Integrating Understandings of a Yolngu Seasonal Calendar

Integrating Understandings of a Yolngu Seasonal Calendar A cross-disciplinary exploration of Scientific and Indigenous Seasonal Knowledge in North East Arnhem Land, Australia by Zac Hatfield-Dodds Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Interdisciplinary Studies (Sustainability) with Honours in the Fenner School of Environment and Society, Australian National University May, 2016 Candidate's Declaration This thesis contains no material which has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma in any university. To the best of the author's knowledge, it contains no material previously published or written by another person, except where due reference is made in the text. Zac Hatfield-Dodds May, 2016 i Acknowledgements I acknowledge the Yolnu Elders of the Clan Nations of North East Arnhem Land, who have cared for country since creation, and maintained their law and sovereign responsibilities in this ancient land. Their wisdom and knowledge has been passed on to successive generations through ceremony, art and education. They have defended their sovereignty over ancestral lands and waters and their right to administer customary law. I thank them for their willingness to share so much of their knowledge and wisdom with me, without which this research would have been impossible. This thesis is dedicated to our shared hope that Indigenous and non-Indigenous peoples can learn from one another and together come to richer understandings of this country. Many people have helped and supported through my year of the thesis, and have my deep gratitude but only a little space here. Professor Janette Lindesay and Dr Sen Kerins, the best supervisors a student could hope for. My friends in the Northern Synod, who were so generous and taught me so much. My Indigenous friends, who insisted that this really could be worthwhile. The generous staff of CSIRO and the BOM, who took the time to share their experiences and some raw numbers too. The people of the Fenner School, who kept things running smoothly through a sometimes-chaotic year. And my family and friends, who encouraged and supported me throughout. Thank you all. iii Abstract Australia presents a challenging environment with highly variable climates. Better ways of understanding and managing our natural environment are urgently needed, and may be offered in the rich knowledge of Indigenous Australians { knowledge that is too often dissmissed, ignored, and undervalued. This thesis develops an approach which integrates traditional seasonal knowledge with quantitative science, demonstrated by investigating Yolngu seasons in north-east Arnhem Land. Where previous studies of Indigenous seasons and calendars in Australia have recorded weather, social, and ecological characteristics of seasons { treating them as objects of study { this thesis treats Yolngu seasons as a framework for study, working with Yolngu participants to create a quantified calendar based on the observational weather record. No known previous research has quantified Australian Indigenous seasons in this way. The methodology is cross-disciplinary and exploratory, drawing on the two-ways research literature. Informal, participant-led interviews with Yolngu people provide qualitative descriptions of the seasons and the structure of the calendar, and advice on how the seasons might be analysed. Consequently, some of the key findings are qualitative, derived directly from interviews (such as the structure of Yolngu calendars and definitions of the seasons), while others are the results of numerical analysis { quantifying and characterising the seasons. Yolngu participants describe monsoonal, meteorological, and ecological seasons with distinct time-scales and indicators. Seasons can occur in any order, even ìnterrupting' one another depending on indicator conditions. These properties are not recorded by previous research. Yolngu seasons are defined by environmental observations rather than the passage of time, the specifics of which vary substantially with location { as do their names and even what seasons are recognised. Detailed qualitative descriptions were collected to create a seasonal calendar. Each season was described in terms of daily weather and these definitions applied to the observational data, deriving the first known timeseries of Yolngu season occurence. This dataset allows characterisation of the seasons, and the first ever quantitative investigation of their timing. Accurate characterisation of this timing is another contribution of this research. The methodology and methods developed in this thesis are suitable for use in similar research elsewhere. The code which quantifies Yolngu seasons in terms of weather conditions is robust and reusable, and could be adapted for study of the qualitative structure and definitions of other calendars. Flexible methodology for integration of Indigenous and quantitative scientific knowledge and knowledge systems is applicable in domains far beyond seasonal or ecological knowledge. Participant-led conversations followed by quantitative investigation uncovers and highlights unanticipated information and perspectives across cultural boundaries. This thesis contributes to academic knowledge by developing methods to quantify Yolngu seasons, and demonstrating a research approach which integrates Indigenous and scientific perspectives. The outcomes suggest fruitful avenues for future research, which may consider seasonal calendars in other location or in greater depth or integrate Indigenous and non- Indigenous knowledge about other topics. These studies could extend scientific knowledge and understanding, as well as supporting concrete applications. Both approaches would contribute to a novel and genuinely local understanding of Australia, with implications for land and natural resource management, decision making, and policy. v Contents Candidate's Declaration i Acknowledgements iii Abstract v List of Figures ix List of Tables x List of Boxes x 1 Introduction 1 2 Literature Review 5 2.1 Indigenous Knowledge . .5 2.2 The Tropical Climate and Seasons . .7 2.3 Australian Indigenous Seasons . .9 3 Methods 13 3.1 Methodology . 13 3.2 Qualitative and Interview Methods . 16 3.3 Application: from Qualitative to Numerical Data . 17 3.4 Quantitative Analysis . 19 4 Results 21 4.1 Unexpected Complexity in Seasonal Calendars . 21 4.2 A Qualitative Yolngu Seasonal Calendar . 25 4.3 The Observational Weather Record in North East Arnhem Land . 29 4.4 Quantifying a Yolngu Calendar . 35 5 Discussion 41 vii viii CONTENTS 5.1 Context and Interpretation of Findings . 41 5.2 Reflection { Methodology and Limitations . 46 5.3 Applications and Benefits of the Research . 47 6 Conclusion 49 6.1 Questions, Aims, Findings . 49 6.2 Directions for Further Study . 50 6.3 Implications . 53 References 55 A Appendices 59 List of Figures 2.1 Hadley Cells and trade-winds . .8 2.2 ITCZ showing northern and southern monsoon . .8 2.3 The Tiwi Seasons Calendar (CSIRO 2016) . 10 2.4 Yolngu seasonal calendar for Milingimbi (Davis 1989) . 11 3.1 Map of north-east Arnhem Land, showing the study area . 15 4.1 Monthly climograph for Galiwinku . 30 4.2 Monthly wind vector summary for Galiwinku . 30 4.3 Compass rose mapping colour to wind direction . 31 4.4 Historical weather observations at Galiwinku . 32 4.5 Historical weather observations at Milingimbi Airport . 33 4.6 Detected seasons for Galiwinku . 37 4.7 Calculated season frequency, Galiwinku . 38 4.8 Season index by day-of-year, Galiwinku . 39 4.9 Season probability by day-of-year, Galiwinku . 39 5.1 Three ways to characterise timing of seasons, Galiwinku . 45 A.1 Letter of invitation for collaborative research . 60 A.2 3-hourly wind direction heatmaps, Galiwinku . 61 ix List of Tables 3.1 List of weather stations providing data . 18 4.1 Monthly weather observations at Galiwinku . 31 4.2 Quantifiable summary of the Yolngu seasons case study. 36 4.3 Most common season and indices by month . 40 List of Boxes 4.1 How to read multipanel heatmaps . 34 4.2 Python code: definition of season indices . 35 x 1 Introduction Australia presents many challenges to good environmental management: its climate is among the most variable on Earth, combining years of baking droughts with flooding rainfall, the soils are relatively poor, and much of the flora and fauna is endemic or endangered (Davies et al. 1999). Since European colonisation, settlers have responded in many ways { drawing on their traditons, science, and social bonds among other strategies to cope with harsh landscapes and extreme climates. They have done well by some standards { agricultural and natural resource industries are large and stable. By other standards they have not: their practices and strategies have driven countless species to extinction, degraded ecosystems, and placed natural wonders like the Great Barrier Reef in serious danger (Flannery 1994). Much of this damage to the common heritage of Australians is irreversible or will take many generations to heal. Australian people and institutions could learn from their colonial and exploitative mistakes, and appreciate the value in other perspectives. Alternatives are demonstrated by Indigenous Australian cultures, who have lived in and with `country' for thousands of years { not as a generalised or undifferentiated type of place, but a complex, living entity made up of \people, animals, plants, Dreamings; underground, earth, soils, minerals and waters, surface water, and air" (Bird-Rose 2012, p7). To date, non-Indigenous Australians

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