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Physiol. Res. 69 (Suppl. 2): S255-S272, 2020 https://doi.org/10.33549/physiolres.934523 REVIEW Aging, Hormones and Receptors Martin HILL1, Zdeněk TŘÍSKALA2, Pavla HONCŮ3, Milada KREJČÍ4, Jiří KAJZAR4, Marie BIČÍKOVÁ1, Leona ONDŘEJÍKOVÁ1, Dobroslava JANDOVÁ4, Ivan STERZL1 1Institute of Endocrinology, Prague, Czech Republic, 2Ministry of Health of the Czech Republic, Prague, Czech Republic, 3Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Third Faculty of Medicine Charles University in Prague, Czech Republic, 4College of Physical Education and Sport Palestra, Prague, Czech Republic Received May 20, 2020 Accepted June 1, 2020 Summary the HPAA to target hormones and feedback loop Ageing is accompanied by deterioration in physical condition and mechanisms, as well as decrease in the sensitivity of a number of physiological processes and thus a higher risk of target tissues to these hormones. Endocrine changes are a range of diseases and disorders. In particular, we focused on accompanied by disorders in glucose homeostasis, the the changes associated with aging, especially the role of small loss of muscle and bone mass, and autoimmune and molecules, their role in physiological and pathophysiological degenerative diseases (Sato and Iemitsu 2018, Watad processes and potential treatment options. Our previously et al. 2017). This review is focused on changes in published results and data from other authors lead to the hormonal homeostasis associated with aging and age- conclusion that these unwanted changes are mainly linked to related diseases with particular attention to the role of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis can be slowed down, small molecules like steroids, thyroid hormones, stopped, or in some cases even reversed by an appropriate neurotransmitters and their receptors. treatment, but especially by a life-management adjustment. 2. The hierarchy of endocrine organs/tissues Key words and aging Aging • Small molecules • Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis • Life-management • Hormonal receptors 2.1. Hypothalamus The anterior hypothalamus produces several Corresponding author releasing hormones such as growth hormone-releasing M. Hill, Department of Steroids and Proteohormones, Institute of hormone (GHRH), corticotropin-releasing hormone Endocrinology, Národní třída 8, 116 94 Prague 1, Czech Republic. (CRH), thyroid- releasing hormone (TRH) and E-mail: [email protected] gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) and the inhibiting hormones dopamine and somatostatin. The 1. Introduction latter leads to inhibition of the pituitary production of somatotropin and also inhibition of the production of Aging (Balachandran et al. 2020, Chen et al. gastrointestinal hormones in the gastro-intestinal tract 2019) is associated with an increase in endocrine (Pop et al. 2018). disorders (Zhavoronkov and Bhullar 2015). On one side, aging is related to changes in hormone secretion mainly 2.2. The pituitary gland in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPAA). On The anterior pituitary is connected to the the other side there is a decrease in the sensitivity of hypothalamus with blood vessels and upon stimulation PHYSIOLOGICAL RESEARCH • ISSN 1802-9973 (online) 2020 Institute of Physiology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czech Republic Fax +420 241 062 164, e-mail: [email protected], www.biomed.cas.cz/physiolres S256 Hill et al. Vol. 69 produces its hormones. After GHRH stimulation growth rage, aggression as well as pain. Sympathetic activation hormone (GH) is secreted. After stimulation by CRH, increases with age in the heart, intestines, and liver at adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) is produced, while rest. In the elderly, sympathetic nerve responses to after TRH stimulation thyrotropin (TSH) is secreted, and stressors are increased, while in contrast secretion of after GNRH stimulation both folitropin (FSH) and adrenalin from the adrenals is lowered, both at rest and lutropin (LH) are produced. The production of tropins by during stress (Esler et al. 2002). the anterior pituitary regulates the activity of the thyroid gland, the adrenal zona fasciculata (ZF), and to a lesser 2.3.3. Adrenal cortex extent also the adrenal zona reticularis (ZR), as well as The adrenal cortex consists of three zones with gonadal (both testicular and ovarian) activity (Melmed specific steroid production, with each zone regulated by 2011, Pignatti et al. 2017). The hypothalamus has direct a different system. In addition to the production of active connections to the posterior pituitary, which secretes androgens in men, the primary source of most steroids in vasopressin, also called antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and the elderly is the adrenal cortex, though steroid oxytocin. The latter declines with age. In addition to its metabolism also occurs in other peripheral organs and positive effects on social behavior, oxytocin is needed for tissues and to a small degree in nervous system tissues the regeneration and maintenance of the homeostasis of (Labrie et al. 2017). In elderly females, steroidogenesis in muscle mass. As oxytocin is a US Food and Drug the non-functional ovaries can be disregarded. Estrogen Administration (FDA) approved drug, it potentially may precursors in both elderly males and females are offer a new way to maintain muscle mass during aging primarily produced in the adrenal gland, while the (Elabd et al. 2014). sources of active estrogens are peripheral tissues, and particularly adipose tissues, which metabolize primary 2.3. Target endocrine organs an aging adrenal steroids. However, some testosterone can be 2.3.1. Thyroid gland produced directly in the adrenal cortex, which in the zona Levels of free trithyronin (fT3) have a negative reticularis (ZR) shows a relatively marked activity of the correlation with age, however, the TSH activity also aldoketoreductase ADR1C3 converting androstenedione declines with age (Strich et al. 2016, Surks et al. 2004). to testosterone (Nakamura et al. 2009). Aside from these changes, research has found an increasing prevalence of autoimmune complications in 2.3.3.1. Zona glomerulosa (ZG) and the renin-angiotensin the thyroid gland, which can influence the levels of system thyroid hormones (Bremner et al. 2012, Chaker et al. The external zone of the adrenal cortex is the 2016). Changes to the function of the hypothalamic- zona glomerulosa (ZG), which is part of the renin- pituitary-thyroid (HPT) axis with age can also be angiotensin system. In response to increasing K+ levels, associated with a range of pathologies, such as renin, or lowered blood flow in the kidneys, the ZG cardiovascular diseases (Biondi et al. 2015), dementia produces the mineralocorticoid aldosterone. ZG expresses (Rieben et al. 2016), and decreased bone mass (Segna enzymes enabling the conversion of cholesterol to et al. 2018). It has been reported that subclinical 11-deoxycorticosterone (DOC), such as cholesterol hypothyroidism, i.e. higher TSH levels correlate with desmolase (CYP11A1), 21-hydroxylase (CYP21A1), and lower mortality in the elderly (Atzmon et al. 2009, 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type II (HSD3B2), Selmer et al. 2014). which are also expressed by the zona fasciculata (ZF). HSD3B2 is an enzyme specific to the adrenal gland 2.3.2. The adrenal medulla (ZG and ZF). Another enzyme specific to the ZG is The adrenal medulla produces the aldosterone synthase (CYP11B2). This enzyme converts catecholamines adrenalin and noradrenalin. In skeletal DOC to 18-hydroxy-corticosterone and then aldosterone, muscles, catecholamines induce vasodilation, which is which is the target bioactive steroid. In addition to the a part of the preparation for motor activity. From the physiological production of aldosterone dependent on point of view of aging, it is important that catecholamine angiotensin II, low Na+ levels and high K+ levels can lead secretion is stimulated by physical stressors and factors clusters of cells in the ZG (aldosterone-producing cell such as hypoglycemia, excessive physical stress, injury, clusters, APCC) to autonomically express CYP11B2, and emotional swings resulting from fear, anxiety, anger, at the same time increased the autonomic secretion of 2020 Aging, Hormones and Receptors S257 aldosterone, while physiological secretion declines. sexes is associated with a decline in adrenal androgens, APCCs are not neoplastic or tumor cells, their activity is a decline in CYB5 activity, reduction in the lyase step of not hyperplastic, and they are normally present in the ZG. CYP17A1 and reduced ZR mass. The decline in adrenal However, this increased autonomic aldosterone androgen production negatively influences bone density production with age can be associated with an increased and libido, as well as the immune system and perception risk of cardiovascular disease (Nanba et al. 2018, Nanba ability (Dharia et al. 2005). et al. 2017). The skeletal musculature has the ability to synthesize and metabolize sex hormones from DHEA 2.3.3.2. Zona fasciculata (ZF) (Sato and Iemitsu 2018). Maximal levels of DHEA are The next, lower level of the adrenal cortex, the reached between the ages of 20-30 years, and then ZF is regulated by pituitary ACTH. In addition to the significantly decline until old age by 75 to 90 % causing 11β-hydroxylase enzyme (CYP11B1), steroidogenic similar trends for androgens and estrogens in peripheral enzymes in ZF also include the C17-hydroxylase-C17,20 target tissues. This could be associated with pathogenic lyase (CYP17A1), the activity of which is stopped in diseases related to age such as obesity and type
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