the Paolo Cotta-Ramusino (Secretary General), Dr. Jeffrey conference sessions and presentations, see the CSR confer- Boutwell (Executive Director), Dr. Steven Miller (co-chair ence website, www.ntsd.ir. of US Pugwash and member of the Pugwash Council), and The conference was widely covered by the interna- Prof. Saideh Lotfian (chair of Iran Pugwash and member tional media, some of whose reports can be accessed of the Pugwash Council). through the web links included with this report.

78 Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 ************** Much of the discussion focused on exploring ways that In addition to the conference sessions, Cotta-Ramusino, Iran can provide the transparency necessary to ensure the Boutwell and Miller were part of a 7-person group that international community that Tehran has no intention of met for almost two hours with Dr. Rohani during the lunch diverting materials from its civilian nuclear energy pro- break on March 6 for a wide-ranging discussion of Iran’s gram for potential military use. Dr. Rohani made it clear nuclear plans, the Iran-E3 negotiations (with UK, France, that Iran’s current suspension of uranium enrichment and Germany), US-Iran relations, the prospect of Iran’s activities is just that – temporary – and that Iran intends to resumption of uranium enrichment, and the ramifications follow through with a full civilian nuclear power program, of IAEA referral of the issue to the UN Security Council. including enrichment, as allowed by Article IV of the Non- Others in the group included George Perkovich and Joseph Proliferation Treaty. For this reason, he was particularly Cirincione (Carnegie Endowment for International Peace), interested in considering what additional measures of safe- Clifford Kupchan (Nixon Center) and Maurizio Martellini guards and transparency Iran could undertake to provide (Landau Network – Centro Volta). confident reassurance to other states about the peaceful

Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 79 character of Iran’s nuclear program. In this meeting there Iranians, most of whom have participated in several previ- was also much discussion of US-Iran relations. Most strik- ous Pugwash meetings, for a discussion with Cotta- ingly, Dr. Rohani explicitly regretted missed opportunities Ramusino, Boutwell, and Miller about strengthening the since the attacks of September 11 to improve Iran’s rela- Pugwash network in Iran and future Pugwash workshops tions with the United States. Participants discussed the in Iran on issues of Middle East and Persian Gulf security. possibility of future Pugwash and other NGO meetings in This group included Mahmood Vaezi (CSR), Ali Asghar Iran including participation by members of Congress or Soltanieh (Foreign Ministry), M.K. Sajjadpour (Ministry their staff, to which Dr. Rohani responded that he would of Foreign Affairs), Kayhan Barzegar (Islamic Azad Uni- certainly consider that possibility. versity), and Nasser Saghafi Ameri (CSR). Dr. Mustafa Zahrani (director of Institute of Political and International ************** Studies) was not able to attend due to other commitments. On March 7, Cotta-Ramusino, Boutwell, Miller and Lot- At the end of the informal discussion, Cotta-Ramusino fian were part of a group of some 15 conference partici- expressed his gratitude for the deep interest and enthusi- pants who were flown to Esfahan and given a six-hour asm shown by Prof. Lotfian and her colleagues for the tour of the Esfahan complex that includes the Esfahan wide range of Pugwash international activities. Nuclear Research Center, the Uranium Conversion Facility (UCF), and the Zirconium Production Plant. It is believed ************** that this tour of the Esfahan nuclear facility was the first The three days spent in Iran provided Cotta-Ramusino, ever by a group of international experts, apart from Boutwell, Miller and the other international participants inspections carried out by teams from the IAEA. with a unique opportunity to: (1) hear first-hand the eco- The group was given a briefing by the director of the nomic, development, and energy rationales underlying Nuclear Research Center, and then toured the two main Iran’s nuclear program from a wide variety of Iranian poli- parts of the facility: (1) the UCF, devoted to converting cymakers and scientists, and (2) convey to the highest uranium yellowcake to uranium hexafluoride (UFl6), Iranian authorities their concerns with the integrity of the whose operations Iran has currently suspended and which NPT and the fate of the international non-proliferation is under IAEA safeguards, and (2) the Zirconium Produc- regime. The international conference, the meeting with Dr. tion Plant, which will produce the zirconium claddings Rohani, and the trip to the Esfahan nuclear facility also which will house the enriched uranium fuel rods destined provided numerous opportunities for exploring ways of for Iran’s future civilian nuclear power plants when they strengthening transparency and confidence, through coop- become operational (the Bushehr 1000 megawatt reactor erative and multilateral measures, so that Iran’s nuclear is scheduled to come on line in late 2006, with initial fuel program can achieve its stated goal of providing energy provided by Russia). and economic development while also fulfilling Iran’s NPT The group had ample opportunity for discussion with and IAEA obligations. scientists and engineers at the Esfahan facility during the The Pugwash participants and all international partici- visit. pants expressed their gratitude and appreciation to CSR and their Iranian hosts for convening this extremely ************** important meeting and providing for the site visit to the Finally, the conference in Tehran also provided an Esfahan facility. Both were noteworthy for the atmosphere opportunity for Prof. Cotta-Ramusino to convene a meet- of open, frank and honest exchange of views that took ing of the Iranian Pugwash group. On Saturday evening, place during this critically important juncture in global March 5, Prof. Saideh Lotfian brought together a group of affairs.

80 Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 PUGWASH MEETING NO. 307 Pugwash Consultations on the 7th NPT Review Conference New York, New York, 7 May and 21 May 2005

Remember Your Humanity A Message from Professor Sir Joseph Rotblat Nobel Peace Laureate, with Pugwash, 1995 An Appeal to Delegates to the Seventh Review Conference of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty United Nations Headquarters, 2-27 May 2005, New York, New York, USA

am in my 97th year, and have been working for the abo- able instrument for maintaining peace in the world. But Ilition of nuclear weapons, and ultimately of war itself, this has been exactly our policy during, and after, the Cold for most of my working life. This year is also the year War. Nuclear weapons have been kept as a deterrent, to when we are celebrating the breakthrough achievements in prevent war by the threat of retaliation. physics of Albert Einstein, who was not only a great scien- For the deterrent to be effective, the threat of retalia- tist, but a great man of peace, and alongside whom, with tion must be real; we must convince the would-be aggres- others, in 1955, I signed the Russell-Einstein Manifesto, of sors that nuclear weapons would be used against them, which, I am the last surviving signatory. In the Manifesto otherwise the bluff would soon be called. George W. Bush, we posed a question: Vladimir Putin, or Tony Blair, must show convincingly that they have the kind of personality that would enable Here then is the problem which we present to you, them to push the button and unleash an instrument of stark and dreadful, and inescapable: shall we put wholesale destruction. I find it terrifying to think that an end to the human race: or shall mankind among the necessary qualifications for leadership is the renounce war? readiness to commit an act of genocide, because this is In 1955 we were at the height of the Cold War, with what it amounts to in the final analysis. Furthermore, by the two super powers of the time, the USA and the USSR acquiescing in this policy, not only the leaders but each of accumulating obscenely huge nuclear arsenals of ther- us figuratively keeps our finger on the button; each of us is monuclear weapons. Many of the warheads were kept on taking part in a gamble, in which the survival of human hair trigger alert – as they are today – increasing the possi- civilization is at stake. We rest the security of the world on bility of accidental war. On several occasions, in particu- a balance of terror. In the long run this is bound to erode lar, during the 1962 Cuban missile crisis, we came within a the ethical basis of civilization. hair’s breadth of a nuclear confrontation. With the devel- I am particularly concerned about the effect on the opment of nuclear weapons, Man has acquired for the young generation. We all crave a world of peace, a world first time in history, the technical means to destroy the of equity. We all want to nurture in the young generation whole of civilization in a single act. the much-heralded “culture of peace”. But how can we Morality is at the core of the nuclear issue: are we talk about a culture of peace if that peace is predicated on going to base our world on a culture of peace or on a cul- the existence of weapons of mass destruction? How can ture of violence? Nuclear weapons are fundamentally we persuade the young generation to cast aside the culture immoral: their action is indiscriminate, affecting civilians of violence, when they know that it is on the threat of as well as military, innocents and aggressors alike, killing extreme violence that we rely for security? people alive now and generations as yet unborn. And the It makes a mockery of the claim by George W. Bush consequence of their use might be to bring the human race that his anti-terrorist campaign is based on moral princi- to an end. All this makes nuclear weapons an unaccept- ples. What sort of morality is it that justifies military

Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 81 action against some states, because of their alleged posses- the NPT. In 1995, at the Indefinite Extension Conference, sion of nuclear weapons, while at the same time insisting promises were made to implement the NPT. The major on keeping these weapons for oneself, to be used like any states have broken those promises. In 2000, an “unequivo- other military implement, even in pre-emptive strikes? cal undertaking” toward elimination through a Pro- I do not believe that the people of the world would gramme of 13 Practical Steps was given. Now, the US is accept a policy that is inherently immoral and likely to end rejecting the commitments of 2000 and premising its in catastrophe. This year is the 60th anniversary of the aggressive diplomacy on the assertion that the problem of destruction, in 1945, of the two Japanese cities of the NPT lies not in the Nuclear States’ actions but in the Hiroshima and Nagasaki, which provoked a reaction of lack of compliance by regional states. revulsion, shared by the great majority of people in the Let us be clear: the Pugwash Movement and the whole world, including the United States. From the beginning, international community, nuclear and non-nuclear alike, nuclear weapons were viewed with abhorrence; their use are concerned about proliferation. Rigorous steps to con- evoked an almost universal opposition to any further use trol and cut off the supplies of nuclear materials must be of nuclear weapons. taken. But to gloss over the hypocrisy of the Nuclear On the international arena this feeling was expressed Weapons States, which are modernizing nuclear weapons when the General Assembly met for the first time in Janu- and ensconcing them in their ongoing military doctrines, ary 1946, when the first resolution adopted unanimously while urging abstinence on everyone else, is stunning. This was to seek the elimination of atomic weapons and all duplicity has caused the patience of many other states to other weapons of mass destruction. A later most impor- snap. They see a two-class world of nuclear haves and tant outcome of our realization of the danger of a nuclear have-nots becoming a permanent feature of the global catastrophe was the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty landscape. In such chaos, the NPT is eroding and the (NPT), which came into force in 1970. It has, by now, an prospect of multiple nuclear weapons states, a fear that almost universal acceptance, with 188 signatories, 98% of caused nations to agree on the NPT in the first place, is the UN membership. The NPT contains two major com- looming once more. mitments by its signatories: a) the non-nuclear weapon At this Seventh Review of the Non-Proliferation states undertook not to manufacture, or otherwise Treaty, it is vital for governments and people alike to rec- acquire, nuclear weapons; b), the five nuclear weapon ognize that the current crisis of international insecurity states—USA, USSR, UK, China and France, that had car- will not be resolved by anything other than a working sys- ried out nuclear tests by 1968—undertook, in Article VI, tem of collective security, as clearly envisaged in the to proceed in good faith, to nuclear disarmament. United Nations Charter, and as set out in the provisions of What have we seen since they agreed to this? Most the NPT. Science and technology have made the global recently, the States parties to the Non-Proliferation Treaty community interdependent – whether it is in matters of went to their third preparatory meeting for the 2005 communication, trade, global warming, or security. We all Review Conference of the Non-Proliferation Treaty. But have a common interest: survival. We have to move for- this meeting became paralyzed and broke down because of ward from a now outdated security system based on the intransigent position taken by the United States. While nuclear deterrence and alliances, to one based on coopera- abetted by the other Nuclear Weapons states, it was the tion and allegiance to humankind. In the words of the USA that led the attack on regional states, claiming that Russell-Einstein Manifesto: the NPT priorities should be directed to stopping the pro- There lies before us, if we choose, continual liferation of nuclear weapons, and that the problem of progress in happiness, knowledge and wisdom. their own compliance with Article VI was non-existent. Shall we, instead, choose death, because we cannot The leading non-nuclear weapons states claimed the exact forget our quarrels? We appeal, as human beings, opposite: the proliferation of nuclear weapons could not to human beings: Remember your humanity, and be stopped while the Nuclear Weapons States arrogated to forget the rest. If you can do so, the way lies open themselves the possession of nuclear weapons and refused to a new Paradise; if you cannot, there lies before to enter into comprehensive negotiations towards elimina- you the risk of universal death. tion as directed by the International Court of Justice. The present crisis is the worst in the 35-year history of Above all: Remember your humanity.

82 Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 PUGWASH MEETING NO. 307 Pugwash Consultations on the 2005 NPT Review Conference New School University, New York, NY, 7 May and 21 May 2005

n Saturday, May 7 and Saturday, May 21, during the progress towards the reduction and ultimately the elimina- OSeventh Review Conference of the Nuclear Non-Pro- tion of nuclear weapons, as called for when the NPT liferation Treaty held at the United Nations, Pugwash con- entered into force in 1970. vened two informal consultations to discuss progress, or The difficulties and even the possibility of a collapse of lack thereof, made during the Review Conference and the nuclear non-proliferation regime, the weakening of the whether positive outcomes for the non-proliferation taboos in place since 1945 on the use of nuclear weapons, regime might still be achievable. Pugwash is grateful to coupled with the dangers of a terrorist group detonating a Prof. Alan McGowan of New School University for help- nuclear explosive device, combine to produce a recipe for ing to provide a conference room for the discussions. Pug- potential unmitigated disaster. wash also thanks the participants listed at the end of this Despite the urgency of the threat and the gravity of section, who attended one or both of the meetings, for the situation, the lack of political will of some NPT states their time and effort in the search for ways of strengthen- parties to live up to their obligations under the Treaty ing the NPT and non-proliferation efforts. produced a deadlock and paralysis during the meetings in Following the disappointing conclusion of the NPT New York. Despite the best efforts of the NPT Review Review Conference, the Pugwash Council issued the state- Conference President, Amb. Sergio Duarte, and many oth- ment below. ers, the Seventh Review Conference actually represented a step back from the conclusions made at the two previous Statement of the Pugwash Council review conferences in 1995 and 2000. In particular the important conclusions of the 2000 review Conferences A critical moment for the Non Proliferation regime (the so called 13 steps), which have never been imple- 19 June 2005 mented, have not been even mentioned in any official doc- ument of the 2005 review Conference. The Council of the Pugwash Conferences on Science and For their part, the original nuclear weapons states (US, World Affairs is greatly concerned about the recent failure Russia, UK, France and China) have not lived up to their of the Seventh Review Conference of the Non-Prolifera- obligations under Article VI of the NPT to move decisively tion Treaty (NPT), held in New York in May, to deliver a toward the irreversible elimination of their nuclear arse- final document with concrete indications on how to

Sverre Lodgaard. Sergio Duarte, Jeffrey Boutwell and Tariq Rauf.

Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 83 nals. Such inaction invites charges of hypocrisy when these the loopholes that exist which allow countries which same countries seek to deny access to nuclear technologies develop full-cycle civilian nuclear activities to move more to non-nuclear weapons states, or – in the case of the easily towards developing nuclear weapon programs, and United States – continue to profess interest in developing by the continued presence and activities of three nuclear new nuclear weapons and possibly resume nuclear testing. weapons-states that exist outside the NPT. More broadly, the entire framework of nuclear Time is running out if a nuclear catastrophe is to be weapons disarmament is in danger of being swept away. averted. Political solutions are urgently needed to resolve Strategic arms control between the US and Russia is not those conflicts that either spawn international terrorism, progressing, the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) or increase the risk of the use of nuclear weapons or other has not entered into force, and serious negotiations have WMDs, or destabilize the Non-proliferation regime or all not even started on a Fissile Material Cut-off Treaty of these things combined. Global security must be based (FMCT) to eliminate production of weapons-grade Highly on international institutions and the rule of law rather Enriched Uranium (HEU) and plutonium. Moreover, too than on unilateral action and an excessive reliance on mili- little is being done to control and dispose of existing stock- tary force. piles of HEU that run the risk of falling into the hands of In the wake of the failure of the 2005 NPT Review terrorist groups. No attention is being paid to large num- Conference, the Pugwash Council calls on national gov- bers of tactical nuclear weapons that continue to exist in ernments, multilateral institutions, and international great numbers with no military rationale whatsoever, while NGOs to lead the international community away from a the deployment of weapons in space moves closer to reality. misplaced reliance on nuclear weapons, We need to under- Elsewhere, fundamental challenges to the nuclear non- stand the catastrophic dangers that await us if clear proliferation regime are posed by the withdrawal of North progress is not made to decisively reduce and eventually Korea from the NPT and its nuclear military program, by eliminate nuclear weapons.

Participants

Prof. Wa’el N. Al-Assad, Head of the Disarmament Department, Dr. Rebecca Johnson, Executive Director, The Acronym Institute The Arab League, Cairo, Egypt for Disarmament Diplomacy, London, UK

Cmde. C. Uday Bhaskar, Officiating Director, Institute for Amb. Wernfried Koeffler, Head of Department, Disarmament, Defence Studies & Analyses (IDSA), New Delhi , India Arms Control and Non-Proliferation, Federal Ministry of For- eign Affairs, Vienna, Austria Dr. Jeffrey Boutwell, Executive Director, Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs, Washington, DC, USA Mr. Sverre Lodgaard, Director, Norwegian Institute of Interna- tional Affairs (NUPI), Oslo Prof. Ana Maria Cetto, Deputy Director-General, International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), Vienna, Austria [formerly: Chair, Dr .Miguel Marin-Bosch, Member, Pugwash Council; Professor, Pugwash Executive Committee] Universidad Iberoamericana, México, D. F., Mexico Prof. Paolo Cotta-Ramusino, Secretary-General, Pugwash Con- Mr. Thomas Markram, Officer-in-charge, WMD branch of ferences on Science and World Affairs; Professor of Mathemati- DDA, United Nations, New York, NY cal Physics, University of Milan, Italy Prof. Alan McGowan, New School University, New York, NY Amb. Sergio Duarte (Brazil), President, 2005 NPT Review Con- Dr. Götz Neuneck, Member, Pugwash Council; Senior Fellow, ference Institut für Friedensforschung und Sicherheitspolitik an der Uni- Hamid Eslamizad, Mission of the Islamic Republic of Iran to the versität Hamburg (IFSH), Hamburg, Germany UN, New York, NY Lt.-Gen. (ret.) Talat Masood, Independent Columnist, Commen- Dr. Jozef Goldblat, Geneva, Switzerland tator and Analyst,Islamabad, Pakistan Hannelore Hoppe, Director and Deputy to the Under-Secretary- Mr. Enrique Ochoa, Second Secretary, Permanent Mission of General for Disarmament Affairs at the UN Department of Dis- Mexico to the UN, Geneva, Switzerland armament Affairs, United Nations, New York

84 Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 Ms. Ann Pollack, Permanent Mission of Canada to the UN, New Disarmament Affairs, New York; Scientific Adviser, Institute of York, NY International Politics and Economics, Belgrade, Yugoslavia Mr. Tariq Rauf (Canada), Head, Verification and Security Policy Prof. Siddiq Wahid, Maharaja Gulab Singh Chair, University of Coordination Section, Office of External Relations and Policy Jammu, Jammu, J&K State, India Coordination, International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), Mr. Alyn Ware, Coordinator, Parliamentary Network for Vienna, Austria Nuclear Disarmament, New Zealand Hon. Douglas Roche, former member, Senate of Canada, Jim Walsh, Executive Director, Managing the Atom Project, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs, JFK School of Dr. Juergen Scheffran, IANUS Institut für Kernphysik, Darm- Government, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, stadt, Germany Dr. Gunnar Westberg, Co-president of IPPNW, International Amb. Mohamed Shaker, Vice Chairman, Egyptian Council for Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War, Stockholm, Swe- Foreign Affairs (ECFA), Cairo, Egypt den

Dr. Waheguru Pal S. Sidhu, Professor of International Relations, Dr Nick Wilson, NGO Advisor to NZ Delegation to NPT International Peace Academy, New York, NY, USA RevCon, Chair of IPPNW (New Zealand Branch) Prof. John Simpson, University of Southampton, United Mr. Detlev Wolter, Counsellor, Permanent Mission of Germany Kingdom to the UN, New York, NY

Dr. Olga Sukovic, Freelance Consultant on Security and Disar- Mr. Jerzy Zaleski, Secretary General, NPT Review Conference, mament matters [formerly: Consultant, UN Department for Warsaw, Poland

ITALIAN PUGWASH GROUP

ISODARCO (International School on Disarmament and Research on Conflicts) 19th Winter Course—Andalo (Trento) Italy 8–15 January 2006 “The War on Terror: Results and Costs in Europe and Worldwide”

ISODARCO has been organizing residential courses on global security since 1966. The courses are intended for people already having a professional interest in the problems of international conflicts, or for those who would like to play a more active and technically competent role in this field. The courses have an interdisciplinary nature, and their subject matter extends from the technical and scientific side of the problems to their sociological and political implications.

For more information, contact: Prof. CARLO SCHAERF Department of Physics, University of Rome “Tor Vergata” Via della Ricerca Scientifica 1, I-00133 Rome, Italy Tel.: (+39) 06 72594560/1 — Fax: (+39) 06 2040309 E-mail: [email protected]; web: www.isodarco.it

Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 85 The 50-Year Shadow by Joseph Rotblat, London Published: New York Times, May 17, 2005 Also published in the International Herald Tribune

ifty years ago, I joined Albert Einstein, Bertrand Rus- human folly. The manifesto also highlighted the perils of Fsell and eight others in signing a manifesto warning of scientific progress in a world rent by the titanic struggle the dire consequences of nuclear war. This statement, the over communism. I was the youngest of the 11 signatories, Russell-Einstein Manifesto, was Einstein’s final public act. but Russell asked me to lead the press conference in Lon- He died shortly after signing it. Now, in my 97th year, I don to present the manifesto to the public. am the only remaining signatory. Because of this, I feel it is The year was 1955, and cold war fears and hostilities my duty to carry Einstein’s message forward, into this were at their height. We took action then because we felt 60th year since the destruction of Hiroshima and that the world situation was entering a dangerous phase, Nagasaki, which evoked almost universal opposition to in which extraordinary efforts were required to prevent a any further use of nuclear weapons. catastrophe. I was the only scientist to resign on moral grounds Now, two generations later, as the representatives of from the United States nuclear weapons program known nearly 190 nations meet in New York to discuss how to as the Manhattan Project. On Aug. 6, 1945, I switched on advance the Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty, we face the my radio and heard that we had dropped the bomb on same perils and new ones as well. Today we confront the Hiroshima. I knew that a new era had dawned in which possibilities of nuclear terrorism and of the development nuclear weapons would be used, and I grew worried about of yet more new nuclear warheads in the United States. the future of mankind. The two former superpowers still hold enormous nuclear Several years later, I met Bertrand Russell on the set of arsenals. North Korea and Iran are advancing their capa- the BBC Television program “Panorama,” where we dis- bility to build nuclear weapons. Other nations are increas- cussed the new hydrogen bomb. I had become an author- ingly likely to acquire nuclear arsenals on the excuse that ity on the biological effects of radiation after examining they are needed for their security. The result could be a the fallout from the American hydrogen bomb test in new nuclear arms race. Bikini Atoll in 1954. Russell, who was increasingly agi- Fifty years ago we wrote: “We have to learn to think in tated about the developments, started to come to me for a new way. We have to learn to ask ourselves, not what information. Russell decided to persuade a number of emi- steps can be taken to give military victory to whatever nent scientists from around the world to join him in issu- group we prefer, for there no longer are such steps; the ing a statement outlining the dangers of thermonuclear question we have to ask ourselves is: what steps can be war and calling on the scientific community to convene a taken to prevent a military contest of which the issue must conference on averting that danger. be disastrous to all parties?” That question is as relevant The most eminent scientist alive at that time was Albert today as it was in 1955. So is the manifesto’s admonition: Einstein, who responded immediately and enthusiastically “Remember your humanity, and forget the rest.” to Russell’s entreaty. And so the man who symbolized the height of human intellect adopted what became his last Joseph Rotblat, a physicist and emeritus president of the message—this manifesto, which implored governments and Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs, was the public not to allow our civilization to be destroyed by awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1995.

86 Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 NATIONAL PUGWASH GROUPS ARGENTINA

PUGWASH MEETING NO. 299

Second Regional Pugwash Workshop on Towards a Solution of Economic Inequities in Latin America and of their Social Consequences San Carlos de Bariloche, Argentina, 10–12 September 2004

Report by Darío D’Atri, Jorge Gil and Walter Scheuer

he Second Regional Workshop was held in San Carlos Tde Bariloche, Argentina, from September 10 to 12, 2004 within the frame of the Pugwash Study Group ‘Towards the Solution of Economic Inequities and their Social Consequences in Latin America’, thus continuing with the work begun at the First Workshop held in late from 1982 to ´84. He made important contributions to his May 2003. Like the previous workshop, this one was specific field of research – theoretical high energy physics – organized by ‘Bariloche Group for Science and World and directed the work of many students; he also had an Affairs’ (BACyAM Group) and made possible by the gen- active participation in the concretion of the Auger Project, erous support of ‘Pugwash Conferences on Science and an international observatory of extremely high energy cos- World Affairs’, Pugwash Netherlands, OSDE Foundation, mic showers, whose Southern Hemisphere Section is at Buenos Aires and the following Bariloche-based entities: present under construction in the Province of Mendoza, Hayland Travel, Puelo S.R.L., MYD Neumáticos and Bib- Argentina. During his last years he was Director of the lioteca Popular Sarmiento. Two participants from Brazil Latin American Centre for Physics (CLAF) where his term and one from The Netherlands, all three with extensive of office was about to expire. experience in Latin America social issues, met with Argen- While internationally known as a research physicist, he tine participants specializing in various socio-economic was for many years an active member of international and scientific-technological fields. movements which endeavour to reach world peace and The workshop was held in memoriam of Luis Masperi, especially the dialogue between scientists of different founder of the BACyAM Group, who passed away on nations as a contribution towards resolving international December 2, 2003. Internationally recognized for his bril- conflict. Among those movements, let us only mention the liant career, Luis also developed a deep and active commit- Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs and ment to human rights causes, total nuclear disarmament, the International Network of Engineers and Scientists for and the pursuit of world peace. A BACyAM Group mem- Global Responsibility (INES) of both of whose conduct- ber spoke the following words to commemorate him: ing bodies he also participated. Luis (“Luigi”) Masperi was born in Italy, and took his During the 1980´s he was an active participant in Ph.D. degree in physics at the Balseiro Institute in 1969. actions which led to the creation of ABACC, the bilateral At this Institute he also was a professor and later Director; Brazilian-Argentine body which set an end to the nuclear as well as Chairman of the Argentine Physical Society competition between these nations, an action for which he

Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 87 received the Forum Award from the American Physical ment, social inequality and political culture in Latin Society, jointly with Fernando de Souza Barros, Alberto America. Ridner and Luiz Pinguelli Rosa. He was also one of the • Identifying new laws to be proposed to Latin American organizers of APDH, the Permanent Assembly for Human countries in order to improve the quality of both State Rights in Bariloche, as well as a member (for the center- and private entities and reduce corruption. left Intransigent Party) of the legislative body which wrote • Identifying ways to foster the development of transpar- the municipal chart of this city. ent, informed grassroots organizations as well as com- Besides all his virtues as a scientist, researcher and munication channels between citizens and the Executive organizer, Luis was a man of deeply felt convictions about and Legislative Powers. the potential for the moral progress of human beings, In contrast to the First Workshop on Social Inequity, among which he firmly believed that to put the results of which focused solely on the diagnosis of the socio-eco- scientific research at the service of warfare and the inter- nomic and institutional situation in Latin American coun- ests of political and economical groups was deeply tries, the debates at this Second Regional Workshop immoral. focused on the search for concrete proposals for both eco- nomic scenarios and institutional areas. During the First ************** Workshop, the debates were strongly influenced by the This report contains seven sections summarizing the issues shock wave created by the crisis in Argentina, which addressed during the workshop. The text is the sole began in late 2001, exponentially increasing the rates of responsibility of the authors. Further information on the poverty, underprivilege, mistrust of institutions and politi- Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs, the cal instability. At this Second Workshop, the debates Study Group, The First Regional Workshop, the BACyAM addressed Latin America as a whole, compared Latin Group, texts of the papers discussed during the workshop America to other parts of the world, and included totally and papers submitted by other people who had been new issues such as the connection between political cul- invited but were unable to attend due to previous engage- ture, historical conditioning factors and the struggle ments or last-minute difficulties, are available at against social inequity. www.bacyam.com.ar. 1. Evolution of the panorama of social and Introduction. economic inequity in Latin America as from early 2003. The Second Regional Workshop “Towards the Solution of Economic Inequities and their Social Consequences in At this first session, participants reviewed recent historical Latin America” focused on seven key issues: antecedents, which were said to be key in causing and sus- • Analyzing how the panorama of social and economic taining inequitable conditions. In fact, the maintenance of inequity has evolved in Latin America, over a year dur- the so-called Washington Consensus policies (which ing which there were processes of economic and institu- involve reducing the role of the State and implementing tional recovery in several countries (Argentina, Brazil, economic aperture and liberalization of market activity) Venezuela), but also a hard struggle among political-eco- was singled out as one of the main factors causing nomic paradigms after the crises ensuing the experiences inequity. of the 90s. Some of the major changes following the economic • Discussing the recent evolution of the problems created and social crises that have affected Latin America in recent by the large foreign debts which are restricting the econ- years were identified as follows: omy in the main countries in the region. • Following Mexico’s 1994 “Tequila” crisis, there were • Assessing possible Latin American policies for the inte- financial cracks in different emerging countries in the gration of their scientific-technological fields, as a tool to region, as a result of the sudden halt in massive financial revert the present predominance of primary economic capital flows towards them. These countries had been activities. using these foreign funds to finance increasing public • Analyzing investment processes in Latin America, as a expenditure and feed the growth of their economies, and tool for growth and development. the sudden stop caused not only financial crises, but also • Discussing the relationship between human develop- a domino effect on countries in similar circumstances.

88 Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 • Neo-conservative style policies suffered a sudden loss of • Insecurity due to crime. social legitimacy and consensus, due to the rapid, sus- • Labor insecurity. tained increase in the indices of poverty, underprivilege • Social insecurity of millions of needy people. and inequity in the sharing of national income, as well as • Insecurity regarding property rights. decline in the quality of education and health services It was also maintained that the central countries have and, above all, the widespread loss of jobs. promoted asymmetrical demands regarding compliance • International context defined by the bursting of the 90s with the Washington Consensus policies, making them financial bubble, which increased the economic cost to more lenient for themselves in contrast to the demanding be paid by emerging countries. level of compliance required from developing countries, • Civil unrest and riots in several Latin American coun- e.g. concerning required fiscal surplus or deficit levels. tries, while their governments were putting a lot of effort Nevertheless, objections were voiced against the for- into changing the ideological orientation of their social- mer, overly structuralistic view of the causes of inequity. economic policies. One participant said that the phenomenon of inequality is • Upholding of the core of the Consensus policies, though too complex to be analyzed by means of a political agenda toned down by mistrust of the essential Consensus para- alone, because it would risk limiting the understanding of digm, which is the need to reduce – or directly limit as the problem of social inequality to a cause-and-effect rela- much as possible – the role of the State. tionship, i.e., bad government policies generate inequality. Within this context, it was agreed that the main Latin Equally, from this standpoint, the participant said that American governments clearly seem to have taken the the most needy sectors discuss their rights outside the tra- political decision to increase public expenditure, which ditional juridical, political and economic scope, with would be directed firstly at assuaging the consequences of regard to the meaning of their own rights to work, social poverty and inequity in income, and secondly, at recover- inclusion, education, etc. The participant summed up this ing the State’s directive role in the frame of highly de-regu- point of view by proposing to discuss whether a certain lated market economies. juridical or political order would be certain to guarantee It was also agreed that one of the gravest, though not the achievement of equality targets. immediate, consequences of the implementation of the so- Clearly different explanations of the origin of inequal- called Washington Consensus policies has been the expo- ity and inequity were put forward for different countries. nential rise in levels of insecurity, which can be classified as: In Argentina, social inequality is closely linked to the his-

Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 89 torical sequence determined by systematic processes of which the discussion of growth models has fallen, in social exclusion. In contrast, in Brazil and Bolivia, the order to establish more solid bases for sustained devel- processes of inequality have occurred within the frame- opment. work of certain historical sequences determined by • Proposing that the United Nations create institutional processes of limited social inclusion. mechanisms to supervise both private and public lenders, Another participant proposed to consider these mat- as well as credit takers. ters as key to understanding that it is impossible to estab- In addition, it was suggested that a deep analysis lish a direct relationship between economic growth and should be recommended regarding the conditions under the reduction of inequality, given the historical factors that which Latin American debts were contracted, as well “genetically” impinge on inequality in each country in whether or not they are legitimate, in order to define how Latin America. and to whom payment should be made. It was also pro- Finally, it was suggested that there is a need to propose posed that the International Court of The Hague should that both government and non-government organizations be consulted as to whether it is legal for the IMF to should implement active policies in order to foster social attribute itself faculties to interfere with the policies and inclusion, which is a major problem in Latin America, and economics of developing countries: Latin American coun- to revert the recent exclusion processes. tries should demand that IMF action be in keeping with its 2. Recent evolution of issues related to own statutes. foreign debt. One participant said that it is impossible to solve the Due to the fact that Latin American countries are so heav- debt problem based on juridical arguments, because it is a ily indebted, with some of them even having defaulted on political problem which needs to be resolved politically. To their foreign debts (like Argentina, Ecuador or Uruguay), this end, the participant proposed the creation of a multi- it was suggested that the region is at a crossroads for national Latin American organization to study foreign defining long-term courses of action. Within this frame- debts and coordinate policies. work, it was said, policies addressing foreign debt are cru- At the same time, the authorities of most of the coun- cial to Latin American countries because debt is a major tries in the region were criticized for excluding – or accept- conditioning factor. ing the exclusion of – Congress (Senators and/or Represen- It was also recalled that despite some signs of self-criti- tatives) from the discussion of the foreign debt. According cism regarding events that occurred during the 90s, inter- to the Constitutions of most of these countries, the Leg- national credit organizations and the G-7 countries main- islative Power is in charge of dealing with foreign debt. tain a general stance of fiscal inflexibility towards 3. The present predominance of primary activities emerging countries. They uphold a double standard, in Latin American economies and its relationship requiring developing countries to implement policies with scientific-technological integration and which are the opposite of those implemented in central cooperation in the region. countries. It was added that the same kind of asymmetry At this session, different situations in Latin American occurs regarding debt renegotiation, with international countries were described, to show how strongly they are finance organizations pressing for better repayment terms, conditioned by technological dependence, lack of ade- while they ignore the sustainability of the programs imple- quate legislation, and the fact that both governments and mented to overcome the defaults. companies underestimate the role of local and regional The following proposals were made to address the developments in science and technology. A summary of issue of foreign debt: the points and proposals made, follows: • Defining negotiation formulas with more adequate eco- • In the particular case of Argentina, even during the years nomic policies, which would not condition growth in the when local industry was booming, little interest has ever medium or long term. been shown in taking advantage of local scientific and • Creating cooperation among countries to enable them to technological capacity. Furthermore, despite some cases improve their position in negotiations, e.g. through of cooperation and transfer among countries in the MERCOSUR. region, there has never been massive technology transfer • Endeavoring to get out of the ideological traps into within Latin America.

90 Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 • As from the 70s, there has been a steady return to pri- directly affecting the processes of social inclusion and re- mary economic activity. At the same time, education at inclusion based on finding employment for the jobless. all levels has undergone serious deterioration. Argentina was mentioned as an example. After its • In Latin America it is essential to: spectacular 2003 – 04 recovery, its installed production - determine what policies each country will follow in capacity is being used very intensively, which, in turn, order to start up processes of industrialization or re- requires the encouragement of the investment processes in industrialization, based on the contributions of order to guarantee sustained growth. In 2002 there had national science and technology. been record low investment in Argentina, with only 11% - promote the intelligent use of Government purchasing of GDP. During the second semester 2003, investment power, in order to foster the relationship between level was similar to what it had been during the 80s, with industry and local science and technology and promote the consequent risk of repeating the kind of stagnation local development of internationally competitive tech- that occurred in those days. It was stated that in Argentina nology in fields where there is high added value. today, investment is 960 pesos per inhabitant, in contrast - give preference to regional industrial production over to the 60s, when it was 1023 pesos, with peaks of 1600 imported goods when quality and prices are equal, but pesos per inhabitant. Of the present 960 pesos, only 100 avoiding the kind of overprotection of non-competitive are government investment. industry that took place in previous decades. Secondly, it was pointed out that a problem Argentina - encourage greater Latin American integration in the shares with most other Latin American countries, is the field of science and technology, particularly regarding fact that people are not trained to acquire knowledge, its connections with industrial activity. In particular, which affects the possibility of future growth. For exam- exploit the potential for closer integration and coopera- ple, in Buenos Aires Province alone, between 2001 and tion between Brazil and Argentina in the area of highly 2002, enrollment at schools fell by 16%. Chile is con- specialized technology, such as space technology and fronting this problem by paying unemployment subsidies nuclear technology. only to people whose children attend school morning and - develop each country’s biotechnological capacity in afternoon. order to achieve a relative reduction of their depen- One participant proposed to use tax policy and public dence on central countries. expenditure policy as tools to solve the problem of - explore the possibility of developing technology to pro- inequity. duce systems for controlling corruption. It was also proposed to encourage State’s themselves to • Due to its own way of handling things, the Free Trade plan better resource allocation. Area of the Americas (FTAA) would prevent several of In addition, it was said that international credit organi- the above proposals, e.g. the intelligent use of Govern- zations should be encouraged to change the way they ment purchasing power aimed at overcoming a country’s account for government investment in education and economy being limited to primary production, which, in infrastructure, which should no longer be considered as addition to perpetuating unfavorable exchange terms, government expenditure subject to fiscal adjustment, but cannot create the number of jobs needed to overcome as investment. Nevertheless, one participant maintained the crisis in underprivilege and unemployment. that in terms of social research, there is no consensus on whether education is actually increasing social mobility, 4. Analysis of investment processes in Latin thus reducing social inequality, or whether, on the con- America as a factor affecting growth and development. trary, it is reproducing or at least maintaining social inequality. The overall situation of investment in Latin America was analyzed, both because investment has slowed down as a 5. Human development, social inequality and result of changes in the international context, and because political culture in Latin America. investments do not necessarily increase job availability. The main point discussed at this session of the Second One of the key factors in reducing unemployment is Workshop was that until a few years ago, it was believed that wealth should have a high growth rate. In view of that growth was related to development. However, the this, the obstacles to investment were analyzed as factors struggle against poverty in Latin America today calls for

Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 91 immediate solutions, which means that the situation less, it was considered that the growth phase that regional should be tackled from a different political standpoint. economies have been undergoing since 2003 offers an Thus, it was recalled that during the period when opportunity for Latin American countries as long as the importation was undergoing regional substitution, the rise model for economic growth and development is being in GDP was associated with industrialization, which, in reconsidered, taking into account the incapacity of capital- turn, led to a reduction in poverty and social inequality. ism to create jobs. However, it was added, poverty and exclusion are cur- 6. Identification of laws and regulations that rently rising due to changes in the rules of capital accumu- should be introduced into Latin American lation, which have brought about changes in economic countries in order to improve the quality of their growth and the balance of power relations within society. institutions and reduce corruption. There is more inequality in Brazil, for example, than in This session focused on highlighting the fact that the main other much poorer countries; only Botswana rivals Brazil problem in most Latin American countries is not that they in terms of inequality. lack of adequate legislation for improving institutional Some participants pointed out that in spite of this situ- quality and the struggle against corruption, but the fact ation, sharing concentrated social benefits more fairly is that these laws are regularly broken. not a top priority for Latin American politicians nor does One participant claimed that foreign pressure on the public opinion believe it to be essential. Both politicians Legislative Powers to pass laws responding to interests and the public believe that an increase in available alien to the needs of a country creates distortions which resources would be more effective. Focusing on the prob- are a form of corruption. He added that when a Legisla- lem of inequality and inequity from a purely economic tive Power passes regulations free from any kind of pres- standpoint was therefore criticized. It was said to limit the sure, there may be a direct positive effect against the appreciation of the complexity of the problem, inevitably causes of social and economic inequity, e.g. by passing leading to the belief that it can be solved by means of eco- laws establishing direct, progressive taxation. nomic growth alone, without considering the cultural and Another participant added that lack of regulations is historical background. not what prevents corruption from being tackled, because Towards the end of the session, the following points the main regulations that should enable the democratic were proposed for an agenda to discuss and analyze the system to be improved are in force. Nevertheless, he con- issue of social inequity and inequality: sidered that further regulations should be added so that • Social development and social inequality are not sys- the mandates of public representatives could be repealed. temic, generalizable variables; their proper study It was also said that Latin American Legislative Powers requires to relate them historically. should address the problem of tax evasion in the frame- • It is necessary and better to apply several models for work of tax legislation. It was pointed out that in development and several models against inequality than Argentina the Supreme Court has jurisprudence to tackle to use a single approach. the various means by which multinational companies • The struggle against inequality is not limited to a mere avoid paying income tax, such as self-loans, intercompany exercise in economic policy, it is an intellectual and polit- purchase of technology and others. ical challenge. It was also mentioned that delegating faculties corre- • Rhetoric should be left aside, and an analysis carried out sponding to the Legislative Power in the Executive Power regarding what kind of public policies produce the best is a form of corruption, and that emergency decrees are a results in the fight against inequality. For example, issu- means of encroaching on the Legislative Power and facili- ing magnetic cards to persons receiving social assistance tate corruption in institutions which already have a high would eliminate the political cost associated to political level of systemic corruption. clientelism. A participating economist pointed out that if Argentine • Policies to reinforce civil society are needed. tax legislation were comparable to tax legislation in coun- One of the participants wondered whether inequality tries like the USA regarding taxes paid by companies, can in fact be reduced, even when there is political deci- Government revenue would increase and several methods sion to do, given the context of job destruction. Neverthe- of tax evasion used by companies would be stopped.

92 Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 It was also proposed to establish very precise regula- institutions, communities or associations) and (c) via the tions regarding how much money political parties should via the citizen-State relationship. be allowed to spend on election campaigns, and that the The participant added that this quotidian acquisition State should subsidize campaign expenses, to allow equal thus takes place in an institutional environment compris- opportunities to all parties and limit campaign expendi- ing economy, State, society and culture. As its scope is so ture. wide, there were said to be various courses of action to At the same time, it was recognized that in most coun- confront the inequalities and inequities manifested in the tries there is no political decision to implement mecha- quotidian non-acquisition of the needy. Particularly, with- nisms that would enable grassroots representation to be out effective governableness, there can be no justice and improved. inequity cannot be tackled, and without respect for human rights, no actor, company, institution or State can be legiti- 7. Identification of ways to foster the mate. development of transparent, informed grassroots organizations and channels of communication Another participant suggested looking at the processes between citizenship and the Executive and of achieving and establishing democracy in two stages: Legislative Powers in Latin America. • A first stage during which democracy should be sought During the final session at the Second Workshop, an and consolidated, after authoritarian or dictatorial analysis was made of how to create transparent grassroots regimes. organizations that could generate specific proposals for • A second stage during which democracy should be criti- tackling inequality and exclusion. cized and improved upon, so that it evolves from a for- The need to create movements that could transform mal democratic model to a democracy able to renew society was stressed. Equally, it was pointed out that in party leadership and party democratization. Argentina at least, the defect of the prevailing productivist It was also stated that within this framework, the fol- model is that it does not include adequate corrections to lowing points are key: prevent the social consequences it causes. The challenge is • Grassroots organizations should work as “citizen watch- therefore how to influence economic and political deci- dogs” capable of carrying out “democratic auditing” sion-makers, particularly in the State, so that their deci- and pointing out flaws in the workings of democracy. sions are conducive to confronting inequality. • The concept of citizenship should be redefined so that it One participant introduced the concept of “quotidian implies: (a) a recovery of citizen rights; (b) a continuous acquisition” as a means of understanding the processes of follow-up of how social institutions work (e.g. the inequality. The term refers to the demands and activities prison system), and (c) the involvement of the media to arising from a set of entitlements (property, contracts, etc.) broadcast the results of these continuous auditing and a set of responsibilities which the State cannot processes. renounce without a severe further loss of social equity and • Overcoming poverty and exclusion, a problem that will quality of life of vast sectors of the population (e.g. health take time to solve and requires social leaders who are and education). Entitlements are classified according to better prepared to question the economic decisions taken whether they are accessed (a) directly (such as jobs and by companies and the State. property), (b) indirectly (such as those acceded through

Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 93 ISYP Report on International Student/Young Pugwash

to the younger generation. Two such seminars have taken Report place over the past year. In December 2004, ISYP, in collab- by Arthur Petersen and Juan Pablo Pardo-Guerra oration with El Colegio de Mexico, organized a small semi- nar on the future of nuclear proliferation in Mexico City. n the first half of 2005, International Student/Young Panelists included Prof. Francesco Calogero and Ambas- IPugwash (ISYP) achieved significant progress in several sador Miguel Marin-Bosch. Then, in May 2005, the Stu- of its projects. First of all, the ISYP Board, together with dent Pugwash group in the UK hosted a seminar on geneti- Ms. Wakana Mukai from Japan, undertook to organize cally modified organisms with Prof. Elena Alvarez-Buylla, the ISYP Hiroshima conference as part of the 55th Pug- member of the Mexican Pugwash Group. We expect to wash Conference on Science and World Affairs. expand these seminars in the future in close collaboration In January 2005, the first issue of the new internation- with the other members of the Pugwash community. ally peer-reviewed journal ISYP Journal on Science and Finally, in terms of the structure of its organization and World Affairs went online (see www.student- Board membership, ISYP has seen some changes recently. pugwash.org/journal). We have benefited from the strong At the 2004 Seoul conference, several changes in the legal involvement of several Pugwash Council members and structure of ISYP were proposed, which were later other seniors in providing us with advice and performing accepted by the General Assembly. These changes made reviews on papers. The substance of the second issue is the statutes, by-laws and Board election guidelines more ready pending final editorial processing. A grant proposal consistent both with each other and with practice. Fur- has been prepared and will be sent to the Netherlands thermore, Jeffrey Boutwell replaced Sir Joseph Rotblat as Ministry of Foreign Affairs for producing and distributing advisory member in the ISYP Board. The current Board a printed edition of the journal, in the form of yearbooks. composition is the following: Juan Pablo Pardo-Guerra, The Global Seminar Network was created as a means to Mexico (Latin American seat), Chairperson; Arthur introduce students throughout the world to the topics and Petersen, Netherlands (unrestricted seat), Treasurer; Ben- perspectives of the Pugwash community. Taking advantage jamin Rusek, USA (North American & Australian seat), of the high mobil- Secretary; Moira ity of the Pugwash Goodfellow, Canada community (many (unrestricted seat); of whom are Rian Leith, South involved in acade- Africa (African seat); mic activities and Magdalena travel extensively Kropiwnicka, Italy throughout the (European seat); world), we have Nagappan organized a net- Parasuraman, India work of seminars (Asian seat); and which enable the Jeffrey Boutwell, transmission of USA (advisory mem- the expertise of ber from Pugwash the broader Pug- Council). wash community

94 Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 PUGWASH HISTORY PROJECT Pugwash History Update By Sandra Ionno Butcher

he Pugwash History Project is well underway. sentation to the report, which I will make available by the In May, the new Pugwash History Series was end of the summer. This presentation will be designed as T launched with its first publication, a piece I wrote an “instant event” for anyone wishing to hold a small on “The Origins of the Russell-Einstein Manifesto.” This group discussion on the Manifesto’s history. 35-page report sets the backdrop for the Manifesto, high- Research has begun on the second scheduled publica- lighting the steps Joseph Rotblat, Bertrand Russell, and tion for this Pugwash History Series, which will focus on others took to make the public aware in the 1950s of the the role that Pugwash played during the Vietnam War. dangers involved with the new hydrogen bombs. The This summer, we are lucky to have the help of two tal- report describes in detail the behind-the-scenes discussions ented interns in the Washington, DC office, Ben Towbin occurring between some of the world’s leading scientists as (Cornell University) and Rob Boutwell (Harvard Univer- they sought to find a way to capture the public’s attention, sity, and Jeffrey Boutwell’s nephew) who are making con- ultimately agreeing to the elegantly worded Manifesto. siderable use of the US National Archives to help locate Pugwashites know that signing this Manifesto was the last additional primary source documents. We have appreci- public act of Einstein’s life. This report provides greater ated the advice of experts such as Steven Aftergood at the detail into the making of the Manifesto, provides quotes Federation of American Scientists and William Burr at the and some biographical information about the signatories, National Security Archives. and discusses the media strategy Jeffrey Boutwell is supervising involved with the Manifesto’s this project, and we have both been launch. It contains a foreword heartened by the increasing dia- by Joseph Rotblat, reinforcing logue within the Pugwash commu- the continued relevance of the nity on historical matters. We Manifesto in today’s nuclear encourage Pugwashites around the world. (This report is available world to share with us any online at www.pugwash.org or resources or personal experiences contact one of the Pugwash that you think are relevant to the offices for a hard copy.) In addi- historical research. We always tion, I am currently working on appreciate receiving copies of any a companion PowerPoint pre- related publications. [email protected]

Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 95 IN MEMORIAM

Ruth Adams signing a Commemorative Edition of the Russell-Einstein Manifesto for Thinker’s Lodge, Pugwash, Nova Scotia, July 2004

Ruth Salzman Adams 1923–2005

uth Salzman Adams, of Chicago, Washington, Basalt, attachment to the Student Pugwash movement). In the RColorado, and more recently San Diego, succumbed later decades of the Cold War she frequently had a facili- peacefully to cancer at her home on Friday evening, Febru- tating role in maintaining the flow of policy-oriented com- ary 25, 2005 in the loving company of her husband of 51 munication and understanding on nuclear issues between years, Robert McC. Adams, daughters Gail Lorien, Beth senior Western and Soviet scientists. Skinner, and Megan Adams, and grandchildren Nico and The breadth of her concurrent activities is suggested by Gabi Herbst and Reese Adams-Romagnoli. the following: Former Chair of the Institute for Policy Born July 25, 1923, she first entered the labor force in Studies; former Trustee, Rocky Mountain Institute; former 1942 as recreation director in a wartime Oregon shipyard Board member, Council for a Livable World; former (and was terminated after organizing an interracial dance). Council member, Federation of American Scientists; for- A profoundly generous and caring person as well as a mer Executive Director or the Illinois American Civil Lib- principled mover-and-shaker in many non-governmental erties Union; former Organizing Committee and Govern- organizations, her field of action was worldwide. Fellow, ing Board member of the International Centre for Insect American Academy of Arts and Sciences, her edited and Physiology and Ecology in Nairobi, Kenya; former Visit- co-edited books include works on human migrations, the ing Scholar, Institute on Global Conflict and Cooperation, anti-ballistic missile, and contemporary China. At the time University of California, San Diego; former Board mem- of her death she was a Board member, Trust for Mutual ber, Women’s National Forum, the Chicago Network. Her Understanding and the Maki Foundation; and a course numerous awards include the Public Service Award of the director and consultant to the Italian School on Disarma- Federation of American Scientists, the Adlai Stevenson ment and Research on Conflict (ISODARCO). Formerly Award for International Human Understanding of the she had been Program Director for Peace and Interna- United Nations Association, and the Forum on Physics tional Cooperation of the John D. and Catherine T, and Society Award of the American Physical Society. MacArthur Foundation; and prior to that Editor, Bulletin Ruth Adams followed her own, entirely original calling of the Atomic Scientists. She was an original (1957) and and path. We hope and expect, as she did, that others will continuing participant in the Pugwash International Con- continue to do the same. ferences on Science and World Affairs (with a special —Bob Adams

96 Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 PROFESSOR SIR JOSEPH ROTBLAT FRS 8 Asmara Road, West Hampstead, London NW2 3ST tel/fax: 020.7435.1471 email: [email protected]

26 November 2004

Dear Ruth,

I should have written to you much earlier, soon after you were presented with the devastating diagno- sis, but I postponed writing for this very reason: I did not know how to express my feelings without sounding euphemistic or offering anodyne. In place of this, I want to share with you my thoughts about myself.

At 96, and after a stroke and heart condition, my days are obviously numbered, and I am bound to give some thought to my exit.

I have a tremendous respect for human life. To me, every human being is a miracle; the outcome of an infinite number of changes over billions of years, all the time improving this wondrous creature. But as a physicist, I have to acknowledge the laws of nature about the inexorable rise of entropy, which means that the life of each individual is finite. I have accepted this fact, and learnt to live with it, but I have two worries about the exit. One is that it should not be prolonged, in particular that I do not become a burden to those who care for me. The other is of a more fundamental nature: has my life been worth living? Looking back at it dispassionately, I think that the answer is ‘Yes’. I hope that those who know me will agree.

I have spent the second half of my life on efforts to ensure the continuation of human life on this planet, and although my objectives, both short-term and long-term, have not yet been achieved, I believe that I have contributed a little towards their achievement.

From what I know of your own life, Ruth, the same applies to you.

With all my love,

Jo

Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 97 Ruth Salzman Adams By Jeffrey Boutwell

y wife Sara and I had the good fortune in July 2003 during the 53rd Pugwash Con- Mto attend the memorial service for ference, Ruth stood on the porch at Thinker’s Ruth Adams held on April 10 at the home of Lodge in Pugwash, Nova Scotia and remi- Harle Montgomery in La Jolla, California, nisced, with Jo Rotblat at her side, about her where Ruth and Bob had been living for sev- 46 year involvement with Pugwash which eral years. The venue, overlooking the began at that very same family home of Pacific Ocean that Ruth used to walk along Cyrus Eaton. with her dogs on so many occasions, was a These two Pugwash conferences, the last wonderful reminder of the 52nd Pugwash two that Ruth attended, symbolized all that Conference held at UC, San Diego in August she contributed to the success of Pugwash 2002 that Ruth was instrumental in helping to organize. through the years: her bedrock commitment to peace and During the conference, Ruth and her good friend Harle justice for all peoples, her delight in engaging younger arranged a social occasion at the Montgomery house for people in lively debates about how we all need to do more members of the Pugwash Council and the 30 or so inter- to reach those goals, and her sparkle and vitality in touch- national Student/Young Pugwash members attending the ing everyone she met. Ruth will be missed, sorely, but conference. This gathering epitomized Ruth’s passionate those qualities of hers will always be with us. conviction for bringing together the next generation of sci- entists and policy analysts with their more ‘senior’ Pug- Jeffrey Boutwell is Executive Director of the Pugwash wash colleagues in order to ensure the continued vitality Conferences on Science and World Affairs and relevance of the Pugwash community. The next year,

Ruth Adams Memorial Service May 22, 2005 • Fulton Recital Hall • University of Chicago Remarks by Kennette Benedict

uth Adams was ambitious for the world. She believed where questioning was a way of being. She inspired all of Rthat we could live together without violence, cooper- us to be better than we could possibly be because she was ating to solve problems, delighting in our differences, and ambitious for the world. enjoying ourselves in the company of one another. She Ruth believed in the possibility of world peace. I was, as we all know, completely honest and direct. She remember listening to a former colleague at the could also be unpredictable, impatient and, yes, even MacArthur Foundation as he told me, in a moment of angry. She occasionally terrified her staff at the MacArthur confidence, about his experiences with Ruth. He spoke Foundation, when we did not meet the high standards she about his past frustrations with her, of his inability to fol- set for us and herself. She expressed strong opinions, but low her intuitive leaps, and her seeming inability to bring encouraged creativity and exploration. To work with her coherence and focus to the Peace program’s grantmaking. was to enter a world where everything was connected to He smiled then, and told me of his great epiphany: Ruth everything else, where curiosity drove exploration, and was trying to bring about world peace! As he began to

98 Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 understand how deeply and utterly she believed in this governments may or may not be the best instruments of potential, he finally came to respect her way of approach- that protection. At bottom, Ruth believed in the public ing philanthropy, and her insistence on an all-encompass- responsibility of private individuals—whether they are sci- ing idea of peace through international cooperation. entists, world leaders, scholars or community activists. Indeed, in her thinking about peace and security, Ruth Yet I’m not sure she thought the terminology—of was prescient. She cared little for the debates in the field of human security, of the responsibility to protect—was just international security—about whether states acted as right. She knew the power of words, and she hated rhetor- rational actors, whether they balanced one another in ical language—slogans that were used too often, that world politics, whether they could ever resolve their secu- lacked precision, and that no longer connected to experi- rity dilemmas, or whether multilateralism or world gov- ences and the stories that people told about their lives. For ernment were desirable or possible. She laughed when I that’s what she really cared about—about people, about told her after a few weeks of working with her in 1987 their nightmares and their dreams, about their troubles that I didn’t really know anything about throw weights or and their aspirations. force structure. She waved her hand and told me I didn’t She was the most deeply affectionate person I have really need to worry about that sort of thing for now. ever known. She saw our warts and flaws while she hon- She did not care about how people and communities ored our intelligence and goodness. She loved humanity— were to be protected from warfare and violence, from one by one. It was out of this robust and demanding affec- destruction by nuclear weapons, from the ravages of envi- tion that she sought world peace. ronmental degradation, and from the misery of poverty. I miss her. I miss our long conversations—about the She simply knew that they must be protected. It mattered state of the world, about the problems in our own country, not to her where the formal responsibility for that protec- about books and ideas, about music, food, art and travel, tion might lie—whether with the government of those about our friends and about our families. These words, who were suffering, with other governments, with the from the poet Yehuda Amichai seem to help: United Nations, or with private organizations or groups of Everything that lives and endures individuals. The point is (I can hear her saying) that we are For more than one day after we die all responsible for one another. Political borders, ideologi- Is eternal. cal divides, income differences, religious beliefs mattered We live in the eternity of others not a wit to her. We are their eternity. In fact, her own ideas and impulses and grantmaking foreshadowed the idea of “the responsibility to protect”— So we are Ruth’s eternity, and in that I take great com- the concept that the international community has a fort. But we also know what ambitions she has for us and responsibility to intervene in countries where governments for the world. We’d better get busy. cannot or will not protect their citizens. And I think she found the idea of “human security” compatible as well— Kennette Benedict is Director, International Peace and Secu- though she disliked the term “security” (except when used rity, at the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Founda- in “social security” which of course, she supported). She tion in Chicago. was concerned that individuals and their communities be protected from violence and fear, and she recognized that

Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 99 Ruth Salzman Adams By Mike Moore

uth Adams, a steadfast globalist decades before glob- President Kennedy, a Pugwashite, and a Mac-Arthur Ralism became fashionable, died February 25. She was Foundation board member, recruited Adams to join the 81. The organizations that Adams devoted her life to foundation in 1984. At MacArthur, she instituted the enhancing—the Bulletin,the Pugwash Conferences on Sci- Peace and International Cooperation Program, which sup- ence and World Affairs, and the John D. and Catherine T. ported innovative initiatives throughout the world. MacArthur Foundation—shared and promoted that glob- Her interests were vast, but she gave particular atten- alist perspective. tion to the developing world. “Ruth helped found the Adams joined the Bulletin in 1953 as an invaluable edi- International Centre for Insect Physiology and Ecology in torial assistant. At that time, the magazine was located in Nairobi, Kenya,” recalls Victor Rabinowitch, who met the basement of the University of Chicago’s Social Science Adams when she worked for his father at the Bulletin and Building; former Manhattan Project scientist and Bulletin then worked with her himself as senior vice president of founder Eugene Rabinowitch was the magazine’s editor. the MacArthur Foundation. “She traveled to Africa as a Those were dizzy years for Adams. The university’s board member of the center, and to France, Germany, and sprawling Manhattan Project lab yielded the Scientists’ England to raise money for the center and to get scientists Movement in 1945; the Bulletin quickly emerged as the involved.” The center, still going strong, combines basic forum in which the most brilliant minds of the era dis- and applied research in an effort to control tropical insects cussed the fundamental questions of the atomic age. that kill livestock by the millions, devastate crops, and In 1957, Rabinowitch, fellow Project scientist Joseph spread disease. Rotblat, and philosopher Bertrand Russell organized the Adams also invested much time and energy in develop- first Pugwash conference, held at its namesake village in ing the next generation of thinkers. “She was never conde- Nova Scotia, Canada. In its early years, Pugwash was scending,” recalls Sandy Ionno Butcher, former executive designed to cut a hole in the Iron Curtain by bringing director of Student Pugwash USA and a longtime friend of together scientists from East and West to work on the Adams’s. “She made us feel as though we had something technical foundations for arms control. Adams attended special to contribute. She the conference in a secretarial capacity. But her brilliance, shared with us her enthusiasm, friendship, contacts, ebullience, and understanding of the issues impressed and belief that young people can and must play a role in nearly everyone and made her instrumental in future con- determining the future.” ferences. This was Adams’s true legacy, Rabinowitch believes. “[The meeting] was to shape most of the following “She inspired thousands of young people to get involved decades of my life,” Adams recalled at a July 2003 Pug- with and contribute to the issues of peace and social jus- wash meeting. She remained a key player in Pugwash until tice, not only through professional careers but through her death. their work with civic institutions everywhere,” he says. From 1961 to 1968, Adams — idealistic, plainspoken, “To Ruth, public service was a privilege, rather than a and impatient with Cold War cant— worked at the Bul- chore.” letin as managing editor and then editor. She left the maga- zine in 1968 to go to the Middle East with her husband, a Mike Moore is the Bulletin’s contributing editor. He can be world-famous anthropologist. She assumed the editorship reached at m-smoore@ socket.net. May/June 2005 Bulletin again in 1978. Jerome Wiesner, former science adviser to of the Atomic Scientists

100 Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 OBITUARIES

Hans Bethe 1906–2005

ans Bethe died on March 7, 2005 at the age of 98 in world to stop work on weapons of mass destruction. HIthaca, New York. He was a master physicist, who Hans Bethe was also a Pugwashite, having attended won the Nobel Prize in 1967 for his work on the nuclear the 8th Pugwash Conference, Disarmament and World reactions that fuel the sun, and who continued to publish Security, held in Stowe, VT in September 1961. He was in physics well into his nineties. During World War II he not active in Pugwash in subsequent years, but he was served as head of the theoretical physics division in the nevertheless of great importance to the movement as an Manhattan Project at Los Alamos, but after the war he was example and mentor to generations of scientists. In his among the group of physicists who argued for interna- commitments to science and public service, his enormous tional control of atomic weapons. He was a member of the integrity, and his steadfast belief that scientists had a U.S. scientific delegation to the 1958 Geneva Conference responsibility to contribute to public debates on nuclear which eventually resulted in the Limited Test Ban Treaty of weapons and international security more generally, he 1963. He played an important role in the 1960s debate exemplified the ideals that animate Pugwash. At Cornell over antiballistic missile systems, and the article that he and University, his home for almost 70 years, and elsewhere, Richard Garwin published in Scientific American in 1968 his example created a tradition that legitimizes the partici- criticizing the ABM program on technical grounds was pation of scientists in public life and provides a model of influential both in the United States and the Soviet Union. how to do it. In this, as much as in his scientific achieve- In 1995 on the 50th anniversary of the bombing of ments, his legacy lives on. Hiroshima, Bethe issued a call to scientists all over the —Judith Reppy

H. Bentley Glass 1906–2005

. Bentley Glass, a world renowned geneticist and fre- Them, in Kitzbühel, Austria in September 1958, Prof. Hquent participant in the early years of Pugwash, died Glass went on to participate in a total of sixteen Pugwash in January 2005 at the age of 98. meetings, the last being 22nd Pugwash Conference, Scien- Prof. Glass was a longtime faculty member and former tists and World Affairs, held in Oxford, UK in September Vice President of Stony Brook University in New York. He 1972. was born and raised in China, the son of missionary par- The author of more than 200 scientific, professional ents, and later graduated from Baylor University. In addi- and general articles, Prof. Glass was well known for his tion to his years at Stony Brook, Prof. Glass taught at interest in the social responsibility of scientists, and Johns Hopkins University, was a member of the National accordingly was a mainstay of the early Pugwash efforts to Academy of Sciences, and a past president of Phi Beta spread such values throughout the international scientific Kappa. community. Having attended the 3rd Pugwash Conference, Dangers of the Atomic Age and What Scientists Can Do About

Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 101 Ziro Maki 1929–2005

iro Maki died May 31, 2005 in Kyoto, Japan at the time. This neutrino oscillation was discovered experimen- Zage of 76. As a Japanese Pugwashite he attended six tally in 1998. They were really foresighted physicists. Pugwash meetings from 1974 (the 24th Pugwash Confer- Ziro Maki moved, as a professor, to Research Institute ence held at Baden, Austria) to 1995 (the 45th Conference for Fundamental Physics, Kyoto University, where held at Hiroshima, Japan). The Japanese Pugwash Group Yukawa was Director since its inauguration in 1953. After was founded by Hideki Yukawa (1907-1981; a signatory Yukawa’s retirement in 1970 Ziro Maki was elected to to the Russell-Einstein Manifesto; Nobel Laureate in Director of the Institute. He served as Director for 12 Physics 1949), Sin-itiro Tomonaga (1906-1979; Nobel years in total. Laureate in Physics 1965) and Shoichi Sakata (1911-1970) He was in the service of President, Physical Society of just after the first Pugwash Conference in 1957 and was Japan; a member of the Science Council of Japan and called the Kyoto Conferences of Scientists from 1962 to many other administrative positions. 1980’s. Ziro Maki was a core member of the group. After For his achievement in science the Nishina Memorial passing away of the above three founders he served as a Prize was awarded to him in 1977 and the Soryushi (ele- member of the Continuing Committee with Toshiyuki mentary particles) Medal in 2002. Toyoda and Soichi Iijima until 1992. Ziro Maki was the author of many articles and books He was graduated from Tokyo University of Education on elementary particle physics; history of modern physics; in 1952. He studied theoretical physics supervised by philosophy of sciences; science and world affairs including Tomonaga at the Graduate School of the University. He “Is abolition of nuclear weapons possible” (1984, started his career at Nagoya University in 1955 as research Iwanami Shoten Publishers, Tokyo) and “An idea for non- assistant. He was promoted to research associate, then nuclear-weaponization of the Pacific Ocean”. (1990, associate professor. Ziro Maki stayed there until 1966. He Iwanami Shoten Publishers, Tokyo). These two books collaborated to Sakata. were publication of the Kyoto Conferences of Scientists In 1962 the existence of two kinds of neutrinos (elec- and were edited by Ziro Maki with Toshiyuki Toyoda and tron neutrino and muon neutrino) was confirmed experi- Soichi Iijima. mentally. With Sakata and Masami Nakagawa he pre- He is survived by his wife Aiko and three sons. dicted the neutrino oscillation in the same year. They As a friend for more than fifty years I express my sin- claimed that, if these neutrinos have different masses, once cere condolences with the Pugwash Community to his a neutrino is produced it changes to the other kind of neu- family. trino and interchanges from each other with passage of —Michiji Konuma, Pugwash Japan

102 Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 Pugwash Council for the 2002–2007 Quinquennium

Amb. (ret.) Ochieng Adala, of the Africa Association for International Understand- cil of Space Science and Technology; Al- Peace Forum (APFO) in Nairobi, Kenya, ing; CPAPD, PO Box 188, 15 Wanshou Ahram Center for Political and Strategic is former Permanent Representative of Rd., Beijing, China 100036, Tel.: (++86- Studies, Al-Galaa St., Cairo, Egypt, Tel.: Kenya to the United Nations in New 10) 6827-1736 or 6821-4433 (ext. (++20-2) 770-5630, Fax: (++20-2) 578- York, former Deputy Secretary/Director 8586), Fax: (++86-10) 6827-3675, 6037, E-mail: [email protected] for Political Affairs, Ministry of Foreign E-mail: [email protected] Prof. Saideh Lotfian is Associate Profes- Affairs and International Cooperation, Prof. Paolo Cotta-Ramusino is Professor sor of Political Science at the Faculty of and former Ambassador of Kenya to the of Mathematical Physics at the University Law and Political Science at the Univer- Arab Republic of Egypt, the Kingdom of of Milan in Italy, Secretary General of the sity of Tehran, Deputy Director of the Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia; APFO, Union of Italian Scientists for Disarma- Center for Middle East Strategic Studies P.O. Box 76621, Tel.: (++254-2) ment (USPID), and Director of the Pro- in Tehran, and Director of the Middle 574092/6, Fax: (++254-2) 561357, gram on Disarmament and International East Program at the Center for Strategic E-mail: [email protected] Security, Landau Network—Centro Research; Faculty of Law & Political Dr. Jeffrey Boutwell is Executive Director Volta, Como; Department of Physics, Science, University of Tehran, Enghelab of Pugwash Conferences on Science and University of Milan, Via Celoria 16, Ave., Tehran, Iran, Tel.: (++98-21) 611- World Affairs, former Associate Execu- 20133 Milan, Italy, Tel.: (**39-02) 5031 2546, Fax: (++98-21) 896-9565, E-mail: tive Officer at the American Academy of 7277, Fax: (**39-02) 5031 7480, E-mail: [email protected] Arts and Sciences in Cambridge, and for- [email protected] Ambassador Miguel Marin-Bosch is a mer Staff Aide at the National Security Dr. Lynn Eden is Senior Research Scholar professor at the Universidad Iberoameri- Council in Washington, DC; Pugwash at the Center for International Security cana in Mexico, and a former Deputy Conferences, Tel.: (++1-202) 478-3440, and Cooperation (CISAC) at Stanford Foreign Minister and Ambassador to the Email: [email protected] University in California, and co-chair of Conference on Disarmament for the gov- Prof. Francesco Calogero is professor of the US Pugwash Committee; CISAC, ernment of Mexico; Universidad theoretical physics at the University of Encina Hall, 2nd floor, Stanford Univer- Iberoamericana, Paseo de la Reforma Rome “La Sapienza”, Chair of the Pug- sity, Stanford, California 94305-6165, 880, Lomas de Santa Fe, Mexico, DF wash Council, former Secretary-General Tel. : (++1-650) 725 5369, Fax : (++1- 01210, Mexico; Tel. (++59-507.678), of Pugwash (1989-1997), and a former 650) 724 5683, E-mail: lynneden@ E-mail: [email protected] member of the Governing Board of SIPRI stanford.edu Prof. Anne McLaren is Principal (1982-1992); Pugwash Conferences, via Dr. Karen Hallberg, a physicist, is cur- Research Associate at Wellcome della Lungara 10, I-00165 Roma, Italy, rently Research Fellow at the National Trust/Cancer Research UK, Institute of Tel. (++39-06) 687-2606, Fax: (++39-06) Council of Science and Technology, and Cell and Developmental Biology; a Mem- 687-8376, E-mail: francesco.calogero@ Professor at the Balseiro Institute, in Bar- ber of the British Pugwash Group; Mem- uniroma1.it (and) francesco.calogero@ iloche, Argentina, as well as a Member of ber of the European Commission’s Life roma1.infn.it (please use BOTH) the Board of the Argentine Physics Asso- Sciences Group and European Group on Col. (ret.) Pierre Canonne is a Lecturer in ciation; Centro Atomico Bariloche, 8400 Ethics; and former Foreign Secretary of Disarmament and Arms Control issues at Bariloche, Argentina, Tel.: (++54-2944) the Royal Society; Tel.: (++44-1223) 334 the Univ. Marne-la-Vallés/Paris, former 445170, Fax: (++54-2944) 445299, 088, E-mail: [email protected] Head of TDB at the Organization for the E-mail: [email protected] Dr. Steven Miller is director of the Inter- Prohibition of Chemical Weapons in The Prof. Pervez Hoodbhoy is Professor of national Security Program of the Belfer Hague, former Staff in the Strategic Nuclear Physics at Quaid-e-Azam Univer- Center for Science and International Affairs Department of the Ministry of sity in Islamabad, Chairman of Mashal Affairs at Harvard University’s Kennedy Defense, and former Negotiator, Chemi- Books, an independent maker of docu- School of Government, editor-in-chief of cal Weapons Convention; 29 Avenue mentary films for popularising science in the quarterly International Security, and Danton, 43300 Langeac, France, Pakistan, and an activist for peace and co-chair of the US Pugwash Committee. Tel./Fax: (++33-4) 71 77 24 57, E-mail: social reform; E-mail: hoodbhoy@ Formerly, he was a senior research fellow [email protected] pierre.mit.edu at the Stockholm International Peace Mr. Chen Jifeng is Convener of the Pug- Research Institute (SIPRI), and taught Gen. (ret.) Dr. Mohamed Kadry Said is wash Group of China, Vice President of defense and arms control studies in the Head of the Military Studies Unit and the China Arms Control and Disarma- political science department at the Massa- Technology Advisor at the Al-Ahram ment Association, and Executive Vice chusetts Institute of Technology; CSIA, Center for Political and Strategic Studies, President of the China Association for J.F.Kennedy School of Government, Har- Al-Ahram Foundation in Cairo, Egypt; Promotion of International Science and vard University, 79 JFK Street, Cam- Professor of Missile Mechanics of Flight Peace. He was formerly Secretary General bridge, Massachusetts 02138, Tel. (++1- at the Military Technical College (MTC) of the Chinese People’s Association for 617) 495-1411, Fax: (++1-617) in Cairo; Member of the Committee of Peace and Disarmament (CPAPD) in Bei- 495-8963, E-mail: steven_miller@ Strategic Planning of the Egyptian Coun- jing, and Council Member of the Chinese Harvard.Edu

Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 103 Prof. Marie Muller, Chair, Pugwash Senator Douglas Roche, O.C., is a mem- tia, Tel.:(++385-1) 46 80 202, Fax: Council, is Dean of the Faculty of ber of The Senate of Canada; former Vis- (++385-1) 46 80 239, E-mail: slaus@ Humanities, University of Pretoria, and iting Professor at the University of rudjer.irb.hr former Director of the Centre for Interna- Alberta in Edmonton; Chairman of the Prof. Fernando de Souza Barros is Profes- tional Political Studies at the University Canadian Pugwash Group; Chairman of sor Emeritus at the Physics Institute of the of Pretoria. She is a former Council the Middle Powers Initiative; and former Federal University of Rio de Janeiro in Member of the Academy of Science of Canadian Ambassador for Disarmament; Brazil; Physics Institute, UFRJ, Tel. : South Africa, and was the founding Chair University of Alberta, Edmonton, (++55-21) 2562-7337, Fax : (++55-21) of the Pugwash South Africa Group; Uni- Alberta, Canada, Tel.: (++1-780) 466- 2562-7368, E-mail : [email protected] versity of Pretoria, Pretoria 0002, Repub- 8072, Fax (++1-780) 469-4732, E-mail: lic of South Africa, Tel.: (++27-12) 420- [email protected] (or) [email protected]. Dr. Mark Byung-Moon Suh, a South 2318, Fax: (++27-12) 420 4501, E-mail: gc.ca Korean political scientist, is a senior [email protected] researcher in the Department of Political Prof. Sir Joseph Rotblat is emeritus pro- Science at the Free University of Berlin in Dr. Götz Neuneck is a physicist working fessor of physics at the University of Lon- Germany and President of the Korean on international security issues. He is cur- don, emeritus President of Pugwash, and Pugwash Group. He was formerly the rently Senior Fellow at the Institute for a recipient of the 1995 Nobel Peace Prize; director of the Korean International Peace Research and Security Policy 8 Asmara Road, London NW2 3ST, UK, Peace Research Institute (KIPRI)in Seoul, (IFSH) in Hamburg; Member of the Tel. (++44-20) 7405-6661, Fax: (++44- and a member of the Advisory Council Council of the German Physical Society 20) 7831-5651, E-mail: pugwash@ on Peaceful and Democratic Unification (DPG), and Deputy Chairman of the mac.com (*) of Korea; Schlieperstr. 12, D-13507 Working Group “Physics and Disarma- Acad. Yuri Ryzhov is President of the Berlin, Germany, Tel.: (++49-30) 433- ment” in the DPG; IFSH, Falkenstein 1, International Engineering University in 8574, Fax: (++49-30) 433-2896, E-mail: D-22587 Hamburg, Germany, Tel.: Moscow; Chair of the Russian Pugwash [email protected] (++49-40) 866077-21, Fax: (++49-40) Group; Academician of the Russian 866-3615, E-mail: neuneck@public. Prof. M.S. Swaminathan, a renowned Academy of Sciences; former Member of uni-hamburg.de agriculture scientist. Considered the sci- the Presidential Council of the Russian entific leader of the Green Revolution, his Dr. Alexander Nikitin is Director of the Federation; and former Ambassador approach in pioneering “ever-green revo- Center for Political and International Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary of lution” is at the heart of what is now Studies (CPIS); Vice Chairman of the Russia to France; 6 Leninsky pr., called sustainable agriculture. He is a past Russian Pugwash Committee of Scientists Moscow, Russia, Tel.: ++7-095) 236- recipient of the World Food Prize, the for Disarmament and International Secu- 5066 / 9761, Fax: (++7-095) 236-1469, Honda Award, the Ramon Magsaysay rity; Professor at Moscow State Institute E-mail: [email protected] Award, the UNESCO Gandhi Prize, and for International Relations; First Vice- Air Commodore Jasjit Singh, AVSM, the Indira Gandhi Prize for Peace, Disar- President of the Russian Political Science VrC, VM, a former veteran fighter pilot mament and Development. He chaired Association; and Board Member of the and Director of Operations of the Indian the International Commission on Peace Russian Academy of Political Sciences; Air Force, is currently Director of the and Food, and is UNESCO Chair in CPIS, Prospect Mira 36, Moscow, Russ- Centre for Strategic and International Ecotechnology, and Chairman of the MS ian Federation 129010, Tel. (++7-095) Studies; he was Director of the Institute Swaminathan Research Foundation in 280-3441, Fax: (++7-095) 280-0245, for Defence Studies and Analyses (IDSA) Chennai, India; MS Swaminathan E-mail: [email protected] in New Delhi (1987-2001); he has pub- Research Foundation, 3rd Cross Street, Prof. Hitoshi Ohnishi is Professor of lished extensively on strategic and secu- Taramani Institutional Area, Chennai- International Relations and Deputy rity issues; 18/803, Heritage City, 600 113, India, Tel.: (++91-44) 254 2790 President at Tohoku University in Sendai, Mehrauli Road, Gurgaon-122002, India, / 1698, Fax: (++91-44) 254 1319, E-mail: Japan; former President of the Peace Tel.: (++91-124) 891-7701, E-mail: [email protected] Studies Association of Japan; and former [email protected] (or) csis_India@ Council Member of the Japanese Political yahoo.co.in Science Association; School of Law, Prof. Ivo Slaus, a Member of the Croat- Tohoku University, Kawauchi, Aoba-ku, ian Parliament, is Chairman of the Parlia- Sendai 980-8576, Japan, E-mail: mentary Subcommittee on Science, [email protected] Higher Education & Technology, Presi- Gen. Pan Zhenqiang is Professor at the dent of Croatian Pugwash, a Member of Institute of Strategic Studies at the the Club of Rome, a Fellow of the World National Defense University, PLA, China, Academy and Academia Europea, former a retired Major General in the Chinese Professor of Physics at Rudjer Boskovic People’s Army, and former Director of the Institute, and former Foreign Secretary of Institute of Strategic Studies; Institute of the Croatian Academy of Sciences & Strategic Studies, National Defense Uni- Arts; Rudjer Boskovic Institute, Bijenicka versity, PLA, China, Tel/Fax: (++86-10) 54, P.O. Box 1016, 10000 Zagreb, Croa- 8283-1159, E-mail: [email protected]

104 Pugwash Newsletter, June 2005 Calendar of Future Pugwash Meetings

22–27 July 2005 55th Pugwash Conference on Science and World Affairs, Hiroshima, Japan 60 Years After Hiroshima and Nagasaki

26–27 September 2005 Pugwash Workshop on Civil-Military Relations in Krasnodar, Russia Conflict Regions: North Caucasus and Georgia

29 Sept.–2 Oct. 2005 3rd Pugwash Workshop on Science, Ethics and Society: Ajaccio, Corsica Ethical Dimensions of HIV/AIDS in Developing Countries

3–4 December 2005 23rd Pugwash Workshop on the Implementation of the Geneva, Switzerland Chemical and Biological Weapons Conventions

2006

March 2006 Pugwash Workshop on Security Architecture in the Nairobi, Kenya Horn of Africa

March 2006, Fourth Pugwash Workshop on Threats Without Enemies: Chennai, India The Security Aspects of HIV/AIDS

November 2006 56th Pugwash Conference on Science and World Affairs Cairo, Egypt Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs

President Professor M.S. Swaminathan Secretary-General Professor Paolo Cotta-Ramusino Executive Director Dr. Jeffrey Boutwell

Pugwash Council Chair Professor Marie Muller

Members Ambassador Ochieng Adala Professor Anne McLaren Professor Fernando de Souza Barros Dr. Steven Miller Dr. Jeffrey Boutwell Dr. Götz Neuneck Professor Francesco Calogero Dr. Alexander Nikitin Dr. Pierre Canonne Professor Hitoshi Ohnishi Professor Paolo Cotta-Ramusino Maj. Gen. (ret.) Pan Zhenqiang Dr. Lynn Eden Senator Douglas Roche Professor Karen Hallberg Professor Joseph Rotblat Professor Pervez Hoodbhoy Academician Yuri Ryzhov Mr. Chen Jifeng Air Commodore Jasjit Singh Maj. Gen. Mohamed Kadry Said Professor Ivo Slaus Prof. Saideh Lotfian Dr. Mark Byung-Moon Suh Amb. Miguel Marin-Bosch Professor M.S. Swaminathan

Pugwash Executive Committee Chairman Professor Paolo Cotta-Ramusino Members Dr. Jeffrey Boutwell Professor M.S. Swaminathan Prof. Saideh Lotfian Maj. Gen. (ret.) Pan Zhenqiang Professor Marie Muller

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