Chapter One Watershed Analysis Objectives 1
CHAPTER ONE
WATERSHED ANALYSIS OBJECTIVES ------
Watershed analysis is essentially ecosystem analysis at the watershed scale. Federal agencies are directed to use an ecosystem management approach to manage public lands. The Record of Decision (ROD) for Amendments to Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management Planning Documents Within the Range of the Northern Spotted Owl, the Northwest Forest Plan (NFP (1994)), recommends that watershed analysis be conducted within watersheds where management activities are being proposed, in order to understand the consequences of management actions prior to implementation. This is the primary reason for conducting the Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis.
The objectives of the Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis are to:
Develop a scientifically based understanding of the dominant physical, biological, and human processes and features and their interactions within the watershed.
Use this understanding to sustain the productivity of natural resources in order to meet human needs and desires.
Use this understanding to develop the basis to estimate direct, indirect, and cumulative effects of our management activities.
Relate these features and processes to those occurring in the river basin or province.
Guide the general type, location, and timing of management activities within the watershed.
Identify restoration and rehabilitation opportunities within the watershed.
Establish a watershed context for evaluating project consistency with the NFP Standards and Guidelines (S & G) for management areas and land allocations.
Establish a watershed context for evaluating project consistency with the Aquatic Conservation Strategy (ACS) objectives.
Establish a consistent, watershed-wide context for implementing the Endangered Species Act (ESA), including conferencing and consultation under Section 7.
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis 2 Chapter One Watershed Analysis Objectives
Establish a consistent, watershed-wide context for the protection of beneficial uses identified by the states and tribes in their water quality standards under the Federal Clean Water Act.
Watershed analysis is not a detailed study of everything in the watershed; instead, it is built upon the most important issues that are discussed in Chapter Five of this document. Watershed analysis is not a decision making process. It is not intended to take the place of detailed, site- specific project planning and analysis under the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA).
This watershed analysis report is a dynamic document. Additions or changes to this document may occur as new information becomes available. This is the first iteration of the Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis.
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis Chapter Two Characterization 3
CHAPTER TWO
CHARACTERIZATION ------
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this chapter is to:
Identify the dominant physical, biological, and human processes and features of the watershed that affect ecosystem function or condition.
Relate these features and processes to those occurring in the river basin or province.
Provide the watershed context for identifying elements that need to be addressed in the analysis.
Identify, map, and describe the most important land allocations, plan objectives, and regulatory constraints that influence resource management in the watershed.
GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION AND DESCRIPTION
The Copeland-Calf Watershed is located between Glide and Toketee, approximately 50 miles east of Roseburg, Oregon on the Diamond Lake and North Umpqua Ranger Districts of the Umpqua National Forest (UNF (Figure 1)). The study area of 49,019 acres is located in all, or portions of the following: T26S, R1, 2, and 3E, T27S, R1, 2, and 3E, Willamette Meridian, Douglas County, Oregon. This includes the area from near Illahee Rock, south along Rattlesnake and Rhododendron Ridges to Mud Lake Mountain; westerly along Forest Road 2715 to Snowbird Shelter; northward following Calf and Bradley Ridges; then east on Forest Road 4760 to the point of beginning. Prominent features located within the Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis area are portions of the North Umpqua River and Boulder Creek Wilderness, as well as State Highway 138, Eagle Rock Campground, Twin Lakes, Eagle and Rattlesnake Rocks, and several holdings of private land. Major stream drainages located within the watershed are Copeland, Calf, Dry, and Deception Creeks, as well as a portion of the North Umpqua River. All creeks are tributaries to the North Umpqua River.
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis 4 Chapter Two Characterization
Relative Location of Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis Area
Figure 1. Relative location of Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis area.
LANDSCAPE OWNERSHIP AND ALLOCATION
The Copeland-Calf Watershed is primarily public land administered by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), Forest Service. There are several holdings of private land, totaling approximately 576 acres (Figure 2). The NFP allocates the area to approximately 40,467 acres of Key Watershed, 45,514 acres of Late-Successional Reserve (LSR) and 2,970 acres of Congressionally Reserved land (Wild and Scenic corridor and Wilderness), as shown in Figure 2. Portions of these land allocations may overlap each other within the watershed.
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis Chapter Two Characterization 5
Land Allocation and Key Watershed in the Copeland-Calf Watershed
Figure 2. Land allocation and Key Watershed within the Copeland-Calf Analysis area.
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis 6 Chapter Two Characterization
CORE TOPICS
GEOLOGY AND GEOMORPHOLOGY
Geologic Setting
The Cascades volcanic arc (chain) that extends from northern California into southern British Columbia is thought to have originated about 40 million years ago (Ma) as a consequence of subduction of the Pacific oceanic plate beneath the leading edge of the westward moving North American continental plate. Partial melting of iron and magnesium-rich sea floor crust takes place at depths of 100 or more kilometers, within the Cascadia Subduction Zone. Magma generated deep beneath the continental margin ascends through the Earth’s crust and periodically erupts onto the surface in the form of extrusive lava flows and explosively expelled fragmental (pyroclastic) deposits (McBirney 1978; Duncan and LaVerne 1989, Priest 1990). Within Oregon, the Cascade Range is delineated into two physiographic sub-provinces, the older and deeply eroded Western Cascades and the present day (volcanically active) High Cascades that forms its topographic crest (Peck, et al. 1964).
Lithology
The Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis area lies within the deeply incised western flank of the Cascade Range and is mainly underlain by a diverse and crudely layered succession of variably altered volcaniclastic deposits, lava flows, and related intrusive rocks that are collectively assigned to the Tertiary age “Little Butte Group” (Peck, et al 1964). The Little Butte Group was deposited between 35 and 17 Ma, during the period of Western Cascade volcanism (Peck, et al 1964, Sherrod and Smith 1989, Walker and MacLeod 1991).
Lava flows and intrusive rocks within the Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis area consist of resistant, moderately fractured basalt, basaltic andesite, and dacite. Volcaniclastic deposits are comprised of a diversity of relatively soft, poorly bedded tuffs and volcanic breccias that originated from explosive volcanism, or from large-volume mudflows (lahars) and massive debris avalanches. Fluvial reworking of primary, unconsolidated, volcaniclastic deposits formed a variety of weakly resistant, well-bedded sedimentary strata comprising tuffaceous siltstone, sandstone, and conglomerate (Sherrod and Smith 1989, Walker and MacLeod 1991).
A local sequence of resistant, Quaternary age, intracanyon lava flows termed the “basalt of Toketee” crops out as a series of remnant benches and tablelands along the North Umpqua River. The basalt of Toketee is dated at roughly 760,000 to 780,000 years of age, thus it is associated with the recent episode of High Cascade volcanism (Sherrod 1986 and 1991).
Unconsolidated (surficial) deposits found throughout the Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis area include chaotic mixtures of fragmented rock and soil debris from massive landslides and stream alluvium (sand, gravel, cobble, and boulders) in floodplains and terraces.
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis Chapter Two Characterization 7
Peck, et al. (1964), report that the succession of Little Butte Group strata along the North Umpqua River corridor approaches nearly 15,000 feet in thickness. Structurally, the volcanic and sedimentary strata in this region display a prevailing shallow inclination (dip direction) towards the east and are locally cut by a series of faults and related shear zones that follow northeast and northwest trends (Peck, et al. 1964, Sherrod and Smith 1989, Walker and MacLeod 1991). Volcanic, sedimentary, and intrusive rocks forming the Cascade Range are juxtaposed in highly complex geometric relationships. Individual deposits tend to be lens-like in form and are generally laterally and vertically discontinuous over relatively short distances. Complexity arises from a variety of controlling factors that include: a multitude of eruptive sites, various modes of deposition or emplacement, and the relative degree of landscape dissection (erosion) that existed at the time of deposition (Sherrod 1986, Sherrod and Smith 1989).
Lithologic units that crop out within the Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis area are referenced from the State Geologic Map compiled by Walker and MacLeod (1991). Figure 3 portrays the geology of the Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis area. Table 1 provides a brief description of these highly generalized map units. A more comprehensive description of the geologic map units is contained in the Geology/Geomorphology section of Appendix A.
Table 1. Generalized description of bedrock and surficial lithologic units. Qls Landslide-earthflow deposits QTba Basaltic andesite lava flows associated with the basalt of Toketee Tub Basalt and basaltic andesite lava flows, tuff, and volcanic breccia associated with the Little Butte Group Tut Welded and non-welded ash-flow tuff of the Little Butte Group Tus Volcanic mudflow breccias and tuffaceous sedimentary rocks associated with the Little Butte Group Tsv Dacitic lava flows, tuff, and volcanic breccia (silicic vent complex) associated with the Little Butte Group Tu Undifferentiated basalt, basaltic andesite, and dacitic lava flows; tuff, volcanic breccia, mudflow breccias, and tuffaceous sedimentary rocks associated with the Little Butte Group Thi Basalt and basaltic andesite (hypabyssal intrusive rocks)
Alteration
Little Butte Group strata have been variably altered by the effects of regional low-temperature, low-pressure burial metamorphism, as well as hydrothermal alteration localized to areas adjacent to volcanic vents (eruptive centers). Alteration is manifested by pervasive changes to rock chemistry. The more porous and permeable tuffaceous deposits are most affected, as evidenced by the widespread development of clays and other replacement minerals (Peck, et al. 1964). Paeth, et al. (1971) report that the greenish-hued tuffaceous rocks in the Little Butte Group contain copious amounts of expansive (shrink-swell) clay minerals, making these rocks inherently susceptible to present day chemical weathering.
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis 8 Chapter Two Characterization
Geologic Map Units
Figure 3. Geologic map units.
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis Chapter Two Characterization 9
Landscape Development
Sherrod (1986) reports that accelerated uplift of the Western Cascades began sometime between 6 and 3.3 million years ago. Abrupt rise of the Western Cascades terrain increased stream gradients, providing them with power to cut deeply into the landscape, forming a well-dissected topography. Entrenchment of stream systems into the rapidly rising landscape caused widespread instability throughout the volcanic landscape, as noted by the development of massive landslide complexes (gravity block-glides). Landslide deposits progressively weather over time into earthflows, due to the inherent shrink-swell clays in the substrate and high rainfall climatic regime. Mass movement landforms are more prevalent within areas of the landscape underlain by highly altered tuffaceous rocks.
Over the last million years, a series of intracanyon lava flows of basalt and basaltic andesite that originated in the High Cascades physiographic sub-province, periodically flowed down, and partly inundated, ancestral canyons of the North Umpqua and Clearwater Rivers. Remnant remains of these intracanyon flows are perched on the lower canyon walls of the North Umpqua River as weakly dissected benches and broader tablelands.
Uplift of the Western Cascades has had profound influence on the regional climatic regime and establishment of native vegetation patterns. Warm, moist air masses coming off the Pacific Ocean during the late fall and winter months condense into valley fog and abundant rainfall as they ramp up the inclined slope of the Western Cascades (Franklin and Dyrness 1984). The dense conifer forest that drapes the western flank of the Cascade Range results from orographic precipitation.
Physiography
McNab and Avers (1994) report that the older and deeply eroded Western Cascades can be broadly classified into two primary landscapes. The first is a well-dissected, steep-gradient terrain underlain by mostly resistant bedrock lithologies. This type is mantled by skeletal, coarse-textured, permeable soils. The second type is a weakly dissected, smooth landscape characterized by gentle to moderate-gradient hillslopes that have deep weathering zones and thicker rock-soil accumulations that are often associated with ancient mass movement landslide- earthflow complexes. Erosional processes contrast significantly within these primary landscapes. The steep, well-dissected terrain tends to be prone to rapid-moving, shallow-seated forms of landslides (debris slides and debris avalanches), whereas the more gentle, weakly dissected ground tends to be susceptible to slower-moving, deeper-seated forms of mass movement (soil creep, slumps, and earthflows).
Following the basic scheme of geomorphic landform characterization established by McNab and Avers (1994), the Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis area has been partitioned into seven geomorphic landtypes (Table 2). The spatial distribution of these geomorphic units within the
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis 10 Chapter Two Characterization
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis area is portrayed in Figure 4. A comprehensive description of the geomorphic landtypes is contained in the Geology/Geomorphology section of Appendix A.
Table 2. Generalized description of geomorphic landtypes. Ss Well-dissected, steep sideslopes (>65% steepness) Ig Valley inner gorge adjacent to rivers and major streams (>65% steepness) Gms Weakly dissected, gentle to moderate-gradient sideslopes (<65% steepness) Dlec Dormant landslide-earthflow complex Alec Active landslide-earthflow complex Lfbt Lava flats, benches, and tablelands (remnant intracanyon lava flows of the High Cascades) Avf Alluvial valley floor floodplains and terraces
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis Chapter Two Characterization 11
Geomorphic Landtypes
Figure 4. Geomorphic Landtypes.
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis 12 Chapter Two Characterization
Material Sources
There are a total of 38 designated material sources identified within the Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis area (Figure 5). The status of these material sources appears in Table 3. Developed material sources vary in size from small roadside borrow pits that are only a tenth of an acre in area, to expansive rock quarries with stockpile areas that cover nearly 15 acres.
Table 3. Material locations and status in the Copeland-Calf Watershed.
Common Name Ref. ID No. Status(1) Comments
Upper Copeland Creek 320202 Inactive Foster Creek 320205 Active ODOT entry (mineral material permit) fy95, FS entry fy97 Twin Lakes 320206 Prospective Unnamed 320208 Inactive Unnamed 320209 Inactive Unnamed 320210 Inactive Mud Lake Mountain 320303 Prospective Mud Lake Mountain #2 320304 Prospective Elk Meadows 320305 Inactive Ridge 320306 Prospective Mud Basin 320402 Inactive Unnamed 320408 Prospective Unnamed 320409 Prospective Unnamed 320410 Inactive Unnamed 320411 Inactive Panther Ridge 420202 Closed Middle Calf 420408 Prospective Calf Creek 420501 Inactive Deception Creek 420502 Closed Unnamed 420503 ? No Supervisor’s Office (SO) project file Horseshoe 420504 Prospective High Horse 420505 Prospective Squash 420506 Prospective Unnamed 420507 Inactive Wilson Creek 420601 Inactive Little Oak 420602 Inactive Unnamed 420603 Closed OK Butte 420701 Inactive Unnamed 420703 Closed Calfhead 420704 Prospective Upper Calf 420705 Inactive Squash #2 420706 Prospective Upper Squash 420707 Prospective Unnamed 420712 Inactive Raged Ridge 540201 Prospective Eagle Ridge 540301 ? No SO project file Illahee #2 540302 Prospective Grassy Ranch 540303 Inactive
1. Active status is defined as an entry into a designated material source within the past 5-year period, or a planned entry in the foreseeable future, based on a “proposed action” under NEPA.
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis Chapter Two Characterization 13
Material Source Locations
Figure 5. Material source locations within Copeland-Calf Watershed.
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis 14 Chapter Two Characterization
Review of the Forest rock resource project files disclose that amounts of available reserves of quality (suitable) rock remains largely unknown at most designated material sources within the Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis area. A substantial number of the designated material sources are undeveloped prospects. The Foster Creek material source is recognized as the only active rock quarry. The majority of developed material sources are either inactive or closed, due to depletion of suitable rock or from a variety of management concerns or restrictions. Management concerns and restrictions for individual material sources listed previously are summarized in the data table linked to the Forest Rock Resources Arc-View coverage presently under development.
With the advent of the NFP in 1994 commercial timber harvest and road construction have been restricted throughout much of the Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis area. As a significant portion of the Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis area lies within Late-Successional Reserves, quarry development has been severely curtailed. Since 1994 there have been only two reported entries into designated material sources within the Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis area. Both have taken place at the Foster Creek material source. In 1995 the Oregon Department of Transportation (ODOT) made a major entry into this pit in conjunction with an overlay project along Highway 138. In 1997 the North Umpqua Ranger District made a minor entry to remove stockpiled riprap materials. The outlook for future entries into designated material sources for large volumes of rock materials for use as crushed rock aggregate and riprap appear to be minimal.
Drilling costs to determine reserves of suitable rock at a quarry site are high.. Very few rock quarries are drilled today on the Forest due to lack of funding. As a consequence, there is significantly more risk of extracting marginal or unsuitable rock with each subsequent entry into a developed rock source. Development of new material sources or expansion of existing quarries is not likely today, due to an array of environmental restrictions and the time needed for NEPA documentation.
SOIL
Soil Development
Soil development is based on five factors: geology/parent material, geologic time, climate, topography, and organic matter (i.e., micro and macro communities). The soils in the Copeland- Calf Watershed Analysis area are derived from various parent materials, including volcanic, glacial, and colluvial material.
Soils Present in the Watershed Area
To determine the soils present in the watershed, information from the Soil Resource Inventory (SRI) was used. Within the watershed, 80 Land Resource Inventory (LRI) landtypes have been
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis Chapter Two Characterization 15 identified; 31 are consocations (separate landtypes) and 49 are complexes (combinations of separate land types). Land types identified vary from those with young horizon development (i.e., talus slopes and coarse-textured volcanic soils), to those with well-developed horizons and soils buried by volcanic or colluvial material.
HYDROLOGY
Climate
The analysis area is characterized by a temperate, maritime climate, due to the proximity of the Pacific Ocean. Low intensity precipitation caused by warm fronts coming off the ocean is augmented by the orographic effect created when moist air masses are forced up and over the Cascade Range. Annual precipitation within the analysis area ranges from 50 to 65 inches per year. Annual precipitation during the period 1956-1999 averaged 54 inches at a nearby gage. Over 78% of the rainfall occurs during the months of October thru March (Figure 6).
Average Monthly Precipitation 1956-1999
9
8
7
6
5
(inches) 4 Precipitation Precipitation
3
2
1
0 Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep
Figure 6. Average monthly precipitation at the former Steamboat Ranger Station from 1956-1999. While this precipitation gage at the old Steamboat Ranger Station is slightly downstream of the analysis area, it is representative of the rainfall patterns.
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis 16 Chapter Two Characterization
Hydrology
The streamflow regime of the analysis area is a result of seasonal snowmelt, rainfall, and groundwater input. The Upper North Umpqua River basin (above Soda Springs Dam) is composed primarily of fractured volcanic rock with the high water storage capacity typical of the High Cascades. This underlying geology seasonally distributes water differently than the lower tributaries with shallow soils and less permeable bedrock. The snowmelt-driven hydrology and groundwater storage capacity in the upper portion of the watershed appreciably augments the ground water reserves and the summer low flows in the mainstem of the North Umpqua River. Average monthly streamflows show only moderate fluctuations at the North Umpqua gaging station at Toketee Falls, which measures the flow, predominately, from the High Cascades (Figure 7).
Comparison of Stream Flows
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6 % of Annual Streamflow of Annual % 4
2
0 Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep North Umpqua River at Toketee Falls North Umpqua abv Rock Creek Steamboat Creek
Figure 7. Comparison of the percentage of monthly stream flows from the High Cascades and the Western Cascades.
The tributaries within the analysis area contribute little to summer baseflow in the North Umpqua mainstem, due to the low water storage capacity of the Western Cascade geology and the rainfall driven hydrology. The hydrology of High Cascades and Western Cascades culminates to create the streamflow pattern observed in the mainstem of the North Umpqua River downstream of the analysis area. This is evidenced by the streamflow recorded at the North Umpqua above Rock Creek gaging station. Summer and winter baseflow have not
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis Chapter Two Characterization 17 changed significantly since regulation at Soda Springs Dam began in 1952 (Stillwater Sciences, Inc. 1998).
Peak flows can be much higher in the lower tributaries compared to the headwaters of the North Umpqua above Soda Springs Reservoir. Rainfall and rain-on-snow (ROS) events are not moderated by the storage capacity of the underlying bedrock, as is the case with streams in the High Cascades geology within the transient snow zone.
Water Quality
Water chemistry in the North Umpqua River is characteristic of the volcanic geology of the Cascades. Concentrations of both cations and anions in the water column were found to be low. The low buffering capacity of the water makes it very susceptible to pH fluctuations. - Reduction of the limited CO2 (or bicarbonate HCO3 ) in the water, due to algal photosynthesis during the afternoon, can increase pH significantly. While pH values within the analysis area do not exceed the state standard of 8.5, there is an obvious afternoon increase at some sample sites, which indicates increased photosynthesis. The decrease in dissolved oxygen observed in the mainstem of the river during the afternoon is characteristic of a response to increasing water temperature, as oxygen saturation is inversely proportional to temperature. This disparity, however, can be explained by the morphology of the river. Primary production may be occurring as indicated by the diel changes in pH, but dissolved oxygen (DO) increases may be masked by the turbulence created by the many rapids and falls on the river.
Low concentrations of the trace elements arsenic, barium, manganese, and aluminum have been detected during low flow sampling. During high flow sampling, additional trace elements copper and nickel have been detected. Detection of arsenic is probably the most significant finding. Concentration is approximately one-half of the standard set by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in their Risk Specific Health Advisory. The source of the arsenic is unknown, however, arsenic is commonly derived from volcanic geology. Volcanic geology comprises much of the North Umpqua River basin. Bed sediment concentrations of arsenic, chromium, copper, manganese, and nickel exceeded available reference levels for potential adverse effects to some aquatic organisms.
Nitrogen was rarely detected in the mainstem and tributaries, despite the sometimes- abundant algal growth. The 1992-95 synoptic water quality study of the North Umpqua River documented that the system may be nitrogen limited (USGS 1998). It is suspected that inputs of nitrogen tend to be taken up by algae immediately upon entry into the stream rather than remaining in the water column.
Phosphorus in the water column is more common in the river than nitrogen. The high levels that exist in the river may be due to the volcanic geology of the basin. Phosphorus concentrations in the mainstem showed a slight but steady decrease from Soda Springs downstream to Glide. These decreases could indicate that aquatic organisms take up the
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis 18 Chapter Two Characterization available phosphorus. Due to the lack of nitrogen and relative abundance of phosphorus, the river is believed to be a nitrogen-limited system.
The temperature in the mainstem of the North Umpqua River increases downstream. The state spawning temperature (55°F, 7-day mean) standard is exceeded in the mainstem of the river downstream of Copeland Creek. Calf and Copeland Creeks exceed the state rearing temperature (64°F, 7-day mean) criteria. These violations have been placed on the Oregon Department of Environmental Quality (ODEQ) 303d list, which identifies water quality limited streams. Dry and Deception Creeks have also exceeded the rearing standard during recent monitoring.
STREAM CHANNEL
Fish Bearing Streams and Lakes
Fish bearing waters within the analysis area can be divided into five areas: Copeland Creek, Calf Creek, Dry Creek, Deception Creek, and Twin Lakes.
Surveys were performed on these streams using the USFS Region 6, Level II stream survey methodology. Stream surveys were conducted on Copeland Creek in 1999, and on the tributaries West Copeland Creek, East Copeland Creek, and Raven Creek in 2000. Two tributary streams, Mud Lake Mountain Tributary to Copeland Creek and an unnamed tributary to Copeland Creek had informal surveys conducted in 2000. Calf Creek was surveyed in 1989, 1990, and 1991. Dry Creek was surveyed in 1999 and Deception Creek in 1998. The only documented survey of Twin Lakes occurred in August of 1978.
Copeland Creek
Copeland Creek drains an area of approximately 23,500 acres and has a channel mainstem length of approximately 11.5 miles. Streamflow measured at the mouth of Copeland Creek in July 1999 was approximately 17 cubic feet per second (cfs).
The valley bottom of Copeland Creek is somewhat variable throughout the mainstem length. In general, the valley bottom is “V-shaped”, with floor widths of less than 100 feet and side slopes of 30%-60%. All reaches are Rosgen “B” type channels. A section of inner-canyon gorge exists in the lower portion of the drainage as the stream enters the North Umpqua River. Tributaries to the mainstem are also Rosgen “B” channels. They are generally “V-shaped”, with steep channel gradients, narrow floodplains (< 50 feet), and very steep sideslopes.
The Copeland Creek channel mainstem was divided into 5 reaches, based on gross channel morphology and flow changes from tributaries. The substrate of all 5 reaches was dominated by cobble-sized material, with strong bedrock and boulder components present. The distribution of gravel-sized material was limited and patchy. The larger deposits were typically associated with
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis Chapter Two Characterization 19 the tailouts of deep pools or the presence of Large Woody Debris (LWD). Very low levels of LWD were present in the lower 2/3 of the stream channel. In the middle of Reach 4 (where the road ends), the frequency of LWD presence increases sharply and remains at a higher level throughout the remainder of channel length surveyed. The pool frequency in Copeland Creek decreases from the mouth to headwaters, from a pool:riffle ratio of about 38/62 in Reach 1, to 22/78 in Reach 5. The channel gradient increases over this same distance from 2.5% near the stream mouth to 8% in the uppermost reach surveyed. The riparian area of the stream was dominated by large tree-sized Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and large amounts of red alder (Alnus rubra).
The stream was influenced by 30 tributaries and many small seeps throughout the channel length, however, at the time of survey, only the following five tributaries appreciably affected the flow regime: Foster Creek contributed about 5% of the total discharge, West Copeland Creek contributed approximately 15%, East Copeland Creek about 20%, Raven Creek about 25%, and an unnamed tributary entering approximately 1.5 miles upstream from East Copeland Creek accounted for about 20%. Small seeps were encountered sporadically throughout the survey on both banks, many of which contained a reddish-orange staining to occur on immediately adjacent substrate. These particular seeps often had odorless gas percolating from their source and frequently exhibited a thick precipitate when in still-water pools. A similar precipitate was also noted adhering to the substrate in the lower channel of East Copeland Creek. Besides the reddish material found on the substrate in East Copeland Creek, a whitish precipitate was also noted.
Four fish bearing tributaries are present within the Copeland Creek drainage; West Copeland Creek, Mud Lake Mountain Creek, Raven Creek, and an unnamed tributary entering from the east, approximately ¼ mile above the Road 28 bridge crossing. Fish distribution extends for 0.5 miles up West Copeland Creek, ending just below a 35-foot waterfall. Fish habitat in West Copeland Creek is of fair quality, with substrate dominated by bedrock. Fish distribution extends for 0.4 miles up Mud Lake Mountain Creek, ending at a 12-foot high waterfall. Habitat is similar to Raven Creek. Fish distribution extends for the first 0.8 miles of Raven Creek, ending at an 18- foot waterfall. Habitat in Raven Creek is fairly homogeneous, generally containing low to high gradient riffles interspersed with small, infrequent scour pools. Substrate is dominated by gravel, with a substantial bedrock component present. In the unnamed tributary to Copeland Creek, fish distribution extends for approximately 1/3 mile and ends just slightly upstream from a culvert located under the 28-900 Road. Habitat in this tributary is of poor quality, with only 60% of the flow on the surface, cobble-sized, angular substrate, high stream gradient, and approximately 0.25 cfs of flow. Anadromous fish access is highly improbable due to a 10-foot high, steep gradient chute, with very shallow flow. Riparian cover on all tributaries was nearly entirely intact and consisted of mostly large tree-sized Douglas-fir, with a significant component of red alder.
A portion of a waterfall, located approximately 1.5 miles up Copeland Creek, was blasted in 1982 to create a “fish ladder”. A small amount of “sill” and “cover” logs, as well as stumps, were cabled into the Copeland Creek channel in 1985. “Potholes” were blasted, both above and below the falls, in 1988-89. Riparian restoration occurred on Foster Creek (a tributary to Copeland Creek) to mitigate a chronic sedimentation concern in 1993 or 1994.
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis 20 Chapter Two Characterization
Calf Creek
Calf Creek drains an area of approximately 12,260 acres and has a mainstem length of approximately 7.5 miles. Soils within the basin are well, to excessively well-drained, which contributes to the “flashy” hydrology of the Calf Creek stream system. Streamflow measured at the mouth of Calf Creek in August 1989 was 10 cfs.
For the purposes of basin description, the Calf Creek drainage can be broken down into three distinct sections.
The lower section of the basin (river mile 0 to 1.5) has been subjected to a wide range of land management activities. These include timber harvest, rock quarry activity, and fire salvage as recent as 1988. The stream has also been extensively modified, with the installation of 176 fish habitat improvement structures from 1984 to 1989.
The middle portion of the watershed (river mile 1.5 to 6.0) is currently managed as part of the Calf-Copeland Roadless area. To date, there has been no timber harvest activity in this part of the basin. A total of 5,767 acres (45%) of the Calf Creek basin are within the roadless area.
A majority of the upper portion of the basin and headwaters of Calf Creek (above river mile 6) have been extensively managed for timber harvest since the mid 1950’s, with re-entry into the basin in the early 1960’s, late 1970’s, and 1980’s. There was no harvest within the watershed during the 1990’s. A total of 2,319 acres (18%) of the Calf Creek Basin have been clearcut harvested.
Approximately 5 miles of the Calf Creek mainstem were surveyed using the Region 6 Level II stream survey methodology during the summers of 1989, 1990, and 1991. Calf Creek has a moderate “V”-shape valley, with side slopes ranging from 30%-60% and a valley floor width of <100 feet. The average channel sinuosity is considered to be moderate to low. The surveys indicate that the mainstem is a Rosgen type “B” channel, with average channel gradients ranging from 2% to 9%. As a result of stream cleanout and historic debris flow activity large wood densities within Calf Creek are considered to be low. The average summer wetted width in Calf Creek is approximately 23 feet, while the average bankfull width to depth ratio is approximately 16. Pools constituted approximately 38% of the surveyed reach and had an average depth of approximately 3 feet. Streambed substrate in Calf Creek is dominated by bedrock and cobble substrate. The mainstem of Calf Creek can be described as being transportational in terms of sediment routing and its bedrock dominated morphology make it highly resistant to change. A dome falls at approximately river mile 0.4 blocks the progression of coho and chinook salmon into the basin. The falls is not a barrier to steelhead.
Riparian canopy closure along Calf Creek is good and was rated at >60% during the 1991 survey. Douglas -fir in the small and large tree size class are the dominant riparian vegetation, although a stream-side row of alder is more or less constant along the mainstem and serves to increase summer time stream shading.
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis Chapter Two Characterization 21
Calf Creek has been the focus of fisheries-based studies and projects. From 1984 to 1989, 176 fish habitat improvement structures were installed in the lower 2.0 miles of Calf Creek. These structures included log weirs, log deflectors, root wads, boulder clusters, and blast pools. Fish habitat surveys, salmon and steelhead spawning ground surveys, and juvenile steelhead outmigrant trapping have all been conducted on Calf Creek during the 1990’s. The results of most of these efforts are available in report form on the North Umpqua Ranger District.
Dry Creek
Dry Creek is a third order stream located within a 2,482-acre watershed. Dry Creek contains approximately 0.5 miles of anadromous habitat and about 4.5 miles of resident fish habitat. Streamflow measured at the mouth of Dry Creek in August 1999 was approximately 0.8 cfs.
Dry Creek was surveyed for 4.5 miles using the Region 6 Level II stream survey methodology during the summer of 1999. Dry Creek has a moderate “V”-shaped valley, with side slopes ranging from 30%-60% and a valley floor width of approximately 100 feet. The average channel sinuosity is considered to be low. The 1999 survey indicates that the channel is a Rosgen type “B” channel that has transitioned to a type “A” channel in the upper mainstem. Stream gradients ranged from 5% to 10%. Large wood densities within the mainstem of Dry Creek were low, although small wood and debris complexes were present and helped to create some habitat diversity. The average summer wetted width within the mainstem of Dry Creek was approximately 8 feet, while the average bankfull width to depth ratio was approximately 18. Pools constituted approximately 18% of the surveyed reach and had an average depth of 1.6 feet. Cobble-sized material made up nearly half of the streambed substrate, with gravel and boulder- sized substrates making up the remainder. A 20-foot bedrock chute, with a gradient of 30%, is located at approximately river mile 0.5. It is believed to limit the progression of anadromous salmonids into Dry Creek.
Riparian canopy closure along Dry Creek is good at >60%. Douglas-fir in the small and large tree-sized categories are the dominant riparian trees, although a stream-side row of alder is more or less constant along the mainstem and serves to increase summer time stream shading.
Deception Creek
Deception Creek is a third order stream located within a 3,484-acre watershed. Deception Creek contains approximately 0.5 miles of anadromous fish bearing stream and 1.6 miles of resident fish bearing stream. Streamflow measured at the mouth of Deception Creek in September 1998 was approximately 0.3 cfs.
The lower 1.6 miles of Deception Creek were surveyed using the Region 6 Level II stream survey methodology during the summer of 1998. Deception Creek has a moderate “V”-shaped valley, with sideslopes ranging from 30%-60% and a valley floor width of approximately 75 feet. The average channel sinuosity is considered to be low. The 1998 survey showed that the mainstem was a Rosgen type “A” channel, with gradients ranging from 5% to 20%. Large wood densities
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis 22 Chapter Two Characterization were relatively low throughout the surveyed portions of the mainstem, although wood densities were higher in the lower portion of the mainstem. The average wetted summer width in Deception Creek was approximately 10 feet, while the average bankfull width to depth ratio was approximately 12. Pools, although documented to be filling with sands and silt-sized sediment, constituted approximately 33% of the surveyed reach. Average pool depth was measured at approximately 2 feet. For the most part, streambed substrates were dominated by cobble and gravel-sized substrate, although exposed bedrock was present throughout the surveyed reaches. Andromous salmonid access in Deception Creek is limited by a 61-foot long, 22% gradient chute, at approximately river mile 0.5.
Riparian canopy closure along Deception Creek is good at >60%. Douglas-fir in the small and large tree-sized categories are the dominant riparian trees, although a stream-side row of alder is more or less constant along the mainstem and serves to increase summer time stream shading.
Twin Lakes
Twin Lakes are located near the top of the ridge dividing the Calf and Copeland Creek Watersheds, near the peak of Twin Lakes Mountain (elevation 5,080 feet). The lakes are located at an elevation of approximately 5,040 feet above sea level, with about a 10 foot difference in elevation between the lakes. The two lakes are referred to as Twin Lake East and Twin Lake West, (or the Large and Small Twin, respectively) and are located a few hundred feet apart. The lakes are connected by a short stream. The outlet stream (Twin Lakes Creek) from Twin Lake East drains into Calf Creek.
Twin Lake West has a surface area of approximately 6 acres, with a maximum depth of about 30 feet. Twin Lake East has a surface area of approximately 14 acres, with a maximum depth of about 50 feet. Lake substrate is generally rock, silt, and organic detritus. Both lakes contain submerged and emergent aquatic vegetation, with submerged aquatic vegetation being extensive (up to 40% of surface area) in Twin Lake West. Outflow from Twin Lake East into Twin Lakes Creek was estimated at 1.5 cfs at the time of the August 1978 survey.
The Twin Lakes area is a frequently used recreational site during the summer, with fishing for introduced brook trout being one of the primary attractions for recreationists.
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VEGETATION
The vegetative communities are greatly influenced by the broad environmental gradients mapped within the analysis area (Figure 8). At one extreme are gentle and moist land units and at the other extreme are steep and dry land units. Environmental gradients and topography are two factors that help shape landscape disturbance patterns. In the analysis area, elevation also plays a key role in typing plant association groups across the landscape and in interactions with disturbance agents. The lower portion of the watershed is also influenced by east-west canyon winds and strong mid-slope thermal belt layers, which affect vegetative burning patterns and fire severity.
Broad series of plant association groups (PAG) within the watershed include Douglas-fir, Oregon white oak, white fir, and also western hemlock at low-elevations. Douglas-fir is present and dominant in all PAGs mapped. Four species of pine are distributed extensively across approximately 40% of the watershed. Ponderosa and sugar pine populations are evenly distributed throughout the lower elevations. Western hemlock constitutes the majority of the PAG in the mid-elevation band of the watershed, complimented by white fir and small inclusions of Douglas-fir. Here, sugar and ponderosa pine are joined by western white pine as key structure and species components within forest stands. At the high elevation areas, Pacific silver fir, mountain hemlock, high elevation white fir and western hemlock share the PAG mapping and further include the knobcone pine species as a diverse component of the stands. Western white pine is a key stand component.
Ages of late-seral vegetation within the watershed span from a low of around 70 years of age up to several hundred years, depending on land unit type. Typical old tree ages on gentle and moist land units average around 300-350 years, with a few living over 500 years as individual or grouped residual legacy trees. Trees within the moderate landscape average around 150-200 years of age, with some living over 350 years as individual or grouped residual legacy trees. Trees within the steep and dry landscape average around 80-120 years of age with some living over 250 years old as individual or grouped residual legacy trees. High elevation stands have typical old trees that average 200-250 years of age, with some living over 600 years as individual or grouped residual legacy trees.
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Figure 8. Broad environmental landscape-level gradients.
Landscape Patterns
Landscape patterns were divided into three broad classifications, which are roughly equivalent to (early, mid or late) seral stages. The landscape within the watershed was naturally dynamic. Historically, changes were mainly influenced by the climate and natural disturbances, with wildfire as the main mechanism of change. Lightning was the main cause of wildfires, but humans have caused many fires throughout the centuries. These fires created a non-steady state, shifting mosaic pattern of forest patches of varying shapes and sizes through time. Historic Vegetative Structure – 1947 (Figure 9), and Current Vegetation - 2001 (Figure 10) show how landscape patterns within the watershed have changed in the last 50 years.
Changes in landscape patterns were analyzed by comparing the current patterns with historic patterns of the 1940’s. Landscape patterns for the current conditions were developed through interpretation of aerial photos taken in 1997. Patterns for the historic (or reference) period were
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis Chapter Two Characterization 25 obtained from historical vegetation mapping done in 1948 and through interpretation of aerial photos taken in 1946.
Over the last few centuries and up until the last few decades of the 20th century, the watershed was mainly covered by contiguous, late-successional forests with scattered patches of early to mid-successional forests resulting from stand replacement fires (Figure 9). Late-successional forest seemed to be concentrated around the gentler, moister terrains and high elevation sites. The patch pattern in the northern portion of the watershed consisted of many smaller patches in the steep and dry land units. Riparian forest patterns were well defined in this portion of the watershed. The middle and southern portion of the watershed were characterized by larger patches, indicative of higher severity fires, and showed large sections of riparian forests having been burned through. Overall, contiguous late-successional forest covered the majority of the watershed through time.
Fire suppression since the early 1920’s has significantly altered how fire affects the landscape within the watershed by greatly diminishing the occurrence of high-severity, stand replacement fires. In addition, highway and road construction, development of human infrastructures, residences, and timber harvesting over the last 50 years have caused major changes to the watershed landscape, causing patterns to deviate from their natural range.
Historic patterns on the landscape were relics of stand-replacement, large, moderate severity fires. Today’s landscape patterns are primarily created through clearcut timber harvesting and road construction. When compared to the historic (reference) patterns, today’s patterns are more fragmented, with smaller patch size and less connectivity (Figure 10).
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Figure 9. Historic vegetative structure-1947.
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Figure 10. Current vegetation-2001.
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Forest Zones
The distribution of forest zones (i.e., forest types, plant series, or plant association groups) throughout the watershed is quite complex. There are four primary forest zones that occur within the watershed (Figure 11). They are described below:
Douglas-fir
This zone occurs on the upper slopes and ridges, usually with steep gradients and southerly aspects. The diversity of plant associations is relatively low. Most of the plants that occur are adapted to drier conditions. Douglas-fir dominates the stands. Common associates are incense cedar, ponderosa pine, sugar pine, and less commonly, white fir. Western hemlock and western redcedar are uncommon and mostly absent. Madrone, tanoak, Oregon white oak, and golden chinquapin are the dominant hardwood species. Other hardwoods found in this zone include canyon live oak and occasionally big-leaf maple. The shrub layer is usually sparse, but includes both deerbrush and whitethorn ceanothus. Soils are generally shallow with low moisture availability. The convex landforms characteristic of this zone maintain “young” and relatively unproductive soils through erosion. Small bench areas within this zone are productive microsites that often offer establishment advantages to sugar and ponderosa pine. Generally though, because of harsher growing conditions, these areas are slow to revegetate after disturbances, exposing the soil to more erosion through time. The result is a zone that produces less biomass and smaller diameter trees. Based on a summary of old-growth characteristics, the average old-growth stand in this zone is two-storied and about 200 years in age, with approximately 8-10 trees/acre ranging in diameter from 24-37 inches. High quality, late-successional habitat characteristics can be achieved in this zone, similar to those found in moister forest zones, however, they are usually achieved more slowly, by as much as 50 years, and are maintained with frequent fire returns that reduce and thin understory competition.
Dry Western Hemlock Zone
This forest zone is very common within the planning area, particularly at the low-mid elevation sites. Douglas-fir is the dominant tree species with scattered incense cedar, sugar pine, ponderosa pine, Pacific yew and western redcedar. Western hemlock dominates the understory tree layer and is the climax tree species. However, due to the presence of fire and other disturbances, mature stands are often dominated by large, old Douglas-fir that can persist for centuries. Thus, overstory dominance is sometimes shared between Douglas-fir, incense cedar, sugar pine, ponderosa pine, western hemlock, and scattered white fir. This zone has the highest plant diversity, exhibiting hardwood species seen in both the Douglas-fir and moist western hemlock zones. Based on a summary of old-growth characteristics from site class 3-5 western hemlock plots, the average stand is two-storied and about 200 years in age, with approximately eight trees/acre ranging in diameter from 21-31 inches.
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Moist Western Hemlock Zone
This zone encompasses the moister, low elevation environments. There is a strong association with riparian influences and earth flow terrain. The topography is mostly gentle, with northerly aspects and undulating to concave in form. In this zone, western hemlock is expected to become the dominant tree species, given the opportunity to achieve a long-term stable state. The major conifer species in this zone are Douglas-fir, western hemlock, western white pine, and western redcedar. Minor conifer species include Pacific yew, white fir, and sugar pine. Hardwoods include big-leaf maple, golden chinquapin, dogwood, and red alder. The shrub and herbaceous layers are diverse with species such as vine maple, willow, dogwood, rushes, sedges, and grasses. This zone is highly productive and produces a considerable amount of biomass, including large diameter trees. Based on a summary of old-growth characteristics from high site class (1-2) western hemlock plots, the average stand is multi-storied and about 200 years in age, with approximately eight trees/acre ranging in diameter from 35-42 inches.
True Fir Zones (White Fir, Silver Fir and Mountain Hemlock) These zones generally occur above 4,000 feet elevation. White fir seems to be more common in the cooler, drier areas in upper elevations and in hot and dry areas at lower elevations. Under a natural fire disturbance regime, Douglas-fir will usually dominate the overstory, however, with the lack of fire, white fir will become the climax species. The major conifer species in this zone are Douglas-fir, white fir (especially in the understory) and western white pine. Minor conifer species include western hemlock, sugar pine, Pacific silver fir, Pacific yew, Shasta red fir, mountain hemlock, and incense-cedar. Hardwoods include golden chinquapin in the drier areas, with alder and bigleaf maple in the moister sites. Based on a summary of old-growth characteristics from white fir plots taken in Central Oregon, the average old-growth stand is two- storied and about 150 years in age, with approximately 10-20 trees/acre averaging 21 inches in diameter.
In the high elevation moist areas with moderate temperatures, short growing seasons, and late summer dry season, the dominant climax tree species is Pacific silver fir. It commonly shares dominance with western white pine, mountain hemlock, Shasta red fir and white fir. It can produce pure stands in moister localities. Other associates include western hemlock, Douglas-fir, incense cedar and western redcedar. The true fir zone is generally a very diverse zone for tree species. Snow accumulation is high in this zone and provides moisture well into the dry season. The zone is characterized by a high occurrence of lightning-caused fires that commonly burn as low intensity ground fires. Infrequent, higher intensity fires can occur in this zone during extended hot and dry climatic conditions. Based on a summary of old-growth characteristics from Pacific silver fir plots, the average old-growth stand is two-storied and about 190 years in age, with approximately 6-7 trees/acre averaging 25 inches in diameter.
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Figure 11. Copeland-Calf forest zones.
Forest Structure
Forests usually follow a typical progression of stand structures over time (Figure 12) until the next disturbance, which can happen at any time during its development, alters its structure and sets it along another course, or back to “time zero”. Because of the moderate climate and fire regime, most forest stands in southwestern Oregon are more complex and diverse than their northern counterparts. They contain more tree species with more variations in size, age, and density than in the typical northern temperate forest stand. These more complex stand structures are primarily a result of frequent, low to moderate-intensity fires that mostly under-burn and occasionally kill groups of trees, creating a mosaic of stand structures.
The following definitions represent four basic stand structure conditions along the continuum of forest succession. Each description is an “idealized” picture of a stand condition at one point in time. Forest stands will eventually reach a point where they fit that stand structure definition.
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As they grow away from that condition and toward another, many stands will be in a transition area where they do not quite fit either description.
Forest Succession And Stand Structure Schematic
Timeline 0-30 30-100 100-160 160+ (Years) Successional Early Mid Late Stage Forest Stand Stand Understory Stem Exclusion Old Forest Structure Initiation Reinitiation
Figure 12. Timeline and cross-reference schematic for natural forest succession and stand structure stages.
Stand Initiation
In this stage, conifer and hardwood seedlings/saplings, grasses, herbs, and/or shrubs dominate the stand. Normally, components from the previous stand (snags, down wood, and remnant larger green trees) would occur. These components are usually absent in old clearcut timber harvest units or where burned areas were salvage logged.
Competition has not yet resulted in widespread loss of grass, herb, and shrub layers. Growth is vigorous. This continues for up to 25-30 years before crown closure shades the lower layers sufficiently so that the grasses, herbs, and shrubs begin to lose vigor and die.
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Stem Exclusion
During the stem exclusion stage, conifers fully occupy the stand forming a single canopy layer. There is little to no understory development. Forest floor vegetation is sparse and consists of shade-tolerant species such as Oregon-grape, swordfern and salal. Understory trees, if any, provide minimal layering and are in “survival” mode. Death of some understory trees may be evident.
Early in this stage, most trees have large crowns and are growing rapidly. A lack of disturbance and high stocking densities over an extended period of time slows individual tree and stand growth and crowns recede. Stands can remain in this condition for decades. Release from suppression/competition is possible if a tree has a viable live crown. Eventually disturbance and/or competition (e.g., disease, wind, or fire) may thin out the stand, encouraging understory reinitiation.
Understory Reinitiation
These stands contain more diverse herb and shrub layers and a tree canopy ranging from single- species/single-layered to multiple-species stands. However, significant layering of tree crowns has not yet developed. Adequate light enters the stand allowing both shade tolerant and intolerant herb and shrub species to develop and flourish.
Understory trees are vigorous and beginning to diversify. Vertical layering is beginning. In southwestern Oregon, the understory reinitiation process is very important and may last for extended periods of time. Many stands may have recycled through this process several times through their life history in successive fire events to develop older forest structures. This is particularly true for the ponderosa and sugar pine habitat areas. Burning cycles in the lower Copeland-Calf Watershed area were rather frequent. Fires maintained some stands in a semi- permanent understory reinitiation condition. Many pine seedlings would establish and eventually perish during the next fire disturbance, although small groups and individuals would remain and form another stand cohort.
Old Forest
In old forests, the vertical structure and species composition is more complex than in the understory reinitiation stage. Shrub and herb layers and multiple tree canopies are present. At the more ecologically complex end of this stand condition are stands that have a mixture of tree cohorts of shade-tolerant and intolerant tree species, as well as shrub and herb species.
Tree crowns are arranged in a variety of configurations with significant layering of tree crowns. Substantial amounts of dead trees (snags) and recently fallen trees are usually a common structural feature and may occur in high amounts depending on various factors, including site productivity and disturbance history.
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Coarse Woody Material
The term “coarse woody material” refers to dead trees (snags), fallen trees, large limbs, and branches on the forest floor. It is a major structural component of the forest, providing habitat for many species. It is also necessary for the proper functioning of the forest ecosystem. Amounts and distribution are affected by several processes including; tree growth and mortality, fire, wind, insects, disease, and decomposition. Topographic position and site productivity, or the ability of the ground to produce biomass, are also critical factors affecting levels of coarse woody material.
Dead and fallen trees dominate the forest structure immediately after a stand replacement fire. This legacy of the pre-existing forest is as important to the functioning of a healthy forest ecosystem as it was before it burned. Large pulses of dead trees were created by wildfire at varying frequencies and spatial extents through time. At a finer scale, levels within the forest vary with the occurrence of wind or wet snow events, insect and disease outbreaks, and the occurrence of small fires. Plot inventory data within unharvested late-successional habitat is used to characterize coarse woody material levels within late-successional forests.
Today, the watershed is highly deficient of natural stand initiation conditions (patches of dead trees) at the landscape level. Only about 380 acres occur in small patches throughout the watershed as a result of the 1996 Spring Creek Fire and mortality incurred from prescribed burning. Historically, patches of snags and future down, coarse woody material were created up to around 6,000 acres in size within the Copeland-Calf Analysis area. Stand initiation patches of today are very different from natural conditions in that they are mostly devoid of snags and down wood, especially in clearcut units that were harvested after 1970.
NATURAL DISTURBANCES
Fire
The fire history of an area is a characterization of the frequency, size, and intensity of fires. Fire effects are evident as scars on trees, different age classes of trees or shrubs, and species composition. Fire has played a major role in development and maintenance of vegetation in the area. Evidence of stand replacement and stand thinning fires is still visible on the landscape in both the pattern of vegetation and species composition and structure. It is typical for large fires in western Oregon to burn until extinguished by fall rains.
A large portion of the analysis area is allocated to LSR 222. The purpose of this reserve is to provide and maintain “old-growth” habitat. Characteristics of this habitat are both dependant upon, and threatened by fire.
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Wildfires have been, and continue to be, relatively common in the watershed. The amount of disturbance as a result of these fires has been limited with the advent of modern fire suppression. In “Reminiscences of Southern Oregon Pioneers, a Personal Interview With George A. Bonebrake”, Mr. Bonebrake tells of a number of fires, spread out over the district, started by an electrical storm on July 5, 1910; many of which were not extinguished until fall rains in September (Perkins 1938). Horace Cochran, an early ranger, describes a lightning storm occurring July 6, 1917. This storm produced numerous fires, 48 could be counted from a lookout to the east of the watershed analysis area. In September 1917, the USFS removed the crews because they ran out of funds. The fires were left burning. Winter snows that arrived in mid- October extinguished the fires (Darling 1963).
A local paper, The News Review, reported that on August 20, 1930, fire crews were busy due to “a severe electrical storm that crossed over the Umpqua National Forest”. Numerous fires were started, with the most severe being located between Williams and Bogus Creek (west of the watershed analysis area, along the North Umpqua River). Seven fires were started on Sunday night, with an additional 32 fires started on Tuesday night, August 22, 1930. Another lightning storm occurred on August 14, 1930, and was posted the next day in the News Review. Headlines read, “Lightning Storm Starts 20 Fires in Umpqua Forest; Showers, High Humidity Aid in Subduing Flames”. Again, on August 18, 1931, the newspaper reported small fires kept in check on the Umpqua National Forest. Another electrical storm had crossed the forest leaving 20 small fires in its wake.
Since 1933, fire suppression technology and road access have improved, making fire suppression very successful. As a result of this the watershed is characterized by artificially small fires that cause very little disturbance to the area.
Wind, Insects, and Disease
Wind
Wind provides both small and large-scale changes to forest structure. In Oregon the majority of strong surface winds are from the southwest and are associated with storms moving onto the coast from the Pacific Ocean. When winds are from the west, they are often stronger on the coast than in the interior valleys, due to the north-south orientation of the Coast and Cascade Mountain Ranges, which obstruct and slow down the westerly surface winds. The most potentially damaging winds are those that blow from the south, parallel to the major mountain ranges. The Columbus Day Storm of 1962 was a classic example of a southerly windstorm. There have been a dozen major windstorms since 1880, occurring on the average, every 10 years. All 12 of these storms occurred during the winter, with most occurring between October and January. The last large windstorm within the analysis area occurred in December of 1996.
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Windstorms can cause stem breakage and windthrow, which increases stem decay in wounded trees and leads to bark beetle buildups in wind-thrown trees. The amount of windthrow that occurs today is influenced by the amount of forest edge. Past clearcut harvesting and road building have created several hundreds of miles of high contrast edges (about twice as much as occurred historically). It is common to see blowdown along these human-made edges.
Insects and Disease
Insect and disease incidence and severity in the South Cascade LSRs represent more closely conditions found in the Eastern Oregon Cascades and the Oregon and California Klamath Provinces. This is particularly true at lower elevations (below 3500-4000 feet) and on drier aspects. Fire return intervals were historically much shorter in these LSRs than in areas north and west. Fire exclusion has created stands with higher densities; density-sensitive species have experienced high levels of mortality. Fire exclusion has shifted species composition towards higher proportions of shade tolerant species. Many of these shade tolerant species are highly susceptible to fungal pathogens as well as fire.
Historically, insects and disease played a small, but important role in the forest. Insects like the mountain pine beetle and the Douglas-fir beetle are endemic within the analysis area. Significant outbreaks were rare, except following infrequent large storm fronts, which created significant areas of blowdown. Similarly, root disease was endemic with small pockets of laminated and black stain root rot the most prevalent. Available evidence suggests that root disease centers probably maintained populations of Douglas-fir bark beetles between outbreak years. Dwarf mistletoes have infected small pockets of Douglas-fir and hemlock, creating characteristic “brooms” that affect stand and individual tree health.
Historically, wildfire helped control disease and insect activity and kept the forest healthy. Frequent, low intensity fires that regulated stand densities probably prevented major pine beetle outbreaks in ponderosa pine, sugar pine, and western white pine. An increase in hemlock dwarf mistletoe and pine health problems are maintained by a lack of low intensity fire. The winter storm of 1996 created the most measurable amount of blowdown in any single event since 1962. As a result, an increase in bark beetle activity was apparent in 1998 and 1999. Small pockets of beetle-killed trees are scattered throughout the watershed today in groups of 3-15 trees. Past timber management practices may have also helped increase root disease areas. Black stain root rot has expanded in association with road system development and exists in plantations along old and new spur roads. The timing of thinning operations can influence the expansion of black stain by controlling slash levels that affect insect vector spread.
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SPECIES AND HABITATS
Terrestrial Species
Threatened, Endangered and Sensitive (TES) Species
The analysis area is documented or suspected habitat for 11 species of Threatened, Endangered or Sensitive species. They are as follows: bald eagle, northern spotted owl, southern torrent salamander, northwestern pond turtle, common kingsnake, harlequin duck, peregrine falcon, Pacific shrew, Pacific fringe-tailed bat, California wolverine, and Pacific fisher.
Bald Eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus)
Bald eagles have been reported along the North Umpqua River within the analysis area, but there are no known residents. The area is likely used as a movement corridor with some limited foraging. Eagle habitat within the Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis area is similar to adjacent watersheds along the North Umpqua River. Habitat management for bald eagles should not be a priority issue for this analysis.
Northern Spotted Owl (Strix occidentalis caurina)
The analysis area is documented spotted owl habitat. Fourteen activity centers and owl core areas fall within the analysis boundary. Most of the calling to locate these owls was done in the late 1980’s and early 1990’s. Little or no owl calling has been conducted in the analysis area recently. The entire analysis area was designated as LSR under the NFP. These LSRs are intended to provide a stronghold of spotted owl habitat and are essential to species viability. In addition, approximately 1/3 of the analysis area (mainly in the Copeland Creek drainage) is designated as a Critical Habitat Unit (CHU (CHU OR 28)) for the owl. Management of spotted owl habitat should be a priority wildlife issue for this analysis.
Southern Torrent Salamander (Rhyacotriton variegatus)
This salamander is closely associated with springs, seeps, and rocky water sources. It is believed that the analysis area may be at the eastern and upper elevational limit for this species. Habitat management for this species should not be a priority issue for this analysis.
Northwestern Pond Turtle (Clemmys marmorata)
There are field reports of pond turtles above and below the analysis area along the North Umpqua River, so there is a possibility the species may be present. However, there are few warm ponds in the area and there are no known reports of this species occurring within the analysis boundary.
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The likelihood that there is a resident population is considered low. Habitat management for this species should not be a priority issue for analysis.
Common Kingsnake (Lampropeltis getulus)
Habitat descriptions for this species generally reference it in riparian areas. The highest probability habitat for this species would be in the riparian areas of the North Umpqua River and lower elevation tributaries. Habitat management for this species should not be a priority issue for this analysis.
Harlequin Duck (Histrionicus histrionicus)
This species has been verified within the analysis area along the North Umpqua River and is suspected to occur in Copeland Creek. Habitat availability and sightings suggest that the analysis area provides better breeding habitat than other nearby watersheds. Maintaining or enhancing available habitat may be a viability concern and should be an issue for the analysis.
Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus)
At least one active peregrine falcon nest is located within the analysis area. The analysis area has good falcon habitat, offering several cliff faces that are suitable nesting locations and good foraging habitat along the North Umpqua River and Calf Creek drainage. Most potential nest locations are remote and have a relatively low threat of development, but increasing interest in recreational rock climbing may pose a threat. Peregrine falcon habitat should not be a priority issue for this analysis.
Pacific Shrew (Sorex pacificus)
Not much is known about this species, but habitat descriptions suggest it relies upon moist coniferous forest, with abundant amounts of down wood. There are no known populations in the analysis area, but it has been reported in the Fish Creek basin that is located to the east. Mature forests are common in the analysis area and designation as an LSR will result in increasing amounts of suitable habitat. Habitat management specific to Pacific shrew habitat should not be a priority issue for this analysis.
Pacific Fringe-tailed Bat (Myotis thysanodes)
It is unknown whether this species inhabits the analysis area. Roost sites are most often buildings, mines, or caves. Several rocky cliffs do occur in the analysis area, but their remote location makes it unlikely they will be impacted by management activities. Habitat management for this species should not be a priority issue for this analysis.
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California Wolverine (Gulo gulo luteus)
Most reports of this species tend to be from areas located at higher elevations and near large areas free from human activities. The analysis area does have several large areas without roads that are suitable wolverine habitat. However, when compared to the nearby Rogue-Umpqua Divide and Boulder Creek Wilderness areas, habitat in the analysis area is of lesser quality. Habitat management for wolverine should not be a priority issue for analysis.
Pacific Fisher (Martes pennanti)
The mature forests in the analysis area are suitable fisher habitat. The designation of the area as LSR will result in increasing amounts of suitable habitat through time. Habitat management for fisher should not be a priority issue for analysis.
Survey & Manage Species
During analysis of the NFP, viability assessments of some wildlife species indicated a concern for long-term persistence on federal lands. To help retain these species, they were classified as “Survey and Manage” species. The list of current Survey and Manage wildlife species was reviewed and the following four were identified as occurring, or having potential habitat within the analysis area: flammulated owl, white-headed woodpecker, great grey owl, and red tree vole.
Flammulated Owl and White-headed Woodpecker (Otus flammeolus/Picoides albolarvatus)
These species inhabit open forests, often dominated by ponderosa or sugar pine. The analysis area has a higher occurrence of open forests, especially of ponderosa and sugar pine, than that of the surrounding watersheds. The general abundance and suitability of these habitats has decreased through time. Management of these unique forest habitats may be a viability issue and should be addressed in this analysis.
Great Grey Owl (Strix nebulosa)
These owls are associated with large, natural meadows or grass/forb – late-successional forest edges. The analysis area has numerous meadows, with concentrations of natural openings in the Twin Lakes, Little Oak Flats, Oak Flats, Illahee Flats, and Eagle Ridge areas. Forest records document great grey owls in three locations of the watershed. Current management standards call for buffers around natural openings and protection areas around active nest sites. Since all activities must incorporate these protection measures, habitat management for this owl need not be a priority issue for this analysis.
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Red Tree Vole (Arborimus longicaudus)
No surveys have been conducted in the analysis area for red tree voles, but they have been located in watersheds adjacent to the analysis area. Red tree voles are assumed to occupy the area. This species is believed to occur in highest densities in mature Douglas-fir forests. This type of habitat is abundant in the analysis area and the designation as LSR will result in increasing amounts of suitable red tree vole habitat in the future. Management of mature forests for spotted owl habitat is expected to yield adequate red tree vole habitat. Red tree vole habitat does not need to be a priority analysis issue.
Management Indicator Species (MIS)
Roosevelt Elk/Black-tailed Deer (Cervus elaphus/Odocoileus columbianus)
Both Roosevelt elk and black-tailed deer are common in the analysis area. Areas below 3500 feet in elevation are designated in the LRMP as big game winter range. Subsequently, the entire analysis area was allocated as LSR by the NFP. Meeting big game winter range objectives for forage habitat within LSR areas may be difficult. Integrating winter range habitat objectives within the LSR should be a priority analysis issue.
Pine Marten (Martes Americana)
Pine marten prefer mature forests like those described for fisher. Marten, however, occur more frequently at higher elevations than do fisher. Given that the entire analysis area is LSR, pine marten habitat will increase and improve through time. Habitat management for pine marten should not be a priority analysis issue.
Cavity Nesters
Species that nest within tree cavities are found throughout the analysis area. Snag and down wood levels are expected to increase through time within the LSR. Habitat management specific to these species should not be a priority analysis issue.
Riparian Habitat and Connectivity
Many species of wildlife rely upon riparian areas as essential habitat and as dispersal routes. For species (including many amphibians) with low mobility and high mortality or predation rates in drier habitats, the connectivity of riparian zones is essential to dispersal and long-term viability. Habitat management to ensure riparian connectivity should be a priority analysis issue.
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Mature, Interior Forest Habitat Availability and Connectivity
The entire analysis area is within a designated LSR. This allocation was in response to concerns for spotted owl and old-growth dependant species viability. Habitat management for mature, interior forest availability and connectivity should be a priority analysis issue.
Fish Species
The fish communities within the analysis area contain a mix of native salmonid, native non- salmonid, and exotic species. Native salmonid species include rainbow trout and steelhead (Oncorhynchus mykiss), coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch), coastal cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarki clarki), and spring chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tschawytscha). Native non-salmonid species include longnose dace (Rhinichthys evermanni), speckled dace (Rhinichthys osculus), possibly Pacific lamprey (Lampetra tridentatus), and at least one species of sculpin (Cottus spp.). Exotic species include brown trout (Salmo trutta) and brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis).
Copeland Creek
Fish known to utilize Copeland Creek include a number of native anadromous and resident fish. Anadromous salmonids that use the basin include summer and winter steelhead trout, coho salmon, and spring chinook salmon. Steelhead are known to use the lower 3.3 miles of Copeland Creek. Further passage upstream is blocked by a waterfall. Coho and chinook salmon are confined to the lower 1.5 miles by Copeland Creek falls, a waterfall that blocks their migration further into the basin. Native resident salmonids present within the basin include rainbow, and probably cutthroat trout. Rainbow trout are ubiquitous throughout the Copeland Creek mainstem and are also present in the tributaries Raven Creek, Mud Lake Mountain Creek, West Copeland Creek, and the previously mentioned unnamed tributary to Copeland Creek. Cutthroat trout were almost certainly present historically, and likely abundant, but current utilization appears to be very low to non-existent. Snorkel surveys conducted on the Copeland Creek mainstem and tributaries in 1998-2000 did not detect the presence of cutthroat trout. However, due to the uninhibited connection of the Copeland Creek mainstem to the North Umpqua River, some use of lower Copeland Creek by migratory cutthroat trout could be occurring. Non-salmonid native fish species present within the basin include at least one species of sculpin and possibly Pacific lamprey. The presence of dace has not been documented since 1980. The presence of exotic fish in Copeland Creek has not been documented.
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis Chapter Two Characterization 41
Calf Creek
Fish known to utilize Calf Creek include a number of native anadromous and resident fish, and exotic salmonid species. Calf Creek contains a total of approximately 4.6 miles of anadromous fish dominated stream and 5.5 miles of resident fish dominated stream. The anadromous salmonids that use the basin include summer and winter steelhead trout, coho salmon, and spring chinook salmon. Steelhead are known to use at least the lower 4.6 miles of Calf Creek. Coho and chinook salmon are confined to the lower 0.4 miles by a waterfall that inhibits their progress further up into the basin. Native resident salmonids present within the basin include rainbow and cutthroat trout. Non-salmonid native fish species present within the basin include longnose dace, speckled dace, possibly Pacific lamprey, and at least one species of sculpin.
Exotic salmonids present within the basin include brown trout, which are thought to enter Calf Creek from the mainstem North Umpqua River, and brook trout. Brook trout are stocked in Twin Lakes and enter Calf Creek via migration out of Twin Lakes into Twin Lakes Creek.
Dry Creek and Deception Creek
Fish known to utilize Dry Creek include a number of anadromous and resident fish species. The anadromous salmonids that use the basin include summer and winter steelhead trout, and coho salmon. Coho salmon and steelhead trout are believed to be confined to the lower 0.5 miles of both Dry and Deception Creeks by long, high gradient chutes that inhibit their upstream migration. Native resident fish present within the basin include rainbow and cutthroat trout. Non-salmonid fish species likely to be present within the basin include longnose dace, speckled dace, at least one species of sculpin, and possibly Pacific lamprey.
Twin Lakes
The only fish species known to be present in Twin Lakes is brook trout, an exotic. The first documented stocking of brook trout in Twin Lakes was in 1938, when the USFS stocked the lakes. The lakes are still periodically stocked with brook trout by the Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife (ODFW), with the most recent stocking occurring in July 2001. Spawning is known to occur in the creek connecting the two lakes, and in Twin Lakes Creek, the outlet from Twin Lakes East. Brook trout redds have also been observed in the shallows along the northern edge of West Twin Lake. The belief is that there are areas of ground water upwelling in this portion of the lake that the brook trout utilize during spawning.
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Fish Species Life Histories
Cutthroat Trout
The Umpqua Watershed provides habitat for three life histories of cutthroat trout. These life histores include sea-run (anadromous), river-migrating (potamodromous), and nonmigratory (resident). All of these life histories, below long standing natural barriers, were, until recently (April 2000), listed as "Endangered" under the Endangered Species Act (ESA). However, due to inclusion with a larger Oregon Coastal cutthroat trout ESA, the species previously known as the Umpqua River cutthroat trout has been removed from the Endangered Species List. Oregon Coastal cutthoat trout are currently considered a candidate species and a USFS Region 6, Regional Forester Sensitive species.
Cutthroat trout spawning is believed to occur between December and May, with eggs begining to hatch within 6-7 weeks. Anadromous and potamodromous fish spawn primarily in streams tributary to the North Umpqua River, although some spawning may occur within the river mainstem. Fry emergence occurs in March through May. Emergent fry occupy low-gradient, low-velocity habitats close to stream banks, in side channels, or in backwaters behind woody debris or large substrate materials. During the summer, juvenile cutthroat often migrate to larger streams, where they prefer, and depend on, the presence of large woody material and the associated habitat complexity (Stillwater Sciences, Inc. 1998). In winter, cutthroat trout reside in pools near log jams or over-hanging banks. The downstream migration of juvenile cutthroat within the North Umpqua has been documented to peak in May and June, with a sharp decline in July, although some juveniles were documented migrating in September and October. Upriver migration of adult cutthroat within the Umpqua River system has been documented to occur from June to January, with bimodal peaks in late July and October. Adult cutthroat trout within the mainstem have been observed in riffles, pools, and pool tail-outs, similar to steelhead trout.
Coho Salmon
Coho salmon that use the Umpqua basin are currently listed as a threatened species under the ESA. Unlike the previous Umpqua basin cutthroat trout ESA listing, the coho salmon listing is not watershed specific. It is listed as part of the larger Oregon Coastal coho salmon species.
The mainstem of the North Umpqua River provides spawning, rearing, and migratory habitat for coho salmon. Adult coho can be found migrating in the North Umpqua starting in late September and continuing into December. Spawning occurs from November to January, with most spawning occurring in tributariey streams, although spawning has also been documented on well developed gravel bars within the mainstem river. Eggs can be expected to hatch in 6 to 8 weeks, and fry emergence occurs primarily during March and April. Following emergence, fry generally aggregate in backwaters, side channels, and other low-velocity areas of the stream, especially where there is overhead cover and lower light intensity (Stillwater Sciences Inc. 1998). Juvenile coho in tribuaries to the North Umpqua seem to prefer complex pool habitat with abundant large wood. In the mainstem, juvenile coho have been observed in lateral stream margins and side channels in the spring and were in greater abundance where cover such as small
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis Chapter Two Characterization 43 and large wood was present. The presence or absence of large wood in streams strongly influences the suitability of rearing habitat (Stillwater Sciences, Inc. 1998). Furthermore, a lack of suitable winter habitat may result in poor survival, and many studies indicate that availability of winter habitat may be the ultimate limiting factor for coho in some parts of their range. In the Umpqua basin, summer water temperatures can also limit the extent and survival of over- summering coho. Juvenile coho salmon smolt emigration at age 1 from tributaries to the North Umpqua has been documented to occur from March through June.
Chinook Salmon
The mainstem of the North Umpqua River provides habitat for two life histories of chinook salmon, spring chinook and fall chinook salmon. Adult fall chinook spawning takes place in the lower reaches of the North Umpqua River during October and November. Few, if any, fall chinook make it into the Wild and Scenic portion of the North Umpqua River.
Spring chinook, like cutthroat and coho, are present in the mainstem North Umpqua River year round. Returning adult spring chinook enter the North Umpqua starting in March and continue to migrate to summer holding pools until August, depending upon water conditions and run timing. The adults then over-summer in large deep pools within the mainstem until September when spawning begins, usually just prior to the onset of fall rains. Spawning continues throughout the month of October. The highest chinook spawning densities in the North Umpqua River are found between Boulder and Calf Creeks, although spring chinook spawning is relatively widely distributed throughout the upper mainstem. Redd surveys conducted on the North Umpqua have found that most spring chinook redds were built in pool tailouts, glides, side channels, or in the lateral margins of riffles.
Juvenile emergence occurs during February and March. Spring chinook fry in the North Umpqua are thought to display two different life history patterns. The first is what is called an "ocean- type" life history. Under this life history, fry movement toward salt water may begin within a few hours or a few months after emergence (Groot and Margolis 1991, Dose 1999). The second is a "stream-type" life history, where the juveniles typically remain in the river for up to a year, or longer, after emergence. Individuals displaying both life histories have been documented passing at the Winchester Dam (Dose, personal communication 1999). The relative proportions of each life history type is not known. Regardless, juvenile chinook salmon of several age classes are present within the mainstem at all times of the year.
Early rearing of juveniles typically occurs in low gradient reaches of the mainstem. Juvenile chinook densities in pools have been found to increase with increasing amounts of cover, which may be provided by banks, over hanging vegetation, larger substrate, or LWD. In the mainstem North Umpqua River from Soda Springs to Steamboat Creek, summer water temperatures remain in the range preferred by juvenile chinook, which may partially explain why North Umpqua River Chinook have longer freshwater rearing periods than most other Oregon coastal basins. Some juveniles may rear in the North Umpqua River for up to 18 months (Stillwater Sciences, Inc. 1998). Overwintering juveniles typically enter interstitial habitat within cobble-boulder
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis 44 Chapter Two Characterization substrate at temperatures below 7°C. Some juvenile chinook may overwinter in deep pools with large wood and/or along river margins.
Steelhead Trout
Steelhead trout are currently the most abundant anadromous salmonids within the upper portion of the North Umpqua basin. Both summer and winter steelhead use the mainstem North Umpqua River for spawning, rearing, and as a migration route.
Summer steelhead begin entering the North Umpqua River in May and continue migrating and over-summering/holding within the mainstem well into December. The majority of the summer steelhead run is believed to spawn within the Steamboat Creek basin. Although poorly documented, the mainstem North Umpqua and some other larger tributaries are also used for spawning as well. Winter steelhead use the same spawning streams as the summer fish, but a larger percentage of the winter run is believed to use the mainstem North Umpqua River. Summer steelhead begin spawning in January and continue through March, while winter fish spawn from April to mid-July. It is reasonable to expect that some overlap occurs between late spawning summer fish and early spawning winter fish, but the degree to which this occurs has not been documented.
Within the mainstem North Umpqua, steelhead eggs and/or alevins (developing embryos) may be present within the gravel from January until mid-August. After emergence, steelhead juvenile take up residence within pools and lateral channel margins. As they grow, steelhead move into deeper and faster habitats and increasingly use areas with cover. During the summer, juvenile steelhead parr appear to prefer habitats with rocky substrates, overhead cover (such as that provided by large wood or over-hanging vegetation), and low light intensities (Stillwater Sciences, Inc. 1998). Steelhead overwinter in pools. They prefer pools that are deep and of low- velocity, including backwaters, that contain large rocky substrate or woody debris for cover.
Steelhead juveniles within tributaries to the North Umpqua River display an uncommon life history known as "partial rearing". This means that these juveniles leave their natal (where they are hatched) stream in favor of the mainstem North Umpqua for continued freshwater residence. Juvenile steelhead outmigrant trapping conducted on the North Umpqua Ranger District has displayed that many (~ 70%) age 1+ (one year old) juvenile steelhead leave their natal streams in favor of the mainstem North Umpqua River (Harkleroad and La Marr 1993, Dambacher 1991). Studies have shown that North Umpqua steelhead exhibiting a partial rearing life history emigrate as larger smolts than individuals that remain in tributaries such as Steamboat Creek, thus increasing their opportunity for survival (Stillwater Sciences, Inc. 1998). This would suggest that the mainstem North Umpqua River plays an inordinantly important role in providing rearing habitat for juvenile steelhead produced within the basin. After two to three years of freshwater residence, juvenile steelhead outmigrate during the spring.
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis Chapter Two Characterization 45
Rainbow Trout
Rainbow trout are native to most Pacific Northwest rivers and streams. Spawning generally occurs in the spring, but can begin as early as December and extend into June. Both resident and potamodramous life histories are believed to occur within the analysis area. Other than the differences in migratory behavior and spawning gravel size, the habitat requirements of rainbow trout are essentially the same as those for steelhead.
Longnose and Speckled Dace
Dace are benthic species that are generally found in clear, often swift streams. Prey consists of almost any benthic insect larvae available. Spawning ususally occurs over rocky substrate from June to early July. The female lays 200-1200 eggs, which are guarded by one parent until they hatch in 7-10 days. The fry live in quiet water along stream margins until they are about 4 months old, when they move into faster and deeper water. They typically become sexually mature at 3 years old. Both species are found in the analysis area.
Pacific Lamprey
The Pacific lamprey is anadromous. Like salmon, they are born in freshwater streams, migrate out to the ocean and return to fresh water as mature adults to spawn. They ascend rivers by swimming upstream briefly then sucking to rocks and resting. Also, like the salmon, lamprey do not feed during their spawning migration. The lamprey enter streams from July to October with spawning taking place the following spring when water temperatures are between 50 and 60° Fahrenheit (F). Spawning takes place in low gradient sections of water with gravel and sandy bottoms.
Mating pairs of lamprey construct a nest by digging together, using rapid vibrations of their tails and by moving stones using their suction cup-like mouths. Adults die within 4 days of spawning after depositing about 10,000 to 100,000 extremely small eggs in their nest. The young hatch in 2-3 weeks and swim to backwater or eddy areas of low stream velocity where sediments are soft and rich in dead plant materials. They quickly burrow into the muddy bottom where they filter the mud and water, eating microscopic plants (mostly diatoms) and animals. The juvenile lamprey will stay burrowed in the mud for 4 to 6 years, moving only rarely to new areas. After a 2 month metamorphosis triggered by unknown factors, they emerge as adults, averaging 4.5 inches long.
During high water periods in late winter or early spring, the new adults migrate as smolts to the ocean. During the ocean phase of the life cycle Pacific lamprey are scavengers, parasites, or predators on larger prey such as salmon and marine mammals. After 2 to 3 years in the ocean they will return to freshwater to spawn.
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Coast Range Sculpin
The coast range sculpin is a benthic species with mottled brown to light blue-grey coloration on the back and white on the ventral surface. This color pattern enables the fish to be well camoflaged when lying on the bottom. The coast range sculpin is generally found in streams with swift riffle areas over gravel substrate. Their very large pectoral fins are used like hydrofoils to hold them against the bottom and keep them from being swept downstream. They may also be found in lakes over sandy or muddy substrate. Their diet is variable, but focuses on benthic insect larvae and other invertebrates (such as mollusks). They will also eat salmonid eggs when available.
Coastal populations may migrate downstream to estuaries to spawn. Inland populations, such as those in the analysis area, make shorter downstream migrations and spawn in fresh water. Spawning occurs from February to mid-June. Larger females may lay up to 800 eggs. Eggs are usually laid in a sticky mass under a rock and are guarded by the male. More than one female will deposit eggs in a single nest. Eggs hatch during night time and larvae move up into the water column and drift before settling to the bottom in quiet water to metamorphose into fry. This is one of the few freshwater fish that has a true larval stage. Adults move back upstream after spawning. Sculpins typically live 4-7 years.
Brown Trout
Brown trout are native to western Europe and have been widely introduced in the United States. Life histories may be resident, fluvial, adfluvial, or anadromous. In Europe, both anadromous and non-anadromous populations are present. Most populations in North America are non- anadromous. Brown trout are primarily insectivores, but larger fish can become highly piscivorous. Spawning occurs in the fall or early winter, with offspring emerging from the redd in late winter or spring. Adfluvial fish may live as long as 10 years.
Brook Trout
Brook trout are native to northeastern North America. Brook trout have a short life span, rarely reaching 4 years of age. Brook trout spawn in the fall, usually in October, with declining water temperature and day length. Redds are usually built in gravel, but if ground water upwelling is present, spawning may occur on sandy substrate. Brook trout generally do not migrate far, but some anadromy has been reported. In streams, movement is generally minimal. Young migrate from the redd to shallow water and establish territories, moving into deeper water as they grow. Dominant foods include plankton, terrestrial and aquatic insects, and fish.
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis Chapter Two Characterization 47
Botanical Species
Botanical species in the Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis area are diverse (see the Botany/Noxious Weed section of Appendix B for a listing of known vascular plants in the watershed). This is a function of the range of elevations, soil types, moisture availability, and aspect. Much of this diversity is concentrated in natural openings of which wet meadows, dry meadows, and rock outcrops are the most common. Low elevation forest stands in the river corridor that once received frequent fire, developed an open savannah-like condition that also supports a wide variety of species. European influence brought the introduction of numerous species not native to the area. Many of these have been highly successful in becoming established.
No systematic effort is being made to document species occurrence with regard to diversity within the analysis area. Within the USFS, information is collected from surveys conducted for species identified as having the following specified management efforts: TES, Survey and Manage (S & M), Protection Buffer (PB), or Noxious. Such surveys are generally undertaken only for proposed projects that would include ground-disturbing activities. They do not include the wide diversity of habitat in the area, nor do they adequately represent all species present. As a consequence, the floristic diversity of the area is not fully documented. The amount of area surveyed is very limited (Figure 13). One proposed project, Rhone Timber Sale, and one accomplished project, Little Oak Flats Prescribed Burn, allowed for vascular surveys on a total of 215 acres.
Most of the area remains botanically unexplored. Vascular species have received the greatest attention. Since 1992, records of botanical inventories required for ground-disturbing activities on the North Umpqua Ranger District have been recorded and kept on file at the District office. These records have not been collated or analyzed with regard to diversity; rather, they have been used to document the presence of rare species. No documentation exists for any surveys done within Copeland Creek Watershed in association with planning actions on the Diamond Lake Ranger District. The staff of the Douglas County Museum Herbarium has been exploring the area on a limited basis for many years. They have compiled lists of species at seven sites on USFS lands within the analysis area. Their work has recorded 516 vascular species in 73 plant families. Local volunteer botanists have also compiled lists of the area. It is reasonable to assume that when various existing lists are compiled, 600 vascular plant species will be documented in the area. Considering that a number of genera (particularly graminoids) and habitat types have been poorly sampled, it is reasonable to expect at least 700 taxons to occur within the analysis area.
Botanists of the USFS began conducting surveys for lichens, bryophytes, and fungi in 1999. Surveys in the analysis area have been limited to strategic efforts involving Current Vegetation Survey (CVS) plots. Three plots of 0.5 acres each were inspected for a total of 1.5 acres of inventory within the watershed analysis area.
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Figure 13. Areas surveyed for species of botanical concern.
Threatened, Endangered, and Sensitive (TES) Species
Threatened, Endangered, and Sensitive species are so defined because of one of several factors or a combination of factors. These include: 1) a small number of individuals scattered across the known habitat and range of the species; 2) a very small or isolated habitat and range; and/or 3) a species with a high risk of losing reproductive viability. The reference condition of these species is assumed to have been a state in which stable populations were spread across available habitat.
No Endangered plant or fungi species are known or suspected to occur on the UNF. One Threatened species, Kinkaid’s sulfur lupine (Lupinus sulphureus ssp. kincaidii) is known to occur on the Forest. This species is not suspected to occur within the watershed analysis area. The list of Sensitive species is reviewed and updated periodically. The current list includes 32 species (Table 4). Seven species are known to occur within the Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis area. Seventeen more may occur in the analysis area. Known sites
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis Chapter Two Characterization 49 include several outlying populations of Umpqua Kalmiopsis. The remaining species occur on 19 scattered sites within the analysis area. These sites do not represent a full analysis of potential habitat. No attempts have been made to prioritize or inventory potential habitat within the watershed.
Table 4. Status of Sensitive Species within the Analysis Area.
Occurrence Common Name Scientific Name Known Suspected Adder’s Tongue Ophioglossum pusilum Raf. No Yes Arnica, Shasta Arnica viscosa Gray No Yes Aster, Wayside Aster vialis (Brads.) Blake No No Bugbane, Tall Cimicifuga elata Nutt. No Yes Caraway, False Perideridia erythrorhiza (Piperi) Chuang & No Yes Constance Collomia, Mount Mazama Collomia mazama Coville No No Fern, California Shield- Polystichum californicum (D.C. Eat.) Diels Yes Fern, Coffee Pellaea andromedaefolia (Kaulf.) Fee No Yes Fritillary, Siskiyou Fritillaria glauca Greene Yes Gentian, Newberry’s Gentiana newberryi A.Gray var. newberryi No No Globe-mallow, California Iliamna latibracteata Wiggins No Yes Goldenweed, Whitney’s Hazardia whitneyi (A. Gray) Greene var. discoidea No Yes (J. Howell) w. Clark Grass, Brewer’s Reed- Calamagrostis breweri Thurb. No Yes Grass-fern, Spleenwort Asplenium septentrionale (L.) Hoffman Yes Isopyrum, Dwarf Isopyrum stipitatum (Gray) Crumm. & Hutchinson Yes Kalmiopsis, Umpqua Kalmiopsis fragrans Meinke & Kaye sp. nov. Yes Lady’s Slipper, Clustered Cypripedium fasciculatum Kellogg ex S. Wats. No Yes Lewisia, Columbia Lewisia columbiana (How.) Fobins. var. Yes columbiana Lewisia, Lee’s Lewisia leana (Porter) Robins. No No Lily, Umpqua Mariposa Calochortus umpquaensis N. A. Fredricks No No Lupine, Kinkaid’s Sulfur Lupinus sulphureus Dougl. ssp. kinkaidii (Smith) No No Phillips Mistmaiden, Thompson’s Romanzoffia thompsonii Marttala Yes Montia, Howell’s Montia howellii S. Wats. No Yes Moonwort, Lance-leaved Botrychium lanceolatum (Gmel.) Angstrom No Yes Moonwort, Mingan Botrychium minganense Vict. No Yes Moonwort, Pumice Botrychium pumicola Coville ex Underwood No No Rock Cress, Woody-stemmed Arabis suffrutescens S. Wats. var. No No horizontalis(Green) Sedge, Crawford's Carex crawfordii Fern. No Yes Sedge. Sawtoothed Carex serratodens W. Boott No Yes Swertia, Umpqua Frasera umpquaensis Peck & Applegate No Yes Water-meal, Columbia Wolffia columbiana Karst. No Yes Water-meal, Northern Wolffia borealis (Englem.) Landolt No Yes
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Survey and Manage
The NFP requires protection of plants and fungi that may not be protected by other USFS standards or guidelines. These include lichens, fungi, mosses, liverworts, and vascular plants. The species are assumed to be dependent on an old-growth environment. They are considered “at-risk” because of the extensive loss and fragmentation of appropriate habitat and either their apparent rarity or, in the case of nitrogen-fixing lichen, the importance of their presence to the balanced functioning of the ecosystem. During the evaluation process that produced the NFP, each of these species was reviewed and assigned a strategy for surveying and management. Further evaluation was conducted as part of the FSEIS for amendment of the plan. This refined the list of species to those included in Tables 5-8 below. Definitions of status codes as well as survey requirements are listed in Table 9.
Management requirements vary depending on the risk disturbance of habitat to the viability of the species. Some species require surveys prior to projects that could produce changes to micro- habitat conditions. These are listed in Tables 5-8 as “yes” under the heading “Predisturbance Surveys”. Others will be searched for only on a regional basis using strategically placed plots scattered throughout the range of the spotted owl. Site protection also varies, but at least some of the known occurrences for all species included in the tables will be protected.
Table 5. Vascular plant status and management requirements.
Pre- Manage Sites Status Scientific Name Common Name disturbance Code All Selected Survey Eucephalus (Aster) vialis (Brads.) Blake Wayside Aster A yes x Botrychium montanum W.H. Wagner Mountain Moonwort A yes x Cypripedium fasciculatum Kellogg ex S. Wats. Clustered lady’s Slipper C yes x Cypripedium montanum Mountain lady’s Slipper C yes x
Table 6. Bryophyte status and management requirements.
Status Manage Sites Scientific Name Pre-Disturbance Survey Code All Selected Brotherella roellii E no x Buxbaumis viridis D no x Diplophyllum plicatum B no x Kurzia makinoana B no x Marsupella emarginata var. aquatica B no x Rhizomnium nudum B no x Schistostega pennata A yes x Tetraphis geniculata A yes x Tritomeria exsectiformis B no x
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Table 7. Lichen status and management requirements.
Status Manage Sites Scientific Name Pre-disturbance Survey Code All Selected Bryoria tortuosa A yes x Hypogymnia duplicata A yes x Hypogymnia oceanica F no Leptogium burnetii var. A yes x hirsutum Leptogium canescens A yes x Lobaria linata A yes x Nephroma occultum B no x Niebla cephalota A yes x Platismatia lacunosa C yes x Pseduocyphellaria A yes x rainierensis Ramalina thrausta A yes x Teloschistes flavicans A yes x
Table 8. Fungi status and management requirements.
Pre- Manage Sites Status Scientific Name Common Name disturbance Code All Selected Survey Bondarzewia mesenterica (Schaeff.) Kreisel Middle Intestine Polypore B no x Brideoporus nobilissimus (W.B. Cooke Volk, Noble Polypore or A yes x Burdsall & Ammirati Fuzzy Sandoze Otidea leporine (Batsch:Fries) Fuckel Rabbit Ears B no x Otidea onotica (Persoon:Fries) Fuckel Donkey Ears F no x Otidea smithii. Kanouse Smith’s Ears B no x Polyzellus multiplex (Underwood) Murrill Blue Chanterelle B no x Sowerbyella rhenana (Fudkel) J. Moravec Stalked Orange Peel B no x
Table 9. Definition of status codes and survey requirements.
Definition Status Code Source Site Management Survey Requirements PB Forest Plan Protection buffer Pre-disturbance A FSEIS ROD All known sites Pre-disturbance, Strategic B FSEIS ROD All known sites Strategic C FSEIS ROD High priority sites Pre-disturbance, Strategic D FSEIS ROD High priority sites Strategic E FSEIS ROD All known sites Strategic F FSEIS ROD None Strategic
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Survey and Manage vascular species surveys have been included with TES and other general surveys for vascular plants. As with TES species, approximately 250 acres of the area has been surveyed as part of USFS activities.
The Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis area is botanically unexplored for lichens, bryophytes, and fungi. One strategic survey plot produced a single species of concern: Rhizomnium nudum. Surveys of strategic plots for fungi are still underway.
Based on the highly diverse range of exposures, elevations, and the corresponding diversity of microhabitat within the analysis area, potential for occurrence of many more S & M species is high.
Noxious Weeds
“Noxious weeds” are those plants that have been officially designated as such by federal or state law. Most of these plants are species from other parts of the world. Generally, they are establishing themselves in North America because of a lack of their native herbivores and pathogens to keep them controlled. The Oregon State Department of Agriculture (ODA) defines these as plants that are "injurious to public health, agriculture, recreation, wildlife, or any public or private property". The State Weed Board, in conjunction with ODA, determines which species will officially be considered “noxious” in the state. Each designation carries with it an eradication plan, which may involve local, county, or state level agencies. See the Oregon State Noxious Weed List and Umpqua NF Weed List in Appendix B for more detail on these species.
Noxious weeds are spreading rapidly. Even with repeated treatment of known sites, occurrences are expected to increase due to the movement of seed into the area from outside sources, by perpetuation of seed production from already established sites, and from seed production on adjacent private land. The primary force in spreading noxious weeds is human activity. Most of this occurs along roads. The more heavily used the road, the more likely it will be a pathway for infestation. The Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis area is particularly prone to this because of the relatively heavy traffic to and from Twin Lakes and because of the presence of the North Umpqua Highway (State Highway 138). Along these corridors it is not a matter of if infestations of noxious weeds will occur, but when.
The UNF does not currently have an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) or other official policy in place to direct the management of noxious weeds. Currently, protection efforts are built around education, vigilance, and early treatment using integrated management techniques. The focus is to prevent infestation whenever possible. Since earth-moving equipment has been identified as a primary mover of seed and propagative material, it is required to be cleaned of dirt and debris before it comes onto the Forest. This specification is built into all contracts for projects that cause soil disturbance. Biological controls are established whenever possible and monitored regularly, and efforts are made to eradicate or contain known infestations. Eleven
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis Chapter Two Characterization 53 noxious weed species are known to occur within the analysis area. They are listed in Table 10. Table 11 lists the current treatment and desired management goal for each species.
Table 10. Noxious weeds known to occur in the analysis area.
Douglas Co. ODA Umpqua NF Common Name Scientific Name Extent of Infestation Status1 Status2 Status3 Blackberry, Himalayan Rubus discolor B B * Few Broom, Scotch Cytisus scoparius B B B Scattered sites Horsetail, Giant Equisetum telmatia B B None Common Horsetail, Western Equisetum arvense none B None Common Knapweed, Meadow Centaurea jacea x nigra B B B Extensive Widespread Ragwort, Tansy Senecio jacobaea B B B Scattered sites Taeniatherum caput- Rye, Medusahead B B B Scattered sites medusa Skeletonweed, Rush Chondrilla juncea B, T B A One site, 30 acres St. Johnswort Hypericum perforatum B B B Extensive Occasional, Thistle, Bull Cirsium vulgare B B B Scattered sites Uncommon, Thistle, Canada Cirsium arvense B B B Scattered sites
1. Douglas County Status Definitions: A: Weeds that occur in small enough infestations that eradication or containment is possible in the county. Some of these weeds are not yet known in Douglas County but their presence in adjacent counties makes future occurrence likely. B: Weeds that are common and well established in Douglas County. Eradication at the county level is not likely. Containment is possible in some cases and is encouraged. Where these are not feasible, biological control agents may be introduced to slow the spread or the invaders. Intensive control is recommended on small isolated infestations. Eradication is not likely or feasible on widespread infestations, but control, especially along travel routes is encouraged. In other areas biological control agents may be introduced to reduce the spread of the infestations. T: These noxious species are priority weeds “targeted” for control at the county level. All “T” list weeds are found on the “A” or “B” list. 2. Oregon Department of Agriculture Status Definitions: A: Weeds of known economic importance which occur in the state in small enough infestations to make eradication/containment possible; or which are not known to occur, but their presence in neighboring states makes future occurrence in Oregon seem imminent B: Weeds of economic importance which are regionally abundant, but which may have limited distribution in some counties. 3. Umpqua NF Status Definitions: A: An aggressive, non-native species of limited distribution on the Forest at this time. Where feasible, intensive control or local eradication is recommended. B: An aggressive non-native species that is too widely distributed on the Forest to be effectively treated by currently available intensive control methods. Biological controls are the recommended management tool, although small isolated infestations may be subject to intensive control methods. D: “Detection Weed”. An aggressive, non-native species that is not currently known to exist on the Forest but whose current distribution and ecological requirements suggest potential for movement onto the Forest. Recommended treatment for Forest sites is intensive control and elevated to either "A" or "B" status. *: Species has been added to the list since 1998 draft Environmental Analysis (EA) and has not yet officially been assigned a status.
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis 54 Chapter Two Characterization
Table 11. Noxious weed treatment and management goals. * Species has been added to the list since 1998 draft Environmental Analysis (EA) and has not yet officially been assigned a
Common Name Current Treatment Management Goal Blackberry, Inventory * Himalayan Broom, Scotch Bio-control, hand prune or pull selected populations Containment Horsetail, Giant Native species, no treatment None Horsetail, Western Native species, no treatment None Knapweed, Meadow Bio-control Contain and reduce Ragwort, Tansy Bio-control Contain and reduce Rye, Medusahead None Contain and reduce Skeletonweed, Rush Restrict access, bio-control Eradicate St. Johnswort Bio-control Contain and reduce Thistle, Bull Bio-control Contain and reduce Thistle, Canada Bio-control Contain and reduce status.
Scrutiny of noxious weeds is included in all vascular plant surveys conducted for USFS activities that change habitat conditions and may put rare species at risk. All District personnel receive periodic training that allows them to identify and report new infestations. During the spring of 2001, roads within the analysis area were surveyed for noxious weeds. Approximately 95% of the roads in the analysis area have been systematically reviewed. The remaining are scheduled for review in the near future.
Other Aggressive Non-Native Species
Besides those plants listed as noxious, there are many aggressive species that compromise the ecology of the area and may threaten native plant communities. For the most part, these are pioneer species that occupy disturbed areas in great numbers. In some cases, the invasive ability of these plants rivals those listed as noxious, but they are either already so firmly established that eradication efforts have not been effective or their ecological threat has not been recognized. A demonstration of the aggressiveness of these species is the fact that a number are listed as noxious in other states and provinces (Table 12). Two of the species are of particular concern in the analysis area; ox-eye daisy (Leucanthemum vulgare) and hedgehog dogtail grass (Cynosurus echinatus) are frequent in disturbed sites.
Table 12. Species listed as Noxious in other states or provinces.
Common name Scientific Name Listing Provinces/States Extent of Infestation Bedstraw, Catchweed Gallium aparine 4 Common Cats Ear, Spotted Hypocharis radicata 1, Washington Abundant Daisy, Oxeye Leucnthemum vulgare 12 Limited, spreading fast Sowthistle, Perennial Sonchus arvensis 24 Scattered Teasel, Common Dipsacus fullonum 3 Three small sites
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis Chapter Two Characterization 55
Ox-eye daisy is spread by wind-borne seeds and rooting from the stems that make it particularly hard to contain. It has become present in the watershed during the last few years as it filters along roadways. It is only beginning to make its presence known. Effects to other species will increase rapidly in the next few years as ox-eye daisy becomes more established. It is listed as noxious in the State of Washington. Because of this plant’s ability to rapidly spread by wind and its locations along roadways where it moves with vehicles and maintenance activities, there seems to be no current economically effective way to control it. Biological controls are not yet available, but would be the most efficient method.
Hedgehog dogtail grass seed is moved about in soil and animal fur. It is commonly transported in surface gravel for roads and is quite likely the most common grass species in the watershed. It dominates nearly all the dry meadows that were subjected to grazing and provides stiff competition to any attempt by native species to re-colonize such sites. Eradication of the species is unlikely.
Negative Impacts of Non-native Plants
Many non-native species are capable of invading and dominating disturbed areas (harvest units, road bank prisms, rock pits, etc.). Considering that a significant portion of the land in the watershed has been harvested and roaded, very little of the area has not been invaded by one or more aggressive, non-native species. Arguments are often made that non-native species will die out over time as the vegetation moves from open, disturbed areas to forested conditions. To some extent this is true. Pioneer plant populations decline in the shaded conditions that increase as the seral stages progress. However, non-native seed banks remain in the soil and plants continue reproducing and spreading from, and to, recently disturbed areas. Since most management is done considering re-entry in the future, noxious weeds will continue to spread. How this disruption of early-seral processes affects the long-term viability of native pioneer plants and the creatures that depend on them is unknown. The extent of the detrimental effect on the composition of later-seral herbaceous communities is, for the most part, unknown.
Non-native plants impact rare plants in three ways, by causing: 1) physical displacement; 2) loss of nutrient availability and changes in other environmental parameters such as water, light, and temperature; and 3) interruption of crucial relationships with other species. Neither the nature nor the extent of this type of disturbance to populations of rare plants is known.
Besides the plant species immediately replaced by non-native invasion, the most highly affected species may be insects involved in pollination. Native plants have established varied and particular relationships with native pollinators. The decrease in plant diversity caused by non- native encroachment can cause displacement or loss of pollinators. Orchids may be particularly at risk, since they often are dependent on a single pollinator.
In addition to affecting pollinators, the replacement of native plants by non-natives affects both the structure and food production provided to wildlife by native plants. These changes are not necessarily all bad. For instance, Himalayan blackberry provides extensive habitat and food for
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis 56 Chapter Two Characterization certain species. The net loss or gain to wildlife from non-native plants in the analysis area has not been ascertained, but is likely to be negative.
Riparian areas in the watershed are also being impacted by non-native species. One mode of introduction of these plants is the road system within the watershed. Vehicles traveling these roads pick up non-native seed and deposit it along their travel route. These non-natives establish and produce more seed that is then transported downstream along waterways. The best current example of this action in the watershed is meadow knapweed (Centaurea pratensis). The species was planted in the 1960s for erosion control. Meadow knapweed produces an extensive root system that is capable of rapidly occupying and stabilizing sand and gravel bars. It now is common along the North Umpqua River and tributary streams near the roads it was planted on. It will likely soon become the dominant riparian herb species. It is actively displacing such species as chatterbox orchid (Epipactis gigantean), great northern aster (Aster modestus), and Salix spp. Besides limiting habitat for native plant species, meadow knapweed may possibly affect the ecology of the riverine system.
Both upland and riparian areas are at risk from Scotch broom, French broom, Portuguese broom, and gorse. These species have demonstrated the ability to change patterns of succession. They dominate disturbed sites and forms dense thickets that exclude other species from becoming established. They contain highly flammable oils, are very fire prone and burn intensely. The plants produce copious amounts of seed that can lay dormant in the soil for decades, then sprout quickly after fire, producing a single species brush field that precludes the establishment of native vegetation, including timber-producing species.
HUMAN USES
Forest Service, PacifiCorp, Private Properties, and Other Facilities and Structures
One radio repeater system (Doehead) is located at the southern edge of the study area. The repeater is managed by the USFS.
There are five private parcels of land within the study area. These parcels were secured under the Homestead Act between 1909 and 1918. The parcels and their size are: The Rone Ranch, located south of the North Umpqua River - 130.74 acres; The Wood Ranch, located on the west end of Illahee Flats - 77.28 acres; The Nelson-McCrosky Ranch, located north of Illahee Flats - 159.68 acres; The Dry Creek properties (multiple parcels of private) - 147.8 acres; The Davis Ranch, west of Dry Creek - 60.10 acres (not all of this lies within the analysis area). Several of these private parcels have easements from the USFS for access to their property.
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis Chapter Two Characterization 57
Forest Products
Until World II, the USFS primarily focused on watershed protection, forest restoration, and wildfire prevention and suppression. Since there were abundant supplies of private timber, very little logging occurred on National Forests. After World War II, the housing boom increased demand for timber and focused on the supply within National Forests, as private timberlands were rapidly being depleted. This increased demand led to widespread use of commodity oriented harvesting techniques such as clearcutting. By the 1970’s, timber sales on National Forests had increased to almost 12 billion board feet per year. Within the analysis area, both federal and private land has been cut for commodity products since the 1940’s.
Concern over the clearcutting of public lands led to the enactment of several laws to protect forests. At the same time, the United States began importing more wood to help meet the increasing demand, which continues today. Concerns about environmental impacts and conflicting land use have led to increased lawsuits and many additional environmental protection measures. As a result, the USFS now operates under some of the most substantial environmental protection policies in the world. Today, timber sale levels have dropped back to the pre-1950 levels, even though timber demand continues to increase at a rate of about 1% annually and clearcut harvests have been reduced by 80% over the last decade. The overriding objective of the USFS timber program is to ensure that National Forests are managed in an ecologically sustainable manner.
Prior to 1940, Roseburg had a population of approximately 5,000 people and was principally dependent upon agriculture. There was no timber harvest occurring in the analysis area at that time. After World War II, a sharp growth in the timber industry occurred, which boosted the population to 10,500 by 1947, with another 10,000 in the surrounding areas. Predictions were made for a doubling of the population by 1950 because of the booming industry. In 1947, 75% of the population of Roseburg was dependent upon the timber industry.
The wood products industry has long been Douglas County’s economic mainstay, as some the nation’s largest timber stands grow here (Beckham 1986). Today, approximately 18% of the County’s total labor force is directly employed in forest harvesting and production. An estimated additional 30% owe their jobs to the necessary support services.
Timber harvesting within the Copeland-Calf Analysis area began in the 1950’s. Peak decades for clearcut harvesting were the 1960’s and 1970’s (Figure 14). Partial cutting or thinning also began in the 1970s at a small scale. To date, there has been 9,116 acres of regeneration harvest within the watershed. This amounts to approximately 19% of the analysis area. There has been slightly more than 1,000 acres (1,019) commercially thinned. This represents about 2% of the land area.
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis 58 Chapter Two Characterization
Regeneration Harvest by Decade
3500 3000 2500 2000
1500 Acres 1000 500 0 50's 60's 70's 80's 90's Decade
Figure 14. Acres of regeneration harvest, by decade.
Based on the Ranger District’s Timber Disposal Plan (1947), the timber sale program was “geared to road development”. The focus was on old-growth timber and sometimes harvesting was concentrated in areas (Figure 15) with the thought that the heavy cut would balance out as road construction allowed access to old- growth in other areas. Today, approximately 21% of the watershed has had timber harvested from it. This includes the area cleared for roads and power lines. Most of this land has been burned, fertilized, planted with Douglas-fir, and precommercially thinned.
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis Chapter Two Characterization 59
Figure 15. Cumulative harvest, by decade.
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis 60 Chapter Two Characterization
Recreation
The heaviest recreational activity zone is in the North Umpqua River corridor. A substantial amount of recreational activity also occurs in the Twin Lakes basin.
The river has received state designation as a Scenic Waterway and federal designation as a Recreation River under the Wild and Scenic Rivers Act. State Highway 138 has been designated as a National Scenic Byway.
Two designated campgrounds exist within the analysis area. Eagle Rock and Boulder Flat Campgrounds are located along the North Umpqua River and next to State Highway 138. They have a combined People at one Time (PAOT) capacity of 231. Boulder Flat is open all year; while Eagle Rock is open May 20 through September 30. Use figures from 1998 show Boulder Flat with 47,258 visits and Eagle Rock with 34,011 visits.
The Twin Lakes basin was designated an Unroaded Recreation Management Area (URMA) in the UNF LRMP in 1990. Use figures from 1997 show 9,001 visits to the basin and 10,924 visits to the URMA. Use figures from 1997 show Copeland-Calf URMA had 250 visits to the Calf portion. No figures were available for the Copeland portion, but it is estimated at 150 visits.
There are approximately 16 Concentrated Use Area (CUA) campsites within the Twin Lakes basin. These sites are where camping use occurs on a regular basis but the USFS provides no facilities or development. In the undeveloped portion of the watershed analysis area there are 22 CUA campsites recorded.
Nine trailheads exist within the analysis area. These include: Bradley Ridge, Twin Lakes East, Twin Lakes West, Snowbird, Deception, Calf Creek, Illahee Flats, Marsters, and BVD/Copeland. Twin Lakes East Trailhead had 4,563 visits, Twin Lakes West Trailhead had 1,571 visits, and Illahee Flats Trailhead recorded 1,040 visits. The development at these trailheads vary from only destination signs at Calf Creek, to a developed parking area, vault toilet, and picnic shelter at Illahee Flats Trailhead.
Within the analysis area, the following trails are maintained for public recreation: A portion of Snowbird #1517, Twin Lakes #1500, Twin Lakes Loop #1521, Deception #1510, North Umpqua #1414 (Marsters, Calf and a portion of Jessie Wright Segments), Illahee Flats #1532, BVD #1511 and Copeland #1512. Heaviest use occurs on the Twin Lakes and North Umpqua Trails.
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis Chapter Two Characterization 61
Special Uses
PacifiCorp is under a Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) permit for two main electrical transmission lines from Soda Springs and Toketee power generators. This permit also covers access roads for maintenance of the transmission line. They are also under a Special Use permit for an electrical distribution line from Soda Springs generator to Horseshoe Bend Campground.
CenturyTel is under a Special Use permit for phone lines along State Highway 138, Forest Service Road 4770 to the Rone Ranch, Forest Service Road 4760-030 to the Wood private property, and Forest Service Road 4760 to the Nelson/McCrosky private property.
Road Easements have been issued for access to the five private parcels. Road Use permits for hauling of timber products have also been issued.
Mountain Country RV Park has been issued a Special Use permit for a spring development and buried water line to their business at Dry Creek.
No mining claims are active within the watershed analysis area. The most recent claims, Stroub #1 & #2 were terminated in 1988.
Transportation
The Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis area has various human uses that affect the road and trail transportation system. Among them are:
Use for accessing and transporting commercial and non-commercial forest products such as: timber, Christmas trees, firewood, big game animals, fish, berries, and mushrooms. Many of the existing roads were built under various timber sale contracts. Construction, reconstruction, and road maintenance costs can result from commercial sales of forest products.
Access to dispersed recreation sites, camps, and trails throughout the summer with peak use occurring during the deer and elk hunting seasons. Weekend pleasure driving is also common on many of the main roads in the analysis area.
Seasonal road closures for big game winter range are in effect on several roads from December 1st to April 30th. Also, some roads in the analysis area are closed through the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR). The CFR closures are an important tool in managing these roads during critical water runoff from winter storms. Many of these roads are native surface roads that would have greater surface damage from vehicle travel by the public if they were left open during the winter.
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis 62 Chapter Two Characterization
The North Umpqua Hydroelectric Project requires access for maintenance and repair work by PacifiCorp of its power transmission lines.
State Highway 138 is under a right-of-way agreement between the State and Federal Governments. A Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) between the ODOT and the USFS exists. The memorandum addresses issues such as maintenance of the road prism, signing, hazard tree removal, vegetation management, proposed construction, and access control.
Forest Road 4760, 4760-030, 4770, and 4770-080 provide access to private land within the analysis area.
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis Chapter Three Issues and Key Questions 63
CHAPTER THREE
ISSUES AND KEY QUESTIONS ------
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this chapter is to:
Focus the analysis of the key issues that are most relevant to the management question, human values, and resource conditions within the Copeland-Calf Watershed.
Formulate key questions that are based on the issues, which will result in recommendations to guide future management.
ISSUES
The issues were based on relevancy to the management questions, human values, and/or resource conditions currently within the watershed. They are based on the assumptions that:
Natural disturbance regimes were affected by years of past management practices, including fire suppression, silvicultural practices, timber harvest, and access and travel management
The aquatic system, including fish stocks, water quality, and water flows have been affected by past management practices.
PacifiCorp’s facilities and operations have had an effect on aquatic systems within the watershed.
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis 64 Chapter Three Issues and Key Questions
KEY QUESTIONS
Geomorphology/Geology
1) What are the dominant erosional processes affecting the watershed? Where have they taken place in the past and where are they likely to occur in the future?
2) What road systems (segments) in the watershed pose the most significant potential for erosion and sediment delivery into aquatic habitat?
Soil
1) Where does soil structure/productivity affect management activities?
2) Which 6th field watersheds have chronic sedimentation/erosion? Is it background or accelerated?
3) Where are there opportunities to restore/enhance soil development/productivity?
4) How does unsuitable soil affect potential forest health silvicultural activities?
Hydrology
1) How has previous management affected the hydrologic condition of the watershed? What management actions could be used to improve the hydrologic condition within the watershed?
2) What areas are most hydrologically resilient to proposed future management activities?
3) How has the PacifiCorp project affected the natural processes within the mainstem of the North Umpqua River?
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis Chapter Three Issues and Key Questions 65
Fire
1) What areas of the watershed have the highest potential for a fire with effects exceeding the historic natural fire process?
2) What are the high priority areas and appropriate strategies for reducing fire risk within the analysis area?
3) What are the high priority areas for restoration utilizing prescribed fire?
4) Under what conditions is prescribed fire not appropriate in Riparian Reserves in the Copeland- Calf Creek Watershed?
5) Are natural and management-ignited prescribed fires in the portion of Boulder Creek Wilderness within the analysis area consistent with wilderness management objectives?
Forest Health
1) What constitutes a healthy, viable population of sugar, ponderosa, and western white pine at both the stand and landscape scale? Do current populations constitute a healthy, viable population?
2) What factors are affecting pine health?
3) What management actions can improve the health and vigor of current pine populations? How can these actions approximate natural disturbance processes? How are these actions compatible with the LSR Assessment?
4) What is the current condition of white oak habitat? Is there a management need to sustain healthy oak habitat? If so, what prescriptions should be implemented on a stand and landscape scale? Are these compatible with the LSR Assessment?
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis 66 Chapter Three Issues and Key Questions
5) Are there current or potential insect and disease problems that could lead to landscape level changes in forest structure that could negatively affect LSR objectives? If so, what management actions should be undertaken to address the problem?
6) Are current stand densities or species composition retarding the development of late successional habitat? What age classes are being affected? Where and when should management occur to accelerate late successional stand characteristics? What silvicultural treatments could be utilized to accelerate LSR characteristics while approximating natural disturbance processes? How are these treatments compatible with the LSR Assessment?
7) What reforestation needs currently exist within the watershed? In what situations do they occur? What reforestation prescriptions should be used to address these needs?
Fisheries
1) Considering the management impacts to streams that have occurred, how can aquatic and riparian habitat be restored? What is the range of historic and current condition of aquatic and riparian habitats and how has land management affected them?
Wildlife
1) What wildlife species use the analysis area and which ones are at risk?
2) How have changes in vegetation pattern altered habitat availability and wildlife populations?
3) Are there barriers to wildlife movement patterns?
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis Chapter Three Issues and Key Questions 67
Botany
1) What Integrated Pest Management (IPM) options exist for treating documented and potential populations of noxious weeds throughout the analysis area?
2) Is there a need for any unique plant community restoration within the analysis area? If so, what management options exist to accomplish this?
3) What needs and options are there for rare plant habitat improvement within the analysis area?
4) What options exist for botanical recreation opportunities for the public?
5) What are the known locations of Sensitive and Survey and Manage plant species within the analysis area? How much suitable habitat exists in the area that has not yet been inventoried?
6) What areas currently exist within the analysis area that could produce seed stock for use in vegetative restoration efforts in the watershed?
Heritage Resources
1) Do we have sufficient information about heritage resources in the watershed?
2) How does current and future land management affect heritage resources? How will these resources be preserved?
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis 68 Chapter Three Issues and Key Questions
Recreation
1) What recreational activities occur in the watershed and where do they occur? Are they decreasing or increasing?
2) What trails occur in the watershed? Are additional trails planned or are there historic trails that could be re-established? Will road closures provide opportunity for conversion to multi- use trails?
3) To what extent will road-dependent recreation activity in the analysis area be impacted by the results of road analysis?
4) Which roads do the recreating public frequently use? Which roads will the public consider high priority to keep?
Administrative
1) What administrative uses occur in the watershed? Where do they occur?
2) How many activities occur under the Special Use Permit authority? Where do they occur?
3) How many private in-holdings are present in the watershed and where are they located? Do they have road access now or will they need it in the future?
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis Chapter Four Reference and Current Condition, Synthesis, and Interpretation 69
CHAPTER FOUR
REFERENCE AND CURRENT CONDITION, SYNTHESIS, AND INTERPRETATION ------
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this chapter is to:
Outline analysis procedures, assumptions, and data gaps.
Develop a reference for comparison with current conditions and with key management plan objectives.
Explain how ecological conditions have changed over time as the result of human influence and natural disturbance.
Develop information relevant to the issues and key questions that is more detailed than information outlined in Chapter Two (Characterization).
Document the current range, distribution, and condition of the core topics.
Compare current and reference conditions and explain significant differences, similarities, or trends, and their causes.
Explain influences and relationships to other ecosystem processes.
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis 70 Chapter Four Reference and Current Condition, Synthesis, and Interpretation
CORE TOPICS
EROSIONAL PROCESSES
Natural Disturbance Regimes Under the Reference Condition
Episodic natural disturbance patterns including wildfire (stand replacement), high-intensity rainfall (rain-on-snow) storm events, wind (blow down and snow down), insect infestation and disease, and seismic jolts are the primary drivers for erosion (mass wasting, fluvial, and surficial) and sediment flux in the Western Cascade Range (Swanston 1991). Erosion and sediment flux appear to have a wide range of natural variability due to the random and episodic nature of natural disturbance regimes. Return intervals (frequency) of natural disturbance regimes range from tens to hundreds of years.
The magnitude and extent of cyclic disturbance regimes that have affected the Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis area throughout historic times (the last 400-year period) are virtually unknown; therefore there is much uncertainty in establishing a range of natural variability for erosion (sediment rates) under reference conditions.
Intensive management practices conducted over the past 50 years are believed to have resulted in the delivery of more chronic levels of sediment into the aquatic habitat. Naiman, et al. (1993) indicate that little is known about frequencies, magnitudes, and spatial distributions of natural disturbance regimes, and that rates of mass-failure are not well understood in the context of large watershed systems over extended timeframes.
Mass wasting is characterized by the occurrence of rapid moving, shallow-seated landslides (debris avalanches and channelized debris flows), slower moving, deeper-seated landslides (slumps and earthflows), and soil creep. Sediment texture (particle size) is dependant upon the type of mass wasting process. Collectively, these mass wasting processes form a disturbance regime within the unmanaged forest landscape that contributes to proper ecosystem functioning by delivering sediment and LWD to higher order stream channels. Large wood is an essential component in the landslide mass as it provides roughness within stream channels to dissipate flow energy, store and rout sediment, and create channel complexity for diversified aquatic habitat (Naiman, et al. 1992, Fetherston, et al. 1995).
Management Induced Disturbance Patterns Under the Current Condition
Accelerated fluvial erosion, characterized by stream channel head cutting (incision), can be a major source of sediment flux into the aquatic environment (Reid and Dunne 1996). Research has shown that measurable increases in low magnitude peak flows (less than a bankfull event) may occur in very small watersheds, less than a couple hundred acres in extent, where road
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis Chapter Four Reference and Current Condition, Synthesis, and Interpretation 71 construction and clear-cutting have been extensively conducted (Jones and Grant 1996, Thomas and Megahan 1998). Increased peak flow response has been linked to high-density road networks, especially in areas where extensive ground-based tractor logging operations have taken place (Wemple, et al. 1996). Tractor logging is a primary cause of soil compaction that leads to accelerated rates of surface runoff and gully development, especially along skid roads.
The legacy of widespread riparian logging and stream “clean out” to ameliorate fish migration and reduce impacts to facilities during the 1960’s and 1970’s has resulted in a significant loss of stream channel roughness that has promoted accelerated rates of fluvial erosion. The high transport capacity of stream systems in the Western Cascades and deficiency in the amount of existing (or available) large wood from past management practices has caused significant reductions in the amount of stored sediment.
Surface erosion, characterized by rain splash and sheet wash, can occur along forest roads where vegetation is not well established or is absent, such as cut and fill slopes, road surfaces, and ditch lines (Swanston 1991). Surface erosion generally generates fine-textured sediment that may be delivered directly to stream channels via ditch lines, and in some instances by cross drains.
The road transportation network is an integral component influencing sediment generation within the Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis area. Localized alteration (interception and diversion) of groundwater and surface flow patterns by roads affects hydrologic function and response. Native road surfaces, road cuts and fill slopes, and ditch lines represent potentially exposed surfaces that are subject to surface erosion mechanisms. Subsurface flow may be partially intercepted along road cuts and transferred to more rapid runoff via ditch lines. Ditch lines that feed directly into streams act as extensions of stream networks. Ditch lines may transport and deliver fine sediment, as well as intercepted ground and surface water, directly into stream channels (Wemple, et al. 1996). Stream network extension is typically expressed as a percent of the length of ditch line feeding directly into streams, compared to the total length of the stream network. In the absence of long term monitoring data regarding magnitude and duration of ditch line flow, hydrologic effects to stream channels cannot be quantified.
Failed stream crossings and potential stream channel diversion pose the greatest risk for severe sedimentation and mass wasting (Furniss, et al. 1991). A diverted stream channel can destabilize thick soil wedges in swales or road fills and trigger a massive slope failure. Such failures may propagate into channel scouring debris flows. Stream channels that lack a significant large wood component due to past management practices of riparian logging or stream clean out are at heightened risk of devastating debris flow events and chronic fluvial erosion. The complex and synergistic influence of floods, landslides (especially debris flows), removal of large wood from streams, riparian harvest, and the effects of valley bottom road systems have combined to reduce overall aquatic habitat complexity and quality below desired levels.
The ROD for the NFP does not define unstable and potentially unstable land. Unstable and potentially unstable land is broadly defined in the glossary of the Final Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement (FSEIS) for Management of Habitat for Late-Successional and Old-Growth Forest Related Species Within the Range of the Northern Spotted Owl (1994) as follows:
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A component of the Riparian Reserves allocation that includes lands that are prone to mass failure under natural conditions (an unmanaged landscape), where human activities such as road construction and timber harvest are likely to increase landslide distribution, both spatially and temporally, to a point where this change is likely to modify natural geomorphic and hydrologic processes (e.g., resulting in a measurable deviation in the size distribution and volume of sediment delivered to stream channels, and quantity and distribution of LWD in stream channels), and which, in turn, would adversely affect proper functioning of aquatic ecosystems.
The following types of land are included as unstable and potentially unstable ground: (1) active landslide features that exhibit sound evidence of movement within the past 400-year period; (2) inner gorges; and (3) areas identified as being unstable or potentially unstable by geologic investigation on the basis of criteria cited above - inclusive of those lands already classified by the UNF as “unsuitable” for programmed timber harvest due to irreversible soil damage and loss from landslides. Highly erodible lands (land affected by surface erosion) are not included in this definition.
Landslide Analysis
A time-sequential, aerial photo-based landslide inventory was prepared for the Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis area to discern patterns, relationships, or trends of landslide features, with respect to both the natural and intensively managed forest landscape. Development of the landslide inventory for the Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis area required reviewing several hundred aerial photographs that included the 1946, 1966, 1988, and 1997-98 flight years.
The following aerial photo flight years were used to develop the landslide layer: 1946 B/W 1:20,000 scale, 1966 B/W 1:12,000 scale, 1988 color 1:12,000 scale, and 1997-98 color 1:12,000 scale. Landslide features are thus bracketed within the following time frames: pre-1946 (undefined), 1947-1966 (20 years), 1967-1988 (22 years), and 1997-98 (10-11years). Detected landslide features are assigned a probable causal attribute of: natural occurring (N), road-related (R), or timber harvest-related (T), based upon their spatial relationship to natural or modified landscape patterns observed on aerial photogrammetry.
Distribution and Frequency of Landslides
The higher elevation, B/W 1:20,000 scale, 1946 photographs are considered to have very limited usefulness in detecting landslide features due to their higher elevation (scale) and poor resolution (clarity) caused by a high degree of contrast between light and dark tones. Only very large landslide (several acres in size) features can be detected in the 1946 aerial photos. Comparing landslide features detected on the 1946 aerial photos (reference condition) with those detected in subsequent aerial photo flight years (existing condition) results in significant bias. According to Robinson, et al. (1999), landslide inventories based solely on aerial photo interpretation, without
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis Chapter Four Reference and Current Condition, Synthesis, and Interpretation 73 field inventory, have inherent bias with respect to natural and management-related sedimentation rates.
A total of 251 landslide features were detected within the Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis area based upon review of the 1946, 1966, 1988, and 1997-98 aerial photographs. Tabulation of landslide occurrences by probable cause disclose the existence of 137 natural occurring (N), 37 road-related (R), and 77 timber harvest-related (T) features (Table 13). The 114 management- related (R+T) landslide occurrences detected in the Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis area account for approximately 45% of the total landslide occurrences. The number of natural- occurring landslide features is assumed to be grossly underestimated due to bias in aerial photo interpretation lacking field verification.
Table 13. Landslide occurrence by probable cause.
Landslide Occurrences Rate (per year) PhotoPeriod Years N R T R+T R+T Pre – 1946 Undefined 30 0 0 0 0 1947 – 1966 20 34 8 13 21 1.1 1967 – 1988 22 12 15 24 39 1.8 1989 – 1997/98 9-10 61 14 40 54 5.4 Total Undefined 137 37 77 114
Based upon the chronological landslide inventory, there appears to be a definite trend of increasing management-related (R+T) landslide occurrences over time. Management-related landslide rates increase when normalized to time. This trend closely parallels the increase in extensive and intensive road development and timber harvest (regeneration methods) conducted throughout parts of the Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis area since the mid 1950’s.
The dramatic increase in management-related landslide rates detected during the period of 1989 through 1997-98 is believed to reflect a series of closely spaced storm events during the winter of 1996-97. The initial November 18, 1996 storm is considered to be a 20-25-year flood event within the lower reach of the North Umpqua sub-basin.
Landslide frequency by probable cause has been normalized to unit-area to accentuate the relative impact that forest management practices have on the landscape with respect to mass wasting (Table 14). Based upon 137 natural-occurring (N) landslides, 37 road-related (R), and 77 timber harvest-related (T) landslides detected for the period 1947-1998, timber harvest-related landslide frequency is approximated at almost 2.5 times that of natural-occurring landslide frequency. Similarly, road-related landslide frequency appears to be nearly five times more frequent than natural-occurring landslide frequency.
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Table 14. Landslide frequency normalized to roads and timber harvest (clearcut) units.
Landslides Area Landslide Frequency 3 Ratio (by Probable Cause) Square miles % Occurrences (per square mile) Natural-occurring (N) 59.1 77.2 137 2.3 1.0 Road-related (R) 1 3.3 4.3 37 11.2 4.9 Timber harvest-related (T) 2 14.2 18.5 77 5.4 2.3 Total 76.6 100.0 251 3.3 --
1 Assume area of influence is 50 from centerline (100 feet width) that includes the cut slope and fill slope. Road infrastructure aggregates roughly 173.66 miles in length 2Timber harvest-related includes only forms of regeneration harvest (small group harvest, overstory removal, etc.) Regeneration harvest aggregates about 9,116 acres 3 Landslide ratio is normalized to natural-occurring landslide frequency
Landslide frequency relative to geologic map units was not determined for the Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis area. Measurable differences in landslide rates among geologic map units of the Little Butte Group have not been recognized in previous watershed analyses. Geologic map units of the Little Butte Group consist of heterogeneous mixtures of weakly and highly resistant bedrock lithologies that are intricately layered. The degree of rock weathering and soil depth appears to be largely controlled by topographic expression, i.e., slope steepness and form.
Landslide frequency relative to geomorphic landtypes is depicted in Table 15. This comparison clearly reveals the relationship between steep ground and elevated rates of rapid, shallow-seated landslides. Inner gorge (ig) slopes appear to have an eight-fold increase in landslide frequency relative to weakly dissected gentle to moderate gradient slopes (gms). Localized, steeper ground (scarps) within the active landslide-earthflow complex (alec) and dormant landslide-earthflow complex (dlec) presumably reflect elevated landslide rates with respect to undifferentiated, weakly dissected gentle to moderate gradient side slopes (gms).
Table 15. Landslide frequency by geomorphic unit.
Area Area Number Frequency Ratio1 Geomorphic Unit (sq. mi) % Landslides (sq. mi.) Well dissected steep-gradient sideslopes (ss) 18.6 24.3 107 5.75 3.2 Highly dissected, steep-gradient valley inner gorge (ig) 0.95 1.2 14 14.8 8.2 Weakly dissected, gentle- to moderate-gradient sideslopes (gms) 46.5 60.7 83 1.8 1.0 Variably sloping dormant landslide-earthflow complex (dlec) 8.3 10.8 44 5.3 2.9 Variably sloping active landslide-earthflow complex (alec) 0.04 0.05 3 75.0 41.7 Alluvial valley floor – floodplains and terraces (avf) 0.5 0.7 0 0 -- Very gently sloping lava flats, benches, and tablelands (lfbt) 1.7 2.2 0 0 -- Total 76.6 100.0 251 3.3 -- 1 Landslide ratio is normalized to (gms) geomorphic landtype
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Mass Wasting Risk Assessment
Assessment of slope stability was accomplished for the Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis area using SHALSTAB, a landscape level, Digital Terrain Model (DTM). SHALSTAB is designed to predict the relative risk for the occurrence (spatial distribution) of rapid-moving, shallow-seated landslides (Dietrich and Montgomery 1998). Recently, Stillwater Sciences, Inc. have made further refinements to SHALSTAB in cooperation with VESTRA Resources at the University of California at Berkeley. In conjunction with re-licensing of the North Umpqua Hydroelectric Project by PacifiCorp, Stillwater Sciences, Inc. utilized SHALSTAB to portray slope stability risk throughout the North Umpqua basin above the confluence with Rock Creek. This stability analysis delineates areas in the landscape that are prone to the occurrence of rapid, shallow landslides.
SHALSTAB consists of six slope risk classes that depict potential sites for the occurrence of natural-occurring, rapid, shallow landslides (Table 16). The six risk classes are consolidated into three hazard classes in ranking mass wasting potential in the Access and Travel Management (ATM) plan for the Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis area.
SHALSTAB risk classes offer only a relative measure of analysis since no field verified landslide inventory was completed for the Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis area. High risk, potential sites for rapid, shallow landslides within the Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis area are portrayed in Figure 16.
Table 16. SHALSTAB risk classes.
Mass wasting Risk SHALSTAB Risk Classes Chronic 1 High High Potential Instability Moderate – High Potential Instability Moderate Moderate Potential Instability Low Potential Instability Low Stable 1 Chronic instability is mainly characterized by rock failure since these very steep slopes have virtually no soil mantle
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When using SHALSTAB as a landscape-level analysis tool to evaluate risk of mass wasting erosion and sediment delivery to aquatic habitat, the following limitations and constraints should be fully considered:
The SHALSTAB slope stability model does not delineate topography that is at risk for deeper-seated, slow moving landslides, inclusive of slumps and earthflows.
At any given time, only a small number of high-risk sites will display evidence of landslide scars. Frequency (return interval) of rapid-moving, shallow-seated landslides at any given site is on the order of tens, to a couple hundred years.
The high hazard risk class identifies preferred sites that are most likely to experience a landslide event because of their slope steepness and convergent slope form.
Model failure (landslides occurring at places predicted to have low risk or be stable) typically occurs when the digital elevation data (pixel resolution) does not accurately record the actual topography.
Road failures and runoff-induced failures may cause landslides at sites classified as having low potential instability. The SHALSTAB model is not designed to evaluate risk for road-related mass wasting attributed to failure of artificial cut and fill slopes. The SHALSTAB model is useful to delineate terrain upslope of forest roads that is at risk to rapid, shallow-seated landslides. In terrain rated as being at high risk for rapid moving, shallow-seated landslides, road systems may be impacted by debris flows at road-stream crossing intersections.
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SHALSTAB Potential High Risk Areas
Figure 16. SHALSTAB model (potential sites for high slope instability).
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SOIL
Site Productivity
Analysis Procedures, Assumptions, and Data Gaps
Soil productivity and suitability for regeneration was interpreted using the LRI and aerial photography. The LRI is broad scale, order four mapping. All interpretations can be considered broad scale and will require a site-specific evaluation during any type of on-site planning.
Reference Condition
Prior to timber harvest, the long-term site productivity of the watershed was similar to that of current undisturbed stands. The reference condition for the soil environment is considered to be 1955, before any harvest occurred in the watershed. Soil bulk densities at this reference condition can range from 0.63 to 0.7 grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm3) and can be found at areas that have not been subject to equipment traffic or road construction.
Nearly half (41%) of the Copeland-Calf Watershed is covered with soils that are deep, to very deep (40 inches to >60 inches in depth), (Figure 17). These soils range in texture from loam to sandy clay loam. The deeper soils have more water storage capacity and tend to be the most fertile sites in the watershed. The groundwater retained in deeper soils helps to maintain streamflows. Watersheds with less storage capacity will have lower summer flows. Copeland Creek, which has 314 acres/mi2, has a streamflow of 0.3 cfs/mi2, the highest in the analysis area (Table 17).
Table 17. Deep soil influence on summer low streamflows.
Tributary Name DrainageArea (mi2) DeepSoils (>40"), (acres/mi2) Streamflow (cfs/mi2) Copeland Creek 35.9 313.8 0.3 Deception Creek 5.4 276.5 0.2 Dry Creek 7.2 253.8 0.1 Calf Creek 19.6 180.8 0.1
The majority of the Copland-Calf Watershed ranges from 1,500 to 4,500 feet above sea level and has a mesic temperature regime where the mean annual soil temperature is higher than 8oC, but lower than 15oC.
Approximately 6,467 acres, less than 1% of the watershed, is above 4,500 feet, reaching its highest point of 5,879 feet at Twin Lakes Mountain. The soils in this elevation range have a
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis Chapter Four Reference and Current Condition, Synthesis, and Interpretation 79 frigid temperature regime where the mean annual soil temperature is lower than 8oC. This elevation retains snow throughout the months of November-May, or later.
In a mesic environment, the largest portion (75-86%) of the ecosystem nitrogen is retained in the top 10 inches of the soil profile. On these soils, only about 12-25% resides above ground in the vegetation and forest floor. These soils generally have higher organic carbon and are more resilient to disturbance from fire and machinery than a similar soil in a frigid environment, where 27%-33% of the ecosystem nitrogen is stored above ground (Edmonds, et al. 1989).
Figure 17. Soil productivity-The areas of highest soil productivity are defined as having deep to very deep soils.
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Figure 18 illustrates that more than 10% of the watershed is physically unsuited for planting seedlings and is not suitable for regeneration harvest (Appendix B-11, Umpqua NF LRMP 1990). More than 2,015 acres (approximately 4%) of the watershed has lithic soil inclusions (<6 inches to bedrock) and more than 300 acres of rock outcroppings that offer unique habitat to various plants and animals (Appendix B-16, Umpqua NF LRMP 1990).
More than 700 acres (approximately 1.5%) of the watershed has soils that have a high gravel content. These soils are considered suitable for regeneration harvest, but are severely limited by their inherently low water and nutrient holding properties.
Figure 18. Soil Suitability for the Copeland-Calf Watershed.
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Current Condition
Soil erosion is a natural occurrence, however, through human activity the process can be accelerated. Natural soil erosion is defined as a wearing away of the land surface by the forces of water, wind, ice, or other geologic agents. Accelerated erosion is defined as rapid loss of soil, caused by the activities of humans, animals, or catastrophic events such as wildfire, that expose the soil surface.
When considering the issue of erosion in the watershed, accelerated erosion is the most detrimental to soil health. The soil eroded or lost from the site usually represents the most fertile, which is the upper horizon of the soil profile. To better understand erosion in the watershed, data was generated to show the areas at risk of highly accelerated surface erosion. This information was derived from the “Water Erosion Prediction” (WEPP) model (see Soils section in Appendix A).
Soil compaction, displacement, and the loss of the surface organic cover can have a significant long-term effect on soil productivity, particularly in the more frigid ecosystems. Soil compaction can also impede water infiltration, leading to increased surface water runoff and soil erosion during peak storm events. This further exacerbates the condition of detrimentally disturbed soil by reducing surface accumulations of organic matter and eroding the most productive portion of the mineral soil.
Timber harvesting has occurred on approximately 9,000 acres within the watershed. This is approximately 19% of the watershed. For the most part, the Copeland-Calf Watershed is regenerating quickly. However, harvest methods prior to 1985 on approximately 1,700 acres (3.4%) utilized heavy ground skidding equipment that often resulted in soil compaction and displacement of 25% to 40% of these harvest areas. Fuels treatment that involved tractor piling often resulted in unacceptable soil disturbance of as much as 70% percent or more of the harvest area. Figure 19 illustrates that many of these areas remain in an unacceptable soil condition (Soil Productivity Standard and Guidelines no. 1, Umpqua NF LRMP 1990). Nearly 360 acres have heavy compaction without canopy cover.
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Figure 19. Management areas with unacceptable levels of soil compaction.
The Umpqua Project Activities Database (UPAD) and the LRI were used to delineate natural and human-related disturbances. Those disturbances include the creation of legacy compaction, which can be considered by definition to be unsuitable for the production of vegetation.
Figure 20 shows areas of compacted soils and areas with the potential for compaction. These areas may benefit from soil restoration activities such as sub-soiling and/or nutrient amendments.
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Figure 20. Potential soil restoration areas.
Future Trends
Harvest units that have failed to revegetate and produce ground or canopy cover that promotes soil stability and slows erosion have been identified in the Soils section of Appendix A in the table titled “WEPP Data for CCWA”. The reasons that these units have failed to revegetate properly range from naturally poor site conditions to detrimental soil conditions created by harvest and site preparations. It has been estimated through WEPP that these sites are continuing the erosion process, and in some cases, sediment delivery to streams.
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HYDROLOGY
Annual Yield and Low Flows
Catchment studies have repeatedly demonstrated that the removal of vegetation increases water yield. The following consistencies were found in an analysis of a watershed study (Hibbert 1967):
1). Water yield increases with canopy removal.
2). Water yield decreases with canopy regeneration.
3). Response to treatment is highly varied and unpredictable.
Water yield response depends on the type and amount of cover removed (Bosch and Hewlett 1982). Some of the largest increases in water yield have been after the removal of conifers. The water yield increase is proportional to the amount of cover removed; any changes in streamflow due to removal of less than 20% of the vegetation is undetectable.
As understory vegetation and timber stands re-establish, evapotranspiration demand will begin to increase and water yield will decline to pre-harvest levels. In western Oregon, increases tend to recover to background levels within 30-40 years, depending on the growth potential of the site.
The streamflow regime of the analysis area is a result of seasonal snowmelt, rainfall, and groundwater input. The high elevation headwaters of the Upper North Umpqua River basin (above Soda Springs Dam) and deep soils seasonally distribute water differently than the lower tributaries with shallow soils. At the North Umpqua above Copeland Creek gaging station, approximately 42 % of the annual water yield occurs during May 1 to September 30 (Table 18). The snowmelt driven hydrology and porous bedrock in the upper portion of the watershed appreciably augments the ground water reserves and low flows in the mainstem of the North Umpqua River.
The lower elevation tributaries within the analysis area have streamflows that are dependent upon the rainfall patterns and upland vegetation. Steamboat Creek, hydrologically representative of the Western Cascade tributaries within this analysis area, recorded only 15% of the annual flow from May through October. Shallow soil with low water storage capacity and the rainfall driven hydrology of the tributaries within the analysis area provide very little contribution to summer low flows in the mainstem.
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Table 18. Comparison of yearly distribution of annual yield. Average Annual Drainage % % Streamflow Area Period of 3 Flow Nov Flow May Station (ft /sec) (mi2) Record 1-April 30 1-Oct 31 Min Max Mean North Umpqua above Copeland Creek 475 1949 - Current 897 2080 1480 58 42 (14316500) Steamboat Creek near Glide 227 1956 - Current 239 1253 736 85 15 (14316700)1 North Umpqua River above Rock Creek 886 1924-45 1390 3960 2260 70 30 (14317500) 1 Gaging station located at the mouth of Steamboat Creek
A survey of the relative contribution of baseflow to the North Umpqua River by tributaries within the analysis area revealed that Copeland Creek had a baseflow of approximately 0.5 cfs/mi2 in August, 1999, compared to the gaging station on the North Umpqua above Copeland Creek, which recorded a flow of 2.9 cfs/mi2 during the same period (Table 19). The abundant groundwater retained by the deep soils of the High Cascades dominates the low flow regime of the North Umpqua River. Contribution of the tributaries within the analysis area to summer low flows in the river is minimal.
Table 19. Streamflow measurements during the summer of 1999-2000.
Drainage Area Streamflow Date Tributary Name Cfs/mi2 (mi2) (cfs) 1999 Jul 19, 1999 North Umpqua above Copeland 475 1390 2.9 Jul 19, 1999 Copeland Creek at the mouth 35.9 16.7 0.5 Aug 18, 1999 Copeland Creek above West Copeland 20.5 8.8 0.4 Aug 18, 1999 Copeland Creek above East Copeland 16.6 6.6 0.4 Aug 25, 1999 Copeland Creek (above Trib section 13) 15.1 6.1 0.4 Aug 25, 1999 Copeland Creek above Raven 7.9 4.6 0.6 2000 Aug 15, 2000 Copeland Creek at the mouth 35.9 9 0.3 Aug 16, 2000 Deception Creek at the mouth 5.4 1.3 0.2 Aug 15, 2000 Calf Creek at the mouth 19.6 2 0.1 Aug 17, 2000 Dry Creek at the mouth 7.2 0.3 0.1
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Comparison of flow duration curves from the downstream North Umpqua at Winchester gage indicates little change from reference baseflow. Summer and winter low flows have not changed significantly since 1952 when regulation at Soda Springs Dam began (Stillwater Sciences, Inc. 1998).
Peak flows
Peak discharges are a part of the natural disturbance regime that is vital to a properly functioning ecosystem. Peak flows above the natural disturbance regime can reduce stream stability, channel complexity and diversity, and impact riparian vegetation. Removal of vegetation, soil compaction, and extension of the stream drainage network by roads can increase peak flow discharges.
Stand structure influences snow accumulation and snowmelt. A mature forest canopy offers a greater surface area that is exposed to convection and condensation processes than snowpack surfaces in an opening, therefore more rapid melt occurs in the forested area and less snow accumulates. More snow can accumulate in openings than under forest overstories during snowfall events due to wind eddies in the openings (Brooks, et al 1991). When rain occurs in these open areas the snowpacks melt rapidly, causing rapid delivery of water to the drainage network. Some of the most severe flooding in areas that receive snowfall is attributed to ROS events. Areas where the air temperature is frequently around 0oC during the winter frequently have ROS events with high peak flows. Also, peak flows are higher in the lower tributaries due to the flashy hydrology of the Western Cascades.
Much of the analysis area has been previously harvested, creating openings that are susceptible to ROS events. Some basins have had significant portions of the watershed harvested (Figure 21). Lower Copeland has had over 25% of the drainage harvested. While research indicates that snow accumulation, melt and resulting peak flows are greater due to forest openings, it is difficult to predict exactly how much reference condition peak flows have increased.
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Percent of Area Harvested in the Last Five Decades
Figure 21. Percent of drainage harvested in the last five decades.
The UNF currently utilizes the Hydrologic Recovery Procedure (HRP) model to estimate peak flow response to canopy removal. Initially, hydrologic recovery is minimal until the stand reaches an age of 10-15 years, while stands are considered fully recovered at approximately 30- 39 years, depending on tree growth rate. The HRP modeling results indicate that most of the sub-watersheds are more than 87% hydrologically recovered from the effects of canopy removal (Table 20). In addition to the harvest-related HRP value, the removal of canopy due to fire must be considered in planning future land management activities.
Table 20. HRP values for the analysis area.
Sub-watershed Drainage Drainage Area (acres) Current % HRP Upper Copeland 5,058 95 Raven Creek 2,337 100
Middle Copeland 3,436 94 Copeland East Copeland 2,321 92 West Copeland 2,788 97 Lower Copeland 7,050 92 Eagle Rock Facial 5,427 98 Illahee Facial Deception 3,484 89 Dry 4,582 99 Calf Calf Creek 12,260 93
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Portions of the analysis area may be more susceptible to ROS events due to their geology and topography. A qualitative peak flow analysis was adapted from the Augusta Creek Study on the Willamette National Forest (Cissel, et al 1998) to address potential bank erosion and channel scour. Peak flows were analyzed by assessing the potential of different areas of the watershed to accumulate and melt snow and store ground water. The analysis is based on scientific understanding of the processes that contribute to peak flows, but the results have yet to be field verified.
Areas identified as highly susceptible to ROS events (Figure 22) and with stands not hydrologically recovered are considered at high risk for rain-on-snow events. Harvesting in areas of high susceptibility to ROS events and low hydrologic recovery may contribute to higher peak flows.
Areas Susceptible to Rain-on-Snow Events
Figure 22. Areas of high susceptibility to rain-on-snow events with harvest units less than 40 years old and earthflow terrain.
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Snow accumulation was modeled as a function of elevation. Snowmelt rate was grouped by aspect, with the highest melt rates on south and west facing slopes. Soil depth was used to assess ground water storage capability and was interpreted from the LRI. Elevation zone, aspect, and soil depths were merged to identify areas of high susceptibility to peak flows due to ROS events (Table 21).
Table 21. Potential susceptibility to ROS event peak flows in the Exodus Planning area.
Elevation Aspect Soil Depth ROS Susceptibility <1100 W, SW, S Shallow High <1100 SE, NW Shallow Moderate <1100 N, NE, E Shallow Low <1100 W, SW, S Deep Moderate <1100 SE, NW Deep Low <1100 N, NE, E Deep Low 1100 -1400 W, SW, S Shallow High 1100 -1400 SE, NW Shallow High 1100 -1400 N, NE, E Shallow Moderate 1100 -1400 W, SW, S Deep High 1100 -1400 SE, NW Deep Moderate 1100 -1400 N, NE, E Deep Low > 1400 W, SW, S Shallow Moderate > 1400 SE, NW Shallow Moderate > 1400 N, NE, E Shallow Low > 1400 W, SW, S Deep Moderate > 1400 SE, NW Deep Low > 1400 N, NE, E Deep Low
The deep, finer textured soils of the earthflow terrain are highly susceptible to stream down cutting and bank erosion. Areas of high susceptibility to ROS events and low hydrologic recovery that are upslope and contribute to streams in earthflow terrain would potentially have the greatest influence on bank erosion and channel scour.
Reference conditions would have included fluctuations in peak flows due to canopy loss from stand replacement fires, catastrophic blowdown, etc. It is unknown what percentage of the canopy within the analysis area was less than forty years of age during the reference period.
Ground compaction caused by tractor harvest and road construction, interception of ground water at road cutslopes, and extension of the channel network due to road ditchlines and relief culverts have all been shown to increase peak flows by altering the timing of water delivery to the stream network. Roadside ditches draining into the stream and culverts with gullies below that connect directly to the stream channel may extend the stream network (Wemple et al, 1996). A survey in Steamboat Creek, a nearby drainage with higher road densities, found channel extension of 8- 23%. Large portions of the Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis area are roadless. Channel extension is probably less problematic to the landscape than many of the highly roaded watersheds on the forest. Channel extension due to roads is a cause of concern, however, in
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis 90 Chapter Four Reference and Current Condition, Synthesis, and Interpretation many of the small drainages with localized high road densities. Surface compaction can reduce infiltration, creating increased surface runoff. Where timber harvest occurred, most was accomplished by cable yarding, although some areas were heavily compacted by tractor logging (see Figure 19 in “Soil”, Chapter Four). Road banks may cut the toe of a slope causing interception of subsurface water. A comprehensive inventory of stream crossings has not been performed in the Middle North Umpqua 5th field Hydrologic Unit Code (HUC).
Water Quality
Stream Temperature
Stream temperature is a critical factor affecting the quality of aquatic habitat. Early studies of small steams in western Oregon found that solar radiation was the primary source of energy causing summertime water temperature increases when streamside vegetation was removed, with convection, conduction, and evaporation of only minor importance (Brown 1969).
The Clean Water Act of 1972 requires each state to identify waters that are exceeding the State’s water quality standards. The seven day moving average of the daily maximum temperature shall not exceed 64o F (17.8o C), in order to protect salmonid and resident fisheries during the summer rearing period. The spawning temperature standard of 55o F (12.8o C) from mid-September to mid-May applies to streams that support salmon spawning, egg incubation, and fry emergence from the egg and from the gravel.
Prior long-term temperature monitoring identified violations within the analysis area that were reported to the DEQ (see Hydrology, Appendix C). The state spawning temperature standard is exceeded in the mainstem North Umpqua from Rock Creek up to Copeland Creek. Calf and Copeland Creek exceed the spawning and rearing temperature criteria. These streams have been placed on the DEQ 303d list as water quality limited streams. Dry Creek and Deception Creek have also been identified as exceeding the state rearing temperature standard. These two streams will be reported to DEQ for violating water quality standards.
Summer stream temperatures are monitored using thermographs. Summer temperature monitoring was expanded to more sites throughout the analysis area in 1999 and 2000 (Figure 23). Maximum water temperature changes and diel (daily) fluctuations are shown in Table 22.
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1999-2000 Stream Temperature Monitoring Sites
Figure 23. Location of 1999 and 2000 stream temperature monitoring sites.
Table 22. Maximum 7-day moving average of the daily maximum stream temperature.
1999 2000 1999 7-day 1999 Max 2000 7-day 2000 Max Diel Tributary Name1 Maximum Diel Change Maximum Change (∆oF) Temperature (∆oF) Temperature Copeland Creek at the mouth 65.5 8.4 No Data Available No Data Available Copeland Headwaters 56.0 5.8 58.0 5.6 Raven Creek at the mouth 57.4 5.0 59.0 5.0 Eastern Tributary 59.6 6.7 No Data Available No Data Available Western Tributary 60.7 6.1 62.0 6.4 Tributary below Rd2801-300 60.7 7.8 63.0 7.8 Foster Creek at the mouth 61.0 5.6 61.7 5.9 Calf Creek 67.1 9.8 70.0 9.3 Deception Creek at the mouth 63.6 7.5 64.9 7.8 Dry Creek at the mouth 64.7 7.5 66.1 7.3 1Values are not directly comparable due to climatic variation between years.
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Large diel temperature fluctuations, indicative of increased solar radiation reaching the stream, are likely due to reduced vegetative shading and/or channel widening. Calf and Copeland Creek at the mouths recorded daily temperature fluctuations of 9.8° F and 8.4° F, respectively. Fluctuations of over 7° F were recorded at the mouth of Deception and Dry Creeks.
The North Umpqua River above Copeland Creek has cool water temperatures. The higher elevation and the greater influence of ground water from the deep soils of the High Cascades contribute to the lower temperature found in this area of the river. The highest daily value recorded in the summer of 1998 and 1999 was 58° F (14.5° C). Data has yet to be published for 2000. The low base flows of the Western Cascade geology may be a contributing factor to the high water temperatures of the tributaries in the analysis area during the summer.
Reference water temperatures were probably cooler in the tributaries with more moderate diel fluctuations. The cumulative effects of timber harvest and road building within the riparian areas are likely the primary causes of higher temperatures. Removal of streamside vegetation during timber harvesting was a common practice throughout the analysis area from initial entry into the watersheds in the mid 1950’s, until the mid 1990’s. Some significant riparian vegetation removal has occurred in several of the drainages during timber harvest.
The effect of the hydropower system on water temperature is difficult to determine. Surface water in impoundments may warm, but increases may be offset by entrainment of cool hypolimnetic water. U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) data shows that while cumulative temperature changes due to the upstream hydropower project cannot be determined, there is little diel fluctuation in the mainstem because releases from Soda Springs Dam dominate flow (USGS 1998).
Future timber harvest activities within the watershed are not believed to pose a significant impact to stream temperatures, given stringent standards to provide for adequate streamside shading. These required buffers also will allow LWD recruitment and reduce channel widening caused by previous stream cleanout. The temperature regime is in a state of recovery from past timber management activities.
Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
In July of 1995, USGS measured water quality parameters including DO and pH in a synoptic survey of the North Umpqua River from Lake Creek, near Diamond Lake, to below the confluence of Little River near Glide. Monitoring sites were located along the main stem of the North Umpqua River and several major tributaries. Table 23 shows the results of the measurements from streams within the analysis area. For a complete list of sites within the North Umpqua basin, but outside the analysis area, see Hydrology, Appendix C.
Increased solar radiation entering the stream channel during the afternoon increases stream temperature. Dissolved oxygen solubility is inversely related to temperature, therefore increased stream temperatures can reduce dissolved oxygen concentration. Algae can increase the DO levels as these plants convert carbon dioxide to glucose and oxygen. Increased solar radiation in
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis Chapter Four Reference and Current Condition, Synthesis, and Interpretation 93 the afternoon increases the rate of photosynthesis, adding dissolved oxygen to the stream. DO can also be added to the water column through the turbulence created by rapids and falls. The combined effects of temperature, photosynthesis, plant respiration, and re-aeration compete to control DO concentration within the stream.
Table 23. Dissolved oxygen values within the analysis area.
Water Dissolved Oxygen Sampling Site Date in pH Time Temp (oC) July, 1995 (mg/L) % Saturation 25 0837 13.5 10.6 108 7.7 N. Umpqua River above Copeland Creek 27 1345 14.0 10.1 105 8.1
24 1915 18.0 8.3 94 7.4 Copeland Creek near 25 0800 15.0 9.7 103 7.5 Mouth 25 1150 16.5 9.9 108 7.6 25 1500 20.0 8.8 102 8.2 Calf Creek near Mouth 26 0638 16.5 8.8 96 7.4
At the mainstem site, maximum DO concentrations in milligrams per litre (mg/l) occurred in the morning when water temperature was lowest. The amount of DO did not increase during the afternoons, which would have been indicative of high primary production (plant photosynthesis or growth). The decrease in DO is characteristic of a response to increasing water temperature. This is typical of almost all the mainstem sites below the analysis area also. There is one exception; a site below the confluence of the North Umpqua River and Steamboat Creek, where a tributary with a pattern of low DO concentration in the morning and high DO levels in the afternoon is indicative of primary production.
The mainstem of the North Umpqua River has numerous rapids and falls that probably create the turbulence necessary to keep the oxygen levels in the water near saturation, making any increase due to primary production difficult to discern. Another contributing factor is Soda Springs Dam, where a large volume of water enters the river with extreme force and turbulence. High primary production may be occurring in this portion of the river basin, but the effects on DO may not be as strong as re-aeration, de-aeration, and water temperature in controlling DO levels (USGS 1998).
When water temperature rose 3.5° C in Calf Creek, DO concentration remained the same. This indicates that there may be some control of DO levels by primary production in this system. When Calf Creek enters the North Umpqua River the effects appear to be attenuated.
The DO response in Copeland Creek is ambiguous with the limited sample size. The concentration (mg/L) of DO in Copeland Creek increased when the water temperature cooled,
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis 94 Chapter Four Reference and Current Condition, Synthesis, and Interpretation but continued to increase when temperatures rose the next afternoon. One sample at the mouth of Copeland Creek was below the 95% saturation benchmark set by the ODEQ to protect water quality during salmonid rearing. It should be noted that this was a synoptic survey and further monitoring and analysis is needed to determine the role photosynthesis plays in the water chemistry of these tributaries.
PH
Many chemical and biological processes in the stream are affected by pH. The ODEQ has set the pH range of 6.5-8.5 as being optimum for aquatic organisms in the North Umpqua basin. Diversity in the stream can be reduced when pH is outside this range because it can stress the physiological systems of organisms and reduce reproduction. Low pH can permit toxic elements and compounds to become mobile and available for uptake by aquatic plants and animals. The North Umpqua River has a low to moderate buffering capacity (USGS 1998). Algal metabolism can alter the early morning and late afternoon pH levels. Reduction of the limited CO2 (or - bicarbonate HCO3 ) in the water due to algal photosynthesis during the afternoon can increase pH significantly.
Although the Calf Creek and the North Umpqua samples did not exceed the state standard of 8.5, there were increases in afternoon pH levels. It appears that pH is responding to primary productivity. The pH values of Copeland Creek remained consistent, 7.4-7.6, although temperature varied by 3° C. The limited survey of pH within the analysis area found no violations of the state standard in 1995, however, values exceeding 8.5 have been recorded downstream of the analysis area (USGS 1998).
Nutrients
During sampling in 1998 nitrogen was rarely detected in the mainstem and tributaries, in spite of the sometimes-abundant algal growth. However, input of nitrogen is more likely to be taken up by the algae immediately upon entry into the stream, rather than to remain in the water column. Therefore, water column measurements may not accurately portray nitrogen concentrations.
Phosphorus in the water column is more common than nitrogen, but not the high concentrations found in streams with substantial anthropogenic inputs (USGS 1998). High concentrations of phosphorus were found in the streambed sediment. The high levels may be due to the volcanic geology of the basin. Phosphorus concentrations in the mainstem showed a slight, but steady decrease from Soda Springs Dam downstream to Glide. These decreases could indicate that aquatic organisms take up the available phosphorus.
Blue-green algae, which are predominately nitrogen fixers, are the most common periphyton community in the Wild and Scenic reach of the North Umpqua River (USGS 1998). These algae tend to dominate when the concentration of nitrogen is low, but phosphorus concentration and temperature is high (Tilman, et al 1996), or at high pH levels (Shapiro 1990). Due to the lack of nitrogen and relative abundance of phosphorus, the river is believed to be a nitrogen-limited system.
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Erosion from management-related landslides, roads, harvest units, and slash burning may be increasing nutrient loading above background levels. Fertilizer was routinely used to promote tree growth within the analysis area, but use was curtailed in the mid 1990’s because of budget declines and water quality concerns, except for some hand application outside riparian areas. Indirect effects of forest management on algal growth may include increased solar availability from reduced riparian shade, changes in sediment delivery and flow regime, or loss of LWD, resulting in channel scour.
Major Ions and Trace Elements
USGS sampled major ions and trace elements downstream of the analysis area at two mainstem sites from 1993-1995, one above Wright Creek and another above Rock Creek (Table 24). Concentrations of both cations and anions were found to be low. Total dissolved solids (TDS) ranged from 39-60 mg/L (USGS 1998). Calcium and sodium were the primary cations at 40 and 30%, respectively, with magnesium comprising approximately 20%. Approximately 80% of the anions present were bicarbonate, with chloride and sulfate accounting for about 10%.
Arsenic, barium, manganese, and aluminum were detected during low flow sampling. During high flow sampling, additional trace elements in the form of copper and nickel were detected. Zinc was found in two samples, but this may have been due to contamination of the sample.
Table 24. Water column trace element concentrations in the North Umpqua River. Trace Element in Low Flow High Flow Concentrations (g/L) Water Column Concentrations (g/L) Aluminum 4-9 153-167 Arsenic 1 < 1 Barium 3 4-5 Copper Not Detected 2 Manganese 2 2 Nickel Not Detected 1
Detection of arsenic is probably the most significant finding. Concentration is one-half the standard set by the EPA in their Risk Specific Health Advisory of 2 g/L for drinking water. This has a potential cancer risk of 1:5,000 to 1:20,000 for people, who over their lifetime consistently drink water and eat fish from the river. The source of the arsenic is unknown, however, arsenic is commonly derived from volcanic geology. This geology comprises much of the North Umpqua River basin.
Concentrations of several trace elements exceeded available reference levels for potential adverse effects to benthic organisms (Table 25). Arsenic, chromium, copper, manganese, and nickel exceeded the Lowest Effect Levels adopted by New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (1994) and the Ontario Ministry of the Environment (Persaud, et al 1993)
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Table 25. Comparison of environmental guidelines and bed sediment trace element concentrations in the North Umpqua River.
Trace Element in Bed Lowest Effect Level Guidelines High Flow Concentrations Sediment for Sediment (mg/Kg) (mg/Kg) Arsenic 6 8.6 Chromium 26 61 Copper 16 24 Manganese 460 835 Nickel 16 44
Pesticides
Water samples were tested for 87 pesticides during high-flow sampling in December 1993. The sampling sites were located on the North Umpqua River above Wright Creek and Rock Creek, which is downstream of the analysis area. No pesticides were found in the water.
STREAM CHANNEL
Introduction
North Umpqua River tributary streams within the Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis boundary are shown in Figure 23 of the Hydrology section of Chapter Four. These tributaries vary in watershed area and specific channel parameters, but generally the channels have been subject to similar land management histories. The discussion below begins with a general discussion of the reference, current, and potential future conditions within these basins, and the change mechanisms involved. This general discussion is followed by a more specific discussion of individual stream systems (and Twin Lakes). Detailed information is provided in Appendix D.
Aquatic Habitat Conditions - Physical
Reference Condition
Historically, aquatic habitat conditions in the North Umpqua River tributaries within the analysis area have varied considerably. The geomorphic structure of these stream channels resulted from the interactions of basin geology, precipitation patterns, and the input of LWD and other organic and inorganic material from the surrounding landscape. The interactions of these materials through fluvial processes created a mosaic of active channels, floodplains, and streamside terraces within the basin. During floods, fluvial deposition of sediments adjacent to active
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis Chapter Four Reference and Current Condition, Synthesis, and Interpretation 97 channels created floodplains. The occurrence of floodplains within valley floors is dictated by the geomorphic structure of the valley. In constrained channels such as Calf Creek and most of the other North Umpqua River tributaries within the analysis area, stream channels tend to be relatively straight with little floodplain area. Waterfalls are common in many of the constrained tributaries, the lowest, larger falls in the basin sometimes marking the end of fish distribution. In unconstrained reaches, channels lack significant lateral constraint, tend to be more complex, and have relatively well-developed floodplains. Unconstrained reaches of channel are usually seen in the lower portions of tributary mainstem reaches and are positioned between larger reaches of constrained channel.
The delivery of natural debris flows and landslides have played a significant role in the formation of tributary valley bottoms. Historically, a large proportion of sediment and LWD were delivered to tributary valley floors in the form of debris flows, providing the raw material that was altered by fluvial processes into a complex series of stream channels. The quantity and composition of material delivered during these events, along with chronic smaller scale deliveries of wood and sediment, had a direct effect on the appearance and function of riparian and aquatic environments.
The delivery of debris flow deposits to the mainstem channel often had short-term, adverse effects to fish habitat. The influx of material often forced channels to the far side of floodplains, causing main channel shifts and riparian vegetation adjustments. Sometimes debris flows completely filled valley bottoms, forcing the stream to cut around or through the debris deposit. Eventually, the stream adjusted to this influx of material and returned to some level of equilibrium.
Undisturbed streams were generally characterized by channels with a substantial gravel substrate component, whose form was constrained by bedrock walls and the presence of large wood within the channel. Large wood served to store alluvial and organic material that was transported during various stream flows. Bedrock dominated channel segments tended to be rare, due to the high density of large wood. Disturbed streams, those that had recently experienced wide spread debris flows, probably had large reaches of channel that were dominated by bedrock. These bedrock reaches probably persisted for decades, and progression to a complex channel depended upon future LWD recruitment and the subsequent deposition of sediment.
The density and configuration of LWD plays a key role in the establishment of stream channel morphology and aquatic habitat conditions. Within the analysis area, large wood in tributaries would naturally tend to be configured as channel spanning logs jams, angle logs, “stilted” logs, channel spanning sill logs, as well as wood in secondary channels and floodplain areas. The seral stages of adjacent and upstream riparian areas would dictate the size of wood delivered to the channel, while wood size, channel form (constrained vs. unconstrained), LWD delivery mechanism, and streamflow regime dictated how wood would be arranged in the channel.
Large wood surveys conducted on roadless area streams and other channels that have been minimally impacted by land management on the North Umpqua Ranger District have been used to establish a local reference for large wood densities. Based on these surveys, large wood (>12”
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis 98 Chapter Four Reference and Current Condition, Synthesis, and Interpretation in diameter, >25’ in length) densities probably ranged from 50 to 110 pieces per mile, with wood densities decreasing with increased stream order.
Current Condition
Aquatic habitat conditions within the analysis area are a reflection of the direct and indirect effects of land management in upslope and riparian areas and the history of wood removal from streams. Road building, riparian and upland timber harvest, and stream cleanout have adversely impacted the Copeland Creek mainstem channel, resulting in aquatic habitat that has been simplified. In some channels, management related debris flows have adversely impacted aquatic conditions by scouring out sections of stream channel. Degraded conditions can be expected to persist for decades without active restoration, and may degrade further depending upon future disturbances.
The condition of streamside riparian areas varies widely across the across the analysis area. In general, Riparian Reserves located within, or adjacent to harvest units have undergone the largest change from reference conditions. Streamside areas in these Riparian Reserves can be characterized as having narrow bands of early to mid-seral hardwood and conifer species. Buffer strips that were left tended to be narrow, with the larger trees having been selectively removed. These altered Riparian Reserves currently do not adequately provide the myriad of functions associated with intact riparian forests. These functions include providing stream shade, LWD, nutrient delivery in the form of litter-fall and whole trees, streambank stability, natural fire breaks, and the ecosystem functions associated with those natural processes.
Some Riparian Reserves have been selectively logged. During road building activities, large trees outside of the road corridor were harvested due to their easy access. Even where harvest units do not exist, many of the largest trees adjacent to roads were removed during repeated “salvage” harvests. While Riparian Reserves outside of harvest units and away from roads have not experienced harvest, fire suppression has altered their structure, allowing for a denser understory. This has made them prone to higher intensity fire than during the reference condition.
Riparian Reserves in the analysis area have been subjected to green and salvage timber harvest and down wood removal. Prior to the advent of the NFP, buffers along streams were relatively small, or in the case of small headwater streams, non-existent. The Riparian Reserves in the analysis area cover approximately 11,037 acres, or about 23% of the area. Of the total Riparian Reserve acreage, 1,371 acres (12%) has been clearcut harvested. Partial cut harvesting has occurred in 110 acres of Riparian Reserve within the analysis area. Table 26 summarizes the Riparian Reserve harvest for each sub-watershed. Riparian salvage harvest along roads has occurred, but due to minimal record keeping for this type of harvest the number of affected acres is not known.
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Table 26. Total acres of regeneration and partial-cut harvest within Riparian Reserves in the Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis area.
Stream Acres of regen harvest Acres of partial harvest
Calf Creek 329 9
Copeland Creek 717 57
Illahee Facial 325 44
Total 1,371 110
Today, wood densities within the analysis area are far below the ranges observed in the minimally impacted streams used to determine local reference conditions (Table 27). This can be attributed directly to riparian timber harvest and stream cleanout. Stream segments with parallel riparian roads and an extensive stream cleanout history have the lowest wood densities within the analysis area, and are subsequently the most degraded.
The removal of large wood has changed channels dominated by complex pool and side channel habitat into relatively homogeneous, single-channeled streams with simplified pool habitat. In stream reaches that still contain high levels of large wood within the channel, remnants of past conditions exist. In these areas there is still high quality aquatic habitat such as complex pools, a stair-stepped channel profile, and side channels. In many fish bearing stream reaches, these areas represent isolated islands between larger areas of degraded habitat.
Figure**. Large wood placed in Fairy Creek, 1993 One past management activity that was particularly damaging to aquatic habitats was that of stream cleanout. From the 1960’s until the 1980’s, LWD was actively removed from streams. This was done primarily to prevent damage to bridges and other facilities downstream due to log jam formation upon them during high water events. Much of the wood was removed in association with timber sales and riparian salvage operations after the 1964 flood (and a considerable amount of facility damage), while wood remaining in streams was cut into small pieces so that it would wash out with subsequent high flows. This occurred in many of the fish bearing reaches of stream within the analysis area. Wood was also removed from streams with the erroneous goal of improving fish passage. A discussion of stream cleanout within the mainstem North Umpqua River is contained within the Middle North Umpqua Watershed Analysis (2001).
The removal of LWD has resulted in a loss of stream channel complexity. Once cleaned out, the elevation of many stream segments dropped due to the channel down-cutting process, isolating the channel from adjacent floodplains and side channels. Many of the cleaned out reaches now have wider, bedrock-dominated channels. The associated increased width to depth ratio facilitates increased thermal exchange and can be an important factor in increasing summer water
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis 100 Chapter Four Reference and Current Condition, Synthesis, and Interpretation temperature. The decrease in channel roughness has reduced the channel’s capability to attenuate flood associated water velocities and retard the movement of debris flows that may enter the channel. Furthermore, stream cleanout has reduced the amount of wood available to be delivered to downstream areas, including the mainstem North Umpqua River. The subsequent loss of habitat complexity and sediment storage has also resulted in a decrease in the diversity of the biotic community, including populations of fish and aquatic invertebrates.
Table 27. Density of woody debris (in pieces per mile), by size class, within surveyed stream reaches.
Stream Large wood Medium Wood Small Wood Calf Creek 1989 Reach 1 9.3 0.0 32.7 Reach 2 1.4 3.8 24.3 Reach 3 14.6 6.9 90.0 Copeland Creek 1999 Reach 1 1.0 2.7 10.3 Reach 2 0 2.1 15.1 Reach 3 0 5.8 20.0 Reach 4 2.2 5.5 35.3 Reach 5 3.7 11.9 77 Deception Creek 1998 Reach 1 4.8 10.7 45.2 Reach 2 1.2 11.1 50.5 Dry Creek 1999 Reach 1 2.9 1.5 30.0 Reach 2 3.2 0.0 27.0 Reach 3 3.9 21.4 73.1
Small = >12-23.9” diameter, >25’ length Medium = >24-35.9” diameter, >50’ length Large = > 36” diameter, > 50’ length
Stream paralleling riparian roads, particularly along the mainstems, have facilitated riparian salvage logging and stream cleanout along portions of Riparian Reserves (Table 28). Road miles in Riparian Reserves were calculated by using an average road prism width of 40 feet, buffering streams on Class I-IV channels at the appropriate buffer size, and counting miles of road that occurred in these areas. Many roads that encroach on Riparian Reserves cross through the reserves in association with stream crossings. The influence of the North Umpqua Highway, which parallels the entire length of the North Umpqua River within the analysis area, is discussed within the Middle North Umpqua Watershed Analysis (2001).
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Table 28. Miles of road within Riparian Reserves and percent of Riparian Reserves occupied by roads, for each sub-watershed of the Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis area. Miles of Road Within Percentage of Riparian Reserve Area 7th Field Name Riparian Reserves Occupied by Roads Calf Creek 9 3 Copeland Creek 22 12 Illahee Facial 14 13 Analysis Area Total 45 10
Increased landslide rates associated with roads and timber harvest have increased the amount of sediment entering stream channels. This effect, combined with the removal of large wood from streams, has facilitated the rapid transport of large amounts of sediment from tributaries to the mainstem North Umpqua River. Channel simplification resulting from stream cleanout and the slow recruitment of instream large wood has allowed stream channels to remain in a “sediment transport” dominated state. Until large wood densities increase and begin slowing water velocities and storing more alluvial material, affected channels will remain degraded and chronically depauperate of small sediment (gravel, etc.). The lack of gravel in tributaries is a function of a lack of channel roughness, not gravel supply. Based on professional judgment, delivery of fine sediment to tributary channels is believed to be elevated in comparison to the reference period.
Future Condition
If a combination of active and passive restoration occurs, it would lead to beneficial changes within analysis area streams. The recovery of LWD densities, sediment regimes, and flow regimes would allow for the re-establishment of step-pool channel morphology, with increased storage of cobble and gravels, localized lowering of stream gradient upstream from energy dissipating features (LWD, boulders, etc.), and a reduction in bedrock exposure. In localized stream reaches where the potential for well-developed floodplains exists, these floodplains would be well-connected to stream channels. Large wood would once again play a key role in forming high quality aquatic habitats, including side channels and deep pools with complex structure.
Wood densities in tributary streams would slowly move toward densities observed in the roadless area streams mentioned previously. Fire or blowdown events could quickly re-establish reference quantities of LWD. Wood recruitment in streams bordered by late-seral stands would occur more rapidly than in streams bordered by younger stands. Streams currently bordered by early-seral vegetation would not be expected to see significant LWD recruitment for at least a century. Over time, LWD distribution would return to the pre-disturbance configuration and pattern described earlier. The recovery of large wood would also facilitate increased deposition of gravel and cobble substrate in tributaries, which in turn would increase hiding cover for salmonid fishes and other aquatic organisms, increase habitat for aquatic insects, increased nutrient retention and processing, increase flood attenuation, and increase channel stability.
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Fish Bearing Streams
Calf Creek
Habitat features in Calf Creek are the result of a combination of natural and land management associated disturbances. The primary factors that have affected habitat condition in Calf Creek include the occurrence of historic debris flows and the removal of large wood from the stream channel proper and adjacent riparian areas.
Historically, large wood played an important role in the formation of channel morphology in the Calf Creek stream system. Down large wood within the stream channel and on floodplains helped slow water velocities and store gravel-sized sediments. This in turn, helped create diverse aquatic habitats. As water was forced around obstructions, it scoured pools and created off- channel areas that could be used by fish to escape high water velocities and hide from predators. Furthermore, the confined nature of the Calf Creek stream channel allowed it to develop a “stair- stepped” stream channel profile, created by the storage of sediment wedges behind log jams. In isolated channel locations, small floodplains were built as a result of sediment deposition during flood flows, although these were small, relatively isolated areas due to the confined nature of the channel.
Stream cleanout activities in the lower 2 miles of the watershed have resulted in the Calf Creek channel becoming very simplified. The removal of large wood has greatly reduced the ability of the stream to store sediment and the “stair-step” channel profile is basically non-existent. The removal of wood allowed the stream to down-cut to its underlayment of bedrock and subsequently widen. However, the confined, bedrock nature of the channel minimized the amount of widening that took place. Historic debris flows and/or dam-break floods within the mainstem, along with the channel’s relatively high gradient and bedrock dominated nature, are believed to be the cause behind simplified channel conditions within the roadless portion of the basin as well.
The loss of channel roughness features and the confined nature of the channel are believed to have resulted in an increase in winter streamflow velocities within the mainstem of Calf Creek. Once the stream down cut and widened it became very “flume” like in its ability to transport water and sediment, further simplifying the channel. This increase in water and sediment transport efficiency will continue to retard channel and aquatic habitat recovery until a substantial amount of large wood re-enters the Calf Creek stream system.
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Copeland Creek
Most of the Copeland Creek mainstem shows changes to stream channel morphology that can be attributed to land management activity. The Copeland Creek mainstem has a length of approximately 11 miles, with the lower 8 miles being the segment affected by land management. Most of the morphological changes appear to be moderate in extent, but have a disproportionately large effect on channel parameters important for spawning and rearing use by anadromous and potamodromous fish species. Most land management impacts in larger tributaries appear to be localized, but some delayed indirect and cumulative effects may occur in the future.
The alterations to fish habitat in the lower 8 miles of channel mainstem appear to be caused primarily by the removal of LWD from the stream channel, riparian timber harvest, and possibly increased peak flows. Forest Service Roads 28 and 2801 parallel the lower 4 and 8 miles of the stream, respectively. Riparian harvest of large trees and removal of instream LWD occurred at the time of road construction and riparian salvage appears to have occurred one or more times after road construction was completed. No valley bottom roads are located along the upper 3.5 miles of the Copeland Creek mainstem. In the mainstem stream reaches adjacent to the road, the 1999 stream survey of Copeland Creek documented LWD levels well below the local “reference condition” of 50-110 pieces per mile.
The lower 2 miles of the 8 impacted miles of mainstream channel are located in an “inner gorge” geologic formation. In the inner gorge stream segment (approximately Reach 1 of the stream survey), the combination of a lack of LWD and high stream velocity during winter flows are probably the primary factors producing poor conditions for anadromous and fluvial fish spawning. The lack of LWD results in poor cover and formation that is necessary for creating high quality adult holding areas. The low frequency of LWD, combined with the high stream velocity from constricted flood flow in an inner gorge, has also resulted in the low capability of the system to retain gravel-sized material. This combination of low pool frequency, poor pool quality, and a lack of good spawning gravel have resulted in overall poor conditions for anadromous and fluvial fish spawning in this stream segment. However, some pockets of high quality habitat do exist where deep bedrock pools are associated with nearby gravel deposits.
The upper 6 miles of impacted mainstream channel are located in a Western Cascades geologic formation. The width of the valley bottom is essentially the same as much of the inner gorge reach. The steepness of the sideslopes begins to moderate and the stream gradient slowly increases from 2.5% to about 5%. Channel impacts are essentially the same as those in the inner gorge stream segment. The cause of the channel impacts are essentially the same, with the primary difference being that high stream velocity is more a result of high channel gradient than constricted flow.
The future trend of fish habitat in the channel mainstem will primarily be a function of how quickly LWD deposition is re-established. With the entire 8 miles of affected channel paralleled by a riparian road on the west side and the fact that a portion of the near-term LWD supply has
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis 104 Chapter Four Reference and Current Condition, Synthesis, and Interpretation been removed, natural recovery may be slow. If the land management direction continues as LSR and Key Watershed, the expected time frame for moderate natural recovery is decades (50- 100 years), and may take longer for full recovery.
Dry Creek and Deception Creek
Dry Creek has been subjected to a wide range of land management activities. These include timber harvest, road building, homesteading, rock quarry activity, and large-scale fire suppression efforts associated with the Spring Fire in 1996. Deception Creek has also been subjected to a wide range of land management activities. These include timber harvest, road building, and rock quarry activity.
Similar to Calf and Copeland Creeks, the channel morphology of these streams is controlled largely by LWD within the channel and floodplain areas. For the most part, the mainstem of these streams have seen little active management, although stream cleanout has occurred in lower Dry Creek and is assumed to have occurred adjacent to harvested areas on both USFS managed and private land. These areas have undergone the same type changes as described previously, as a result of LWD removal. Areas that did not experience stream cleanout have maintained their large wood component and appear to be functioning more or less as they would have in the reference condition.
Over time, large wood densities within these streams can be expected to increase as a result of slow, incremental wood recruitment. Portions of riparian areas in Dry Creek burned during the 1996 Spring Fire. Wood recruitment in these areas is expected to accelerate over the next few decades as trees killed by the fire begin to decay and fall. New wood additions to these streams will help to store sediment and diversify stream channel conditions. In the cleaned out portions of streams, the return to a more diverse stream channel condition is expected to take several decades.
VEGETATION
Vegetative Structure and Pattern
The current vegetative layer maps were compiled from the Interagency Vegetation Mapping Project (IVMP) satellite imagery, current stand examination data, and ortho-photos of the areas represented in the watershed. Historical vegetative mapping was obtained from Pacific Meridian Resources (PMR) and the Westside County Forest Type maps published between 1947 and 1949. 1946 aerial photo flights were used for interpretation to fine-tune the larger scale mapping. Since insects and disease can greatly influence vegetative structure and patterns, this topic is discussed in both this section and in the “Insect and Disease” portion of “Natural Disturbances”.
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Reference Condition
In the reference condition, a large portion of the analysis area was covered by late-seral forest. The late-seral cover was often complex, with multi-stories and a wide range of species. Within the Copeland-Calf Watershed, pine was a significant stand component during the reference period. Frequent fire disturbance created vegetative patterns within the pine communities where stands matured and stayed in a semi-permanent, understory re-initiation stage of development.
Four species of pine exist in the analysis area. These include ponderosa, sugar, western white, and knobcone pine. Pine cover was partially maintained by the topographic moisture gradients that created gentle/moist and moderate/moist landscape environments in the lower watershed areas. These areas dampened stand replacement fire severity except in severe drought or high wind conditions. Frequent, light ground fire served to thin and simplify understory vegetation, effectively minimizing fires that reached into the tree crowns, which otherwise would have created stand replacement areas.
A significant feature of the lower watershed in reference condition would be the cover of Oregon white oak, which was established on the flats and meadows along the North Umpqua River, particularly east of Copeland Creek in the Oak Flats area. Oak and pine were common associates and benefited from frequent light fire.
One other unique feature of the watershed area is the high elevation flat between Snowbird and Buckhead Mountain, which extends northward, creating a dividing ridge out past Doehead to Twin Lakes Mountain. Reference conditions were probably complex, multi-storied stands dominated by true fir, but including silver fir, white fir, mountain hemlock, and western white pine.
Stand replacement fires are in evidence when looking at the maturing and older stem exclusion stands, which are located throughout the middle and upper portions of the watershed. These are fairly simple-structure stands that begin to increase in complexity around the age of 100 years. Extensive areas, including Riparian Reserves, were replaced around the turn of the 1900’s and around 1870. These patches of stand replacement fire were often hundreds of acres in size. Having larger patch sizes minimized stand edge effects. There are trees 300-400 years old within the middle watershed area along Upper Copeland Creek that now measure 40-60 inches diameter at breast height (dbh). This fire legacy created openings throughout the watershed that were later occupied by pine. Older Douglas-fir trees in the high elevation area reach 500-700 years of age according to area ecology plot records.
Early-seral cover during reference period conditions was probably scattered in smaller patches, primarily north of the North Umpqua River, within the Dry Creek area and also on the middle to upper eastern boundary of Copeland Creek.
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Current Condition
Clearcut timber harvest and road construction have significantly changed the forest landscape patterns over the last 40 years. The earliest harvest units were concentrated on the gentle/moist land units where the largest trees were located and tractor skidding could be utilized for harvesting. Compaction still exists today in many of the skid trails within the older plantations. Harvest unit sizes were large, averaging 40 acres, but ranging to over 100 acres. Up until the 1980’s, riparian buffers were not utilized in harvest prescriptions within the Copeland-Calf Analysis area.
Today, approximately 20% of the analysis area has been converted to early-seral cover after four decades of timber harvesting. The young stands created have been primarily planted and precommercial thinned to favor predominantly Douglas-fir, regardless of the land unit where the harvest site is located. This has created some species composition problems, particularly in the pine sites in the lower elevations and again at the true fir and mountain hemlock higher elevation sites. Specifically, at the low elevation pine sites, natural or planted pine is being out-competed in dense young stands of Douglas-fir and is not maintaining its functioning ecological role on the landscape.
While root diseases generally produce positive effects for some wildlife species, not all are consistent with LSR objectives. Information on current impacts suggest that root disease pockets are now larger and more numerous than in the past. Fire exclusion has increased the occurrence of fire-intolerant and root disease susceptible species on many sites. Past management that ignored the presence of root disease has often resulted in high-density plantings of root disease susceptible species where inoculum is present. Partial cutting in true fir stands has increased the incidence of annosus root disease and soil compaction. Precommercial thinning has favored conditions for the establishment and spread of black stain root disease.
Root disease presence in young plantations comprised predominantly of susceptible species may preclude or slow the development of large tree structure in affected plantations unless measures are taken to encourage root disease-resistant species. Entry into older, root disease-infested stands to speed the development of late-successional characteristics may have the undesired opposite effect. Furthermore, as a consequence of the introduction of white pine blister rust (WPBR (Cronartium ribicola)), large tree structure provided by western white pine in high elevation root disease pockets has been compromised.
Bark beetles, WPBR, and root diseases are currently playing significant roles in forest stand development. Overstocking, windthrow, and drought have led to increases in bark beetle activity. Recent windthrow and fires will continue to influence populations of Douglas-fir beetle. Bark beetle-caused mortality has also been significant for Douglas-fir on drier sites and for true fir at lower elevations. Bark beetles throughout the LSR network are killing large sugar pine, western white pine, and ponderosa pine where they occur in overstocked conditions.
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White pine blister rust, alone or in combination with bark beetles, has reduced the presence of five-needle pines to well below that of historic levels in many areas. Impacts from root diseases have been less dramatic, however, their effects on vegetation development are currently significant in some locations within the Copeland-Calf Watershed and their presence in many young stands will slow or prevent the development of late-successional characteristics.
The pine problem is pervasive in young, middle, and older-aged stands within the watershed. It is important to note that today, it is estimated that the lower portion of the watershed has missed 3-5+ burning periods, therefore accumulating high fuel loads. In comparison, the high elevation gentle/moist sites haven’t missed any. Sugar pine and ponderosa pine are generally lacking in numbers and vigor. Further exacerbating the sugar pine health situation is the decline and mortality in almost all seedlings, saplings, and pole-sized trees due to infection from WPBR. This rust affects 5-needle pine species like sugar pine (at the low and mid-elevations) and western white pine (at the higher elevations).
In the oldest plantations, pine was not replanted and maintained to the levels that existed previous to overstory harvest. Where present, sugar pine is often crowded, diseased, and in a non-vigorous condition. To date, some wider spacing and pruning of the lowest branches has been applied on limited plantation sites that contain sugar and/or western white pine stocking. A healthy regenerating pine component is generally absent in the watershed.
In the more recent harvest sites (post-1985), ponderosa and sugar pine have been planted and favored as a species to retain in precommercial thinning. One smaller, potential problem identified was having more pine stocking on a harvest site than occurred previously as a stand component. Pure stands of pine were not common within the analysis area; but, in “pine hotspots”, average pine cover could reach 30-50%. Often though, pine established naturally as a smaller sub-component of the overall stand composition in the range of 10-30%.
Older and mature overstory sugar pine were infected with WPBR sometime after catching the introduced disease after 1911, but were not killed by the girdling action of this disease due to their larger diameters. These infected mature sugar pine do lose tops and upper branches to the disease.
Fire suppression has helped create unnaturally high stand densities and competition for site resources, which further weakens the overstory pine, leading to problems with insect mortality. The main factor that predisposes ponderosa pine to infestation by insects is overstocking. In Copeland Creek today, dead sugar pine has been documented from stand exams on 3,190 acres and dead ponderosa pine has been documented on 1,231 acres. There are approximately19,094 acres of pine area mapped within the 49,019 acre watershed (Figure 24).
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Figure 24. Copeland-Calf primary pine distribution
Today, the mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae) causes substantial mortality in sugar and western white pine trees in the watershed. Ponderosa pine has suffered extensive mortality, not only from the mountain pine beetle, but in addition, from the western pine beetle (D.brevicomis), and the pine engraver (Ips spp.). Pine beetle mortality is closely associated with dense stand conditions. Generally, the pine engraver will only kill seedling and sapling-size trees, but can also cause branch and top mortality on larger trees.
The Douglas-fir bark beetle (Dendroctonus pseudotsugae) is also active in the watershed. The Douglas-fir beetle prefers very low vigor hosts, and when in endemic populations will infest wind thrown, root-diseased, or severely injured Douglas-fir. Since the blowdown in 1996 and the Spring Fire in 1996, Douglas-fir bark beetles have been active in the watershed area. Pockets of dead trees are still occurring, although the rate of mortality seems to have declined as of 2001.
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Additional complications have arisen where stands have been precommercially thinned to rather tight spacing in both the riparian and the upland forest areas. There have been only a few prescriptions where pole-sized pine were released at wider spacing, therefore the younger pine cohort is not being sustained. Stands that carry high stocking do not develop shrub components and often become dark and dense tree areas. Both individual tree and stand growth slows and negatively affects stand structure development.
Riparian areas within the plantations have been harvested and replanted, primarily with Douglas- fir. Many of these riparian forest reaches are therefore on a simple species and stand structure development curve, which retards the ACS objectives for full aquatic functioning. Older plantations contain cull material from logging, which is now in the later stages of decay, but these stands all lack remnant large trees and snags that will provide large wood in the future.
Although there have been changes in the amount of late-successional forest within the watershed, the largest impact has been from the fragmentation of the remaining late-successional habitat. The amount of edge habitat has increased dramatically due to clearcuts and road corridors, resulting in smaller, disjunct stands of late-successional forest (see “Mature, Interior Forest Habitat Availability and Connectivity” in the Wildlife section of Chapter Four). These remaining fragments of forest are more exposed to microclimate changes and other edge-related effects that decrease their ability to function as late-successional habitat for many species, including interior forest species. This shift in forest landscape patterns has resulted in a highly fragmented forest, with the shift in the largest patches of late-successional forest occurring in the drier, less productive, and more fire prone portions of the watershed.
Another significant change has been the loss of early-successional patches with naturally high amounts of coarse woody debris. In the reference condition this landscape pattern was found as stand replacement patches, which resulted from high intensity fires. This landscape component occurred in “pulses” through time and shifted across the landscape spatially. The temporal duration of this pattern was generally brief, lasting about three to five decades before the snags and other coarse woody debris began to diminish to pre-fire levels. Today, the percentage of early-successional habitat has shifted from moderate, steep and dry land areas, to gentle and moist land areas. Although the total amount has not significantly increased, stand development is different from the reference period in structure and function. This is because of the almost total removal of large wood through timber harvesting and the salvage of fire mortality. Snag cover did increase within the analysis area after the Apple Fire of 1987 and the Spring Fire of 1996. The Apple Fire was salvaged and the Spring Fire was not salvaged.
Past timber harvest has also reduced the amount of late-successional refugia in the watershed. The previously existing and functioning network now has roads within it. Harvest units and roads break up the continuity of the refugia and reduce its ability to function as interior forest habitat for terrestrial, late-successional species. This is particularly true in the gentle/moist land unit areas in both the low and high elevation sites. Non-native species have been introduced during forest operation activities, establishing primarily on exposed rock and soil areas. Areas with “hot-spots” of non-native species now exist
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis 110 Chapter Four Reference and Current Condition, Synthesis, and Interpretation throughout the watershed. They generally are located in areas of road arteries, harvesting, rock pits, and restoration work (where non-native species were used).
Differences or Similarities Between Conditions
Differences between the reference and current period conditions are elaborated upon in this chapter under the topics of pine health, stand densities, landscape fragmentation, interior habitat reduction, and loss of snags, coarse woody debris, non-native species, young-stand development, and riparian forests.
Some older riparian forest areas have been cut over to be generally replaced by early-seral Douglas-fir. These have all negatively affected interactions with interior and late-successional species and have positively promoted pioneer species and plant cover.
One major change at low elevation has been fire suppression tactics, which has negated 3-5+ burning cycles, affecting stand densities and structure in both old and young stands. Absent fires, reference pine understory reinitiation areas have developed into dense ladder fuel stands with interwoven crowns. This concern with burning cycles is less of a factor at the high elevation stands.
Similarities between reference and current conditions are seen primarily within the middle elevation bands of the watershed. Here harvest has been minimal, with many of the stand areas inaccessible due to lack of access on steep slopes. Similar disturbance patterns and patch sizes are in evidence today that are very similar to those mapped out for the reference period. A majority of the cover is typed as late-successional forest in an understory reinitiation stage of development. During the reference period many of these stands were in a maturing stage of stem exclusion with 10-20” diameter trees.
Processes or Causal Mechanisms Responsible
Silviculture in the analysis area began shortly after initiation of the District timber sale program in the late 1940’s. The practice of precommercial thinning and fertilization began in the 1970’s. In general, silviculture focused on reforestation techniques designed to maximize timber volume through the rapid reforestation of clearcut harvest units. This involved the establishment of a source of seed and tree stock with genetic characteristics determined to produce fast growth of vigorous crop trees (primarily Douglas-fir). Clearcut units were burned and “prepared” for tree planting shortly after harvesting. The plantations were then periodically evaluated and maintained through the use of animal damage control, brush control, precommercial thinning release, and fertilization.
Plantations were precommercially thinned at about 15 years of age. Early thinning prescriptions spaced trees closely on an even spacing of 9x9 feet, or 537 trees per acre (tpa). Tree spacing progressed to an even 12x12 foot spacing (302 tpa), which became the norm in the 1980’s. Wider spacing has been implemented since then, with even 14x14 foot spacing (222 tpa) for
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Douglas-fir and variable 18x18 foot (134 tpa) for sugar pine. Between 1974-1999, 131 sites totaling 3,413 acres were precommercial thinned on USFS lands in the analysis area.
Current stand development trends suggest that precommercial thinning done at narrow spacing has been of little help to young stand growth and diversity. It is hard to grow a vigorous second- growth stand that will support a viable commercial thinning entry if the stand carries more than 300-400 tpa. It is preferable to limit stocking to less than 200 tpa if other objectives, such as accelerating large tree growth, providing for a diversity of tree species, and forest structure are the desired outcomes of the silvicultural treatment.
Fertilization of plantations was scheduled to occur 5-10 years after precommercial thinning was accomplished. Standard treatment consisted of aerial application of 440 pounds per acre of granular urea, which is equivalent to about 202 lbs. of nitrogen per acre. Gains in growth from this fertilization were anticipated to yield an additional 10-15% of growth over a decade, producing an extra 1.8 mbf per acre, on average. Between 1965-1993, 42 sites totaling 1,485 acres were fertilized on USFS lands within the analysis area. Recently, budgets to carry out fertilization have been reduced and concerns over watershed eutrophication1 and its cumulative effects have risen, resulting in little to no application of fertilizer within the analysis area.
Future Trends
Future trends between reference and current conditions would continue to be dissimilar if the landscape management continued intensive timber production and conversion of old-growth stands into young plantations. Given that the NFP has designated the watershed as an LSR, it is believed that in time, without management or fire suppression, the Copeland-Calf landscape would again become similar to vegetative patterns consistent with the reference period. Upland and riparian restoration activities will put young stands on development curves suited for that particular land unit. Pine restoration treatments will improve pine health and help re- establish cover on historic sites. Understory treatments in late-successional stands will diminish competition between trees and between tree layers, returning stand fuel loadings to reference conditions.
1 Eutrophication refers to an acceleration of aquatic productivity (e.g., algae production) as a direct result of increased nutrient loading.
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Influences and Relationships to Other Ecosystem Processes
Fire suppression has altered the disturbance cycles over much of the lower elevations of the analysis area and has affected vegetation and soil interactions. It appears that certain understory species, such as nitrogen-fixing plants like the ceanothus spp., have declining habitat beneath the increasingly dense mature stands that exhibit ingrowth of shade-tolerant grand fir and western hemlock. Periodic fire during reference times would have kept the understories more open, which would have favored and stimulated shade-intolerant species like ceanothus.
Today, many of the older stands are appearing somewhat chlorotic, exhibiting signs of yellow or fading color. Nutrient cycling has been impaired because of fire suppression. Stands that have had partial harvests or commercial thinning treatments exhibit a healthier and more vigorous understory than those with high tree densities. Where ceanothus cover has increased, there have been visual changes to a greener tree color. With regular fire return intervals, nutrient exchange would likely be maximized in the ponderosa pine habitat.
The harvest intensity of gentle/moist areas has outpaced the natural late-successional habitat disturbance pattern. Interior habitat has been lost from the most stable landscape areas. Late- successional species have likely moved into late-seral cover on the moderate or steep and dry land units where the habitats more at risk of fire disturbance.
Riparian harvest has affected the wildlife and fish communities by removing late-successional forests and replacing them with densely stocked early-seral forests. Species composition and diversity has been reduced and structure has been simplified, affecting species within the riparian areas. Shade has been reduced with riparian clearcutting, which has elevated stream temperatures and possibly changed fish occupancy. Riparian harvesting has also reduced LWD recruitment into the stream. Another ecosystem process interrupted by riparian harvest is the capture of sediment by live vegetation before it reaches a stream segment.
Salvage can sometimes negatively affect the recovery of fire-disturbed areas in relation to impacts on the soil from post-fire salvage logging. Highly sensitive soils are easily altered or eroded off-site with heavy equipment use and road building. A legacy of salvage logging is the loss of snag patches from the landscape, which have been found to be substantially lacking when compared to reference period snag habitat.
Non-native invasive species have taken a foothold within the analysis area, often starting along roads and in rock pits. These new competitors can sometimes out-compete favored native species and occupy a site into the future. How this affects animals, insects, and birds is unknown, but it is generally accepted as a negative outcome and an interruption to the normal energy budget for the watershed.
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Coarse Woody Material
Analysis Procedures, Assumptions, and Data Gaps
Coarse Woody Material (CWM) guidelines have been established for the different land units on the North Umpqua Ranger District and those were used in assessing CWM. These guidelines have been augmented by contract and force account data sets from work in the Little River and Steamboat drainages.
Reference and Current Condition
During the reference condition, coarse woody material would naturally flux over the landscape through the decades, with pulses of large material following wild fires and then periods of reduced recruitment. It was not uncommon for an area to receive a re-burn within the first 1-3 decades following harvest. Fire disturbance frequently left large patches of snags together, which fell to the ground as a pulse of coarse woody material of the same decay class. Individual trees, as well as trees from small group openings would add to this base over time. Reference range accumulations were broadly distributed, from many tons of CWM to bare ground.
Current condition is a lack of CWM, although levels have been augmented by the snowdown event of 1995-96 and the ensuing increase in insect and diseases. Fire suppression in the last several decades has undoubtedly had an effect on the amount of CWM. Suppression protects existing CWM, but does not allow for accelerated recruitment due to fire.
Processes or Causal Mechanisms Responsible
Coarse woody material may constitute one of the most important elements in the watershed. It is clear that fires, harvesting, burning, and salvage treatments have been the main factors in reducing cover of CWM on the landscape today. Many species depend on CWM being available, and where it is lacking, ecosystem functioning is reduced or impaired.
On the forest floor within the plantations, CWM is largely absent due to removal or prescribed fire. In the older stands near roads, CWM levels have also been reduced due to salvage logging and firewood cutting. During the harvest of the 1950’s and 1960’s, more and larger CWM was left onsite compared to the decades after 1970. By the mid-1970’s, it was believed that burning a site clean was the appropriate fuels treatment to utilize. Similarly, snags left in the 1950’s and 1960’s were sometimes felled in later decades to facilitate vegetative treatments or fertilization practices. Salvage logging has also been utilized over the decades, removing available large snags located near road access areas. At the time, salvage was viewed as a clean-up activity for the removal of hazard trees from the forest.
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Future Trends
Future trends are now geared to recognize the value of CWM within our mixed conifer ecosystem. Current and future habitat prescription plans recognize the value and role CWM plays and agency funds are targeted to ensure certain levels of CWM exist on the landscape. The NFP sets levels of CWM that must be maintained. According to the NFP, future LSR salvage plans will be restricted to a minimum disturbance patch size of 10 acres or larger. Before salvage plans could be drawn and analyzed, CWM goals of the immediate area need to be assured.
Influences and Relationships to Other Ecosystem Processes
The lack of CWM negatively affects the wildlife community and the soil/fire interactions with forest structure. Another important ecosystem process compromised by lack of large CWM is the retention of soil water and the affect on the mycorrhizal communities beneath the large nurse logs on the forest floor. Without areas of CWM, these stand areas are unable to help re-colonize plant and wildlife species after a forest disturbance.
NATURAL DISTURBANCE
Fire
Introduction
Since 1970 the analysis area has experienced the largest fire on the UNF1, and two additional fires over 100 acres2. This is significant as there are few other watersheds on the UNF that have had this many large fires relatively recently.
This watershed has characteristics of both the eastern and western portions of the UNF, as well as the northern and southern portions of the forest. The watershed analysis area is on the North Umpqua River, with elevations ranging from 1,500 feet to near 5,900 feet, and has northern, shaded, cool, moist sites and southern, severe, sunny, hot, dry sites.
The watershed analysis area is located in the narrowest and center portion of LSR 222. The purpose of this reserve is to provide and maintain “old-growth” habitat. Characteristics of this habitat are both dependant upon, and threatened by fire. Management of the area includes a
1 Spring Fire of 1996, over 16,000 acres; cause by lightning. 2 Apple Fire of 1987, lightning-caused, and the arson-caused Calf Fire of 1972.
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Analysis Procedures, Assumptions, Data Gaps
The fire management portion of the watershed analysis refers to the entire analysis area as a whole. This includes Copeland Creek, Calf Creek, Deception Creek, and Illahee Facial drainages.
Analysis of reference conditions, including fire return interval, fuel availability, and air quality involved examining anecdotal information and studying vegetation patterns from older aerial photographs. Photographs taken in the 1930’s from Twin Lakes and Oak Flats lookout were also assessed.
No fire history plots were taken in the analysis area. Instead, fire history data from the Fish Creek (located to the east) Watershed Analysis (1999) and the Middle North Umpqua (located to the west) Watershed Analysis (2001) were used to draw general conclusions of the fire return interval. Methodology for determination of conclusions is located in the Fire Section of Natural Disturbances (Appendix E), or in the respective watershed analysis document mentioned previously. Fire regime mapping was completed for the UNF by the Area Ecologist, Forest Fuels Specialist, and Forest Geographic Information System (GIS) specialist. This fire regime mapping is based on the National Fire Plan definitions, plant series mapping, and ecology plot information (Appendix E, Fire section of Natural Disturbances).
The current natural fire regime was determined using fire occurrence data, descriptions, and observations of recent fire effects, current fuel models, and current air quality. Data was gathered from the UNF Fire Atlas for fires occurring from 1932 through 1963; fire acreage was recorded by size-class and cause was recorded as human or lightning. Data was retrieved from the National Fire Occurrence Data Library for fires occurring between 1970 and 1996. A total of 60 years of recent fire data was used. Data from the Fire Atlas and the National Fire Occurrence Library have been compiled in the UNF GIS system. Fire occurrence data from 1970 to 1996 was derived using the Probacre program. The fuel model map was developed in 1996 from PMR and UPAD data. The current fuel model map was used, which was updated to account for changes resulting from the Spring Fire. The PMR data is based on photo interpretation of the Anderson Land Use/Cover classification scheme. The UPAD data are based on current information of managed stands. No data verification or ground-truthing of mapping occurred.
Probability Analysis The fire occurrence records for the 1970-1996 time period provided input data for PROBACRE: A Model for Computing Aggregate Burned Acreage Probabilities for Wildfire Risk Analysis. The data is based on the current number of fire starts and acreage over a specific time period. It is important to remember that the data used for input into the program is recent fire occurrence data, where immediate fire suppression was the objective. The frequency of each size class is
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis 116 Chapter Four Reference and Current Condition, Synthesis, and Interpretation grossly understated and therefore under-predicted. Key data input includes frequency at which fires in various size classes occurred. PROBACRE indicates that in a 10 year period there is a 52% probability that between one and four fires ranging from 100 to 1000 acres will occur somewhere within the analysis area. In the next 40 years there is a 77% probability that one to four fires between 100 and 1000 acres will occur. The probability of a large fire increases with time. Long range probabilities were derived using the same prediction model. Predictions were based on a percentage of the watershed burning within a given time period. The probability of 5% of the watershed burning over the next 30 years is 55%. The probability of 10% of the watershed burning over a 60-year period is 60%. See the Fire Section of Natural Disturbances in Appendix E for the entire probability analysis. When utilizing this information and the map, consider that the map is based on PMR data collected prior to 1996. Since that time, two significant events have occurred that have not been captured in the fire behavior calculations and mapping: 1) The Spring Fire changed the fuel model dramatically; and 2) A major “snowdown” event in 1995 that resulted from combined high amounts of precipitation, saturated soils, and high wind. The second event increased the fuel loads in large portions of the analysis area. Increasing the fuel load will result in a higher predicted flame length and higher predicted risk.
Reference Condition and Current Condition
Fuel Models
Fuels are made up of various live and dead components of vegetation that occur on a site. The type and quantity of fuel models depend on many things, one of which is the fire history of the area (Anderson 1982). Fuel amounts and arrangements have been classified into categories called Fire Behavior Fuel Models. These classifications are based entirely on material less than 3 inches in diameter. Fuel model type and relative distribution greatly influence fire behavior and effects. For more information on fuel models see the Fire Section of Appendix E (Natural Disturbances). Fuel model distribution within any watershed is dynamic over time, fluctuating within a wide range. Figure 25 displays a “snapshot” of the distribution in the reference and current conditions. The reference period is prior to 1932, the current distribution is 1996.
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Comparison of fuel Model Distributions
45000 Reference
40000 Current
35000 30000 25000 Acres 20000
15000
10000 5000
0
non-forested
2- med. grass med. 2- timber light 8-
6- med. brush med. 6- 5- short brush short 5-
11- light slash light 11-
9- medium litter medium 9- 12- medium slah medium 12- 10- heavy timber heavy 10- Fuel Model
Figure 25. Comparison of fuel model distributions in reference and current conditions.
Weather Patterns
Weather patterns influence the amount and location of fire starts, how fires burns, fire effects, and fire size. During reference conditions, fires were started by lightning or when indigenous people ignited them.
In the watershed analysis area, lightning storms generally move from south to north, or from east to west, however, storms may follow any movement pattern. Numerous lightning strikes can occur during these storms, especially in the upper two-thirds of the center ridge, which includes: Twin Lakes Mountain, Doe Head Mountain, and Snow Bird Mountain. Lightning strikes are frequent in the upper two-thirds of the surrounding ridges, which include: Calf Ridge, Buck Head Mountain, Mud Lake Mountain, and Rhododendron Ridge (Figure 26). During a typical storm numerous fires are started by lightning, however, accompanying rain may extinguish many of them. Historically, some of these fires would continue to smolder in trees, duff, or large down material until drier conditions allowed active burning and fire growth. Currently, fires are detected quickly and suppressed while still small, with the rain usually accompanying these storms being beneficial to fire suppression.
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Areas of Frequent Lightning Strikes
North Umpqua River
Figure 26. Areas of frequent lightning strikes.
Diurnal winds and terrain affect fire growth, burn patterns, and fire effects. The North Umpqua River corridor is affected by afternoon up-canyon winds and nighttime down-canyon winds. Copeland Creek drainage is especially prone to strong upslope afternoon winds during warm, sunny, summer days. Calf Creek may have a similar pattern. Fires burning under these wind conditions will exhibit higher intensities and rapid upslope movement in the afternoon, followed by reduced intensities and down and cross slope spread in the evenings and mornings.
Due in part to the strong diurnal influence and the elevational difference from top to bottom, Copeland Creek, Calf Creek, and the North Umpqua River drainages are prone to inversions in the late summer and fall. Fires burning in an inversion exhibit low intensities and slow rates of spread, while fires burning above the inversion exhibit continued fire growth and higher intensities. As the inversion breaks up, fires will increase intensity and rates of spread.
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A weather pattern that has a dramatic affect on fires burning in the analysis area is the “Foehn” wind. In the Cascades this is referred to as an “East” wind. This wind pattern is typical in the late summer and fall, and to a lesser extent in the spring. East winds are sustained, strong, warm, dry winds blowing from the east to west. East winds are typically 20-40 miles per hour, dry out fuels, last from three days to a week, and continue through the night. In the analysis area, these winds most strongly affect the eastern slopes of Twin Lakes Mountain, Doe Head Mountain, and possibly the higher slopes of the North Umpqua drainage in the northern part of the analysis area.
Fire Size
Average wildfire size during current conditions is 0.8 to 3.7 acres1. The average area burned per decade from 1932 to 1996 is 100 acres, or roughly 10 acres annually. This excludes the Spring Fire area2. Fire size has been limited by successful fire suppression; the final fire size of the large fires is also reduced from what would have occurred had suppression not been successful.
Shape and Pattern
Underburning occurs when fires burn at low intensities. Conditions that facilitate underburning are cooler weather, higher humidities, and higher fuel moistures. These occur in the evenings and during inversions. Backing fires, or fires burning into the wind may underburn. Areas with less and/or smaller fuels are conducive to underburning. An absence of heavy and/or ladder fuels is important, as are the size of trees. Areas of underburn with little mortality are very ameboid in shape. The perimeter of these may be straight, but are just as likely to follow subtle changes in slope and aspect or stop at barriers such as rock outcroppings, areas of sparse fuels, riparian areas, or small streams.
Stand replacement occurs when conditions are right for high intensity fires. Factors include weather, fuels, and terrain, especially slope. Slope alone will not lead to stand replacement fires, however, slope in combination with ladder fuels or high amounts of fuels can lead to stand replacement. A fire may burn in the understory until conditions are favorable for crowning. The perimeter of these stand replacement areas are usually parallel to the slope (i.e., straight up and down), with the lowest portion narrower than the mid section, and they may “peak out” to a point or end wide on a ridge (Figure 27). Generally stand replacement occurs above all riparian areas. In some instances, these streams act as a chimney or chute and the area of stand replacement follows the channel.
1 Range is due to the different record keeping methods used during the reference condition. 2 The Spring Fire originated outside of the analysis area. Data for the Spring Fire was not incorporated into this part of the analysis.
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Fires thin forests by killing dispersed trees throughout an area. These trees are usually smaller, mechanically-damaged trees with large amounts of fuel at the base, or small groups of trees that torch up.
Stand Replacement Fire Patterns
Approx. 400 acres Approx. 80 acres
Figure 27. Typical stand replacement patterns resulting from uncontrolled wildfire in an unmanaged forest. Size of the patches identified in the photo varies from 80 acres to 400 acres.
Fire Regime Fire regime is defined as the role fire plays in an ecosystem; a function of the frequency of fire occurrence, fire intensity, and the amount of fuel consumed. The following map (Figure 28) of the estimated natural fire regimes was compiled by the Forest Ecologist and Forest Fuels Specialist and defined by the National Fire Plan (see the Fire Section of Natural Disturbances in Appendix E).
Based on the current fuel model, fire occurrence, and fire effects, the watershed analysis area is functioning under a high-severity fire regime as described by Albini, or fire regime IV and V as defined by the National Fire Plan. Under the current regime, fuel loadings and stand density are high, fire is virtually absent from the watershed, and fire return interval is greater than 100 years.
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Area of Watershed by Fire Regime
Area of Watershed By Fire Regime
Fire Regime Description Return Interval
I Low Severity 0-35 I III III Mixed Severity 35-100+ IV IV Stand Replacing 35-100+ V V Stand Replacing > 200
Figure 28. Areas of the watershed, by fire regime.
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Differences Between Current and Reference Conditions
The current fire regime is most like a high-severity regime; the reference fire regime for most of the area is a moderate-severity fire regime.
Fires generally burn for a period of less than 24 hours; in reference conditions, some fires burned from ignition until extinguished by fall rains, a period sometimes lasting several months.
Fires in the current condition are smaller and influence considerably less overall area than fires burning in reference conditions.
Fires are generally limited to low intensities; fires burning in reference conditions exhibited a wide variety of intensities and effects, including high intensity.
In unmanaged stands there is more large woody material than in reference conditions.
The total area of Fuel Model 10 is greater than reference conditions. Fuel Model 10 is more continuous than in reference conditions.
The total area of slash fuel models is greater than reference conditions.
Total area of Fuel Model 2 is less than in reference conditions.
There is less smoke, haze, and particulate matter produced from the analysis area than in reference conditions.
Smoke affects the airshed for less time than in reference conditions.
The composition of species is more fire intolerant than the mixture of fire tolerant and intolerant species in reference conditions.
In many unmanaged stands the stems per acre are greater than in reference conditions.
Similarities Between Current and Reference Conditions
Lightning fires occurred throughout the watershed.
Individual areas of Fuel Model 5 are widely dispersed.
Total area of Fuel Model 5 is only slightly greater than in reference condition.
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Processes or Causal Mechanisms Responsible
The exclusion of fire due to the fire suppression policy, timber management, and improved access to the area are the key elements responsible for the differences between current and reference conditions.
Current fire suppression policy was developed as a result of the severe fire season of 1902 when there were large, timber-destroying forest fires in almost every county on the west side of the Cascades of Oregon and Washington (Agee 1993). The policy was not very effective until the 1930’s, when fire detection, access, and fire suppression capabilities improved with the construction of lookouts, roads, and trails, and the establishment of the Civilian Conservation Corp (CCC) camps. Even though the time from when a fire started to the time it was attacked was longer then (1930’s) than at present, fires were similar in size. One reason for this is the rain associated with most lightning storms. This moisture permits a period of time between detection and suppression, before the fuel dries and fire behavior can increase.
Improved access has increased the number of human caused fires and improved the access for fire suppression. This has lead to greater success in fire suppression, but more human-caused fires. Harvest and precommercial thinning without prescribed fire has created Fuel Model 11, 12, and 13 (light slash, medium slash, and heavy slash, respectively).
Suppression of fires reduced the overall amount of smoke, haze, and total particulate. Reduced harvest and associated fuel treatment (prescribed fire), and a change in prescribed burn timing and techniques, has reduced overall haze and particulate during current conditions.
Future Trends
Without the re-introduction of fire into the analysis area, the total area of Fuel Model 10 (heavy timber) will continue to increase as biomass on the ground continues to increase. Large areas of Fuel Model 10 may remain relatively unbroken. The probability of a large, stand-replacing fire increases as the area moves into a high-severity fire regime. Depending on fuel moistures, low- intensity fires may be absent. Wildfires burning under extreme conditions may be the only fire component within unmanaged stands.
Slash fuel models will continue to be present in very small amounts, with the amount being based on timber harvest and precommercial thinning. There will be a reduction of Fuel Model 2 and 5 (medium grass and short brush, respectively) as these areas grow and the species change over time. The area in meadows will continue to shrink. Under current conditions, harvest, with slash disposal following, are the only mechanism that produces and/or maintains Fuel Models 2 and 5. Human-caused fires will continue to increase with the continued increase in forest users. Total acreage burned within the analysis area will not fluctuate much, unless a fire under extreme conditions occurs.
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The Districts have began prescribed fire projects in the watershed analysis area. The Little Oak Flats area has completed NEPA analysis and the initial prescribed burning has been accomplished. Project proposals are being developed for the Oak Flats area and for the Copeland Creek area. With funding, District fire managers can continue to implement and plan these types of projects.
Influence and Relationship to other Ecosystem Processes
Fire suppression and other management activities have influenced the overall natural fire regime. The change in the fire regime has transformed aspects of the ecosystem. Extended periods without fire give way to more fire intolerant1 flora, prevent the establishment of shade intolerant species, and allow understory vegetation to grow (where not hindered by other factors). Fire adapted species will become less numerous and in some instances may essentially disappear from portions of the ecosystem altogether. Fire adapted species include species or varieties having serotinous cones2, species that thrive when resprouting from the stump or root collar, and species that are shade intolerant. Fire adapted ecosysems that will change, or have changed the most dramatically, are the Oregon white oak plant series, including the ponderosa pine component.
Without fire or other drastic disturbance, Douglas-fir would gradually be replaced throughout much of its range by the more shade tolerant western hemlock, red cedar, and true fir (Herman and Lavender 1990). Some meadows may be replaced by forest, except where limited by bare rock or soil moisture. Some meadows will shrink and change character, losing transitional zones.
As more and more organic material (fuel in the form of dead limbs and logs) accumulates on the ground, the severity of a fire will increase. High fire intensity, with large and long duration fires (increased residence time) is the result. A fire burning under these conditions will consume greater amounts of vegetation, duff, and effective ground cover. These fires also kill more trees and other flora, can cause greater damage to soils, and can contribute to increased erosion. Heavy concentrations of smoke and particulate are probable during the late summer and early fall during a large fire event.
1 Species with thin bark, or in some other way unable to survive a moderate-intensity fire. 2 Cones that open in response to high heat or fire.
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Desired Range of Conditions
Desired condition for most of the watershed is a moderate-severity fire regime. This can be quantified by fire return interval, fuel model amounts and distribution, and fire effects.
The Douglas-fir and Oregon white oak plant series in this watershed have been categorized as Fire Regime I (low-severity). It should have a fire return interval of 35 years or less.
Fuel Model 10 should be non-continuous and comprise less than one-third of the watershed. Fuel Model 8 should be at least twice the area of Fuel Model 10.
Monitoring
All prescribed fire activities will be monitored to assure the results meet the objectives of the project and of the UNF LRMP, as amended February 1994. Future planning and implementation may be adjusted based on the results of monitoring.
Implications for Achieving the Aquatic Conservation Strategy
The S & G for Management of Habitat for Late-Successional and Old Growth Forest Related Species Within the Range of the Northern Spotted Owl was reviewed to insure that any fire management activities will be in compliance with this plan.
Guidelines for fire management activities are described on page C-35 and C-36 of the S & G. Fuel treatments and fire suppression activities and strategies should be designed to meet the ACS. These should minimize the disturbance of riparian ground cover and vegetation. Strategies should recognize the role of fire in the ecosystem function and identify those instances where fire suppression or fuels management activities could be damaging to long-term ecosystem function.
Prescribed burning would, in many instances, maintain this strategy by reducing the risk of stand replacement fires in or near riparian areas. Planning prescribed burns in natural or activity created fuels when conditions are right to meet resources objectives, such as hazard reduction, maintenance of large coarse debris, and protecting the riparian area, is an alternative to unplanned ignition during periods of high fire behavior. The impacts on riparian areas from suppression, such as humans, chemicals, and fire effects will be far greater.
Fuels Management will utilize these standards and guidelines in the development of fuel treatment alternatives.
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Insects and Diseases
Analysis Procedures, Assumptions, and Data Gaps
Current information is based on field reconnaissance, stand examination data, and insect aerial flight data from Fiscal Year (FY) 2000. Stand examination data gaps exist in the older stands on the west half of the drainage. Assumptions are that data on insect and disease impacts have been conservatively generated so far and that field reconnaissance will provide additional fine scale detail of insect and disease occurrence.
Reference and Current Condition
During the reference condition, endemic levels of disease and insects were maintained over time, pulsing in population in accordance with their food base. Insect activity will generally peak for 2-4 years after a blowdown or fire disturbance and then taper off to an endemic level again. Disease activity was also at endemic levels across the landscape, occurring in small pockets of connected, similar habitat over time. One introduced disease that appeared during the reference period is WPBR. It was introduced in Washington State around 1910. This destructive disease causes mortality on 5-needled pine species such as sugar and white pine, both which exist in the analysis area. Also, in the reference period, knobcone pine existed on the exposed ridges where fire was a frequent visitor.
Current conditions favor the expansion of both insect and disease components within the watershed. Stand densities are high across the area while tree species composition has been simplified. Road access has allowed the expansion of some diseases, like black stain, beyond reference period areas. Laminated root rot has expanded where mono-cultures of Douglas-fir have been planted over existing pockets of disease activity within managed plantations.
White pine blister rust has exploded onto nearly all the seedling, sapling, and pole-sized sugar and white pine within the watershed. White pine blister rust has a complex life cycle with five different spore stages on two different hosts. Two of the spore stages occur on pine and three occur on alternate hosts in the genus Ribes. Infection on both hosts is greatly favored by moist conditions at the time of spore production, especially in the summer and fall. There is over 90% mortality in this important cohort, due to the girdling action of this disease. This disease threatens the future potential of our 5-needle pine trees without management actions designed to ameliorate this introduced impact.
Currently, mountain pine beetle, western pine beetle, pine engraver, and the Douglas-fir beetle are causing mortality within the basin. Current stand conditions that carry high basal areas of stocking are particularly prone to beetle attacks because of reduced tree vigor. Pine engraver beetles can build up in large pieces of slash (>3” diameter), emerge and attack nearby ponderosa pine.
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Episodic outbreaks occur when large amounts of preferred material become available, beetles successfully produce large broods, and epidemic populations emerge and attack standing, green trees. Outbreaks subside rapidly (usually 2-3 years), but many trees can be killed, often in groups, before beetle populations return to normal. Concerns about beetles should be triggered whenever disturbance creates large amounts of wind-thrown trees in the watershed. This situation occurred in 1996 during a winter “snowdown” event on the UNF and the following Spring Fire during the fall. Today, pockets of insect activity are still active on the landscape and are expected to remain active as long as fire and harvest is excluded from the basin.
The Douglas-fir bark beetle is also active in the watershed. The Douglas-fir beetle prefers very low vigor hosts and when in endemic populations infest wind-thrown, root-diseased, or severely injured Douglas-fir. Episodic outbreaks can occur when large amounts of preferred host material becomes available, beetles successfully produce large broods, and epidemic populations emerge and attack standing, green trees. Outbreaks subside rapidly (usually 2-3 years), but many trees can be killed, often in groups, before beetle populations return to normal. Since the snowdown in 1996 and the Spring Fire in 1997, Douglas-fir bark beetles have been active in the watershed area. Pockets of dead trees (generally between 3-25 trees) are still occurring, although the rate of mortality seems to have declined as of 2001.
Hemlock dwarf mistletoe (Arceuthobium tsugense) commonly affects western hemlock, although true fir are also hosts on occasion. Hemlock dwarf mistletoe causes decreased growth, formation of “witches brooms”, stem malformations, top and branch dieback, and sometimes tree mortality. Effects can be significant on severely infected older trees and on young trees growing beneath these mature individuals. Where hemlock dwarf mistletoe is severe, it, along with stem decay, contributes to a “pathological rotation” for western hemlock by causing substantial decline and mortality of old infected trees. For wildlife objectives in an LSR, a certain amount of dwarf mistletoe infection may be desirable or at least acceptable. In southwestern Oregon it has been shown that northern spotted owls are using mistletoe brooms for nest sites.
Douglas-fir dwarf mistletoe (Arcuethobium douglasii) also occurs within the watershed. There are individual pockets where overstory trees are highly infected and understories of Douglas-fir and other mixed conifers exist. Where Douglas-fir mistletoe is severe, it, along with stem decay, can contribute to a “pathological rotation” for Douglas-fir by causing substantial decline and mortality of old infected trees, while providing new infections on the younger Douglas-fir cohort.
Both laminated root rot (Phellinus weirii) and black stain root disease (Leptographium wageneri var. pseudotsuga) are common in plantations within the Copeland-Calf Watershed. Laminated root rot spreads outward from infection centers at a rate of about one foot per year, killing highly susceptible host species (Douglas-fir, true fir, mountain hemlock) and creating openings in stands where less susceptible conifers (pine, western hemlock, and cedar) and immune hardwood trees and shrubs are favored. Concern about laminated root rot should be related to extent and intensity of the disease in an area and to management objectives.
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Black stain root rot is a vascular-wilt disease that kills its host by blocking water-conducting vessels. It is vectored over long distances by root-feeding bark beetles and weevils. To minimize disease spread, site disturbance and tree wounds should be minimized and stand activities should be done between June 1 and September 30, when possible.
Processes or Causal Mechanisms Responsible
The mechanism mainly responsible for increased insect and disease activity is overcrowded stand conditions due to fire suppression and/or lack of thinning. Both young and old stands are at risk for increasing mortality due to the bark beetles affecting both pine and Douglas-fir. Road building has increased the incidence of black stain root disease allowing establishment along roadway arteries, mainly on Douglas-fir. White pine blister rust has reduced populations of sugar pine seedlings by over 90% in the watershed. Closing stand conditions on many of the ridge areas have reduced areas that have historically been known to produce knobcone pine in the watershed.
Future trends
Insect and disease activity will continue to be mainly endemic on the landscape over time. There will be pulses of insects and disease that follow disturbance and road building. Future populations will likely increase in the watershed due to limited stand harvesting and the continued suppression of wildfire. Many of the habitat openings and diversity within the landscape are caused by “holes” in the stocking due to insects and disease.
Influences and Relationships to Other Ecosystem Processes
Two important ecosystem processes affected by insect and disease activity are fire behavior and nutrient exchange capacity. The additional mortality added to the already existing high fuel loading has created an increased risk for severe, stand-replacing fire disturbance events. Nutrient exchange has been affected with the removal of shrub and tree cover. Early pioneer species have become established within the stand openings under the dead overstory canopy. Wildlife species unique to pine habitat may have decreased as pine cover has lost acreage and vigor throughout the landscape.
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SPECIES AND HABITATS
Terrestrial Species
At the characterization phase of this analysis, species identified as Threatened, Endangered, Sensitive, Survey and Manage, or Management Indicators were reviewed to determine whether habitat management for that particular species should be an issue carried further into this analysis. Of the 29 species evaluated, 19 had potential habitat in the analysis area. Of these, only spotted owls, harlequin duck, flammulated owl/white-headed woodpecker, and Roosevelt elk/black-tailed deer were recommended as priority issues for detailed analysis. In addition to these species, other habitat issues of riparian habitat and connectivity with mature, interior forest habitat availability and connectivity were also identified as priority analysis issues. Wildlife analysis was limited to these six species issues and two habitat issues.
Spotted owl
Changes in habitat availability for spotted owls resulted in the species being listed as a threatened species in 1990. In 1994, the NFP established large areas of federal lands as LSR to ensure the continued survival of spotted owls and other late-successional species. The majority of the Copeland-Calf Analysis area is allocated to LSR #222. A comprehensive assessment of current conditions, along with some suggested land management treatments was completed in 1998 and documented in the “South Cascades Late-Successional Reserve Assessment”. The largest unit evaluated in the Reserve Assessment was LSR #222. It stretches from the Willamette National Forest to the Rogue River National Forest. The coarse estimate of spotted owl habitat availability in the South Cascade Assessment concluded that 59% of the area is suitable spotted owl nesting/roosting/foraging habitat. It also notes that this LSR has more late-seral habitat when compared to other LSRs in the assessment, but that only a small percentage is interior habitat.
The finer scale Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis confirms some of the conclusions of the LSR Assessment. Reference conditions for this assessment were developed from 1947 forest structure mapping. These maps identified 36% of the analysis area in old growth habitat (suitable spotted owl habitat). Additional information on distribution of this habitat is also included in a later section on interior, mature forests.
Past timber harvest and fire exclusion have resulted in a major shift in the location and quality of habitat. Current silvicultural mapping indicates that at present, 28% of the analysis area is old- growth. Timber harvest within the area has resulted in smaller, more fragmented stands of mature forest, which produce habitat of lower quality when compared to reference conditions. Current UNF mapping indicates that 61% of the analysis area is suitable nesting/roosting/foraging habitat. There is a considerable difference between what watershed analysis vegetation mapping and existing Forest nesting/roosting/foraging habitat mapping portray as available habitat. Some of this can be attributed to differences in the definitions of “old-growth” and “nesting/roosting/foraging habitat”, but the wide discrepancy between these
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis 130 Chapter Four Reference and Current Condition, Synthesis, and Interpretation two maps indicates a need to establish a better definition of suitable nesting/roosting/foraging habitat and a better way to map such habitat. The ability to assess habitat conditions and prescribe restoration activities will be hampered until this revised mapping is completed. Until that time, the main spotted owl habitat objectives should be to avoid decreasing the amount of nesting/roosting/foraging habitat, hastening development of dispersal and nesting/roosting/foraging habitat in recent harvest areas, and increasing the amount of interior, mature forest habitat. It is recognized that all of these objectives will take decades to achieve and that some silvicultural activity may shorten the time needed to attain them.
Harlequin duck
This rare duck species uses high gradient, mountain streams as reproductive habitat. The ODFW cites harlequins as a rare breeder in the state, and lists the Umpqua basin as one of the few locations this species is suspected of occupying in the state. Although probably never abundant historically, harlequin ducks could have used the riparian zones of the entire North Umpqua River and major tributaries as reproductive habitat. With the development of Highway 138 and creation of forest roads in riparian areas, potential reproductive habitat was lost. Increases in fishing, rafting, and other human activity also reduced suitable nesting sites, retaining current suitable habitat only in the more remote riparian zones. The loss of habitat is difficult to quantify, but GIS mapping indicates that the North Umpqua River section, where most of the impacted habitat is, amounts to approximately 20% of the Class I and II streams in the analysis area. Surveys in the Copeland Creek basin for harlequin ducks conducted in 1999 did not locate any harlequin ducks.
Human activities and disturbance in riparian areas seems to be the major factor limiting use of otherwise suitable habitat. The main objective for harlequin duck habitat in the analysis area should be to maintain currently secluded Class I and II stream riparian areas.
Flammulated owl/ white-headed woodpecker
The main objective of a LSR is to protect and enhance habitat for late-successional and old- growth related species. The northern spotted owl was the primary species of concern in the NFP, but the species viability assessments also concluded that other old-growth dependant species needed protection measures. Both flammulated owls and white-headed woodpeckers are in this category. These species are more common on the east side of the Cascade Range, but they may also occur within drier, open forests on the west side. Integrating habitat requirements for spotted owls with flammulated owls and white-headed woodpeckers may appear to be difficult. However, the LSR Assessment completed for this area (South Cascade Late-Successional Reserve Assessment) recognized the need to maintain such habitats and provided for maintenance activities of this habitat type
Reference conditions for these species are based on silvicultural mapping of ponderosa pine stands and aerial photo interpretation of white oak-dominated areas within the analysis area. This mapping suggests that about 4,500 acres of federally managed lands (Figure 29) were historically in the open pine or oak-dominated forest types preferred by these species. It is
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis Chapter Four Reference and Current Condition, Synthesis, and Interpretation 131 assumed that natural and American Indian-initiated fires helped maintain these areas as open forest habitat. With increasingly effective fire control efforts from the 1930’s until present, the disturbance regime that maintained these sites was eliminated. Increasing amounts of shade tolerant species have invaded these sites, reducing both habitat abundance and quality. Today, oak habitat has been reduced to isolated pockets (Figure 30) and open ponderosa pine forest has essentially been eliminated.
Historic Oak and Ponderosa Pine Habitat
Historic Oak Habitat N Analysis Area Boundary Historic Ponderosa Pine Habitat.shp Streams
0 1 2 Miles
Figure 29. Historic oak and ponderosa pine habitat.
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Current Oak Habitat
Figure 30. Current oak habitat.
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Without active restoration efforts, successional processes will continue to decrease the amount of available habitat for these species. Management objectives for flammulated owl and white- headed woodpecker habitat in the analysis area should focus on restoring ponderosa pine and white oak habitat areas to approximate their historical vegetative condition and distribution.
Roosevelt elk/Black-tailed deer
Both elk and deer were identified as indicator species of big game winter range habitat. Areas of Forest Plan designated winter range are included as Figure 31. Both elk and deer favor edge habitat. Habitat quality is often assessed by evaluating the abundance, size, and distribution of cover and forage stands.
Umpqua Forest Plan Designated Winter Range
Figure 31. Umpqua Forest Plan designated winter range.
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Reference conditions for elk and deer are based upon general habitat conditions prior to large- scale timber harvest and road building in the analysis area. Prior to these disturbance events, forest structure throughout the analysis area was likely more contiguous, with a higher percentage of mature stands. These conditions resulted in higher cover quantities, less edge habitat, and lower forage quantities and qualities. The exception to this would be in those areas that were maintained through American Indian burning practices. An estimate of cover:forage ratio is based on 1947 vegetation mapping. Reference condition cover:forage ratios is estimated to have been approximately 97:3. A 50:50 ratio is considered optimal. Elk populations during the reference period are believed to be extremely low, if present at all. As timber harvest activities increased in the watershed, edge habitat and forage production increased. In 1948-49, the Oregon Game Department (precursor to the ODFW) transplanted seven elk into the Copeland Creek area (Black M., ODFW, personal communication July 2001). This was the first transplanting to occur in the Copeland Creek area. Current cover:forage ratio is based upon silvicultural mapping of forest size classes, and is estimated at 92:8. Current elk and deer habitat conditions are considered better than reference conditions.
The NFP allocated the analysis area to LSR and subsequent land management activities will be designed primarily to enhance late-structural habitat conditions. Providing habitat for early- successional species, such as deer and elk, will be possible only where it is consistent with LSR management objectives. Given that management activities will be enhancing the amount of late- structural stands in the analysis area, future habitat conditions are expected to be high amounts of cover and low amounts of forage. These trends will result in decreases in elk and deer habitat quality.
While most activities occurring in LSR will promote additional late-structural habitat, the LSR Assessment also recognized that meadows, unique and mosaic areas, oak habitats, and ponderosa and sugar pine stands provided valuable habitat diversity. Certain land management treatments in these areas were considered during the assessment and recommendations were made. Maximizing forage production in these areas, while retaining consistency with overall LSR objectives, should be the primary deer and elk habitat management objective for the analysis area. In addition to vegetative treatments, road closures can also produce benefits to deer and elk habitat quality, especially in areas of high seasonal use.
Riparian Habitat Connectivity
Aquatic connectivity focuses primarily on stream systems, stream margins, and wetlands. These areas are a relatively dynamic part of the ecosystem as they are affected by floods, debris flows, fires, etc. Wildlife have adapted to these disturbances and are able to persist in refugia and eventually re-populate areas after disturbances. Species that move along these corridors include fish, amphibians (e.g., torrent salamanders, tailed frogs, etc.), crayfish, and other aquatic invertebrates. Movement of these species, both upstream and downstream, provide an important ecological process that affects the productivity of the aquatic ecosystem within the analysis area. Historically, the connectivity of the aquatic ecosystem was intact and functioning normally.
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Today, there are an estimated 319 points within the analysis area where roads cross streams and potentially create a barrier to wildlife movement, especially upstream movement (Figure 32). These crossings primarily consist of corrugated metal culverts, many of them with outlets that are perched above the stream channel. The majority of crossing structures occur on 1st or 2nd order streams (Figure 33). Copeland Creek has the highest amount of stream crossings, but the lowest density of crossings per mile of stream (0.31 crossings/mile). Dry Creek has the lowest number of stream crossings, but the highest density at 0.6 crossings per mile of stream.
Predicted Stream Crossing Barriers
Figure 32. Predicted stream crossing structures, which act as barriers to movements of aquatic and riparian species within the analysis area.
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Stream Crossing Barriers, by Stream Order
250 231 200
150
100 67 50
Number of Crossings Number 18 3 0 1st 2nd 3rd 4th Stream Order
Figure 33. Estimated number of stream crossing structures, which create barriers, by stream order.
In the past, not much consideration has been given to ecological impacts due to stream crossings. Today, there is more concern and awareness of the importance of maintaining stream and riparian connectivity. However, the focus is still primarily on anadromous fish and the ability of culverts to pass 100-year storm events. There are ecological benefits to providing connectivity between upstream and downstream reaches for other biota and physical processes. Ecological health of both upstream and downstream reaches depends on connectivity of physical processes such as sediment and debris transport, channel patterns and cycles, and patterns of disturbance and recovery (Bates et al. 1999). A principle objective of future land management activities should be to restore riparian habitat connectivity.
Mature, Interior Forest Habitat Availability and Connectivity
Maintaining and restoring connectivity of late-successional forests within and between watersheds is an emphasis of the NFP. This analysis looked for the “key” areas within the watershed that are most likely to serve as connections for late-successional species. First, it focused on the gentle/moist landscape features within the analysis area (referred to as late- successional refugia) that are ecologically suited for development and maintenance of late- successional forests through time. A relatively stable landscape feature, late-successional refugia have a disturbance regime that differs from the surrounding landscape (Camp 1995). It tends to
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis Chapter Four Reference and Current Condition, Synthesis, and Interpretation 137 have a low occurrence of high-severity fire, but does burn from time to time. Soils are moist and productive, helping to develop old forest structure and long-term stable areas of interior forest habitat. There is a strong relationship between refugia and Riparian Reserves, as refugia contain high densities of streams and wetlands.
Late-successional refugia represents the strongest connection between the aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems within the analysis area and provides important long-term maintenance of ecosystem function and biodiversity. Approximately 40% of the analysis area is capable of developing late- successional refugia. Of this, approximately 73% is currently forested with late-successional habitat (Figure 34), shown as the dark area on the map.
Late-Successional Refugia
Figure 34. The late-successional refugia network within the analysis area. These areas are probably the prime pathways and core areas for movement of many amphibians and late-successional species.
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Another method used to assess terrestrial connectivity (both within the analysis area and between watersheds) analyzed the spatial quality of habitat for late-successional wildlife species with large home ranges (i.e., 500+ acres). This analysis looked at the amount of late-successional forest habitat that occurred within a 0.5 mile radius circle (Figure 35). Many late-successional species (e.g., northern spotted owl) select nesting sites, travel corridors, and territories in areas with high levels of contiguous habitat. Habitat quality was based on the amount of habitat within the circle. The higher the amount, the better the quality of the habitat and the higher the probability of use by certain late-successional species (Swindle, et al. 1999).
Spatial Quality of Past and Present Conditions of Late-successional Forest
Figure 35. Past and present conditions of the late-successional forest and its spatial quality (amount of forest within a 0.5 mile radius circle) within the analysis area.
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In spite of the intensive timber harvesting within the analysis area, there has been a slight increase in the total amount of late-successional forest over the last five decades (Figure 36). This is due to the re-development of old, large, stand-replacement fires that occurred in the late 1800’s and early 1900’s. These patches have remained more or less intact due to the establishment of roadless areas. The major shift in late-successional habitat is not in quantity or spatial quality, but rather in its location. The majority of the current late-successional habitat is located within the steeper/drier portions of the watershed, whereas historically, it was concentrated along the network of late-successional refugia previously discussed.
Changes in the Amount and Spatial Quality of Late-successional Forest
40000
35000
30000 >75% 25000 50-75% 20000 Acres 25-50% 15000 <25%
10000
5000
0
1940s 2001
Figure 36. Changes in amount and spatial quality of late-successional forest within the analysis area. Percentages in the legend refer to the amount of late-successional forest within a 0.5 mile radius circle.
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Barriers to movement of wildlife are sometimes created by harvest units and road cuts. These create microclimate changes within the adjacent forest stands and also create other edge effects such as increased predation. Historically, edge effects were created mainly by wildfires and occurred around natural forest openings (e.g., meadows and rivers). The amount of interior late- successional forest was higher than today and occurred in large, contiguous patches conducive to wildlife movement. Today, as a result of road construction and clearcut timber harvesting, there is less interior habitat (Figure 37) and what remains is highly fragmented and disjunct (Figure 38).
Changes in the Amount of Late-Successional, Interior Forest Habitat
30,000
25,000
20,000
15,000 Acres 10,000
5,000
0 1940s 2001
Figure 37. Changes in the amount of late-successional, interior forest habitat, defined as late-successional forest habitat greater than 100m from a non-forested edge.
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Changes in Late-Successional, Interior Forest Habitat
Figure 38. Changes in late-successional interior forest within the analysis area. Today’s condition is highly fragmented and disjunct.
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As mentioned earlier, roads can create significant barriers to wildlife movement. Logging roads have a profound effect on forest ecosystems (Franklin, et al. 2000). They threaten terrestrial species in a multitude of ways (Trombulak and Frissell 2000) such as serving as vectors for tree diseases (Zobel, et al. 1985) and non-native plant species (Tyser and Worley 1992). In addition, they provide hunters and other recreationists with access to previously remote areas, increasing wildlife harassment, exploitation, and inadvertent road-kill of wildlife species (Franklin, et al. 2000, and Trombulak and Frissell 2000).
Many recent studies have demonstrated that large forest land tracts that are roadless, or have low road density, support sensitive fish and wildlife species (Brody and Pelton 1989, Eaglin and Hubert 1993, Thurber, et al. 1994, Rieman, et al. 1997, Baxter, et al. 1999).
Over the last 50 years approximately 180 miles of road were constructed within the analysis area. Road densities are highest in the areas of the watershed most conducive to development and maintenance of old-growth forest habitat (the gentle/moist areas). These areas also have the highest densities of wetlands and riparian habitats. Over 41% of the watershed has road densities greater than 3 mile/mile² (Figure 39).
Road construction activities have resulted in alteration of habitat conditions and connectivity. It is recognized that some level of roading is necessary for public and administrative uses of the area, but a primary management objective for this analysis area should be to begin restoring aquatic habitat connectivity and mature forest interior habitats. Fulfilling this objective will require input from administrative and public road users.
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Road Densities Within the Analysis Area
Figure 39. Road densities within the analysis area. Over 41% of the watershed has densities greater than 3 miles of road per square mile of land.
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Fish Species
Analysis Procedures, Assumptions, and Data Gaps
The streams and lakes in the analysis area have been surveyed at various times since at least 1978 (see Appendix D for stream survey narratives). Most of these surveys collected data on fish species present. The snorkeling data from some early surveys was used to make population estimates, but in later years was used only to determine species presence and distribution. A smolt trap was placed near the mouth of Calf Creek in 1991-1996 and 1998. The results of these trapping efforts are on file as unpublished reports and are located at the North Umpqua Ranger District. Important data gaps exist concerning the historic distribution and population level of anadromous species.
Reference Condition
The reference condition is defined as the fish species assemblage and distribution present in the analysis area approximately 150 years ago (about 1850). At the time of the reference condition, the species assemblages present in Calf, Copeland, Dry, and Deception Creeks are believed to have been essentially the same. The species present most likely consisted of steelhead, chinook salmon, coho salmon, rainbow trout, cutthroat trout, longnose and speckled dace, Pacific lamprey, and at least one species of sculpin. Twin Lakes is believed to have been fishless at the time of the reference condition.
The population levels of salmonid species and Pacific lamprey during the reference period would have been higher than at present. The distribution of salmonid species would have included all areas downstream from natural migration barriers. The distribution of Pacific lamprey probably extended upstream from salmonid migration barriers, due to their ability to migrate over barriers by using their suctorial disc to attach to and ascend waterfalls, rocks, and other obstacles.
The population levels of dace and sculpin are likely to have been higher during the reference condition, but their numbers were probably well below those of rearing juvenile salmonids. The distribution of dace and sculpin probably extended into all accessible areas.
Current Condition, Differences from Historical Condition, and Responsible Mechanisms
The overall assemblage of fish species within the analysis area appears to be the same as that present during the reference condition. However, it is believed that the population levels have diminished for all species and that distribution for several species has contracted. Some factors leading to population declines occurred outside of the analysis area. The factors affecting
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis Chapter Four Reference and Current Condition, Synthesis, and Interpretation 145 changes in habitat conditions within the analysis area are discussed under the “Stream Channels” heading in Chapter Four.
Several factors have led to the population decline of anadromous salmonid species (steelhead, chinook salmon, coho salmon, and sea-run cutthroat trout). Some factors leading to anadromous salmonid decline, such as commercial fishing, sport fishing, ocean conditions, and estuary habitat alteration are independent of events occurring within the analysis area. Additionally, these factors have not affected all species equally. Spring chinook and coho salmon have been the primary targets of commercial ocean fishing and were also commercially fished in the lower Umpqua River in the early to mid-1900’s. Sea-run cutthroat trout are highly dependent on intact estuary habitat and the Umpqua River estuary has been heavily altered since the reference condition.
The changes to fish habitat previously discussed (Chapter Four, “Stream Channels”) has resulted in a decreased “carrying capacity” for all salmonids, both anadromous and resident in analysis area streams. The carrying capacity decrease has been both in the ability of the stream systems to support adult salmonid spawning and juvenile salmonid rearing.
The magnitude of the population decline of Pacific lamprey in the North Umpqua Basin from the historic condition is believed to be the greatest of any fish species in the area. The extent of the Pacific lamprey decline from the reference condition to the mid 1960’s is not well documented, but is believed to have been considerable. In 1966, a total of 46,780 migrating adult lamprey were counted at Winchester Dam. From 1996-2000, lamprey counts at Winchester Dam averaged about 210 adults per year. It is known that lamprey have been harvested from the North Umpqua River system for use as food in fish hatcheries and some harvest for human consumption may have also occurred. However, the primary reasons for lamprey decline within the analysis area are probably exotic species introduction and habitat alteration. The introduction of smallmouth bass, a highly predatory fish species, into the mainstem of the Umpqua River is believed to have adversely affected the survival of emigrating juvenile lamprey, as well as juvenile salmonids.
The reduction in spawning gravel availability may be a factor in lamprey decline, but the greatest instream habitat factors affecting decline are probably those affecting juvenile (ammocoete) rearing. The ammocoete stage of the life cycle typically lasts from 4-6 years, which the ammocoetes spend in slow backwater areas with their tails buried in mud or sand and their heads free to feed in the water column. The habitat changes that have occurred in the analysis area streams, caused primarily by LWD removal and road encroachment, have eliminated most of the stable backwater areas, side channels, and mud/sand deposits necessary for ammocoete development.
Very little information is available concerning the historic distribution and population levels of sculpin, and longnose and speckled dace within the analysis area. Based on the habitat requirements of these species, it is unlikely that distribution has significantly changed since the reference period. However, the habitat changes that have occurred may have reduced population levels. All three species depend on rocky substrate for spawning and slow water habitat for
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis 146 Chapter Four Reference and Current Condition, Synthesis, and Interpretation fry/larvae rearing. The quality of both of these habitat types has been reduced since the reference period in the stream reaches occupied by these species.
Brook trout have been stocked in Twin Lakes (West Twin and East Twin) since at least 1938. Observation made while snorkeling Twin Lakes in the 1990’s documents spawning along upwelling zones within the West Twin and the outlet stream of both lakes. Brook trout fry were also observed during these snorkel surveys. Adult brook trout densities are higher in the west Twin, although on average the fish are smaller in size. The adults observed during snorkel surveys appeared to be healthy and were in the highest densities in areas where logs or other structure provided hiding cover. High alkalinity in the East Twin is believed to be the reason for lower fish densities within that lake. Virtually nothing is known about brook trout habitat use within Calf Creek or the mainstem North Umpqua River. This is due to brook trout only having been observed in Calf Creek when they were intercepted by the smolt trap located in the lower portion of the basin.
Spawning Surveys
Throughout the 1990s, spawning ground surveys or redd counts for coho salmon and steelhead trout have been conducted sporadically in the Calf and Copeland Creek sub-watersheds (Table 29). Results of survey reaches in each of these streams are discussed more thoroughly in reports on file at the respective Districts. These surveys have shown that a few pair (<10) of coho use the lower half mile of Calf Creek for spawning on an annual basis and that steelhead are the primary anadromous species using these watersheds for spawning. Spawning activity within the main stem North Umpqua was documented within the North Umpqua River Analysis (2000).
Table 29. Summary of spawning survey data in the Copeland-Calf Watershed streams for which complete data sets have been collected in at least one year.
Coho Surveys Miles Average Total # of Stream Name # Years of Data Average # Redds/Mile Surveyed Redds Calf Creek .5 1 7 14
Steelhead Surveys Miles Average Total # of Stream Name # Years of Data Average # Redds/Mile Surveyed Redds Calf Creek 1.7 7 40.8 24 Copeland Creek 3 1 123 41
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis Chapter Four Reference and Current Condition, Synthesis, and Interpretation 147
Future Condition
Under current management conditions, native fish population levels within the analysis area should show a slow trend toward greater abundance. An increase in overall fish numbers and assemblage diversity would be expected to shadow the slow return of stream habitats towards more healthy conditions as a result of passive restoration. Active restoration, such as road decommissioning, riparian vegetation management, and large wood placement would be expected to help speed the recovery of fish populations, especially resident fish. However, the recovery of habitat conditions, and subsequently fish populations, would still be expected to take several decades. The recovery of anadromous stocks would be expected to be highly variable due to their dependence upon the ocean environment for a large and important portion of their life cycle. Over time, improved freshwater spawning and rearing conditions for anadromous fish would be expected to result in higher freshwater survival and reduced predation, based on size at time of ocean entry.
Botanical Species
Introduction
The analysis area is quite diverse from a botanical perspective. This could be due to the great deal of variability in geomorphology, soils, and topography. Seven rare, Sensitive plants and one rare S & M bryophyte are documented within the analysis area. It is difficult at this point to estimate much about reference conditions when, botanically, little is known about current conditions within the watershed. However, it can be said that significant changes have occurred within unique plant communities and rare plant habitat due to management practices and natural disturbances that have occurred over time. It is likely that native plant communities, especially those associated with open bunchgrass prairies, oak savannah, and other unique habitats are on the decline overall. Location and rarity/status of the following plant species are shown in Figure 40 and Table 30, respectively.
Threatened, Endangered, and Sensitive (TES) Species
Kincaids Lupine (Lupinus sulphureus Dougl. ssp. Kincaidii) (Smith) Phelps
Analysis Procedures, Assumptions, and Data Gaps
This is the only Threatened species on the UNF. It occurs in oak savannah ecosystems, mostly in the Willamette Valley. There is one outlying site on the Tiller Ranger District at a much lower elevation than the oak savannah habitat within this analysis area. It is assumed that this species does not occur in the analysis area and probably has no potential to.
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Umpqua the (Kalmiopsis fragrans) Meinke & Kaye sp. nov
Analysis Procedures, Assumptions, and Data Gaps
No detailed analysis of potential habitat has been done for this species within the analysis area. Known sites from project level surveys and incidental finds were compiled. It is assumed that there is a significant amount of suitable habitat that hasn’t been surveyed within the analysis area. Information concerning fine scale geology such as existing breccia tuff and silicified rock outcrops, along with fire patterns, topography, aspect, and elevation need to be analyzed. A habitat model could possibly be used to prioritize surveys for this globally rare species.
Reference Condition
With such limited data it is difficult to tell the extent and health of this species within the analysis area in a reference condition context. It is speculated that this plant may have fared better before intensive fire suppression, as some known sites show signs of previous fire activity. The existing known sites are thought to have been present in the reference condition as the plant seems to be a long-lived perennial.
Current Condition, Differences from Historical Condition, and Responsible Mechanisms
Currently, five populations are known to exist within the analysis area. The plant occupies forested and open rocky habitats characterized by a fairly unique breccia tuff type rock, which is high in silaceous content. The plants are large and form mats that drape over rock formations. Some sites show the presence of Knobcone pine, which is an indicator of previous fire activity. The Umpqua Kalmiopsis is a very unique aspect of the UNF. With the main population seeming to stem from the Limpy Rock area, there are no more than 15 total sites known in the world; all within the North and South Umpqua basins.
It is difficult to say what differences exist between the current and reference conditions for this plant. It may be that fire exclusion and management practices have reduced potential habitat and inhibited further dispersal of this species. More in-depth ecological information is needed to answer some of these difficult questions.
Grass Fern (Asplenium septentrionale) (L.) Hoffman
Analysis Procedures, Assumptions, and Data Gaps
Known sites in the headwaters of the Copeland Creek drainage, which had not been verified by a botanist, were relocated and verified. One more site was found in the vicinity, leading to the conclusion that there is probably a concentration of many sub-populations comprising one large population. There are many large boulder outcrops in the area that have not been surveyed for
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis Chapter Four Reference and Current Condition, Synthesis, and Interpretation 149 this plant. The highly-silicified, ancient geology of this area needs to be further surveyed to assess the full distribution of grass fern in the analysis area. There are also other areas that show similar geomorphic attributes that should be surveyed for potential sites.
Reference Condition
The reference condition most likely saw greater numbers of grass fern as some of its habitat has been logged over and some converted into rock quarries. It is difficult to speculate on the reference condition, but the substrate specific nature of this species would keep it from being widespread, regardless of conditions and disturbance patterns.
Current Condition, Differences from Historical Condition, and Responsible Mechanisms
Currently, four populations of this plant occur in the analysis area. One new site was discovered through work in this analysis. This species is very rare across the landscape, but has a circum- global distribution. The populations on the North Umpqua Ranger District, including those at Limpy Rock and the ones in this analysis area, represent a large quantity of the known sites in Oregon. It is known to occur rarely in California, South Dakota, West Texas, New Mexico, Colorado, and in Europe and Asia. There may be slight differences in numbers of sites due to human activity, however, it is believed this species was historically rare.
Columbia Lewisia (Lewisia columbiana var. columbiana) (How.) Robins
Analysis Procedures, Assumptions, and Data Gaps
Potential habitat was surveyed in a few areas to assess whether this species occurs in the analysis area. Three new populations were found within the Calf Creek drainage by the North Umpqua Botanist. It is assumed that there are other areas within the analysis area that provide habitat for this species. Many areas need to be inventoried to determine the accurate distribution of this plant. It would not be difficult to develop a model that could pick out areas of high priority that should be surveyed first.
Reference Condition It is difficult to speak on the reference condition of this plant. It is probable that this species had much the same distribution in reference times as it does in the current time.
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis 150 Chapter Four Reference and Current Condition, Synthesis, and Interpretation
Current Condition, Differences from Historical Condition, and Responsible Mechanisms
Currently, three populations exist in the analysis area. This plant occupies glacial cirque areas at the top of mountains and usually occurs on north facing slopes. Suitable substrate consists of dense moss and selaginella beds that are covering large rock outcrop areas. There may have been loss of populations due to management practices, but it is impossible to verify since this plant has only been tracked since the mid 1980’s.
Dwarf Isopyrum (Isopyrum stipitatum) Gray
Analysis Procedures, Assumptions, and Data Gaps
One population of this plant was found while looking at an oak savannah area during the analysis. It is assumed that since there is other similar habitat that more populations of this plant probably would be found through more extensive inventories. An inventory of all oak meadows would produce an accurate account of the extent of this species.
Reference Condition
It is impossible to know the extent of this species in reference times. It is assumed that there was more oak savannah/meadow in the reference condition, which would likely provide more habitat for this species.
Current Condition, Differences from Historical Condition, and Responsible Mechanisms
Currently, there is one known site for this species on the entire forest and it occurs in this analysis area. It was found by the North Umpqua Botanist while working on this analysis, but is yet to be verified. Since there is high confidence that it is an accurate identification, it is felt that it should be included in this document. It is speculated that there may be less of this plant than in historical conditions. This is because of the encroachment of conifers on oak savannah due to the suppression of fire. There may also be loss of oak savannah due to management practices, such as logging adjacent to these unique habitats.
Siskiyou Fritillary (Fritillaria glauca) Greene
Analysis Procedures, Assumptions, and Data Gaps
One location was discovered incidentally while looking at some unique habitats during the analysis. It is assumed that there are many more sites to be discovered in the analysis area, as much more habitat is suitable for this species. Inventories in highly suitable habitat could relieve the large data gap existing in this area.
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Reference Condition
Nothing is known on the reference conditions of this species. It is thought that there were many suitable habitat areas and that this species persisted in a healthy condition.
Current Condition, Differences from Historical Condition, and Responsible Mechanisms
Currently, one population is known to exist in the analysis area, in the Calf Creek drainage. This species occurs on balds and open gravelly areas at the tops of ridges, large rock outcrops, and mountains. Suitable substrate consists of coarse, gravelly rock materials in which the plant roots itself. This plant flowers right after snow melt, making it difficult to survey for as often times roads accessing habitat are still closed when the plant is blooming. This plant may have been slightly more abundant during historical conditions. This would be due to management practices, which may have eliminated populations and/or habitat.
California Shield Fern (Polystichum californicum) (D.C. Eaton) Diels
Analysis Procedures, Assumptions, and Data Gaps
Known sites from within Copeland Creek drainage have been documented previously and are included on the map of sensitive plant species within this document. It is assumed there is much more habitat throughout the analysis area, especially at the base of moist cliffs adjacent to riparian area and dense forest. Many new sites of this species have been documented in the last few years within the general area of the watershed.
Reference Condition
It is expected that this species occurred at cliff bases throughout the analysis area in reference condition times. It may be that there is more of this species now than historically due to the hybridizing nature between it and swordfern (Polystichum munitum).
Current Condition, Differences from Historical Condition, and Responsible Mechanisms
Currently, there is one known site and a sub-population located above Copeland Creek, not far from Forest Road 28. It is highly likely that there are many more populations of this plant in the same type of habitat in the Copeland Creek and Calf Creek drainages.
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Thompsons Mistmaiden (Romanzoffia thompsonii) Marttala
Analysis Procedures, Assumptions, and Data Gaps
This species occurs frequently within its habitat on all Districts of the UNF. Eleven known sites occur and are mapped. This species is relatively easy to find due to its distinct habitat requirements of meadow openings with seeps running through them.
Reference Condition
The reference condition most likely saw healthy populations distributed throughout most meadows with vernal, wet seeps and springs running through them.
Current Condition, Differences from Historical Condition, and Responsible Mechanism
This species is currently stable on the UNF, yet it still displays a narrow distribution on a global scale. It occurs only from the Lane County Cascades, south through the Douglas County Cascades, the epicenter of the populations, and into the Jackson County Cascades. There may be fewer populations of this species now than in historical times as management practices and competition from invasive species have altered its habitat and reproductive strategies.
Table 30. Known Sensitive, Rare, or S & M plants in the analysis area.
Taxon # Sites in WA Relative Rarity Status
Kalmiopsis fragrans 5 Umpqua, endemic Sensitive, ONHP-1
Asplenium septentrionale 4 Widespread, rare Sensitive, ONHP-2
Lewisia columbiana v. co. 3 Disjunct, rare Sensitive, ONHP-2
Fritillaria glauca 1 So. Oregon, endemic Sensitive, ONHP-2
Isopyrum stipitatum 1 Widespread, rare Sensitive, ONHP-2
Polystichum californicum 2 Widespread, rare Sensitive, ONHP-2
Romanzoffia thompsonii 11 So. Cascade, endemic Sensitive, ONHP-1
Rhizomnium nudum 1 Disjunct, rare Survey & Manage
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Figure 40. Sensitive and Survey and Manage plant sites
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Survey and Manage
Only three CVS plots of ½ acre in size have been surveyed for S & M plants and fungi in the analysis area (see Figure 13 in Botanical Species, Chapter Two). One rare S & M bryophyte was documented and is a southern range extension for the species. It is assumed that there is adequate habitat available for many of the S & M fungi, lichens, and bryophytes that are listed in the NFP ROD and Standards and Guidelines for Amendments to the Survey and Manage, Protection Buffer, and other Mitigation Measures, Standards, and Guidelines handbook. Currently, Strategic Purposive Surveys are a possible way to determine the extent of S & M species within the watershed.
No Common Name (Rhizomnium nudum) (Brit. & Williams) T. Kop
Analysis Procedures, Assumptions, and Data Gaps
This species was found during Strategic, CVS Random Plot Grid Surveys in August of 2000. It is assumed that more of this species occurs within the analysis area. Many more acres need to be surveyed to determine the extent of this species at its southern limit.
Reference Condition
Habitat for this species was probably more abundant in reference conditions. However, it is very difficult to determine as so little information is known about any of the S & M species.
Current Condition, Differences from Historical Condition, and Responsible Mechanisms
This species seems to occupy high elevation montane forests with open under-stories. This moss grows on bare soil substrate where competition from vegetation is minimal. This species is very difficult to identify and takes expert verification. Currently, this is the only known site of this moss on the UNF. It is difficult to estimate differences in population from historical to present time as little is currently known of the species distribution.
Unique Plant Communities
Analysis Procedures, Assumptions, and Data Gaps
Very little data has been collected addressing the state of unique plant communities that include: wet meadows, dry meadows, oak savannah, rock outcrops, wetlands, glades, and riparian streamside vegetation. A limited amount of time was spent looking at dry meadow areas within the analysis area. Typical ecosystem health problems were observed in these areas, particularly displacement of native bunchgrasses such as Red Fescue (Festuca roemeri) by non-native annuals. Much more information is needed to adequately analyze the extent of the problem this
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis Chapter Four Reference and Current Condition, Synthesis, and Interpretation 155 invasion is causing. Figure 41 can be referenced to observe the extent of unique plant community habitat occurring in the analysis area. This map is not entirely accurate and needs much more ground-truthing and reconnaissance in order to provide an accurate representation.
Reference Condition
Prior to European inhabitation, dry meadows were probably quite different ecosystems, supporting many species of native bunchgrasses and diverse wildflower populations. Other unique plant community areas such as oak savannah, rock outcrops, and wetland communities were probably more extensive than today as management practices, fire suppression, and invasive species have altered many of them.
Current Condition, Differences from Historical Condition, and Responsible Mechanisms
With little information available to analyze these important ecological attributes it is difficult to give an accurate account of current conditions across the landscape of the analysis area. The information gathered points to the dry meadow systems as being in the worst condition from an ecosystem health perspective. These meadows have changed quite drastically from historical conditions and now possess a non-native annual grass component. Some of the species identified in one dry meadow on a south slope, on the west side of Copeland Creek include: cheatgrass, hedgehog dog tail grass, Medusa head rye, and a number of other non-native invasives.
Lack of fire is causing significant changes to plant communities in the analysis area. Many unique habitat areas are being affected, with their areas being greatly reduced. In the case of low and mid-elevation dry sites, most are now reduced to those portions with such shallow soil that conifers have a difficult time establishing. This is notable in the North Umpqua River corridor where fires once kept the forest open. An extensive meadow and open conifer system once existed. Three areas of particular concern are Oak Flats, Little Oak Flats, and the slope below Illahee Flats. These areas where once dominated by oak savannah characteristics. These are rapidly being lost. These sites are the only representatives of this habitat type in the Middle North Umpqua River corridor and represent the eastern extent within the Cascades of this unique plant community. The seral progression that has reduced dry meadows to rocky openings has resulted in the loss of habitat that supported species dependent on deeper soils in an open setting. Some of these such as California fescue (Festuca californica) are valuable plants for supporting a variety of fauna.
Lack of fire is also affecting diversity in higher elevation areas, especially the area around Twin Lakes. In that area the timber-meadow mosaic pattern that is essential for herbaceous species diversity, and on which fauna such as elk are dependent, is disappearing due to succession from young trees. These young, dense stands grow so dense as to prevent enough light from reaching the ground to support other plant growth. This leaves the forest floor depauperate of herbaceous species and lowers species richness, composition, and structure. Prescribed fire is the best tool to maintain the timber-meadow mosaic complex
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis 156 Chapter Four Reference and Current Condition, Synthesis, and Interpretation and the pattern of scattered groups or individual large trees with well-developed herb layers.
Grazing has played an important role in the modification of unique habitat. Areas affected are at upper elevations on the ridgeline that includes Twin Lakes and Buckhead Mountain. Grazing was extensive and lasting impacts are evident in the cadre of plants dominating meadows and timber-meadow mosaics with drier soils. In these areas plants that were more tolerant to grazing remain dominant. On rocky sites with very fragile soils the cryptogamic crust that holds moisture in the soil and prevents erosion was destroyed. This plant community is very slow in re-establishing itself and has only just begun reconstructing. The best way to restore it is to allow the soil to remain undisturbed by grazing.
Deep-soiled herbaceous meadows currently exist at the higher elevations as part of the timber-meadow mosaic established by fire patterns. These areas where located on historic stock driveways and received extensive grazing. Evidence of the grazing is reflected strongly in the current species composition of these sites. Dominant are those species that best tolerated soil disturbance and/or were not preferred forage. Grazing vegetation on areas of moderate soil depth that once supported stands of native grasses has changed the dominant species to aggressive, annual, non-native and noxious species such as hedgehog dogtail grass (Cynosurus echinatus) and Saint Johnswort (Hypericum perforatum).
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis Chapter Four Reference and Current Condition, Synthesis, and Interpretation 157
Figure 41. Unique plant community distribution.
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Noxious Weeds
Analysis Procedures, Assumptions, and Data Gaps
A basic assumption in the management of noxious weeds in the Copeland-Calf Analysis area is that the area is highly susceptible to infestation. This is a function of the presence of a major state highway, known infestations of very aggressive weeds, and high recreational use deep within the analysis area. These factors combine to nearly guarantee that infestations of species not yet present will occur, and current infestations will spread.
Management of noxious weeds is based on knowledge of their presence. The primary tool in acquiring this knowledge is field surveys. Surveys of roads in the analysis area were conducted in the spring of 2001. These focused primarily on Scotch broom and other target species. Widespread weeds that are well established and being treated with bio-controls, such as bull thistle, Canada thistle, tansy ragwort, and St. Johnswort were not included. These surveys were conducted by volunteers driving vehicles along roads or, when roads were un-drivable, by walking. They should be considered of a moderate level of intensity. It is possible that infestations of species that do not stand out visually were missed. In the management of noxious weeds constant vigilance is necessary. The initial road surveys described above must not be considered permanently adequate. Inventory will continue to be needed on a regular basis.
Many populations of Scotch broom (Cystisus scoparius) and meadow knapweed (Centaurea x pratensis) have been documented. St. Johnswort (Hypericum perforatum) and bull thistle (Cirsium vulgare) have not been tracked, but are assumed to be infesting the entire analysis area. It is impossible at this point to make an accurate determination of the extent of noxious weed populations within the analysis area. It is assumed there are many more populations that are not yet documented. These data gaps have made it difficult to accurately interpret management needs in the analysis area.
Reference Condition
During reference conditions it is thought that none of the noxious weeds now found existed. This is due to the fact that many of the noxious weeds were brought over by settlers in the late 1800’s. This watershed probably did not see the first noxious weed propagation until the early to mid-1900’s when the first roads were built and the weeds had a vector (“vehicle” of transport) for spread. Reference conditions are considered optimal conditions in relation to noxious weed ecology and forest health. All areas currently occupied by noxious weeds are thought to have been occupied by native plants during the reference condition.
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Current Condition, Differences from Historical Condition, and Responsible Mechanisms
Eleven noxious weed species have been documented on lands within the watershed analysis area. These include Himalayan blackberry, Scotch broom, meadow knapweed, spotted knapweed, tansy ragwort, St. Johnswort (also known as Tipton weed, Klamath weed, or goatweed), bull thistle, Canada thistle, Medusahead rye, rush skeletonweed, and yellow toadflax. Table 31 lists noxious weeds known on the Forest and those documented to occur in the watershed. Figure 42 shows the location of noxious weeds within the watershed.
The current condition is a much different scenario than the reference, as many species of non- native origin have invaded the disturbed areas and natural openings that occur in the analysis area. Noxious weed infestations are occurring primarily along roadways, in rock quarries, and on the edges of plantations with poor regeneration. Nearly all noxious weed species are shade intolerant. They are pioneer to early-seral species that colonize newly disturbed soils and take a strong hold, developing enormous seed banks for future reproduction and spread. As is much of National Forest land in the United States, this analysis area is not in good condition considering the widespread infestation of noxious weed species. When considered relative to reference conditions, the current condition displays situation. The threat to native ecosystems is paramount and measures should be taken to ensure viability of native plant ecosystems.
Threats to native bunchgrass meadows exhibit a particular problem that seems to be getting worse. The species threatening these ecosystems are annual grasses not adapted to local fire regimes. Species like cheatgrass and hedgehog dogtail grass, which are not “listed” noxious weed species are completely out-competing native bunchgrasses and changing the composition of unique ecosystems. Most of the responsible mechanisms for weed invasion are the result of human impacts such as logging, road building, quarry mining, grazing, and recreational driving. Grazing provided an early vector that moved plants throughout large regions. It is presumed that St. Johnswort and aggressive species such as cats ear (Hypocharis radicata) and hedgehog dogtail grass (Cynosurus echinatus) were introduced in this way. These species are common and often dominant in meadows that were grazed. Wild animals, wind, fire, and other natural disturbances are also responsible for the spread of noxious weeds, however, the original establishment of these species is the responsibility of early settlers.
Road building and logging activities have probably had the greatest impact in introducing weeds. Disturbing soil using heavy equipment that has been contaminated with seed or other propagative material from elsewhere is a prime factor. Transporting contaminated gravel for road building has also been a serious problem. Roads continue to be a problem. Maintenance activities continue to disturb soil and redistribute contaminated material. Travelers continue to move seeds from afar to the analysis area, as well as spread those already present.
Uncontrollable vectors include wind dispersal and movement of seed by wild animals. Whereas human activities are centered around roads, these vectors can move infestations into the “undisturbed” interior of an area. The best, and perhaps only, protection against them is to prevent infestations in the first place. The single most effective way to prevent infestation of
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis 160 Chapter Four Reference and Current Condition, Synthesis, and Interpretation noxious weeds is to prohibit building of new roads. In turn, the single most effective way to reduce noxious weeds is through road closures.
Table 31. Umpqua National Forest Noxious Weed list.
Common Name Scientific Name Status Documented in WA Extent of Infestation Blackberry, Himalayan Rubus discolor A* Yes Few Broom, French Cytisus monspessulanus D No Broom, Portuguese Cytisus striatus A* No Broom, Scotch Cystisus scoparius B Yes Scattered Broom, Spanish Sparium junceum D No Gorse Ulex europaeus A No Knapweed, Diffuse Centaurea diffusa A No Knapweed, Meadow Centaurea x pratensis B Yes Dense along old roads Knapweed, Russian Centaurea repens D No Knapweed, Spotted Centaurea maculosa A No Knotweed, Japanese Polygonum cuspidatum B No Site reported but not relocated. Loosestrife, Purple Lythrum salicaria D No Nutsedge, Yellow Cyperus esculentus D No Ragwort, Tansy Senecio jacobaea B Yes Scattered Rye Grass, Medusahead Taeniatheerum caput-medusae B Yes Unknown Skeletonweed, Rush Chondrilla juncea A Yes 30 acre plantation St. Johnswort Hypericum perforatum B Yes Scattered Starthistle, Yellow Centaurea solstitalis A No Thistle, Bull Cirsium vulgare B Yes Scattered Thistle, Canada Cirsium arvense B Yes Scattered Thistle, Italian Carduus phcnocephalus A No Thistle, Milk Silybum marianum D No Thistle, Wooly distaff Carhamus lanatus D No Toadflax, Yellow Linaria vulgaris A Yes One site: eradicated Vine, Puncture Tribulus terrestris D No
Status Definitions: A: An aggressive, non-native species of limited distribution on the Forest at this time. Where feasible, intensive control or local eradication is recommended. B: An aggressive non-native species that is too widely distributed on the Forest to be effectively treated by currently available intensive control methods. Biological controls are the recommended management tool, although small isolated infestations may be subject to intensive control methods. D: '”Detection Weed". An aggressive, non-native species that is not currently known to exist on the Forest, but whose current distribution and ecological requirements suggest potential for movement onto the Forest. Recommended treatment for Forest sites is intensive control and elevation to either "A" or "B" status. *: Species has been added to the list since 1998 draft EA and has not yet officially been assigned a status.
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Meadow knapweed was planted in the early 1960's by the USFS for roadside erosion control and winter forage. It is an aggressive colonizer that has become widespread. An estimated 50 acres are currently affected. This includes planted road shoulders, infested harvest units and quarries, and banks of the North Umpqua River and Copeland Creek. No treatment has yet been undertaken. Figure 42 shows the general location of meadow knapweed infestations, exclusive of those in the river corridor.
A single infestation of rush skeletonweed (Chondrilla juncea) comprising some 30 acres is present within the analysis area. This represents the largest population on the entire UNF. The plant has invaded a plantation approximately 30 years in age. The site is a broad bench flat that has not regenerated trees well. This is a very high priority site for eradication.
Figure 42. Known noxious weed sites in the Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis area.
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Minor infestations of Scotch broom has been found on main roads within the analysis area. These infestations are evidently a result of road building, road maintenance, timber harvest, and general travel. The greatest concentrations are along the 4750 road that crosses Calf Creek and climbs Deception Ridge. Forty-two sites have been identified within, or along main roads immediately outside the boundary of the analysis area. Most of these sites are small with only a few plants. Total infestation size is estimated at 7 acres, with some 5,000 plants present.
As part of the inventory effort in 2001, 28 sites were treated by hand-pulling or cutting the plants. Treatment area was estimated at 2.2 acres, with approximately 1,000 plants treated. This resulted in about 70% of the sites and 30% of the total acreage being treated, with about 20% of the total plants removed.
While these numbers reflect a very useful effort to impact small outlying populations, they must not be construed to suggest eradication. Seeds of Scotch broom remain viable in the soil for some 50 years. These sites will produce plants again, however, their rate of spread has been temporarily slowed. Figure 43 shows the relative size of Scotch broom infestation and the location of treated areas. Current inventory and treatment of Scotch broom is an excellent start on the problem. All but a few sites are small and just getting started, which means the area is not yet beyond restoration. Numbers and acres of infestation have tremendous potential to grow. Treatment (manual removal) in the spring of 2001 will decrease seed production on 70% of the sites to near nothing for the next couple of years. This is useful, but funding will need to be secured to proceed with a continuing program of treatment. Such treatment would have to continue for decades or until biological controls become successful at containing or eliminating Scotch broom.
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Figure 43. Noxious weeds in the Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis area-Scotch Broom
Botanical Recreation Opportunities
Reference Condition
There are many recreational aspects in botany. For some people it is simply a matter of enjoying the wildflowers. For others it involves detailed inspection of the flora and taxonomic investigation. Assuming the reference condition of the watershed was one in which livestock grazing, road building, timber harvest, and noxious weeds had not yet occurred, and fire was still functioning in an unrestricted manner, the botanical recreation provided by the area would have been outstanding. The range of elevations present, large meadows of both rocky and deep soiled nature, deep canyons, riparian zones, abundant cliff features of various structure, and multiple soil types would have contributed to the vegetative diversity that enthralls people who love plants. Much of this diversity is embodied in the natural openings and unique habitat in the area.
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Current Condition
Currently, timber harvest, changes in plant communities resulting from grazing and restriction of wildfire, and the introduction of noxious weeds have impacted the analysis area. Roads allow easy access to attractions such as the meadows around Twin Lakes. Lack of fire has eliminated many natural openings. This is particularly noticeable in the North Umpqua River corridor and around Twin Lakes. Since the wildflowers and diversity of meadows are a primary draw for recreational botany activity, this condition reflects a net loss of opportunity.
Many trails were present in the reference condition as travel routes for American Indians. While trails permit introduction of non-native species, especially if livestock is allowed to use them, they also provide easy, immediate access to immerse oneself in the flora of an area. Conversely, very appealing areas are readily accessible via trails in the North Umpqua River corridor and the Twin Lakes area. Areas best preserved in pristine condition for those particularly interested in native flora and unique plant communities are located in the more remote, roadless portions of the analysis area. These can be difficult to access.
For the technical botanist, amateur or otherwise, “pristine” sites where native species exist in communities uninfluenced by human management patterns are of greatest interest. Most recreational botany occurs at a less technical level. Sites that are of greatest use for people pursuing general floristic appreciation include trails, lookouts, and meadows. The following are the primary areas for viewing wildflowers and other native flora: Twin Lakes meadow complex, Illahee Rock, the Kalmiopsis site on Dry Creek, Illahee Flats, the North Umpqua Trail and connectors, and Forest Roads 2715, 2715-500, and 4760. Figure 44 shows locations of features of particular interest to the botanically inclined.
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Figure 44. Areas of interest for botanical recreation.
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Differences or Similarities Between Conditions
Plant diversity resulting from geological features is still evident. Changes in plant communities based on elevation, aspect or exposure, and soil type still occur. However, the influx of non- natives, removal of timber stands, and especially the exclusion of wildfire, has resulted in negative changes in much of the watershed.
The slopes below Illahee Flats, Little Oak Flats, and Oak Flats itself have nearly lost their natural savannah features. Grazing and the introduction of noxious weeds have also caused the loss of visual appeal and diversity in meadow settings.
Future Trends
Future trends in flora are based on human management of the area and are somewhat unpredictable. Over the long term, continued degradation of native flora can be expected from the spread of noxious weeds already present in the area.
Recreational trends indicate an increase in use. Interest in botanical features will continue to comprise a portion of this.
HUMAN USES
Human Occupation
Analysis Procedures, Assumptions, and Data Gaps
Although a systematic inventory for cultural resources has not been completed for the Copeland- Calf Watershed Analysis area, 42% of the Copeland Creek drainage and 10% of the Calf Creek drainage has been surveyed. A systematic inventory for cultural resources has not been completed for the Illahee Facial Drainage. Inventoried areas in the Copeland Creek Watershed include 11 sub-watershed areas and nine project oriented surveys. Through these inventories, 88 prehistoric sites and 57 isolates/possible sites have been recorded. Seven archaeological sites within the watershed have been evaluated through archaeological testing. In addition to the prehistoric sites, there are four recorded historic sites within the analysis area. Information on prehistoric and historic occupation within the watershed was compiled through literature searches and cultural resource surveys conducted on the Districts.
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Prehistoric Overview
Archaeological evidence suggests the existence of an “indigenous mountain people” occupying the North Umpqua basin well before the major eruption of Mount Mazama in the Early Archaic Period, approximately 7,000 years ago. Use of the area increased over time into the Middle and Late Archaic Periods, covering a time period 6,000 years before present to the time of contact with European-American cultures.
Many of the prehistoric sites within the analysis area appear to be short-term, task specific sites, or seasonal base camps from which foragers exploited the resources of the river, streams, springs, marshes, and uplands. Collectively, they indicate a foraging existence in which people followed a well-defined annual pattern, probably within recognized cultural territories.
Within the study area, many of the prehistoric sites are defined as lithic scatter sites. These lithic scatter sites typically contain tools indicative of a dominance of hunting, hide processing, tool manufacturing, and to a lesser amount, plant food processing. Obsidian is present in most of these sites. As obsidian is not naturally occurring in the Umpqua basin, its presence indicates a long-distance trade and/or travel network to the east side of the Cascades to obtain this resource. Obsidian is found in sites throughout the prehistoric periods.
About 10% of the sites identified are cairns. Cairn sites are usually a stack or mound of piled rocks. Some cairns were constructed as part of vision quest rituals, while others may be trail markers, prayer monuments, or memorials. These sites are usually located on a ridgeline or crest with a vista of a place of power.
Another 10% of the identified sites are known as culturally peeled ponderosa pine tree sites. Ponderosa pine trees show scarring where the bark was “peeled” from the tree to allow access to the cambium layer. The pitch and cambium layer from these trees were used by American Indians as medicine to cure sore throats, treat bronchial and intestinal ailments, and as a “starvation” food. Pine pitch was also used as glue and to waterproof baskets.
The presence of multiple task sites, seasonal camps, and/or peeled tree sites may be indicators of maintenance burning by American Indian groups. Multiple task sites require a variety of plant and animal resources to sustain that site type. These edge effect locations are often the result of fire. In “How High the Bounty”, Jesse Wright, a local homesteader, tells us that the Indians burned Oak Flats and Big Camas for deer forage. The description by John Waldo (Unpublished) of beautiful meadows and succulent grasses along the North Umpqua River could have been the result of the burning practices of the Indians. Illahee Flats and Little Oak Flats may have been burned in much the same manner.
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Ethnographic Overview
The Copeland-Calf Watershed is located within the ethnographic territory ascribed to the Southern Molala and Upper Umpqua. The limited ethnographic information available on the Southern Molala, Upper Umpqua and neighboring tribes, such as the Cow Creek Band of the Umpquas, who lived in similar surroundings, provide a limited picture of the Indian life way. The ascribed territory for the Southern Molala was the uplands of the Rogue and Umpqua River drainages of the Cascades. Upper Umpqua territory was described as being from the valley near present day Roseburg to the crest of the Cascades. The Cow Creek Band of Umpqua Indians was also known to use portions of this area.
A mountain people with a toehold in the valleys, the Southern Molala life way seems to have revolved around the snows of the upland territory. In the winter they apparently lived in settlements located along streams at mid-valley elevations. They probably occupied semi- subterranean houses near the snow line because deer were easier to take when they floundered in the snow. In spring families moved to higher elevations, ranging long distances to forage. In the summer they shared the uplands with other tribes, meeting at favored huckleberry gathering places like those southwest of Crater Lake. Hunting was the mainstay of the Southern Molala subsistence.
Not known as a very populous group, the Molala and Upper Umpqua were adversely affected by European-American settlement of the Oregon Territory. Before the arrival of settlers to the Umpqua basin, epidemics of small pox, measles, flu, and dysentery were introduced by Europeans. These diseases were then spread through Indian populations via the Indian trade network. Indians of the lowlands retreated to the safety of the mountains as prime valley lands were converted to farms. The treaty of 1855 designated the Siletz and Grand Ronde reservations for Indians remaining in the Umpqua basin. The Southern Molala and Upper Umpquas were among the Indians sent to these reservations.
Historic Overview
This historical overview summarizes the sequence of European-American inroads and developments in the watershed.
Pioneers and Settlers
The earliest maps indicate that the Umpqua basin was generally avoided by early travelers and settlers due to rough terrain, combined with a lack of trails, and suitable land for homesteading. Perhaps the earliest documented entry into the Upper North Umpqua River came in 1813. A Pacific Fur Company expedition led by John Reed and Alfred Seton wintered in the Willamette Valley and crossed over the divide into the upper reaches of the Umpqua basin. In 1863 Lorin L. Williams documented the first known reconnaissance of the headwaters of the North Umpqua
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River. His band of explorers probably used the Calapooya Divide Trail, which had been established by aboriginal people.
As early as 1875, Bill Bradley made his way to the Illahee country on the North Umpqua River. Bradley was a pioneer trapper and mountain stockman. He traded venison and hides with the Indians for horses. His trade opened up a travel route through the forest, often following routes already established by the Indians. The Bradley Trail went from his cabin near Dry Creek, east over Illahee Flats and out of the analysis area, eventually going over Windigo Pass and into eastern Oregon. Approximately 3 miles of the Bradley Trail crossed the Watershed Analysis area.
Surveys were conducted of exterior and sub-divisional lines in the Cascade Mountains by the General Land Office (GLO) between 1883 and 1931. The earliest survey was of the Sixth Standard Parallel and was conducted by U.S. Deputy Surveyor Samuel C. Flint in 1883. The Sixth Standard Parallel passes just south of the watershed.
In 1903, the Southern Pacific Railroad conducted a reconnaissance for a standard gauge railroad route from Roseburg, east to the Williamson River. This railroad line was never built.
Perry Wright filed for a 130-acre homestead north of Illahee Flats in July of 1909. In September 1918 he filed for an additional 30 acres. Bill Bradley’s heirs filed in June 1915 for a homestead of 140 acres at Dry Creek where Bill had been living since the late 1800’s. John Bell Wright filed a homestead for 77 acres on Illahee Flats in May of 1917. Burley and Lecia Wright filed a homestead for 60 acres west of Dry Creek in June of 1917. Abe and Nora Wilson filed a homestead for 131 acres south of the North Umpqua River and west of Copeland Creek in June of 1918. All of the homesteaded lands still remain in private ownership today. The old Bill Bradley homestead at Dry Creek has been divided into multiple private ownerships.
Grazing
The practice of sheep ranchers grazing their flocks on the unassigned lands of the Cascades was quite common. So common in fact, sheep interests lobbied heavily against the creation of the Cascade Range Forest Reserve and the formation of Crater Lake National Park.
There is a report of Bill Bradley setting a fire at Oak Flats in 1905. This was presumably to improve grazing conditions.
In 1909, the Black Rock Range Allotment (and Ranger District) was created. Copeland Creek was located within this grazing allotment and presumably remained in this allotment until 1920 when the allotment was terminated.
Perry Wright was issued a grazing permit in 1935 for the area north of the North Umpqua River, from Jack Creek, east to Watson Butte. A portion of this permit would have been inside the analysis area. He was reported to have continued grazing use of this area until 1952. He was
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis 170 Chapter Four Reference and Current Condition, Synthesis, and Interpretation said to have used the stock driveway from Mud Lake (located at the southern edge of the analysis area) to Little River to take his animals to market.
An undated USFS grazing area map lists the grazing schedule for the Illahe (sic) Allotment that Perry Wright had, as 4/1- 6/15 and 10/15 –11/30 for 80 head of animals. Another allotment named Oak Flats lists the grazing schedule as 4/1- 11/30 for 50 head of animals. The map shows the location of two stock driveways within the analysis area. One was located on the north side of the North Umpqua River and started at the Boundary Ranger Station near Fox Creek and terminated at Mountain Meadow Ranger Station. The other stock driveway was located in Little River and started at the Forest boundary near Emile Creek. It went past the East Umpqua Ranger Station at Lake of the Woods (sic), through Snowbird Camp, Bear Wallows, Mud Lake, Big Camas Ranger Station, and on to Mountain Meadow Ranger Station.
Personal accounts by Albert DeBernardi speak of cattle grazing that occurred from Calf Creek, east past Deception Creek, to the original homestead of Abe and Nora Wilson. This homestead is presently known as the Rone Ranch. At the time, Roy Foster, owner of the property, grazed his and Debernardi’s cattle on the nearby USFS land. The forest was very open and had very little brush and undergrowth.
There are photographs showing cattle grazing Oak Flats. These cattle were probably from one of the Wright homesteads nearby. The last grazing under permit in the analysis area appears to have been Perry Wright’s, which terminated in 1952.
Forest Service
Ranger Stations
Illahee Flats Guard Station was constructed some time between 1911 and 1918 and included a log cabin, woodshed, and pole barn for horses. In 1936 a picnic gazebo was constructed. It was the only standing structure remaining, but was burned down by vandals in 1998. The gazebo structure was reconstructed in 1998 as an exact replica of the original. The cabin, woodshed, and barn were removed in the 1960’s when they were no longer used. In the 1940’s the open meadow areas of Illahee Flats were tilled for hay crops, which were harvested to feed the USFS riding and pack stock. The eastern portion of the meadow was used in the 1960’s to grow tree seedlings for planting harvested areas on the Ranger Districts.
Lookout Locations
Twin Lakes Mountain Lookout was a platform on a 10-foot high tower. An associated tent was built in 1922 and a 17-foot high platform was constructed in 1929. In 1933 an enclosed, cabin-style lookout was constructed on a tower. This was burnt down in 1962 by the USFS. Twin Lakes Overlook Lookout platform and tent was built in 1933 at the Twin Lakes
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Overlook. An L-5, cabin-type lookout was constructed on Oak Flats on a 10-foot high pole tower. It was built in 1933 and destroyed in 1964 by the USFS. No lookouts currently exist within the watershed analysis area. Illahee Rock Lookout, which is staffed during fire season is located just outside of, and on the northern edge of, the analysis area.
Phone lines
The USFS built a communication system between all the Ranger Stations, Guard Stations, Shelters, and Lookouts. It consisted of a single #9 size wire strung through the trees. These phone lines were located along major trails for ease of maintenance. Within the analysis area, one major line was the North Umpqua Line 2B. This line came from Diamond Lake through Big Camas Ranger Station (just outside the analysis area), traversed Oak Flats, crossed the North Umpqua River to Illahee Flats, dropped back down to the river at Dry Creek, and continued on to Steamboat Ranger Station. Branch lines went to Snuff Camp, Oak Flats Lookout, and Foster Ranch (private property). Another phone line, which terminated at Twin Lakes Lookout, followed a ridge trail over Snowbird Mountain to Snowbird Shelter, then out of the analysis area to Lake in the Woods Guard Station. Remnants of these phone lines can still be found in the woods, but the last use of the phone system terminated in the 1970’s.
Camps
Within the analysis area there were a number of Forest camps or shelters constructed for use by USFS employees while fighting fire or maintaining trail and phone lines. These include: Twin Lakes Shelter, Snuff Shelter, Bear Wallows Camp, Cow Prairie Camp, Snowbird Shelter, and BVD camp. These camps showed up on maps between 1918 and 1925. Twin Lakes Shelter, Snowbird Shelter, and Cow Prairie are still in use for recreational camping.
Roads and Trails
The Snowbird-Black Rock-Diamond Lake Trail is indicated in correspondence from 1910. It is described as going from Snowbird Gap to Bear Wallow Gap, to Bunch Grass Gap, to Porphy Pass, to the ridge between the North and South Umpqua Rivers, to Mud Lake Pass, to Black Rock, to Fish Creek, to Skookum Prairie, to a junction with the Rogue River Trail, and then to Diamond Lake. It was also described as impassable from December through mid-May because of snow. The writer recommended using the Big Camas to Diamond Lake route.
A 1911 map shows a trail following the top of the divide between the Copeland and South Umpqua drainages, with another trail coming from Fish Creek drainage down to the mouth of Copeland Creek. A tie trail appears to cross through Big Camas, connecting these two trails. A trail is also shown crossing the suspension bridge and continuing up over Illahee Flats, and on past Illahee Lookout, to Reynolds Ridge (Grassy Ranch Trail). The Bradley Trail is shown on the north side of the North Umpqua River, starting at Dry Creek and traveling east.
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On a 1918 map, the BVD Trail is shown from Copeland Creek through Twin Lakes basin, to Snowbird Mountain. The Copeland Trail starts from the mouth of the creek and travels to a point 2 miles northeast of Snowbird Mountain. The two trails on the divide between Copeland Creek and the South Umpqua, and the Fish Creek Trail, are all shown. A trail is shown from the mouth of Copeland Creek to the Wilson Homestead (formerly the Foster Ranch, now the Rone Ranch). A North Umpqua River Trail is shown on the north side of the river. One trail connects from the east/west Emile Trail, north to Limpy Mountain, then to South Lookout Mountain (Lookout Mountain).
A 1934 map shows all of the above mentioned trails. In addition, it shows a trail from the Wilson Homestead heading west across Little Oak Flats, crossing Deception Creek and meeting the Deception Trail at Hole in the Ground. The Deception Trail is shown from the Twin Lakes basin as traveling north on the ridge top and crossing the North Umpqua River upstream of the mouth of Calf Creek. A trail is shown that starts on the main trail between Snowbird and Limpy Mountain and descends down to the confluence of Calf and Twin Lake Creeks.
A 1939 map shows all of the above trails, with one additional trail from Dry Creek, north to the top of Ragged Ridge. A road is shown along the North Umpqua River, up to the old Marsters Bridge location below Wilson Creek.
The Bradley Trail was an early mountain man route through the forest from the Dry Creek area to eastern Oregon locations. Use of Indian paths by Bill Bradley could have begun as early as 1875. As early as 1907, the USFS began in earnest to locate and construct new trails. They used Bradley’s original route up the North Umpqua and followed the north side of the North Umpqua River from the Illahee Flats area to Mountain Meadows. This was the main route until 1910. A suspension bridge was built in 1910 by the USFS. It crossed the North Umpqua River just above Copeland Creek. This routed North Umpqua travel through Big Camas and the trail on the north side of the river then received less use. The eastern portion of the Bradley Trail from Mountain Meadows, through Thorn Prairie and Kelsay Valley, and over the Cascades continued to be used and upgraded by the USFS and/or the power company. Portions of this route are still used as roads today.
There are ten trails or portions thereof that exist in the analysis area. These are: Twin Lakes #1500, Twin Lakes Loop #1521, Deception #1510, Illahee Flats #1532, BVD #1511, Copeland #1512, and Marsters Segment of the North Umpqua #1414. Only portions of the following trails are in the analysis area: Snowbird #1517, and Jesse Wright and Calf Segments of the North Umpqua Trail #1414. A total of 19 miles of trail are presently maintained in the analysis area. This mileage will continue to be maintained in the future.
The current North Umpqua Trail system (#1414) is 79 miles in length. It reaches from the Maidu Lake headwaters of the North Umpqua River to Swiftwater Park near Rock Creek. Two of the 11 trail segments are within the analysis area. These are the Jesse Wright and Marsters segments, totaling 6.5 miles.
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The North Umpqua Highway (State Highway 138) is believed to have started out, for the most part, as an Indian trail. The first surveys were done in 1862 by L.L. Williams, Aaron Rose, and others from the Roseburg area. The North Umpqua Truck Trail/North Umpqua Road route is shown on a 1914 edition of a Douglas County map as “trail to lake”. Completed as a USFS supply route in 1925, this truck trail connected Diamond Lake with the Big Camas Ranger Station and points west. It is likely that this route was improved by the CCC. A 1938 road log indicates this road ended at the Diamond Lake Guard Station at milepost (m.p.) 68.9. By 1939 it was a gravel and dirt road connecting Roseburg with Diamond Lake, by way of the North Umpqua River, Copeland Creek, and Big Camas. This route went through Big Camas and had restricted use on the Copeland Creek section. The first trip took 4 hours from Roseburg to Diamond Lake. World War II interrupted the construction, but work resumed in 1947. In 1962 the road was paved from Stump Lake to Thielsen Guard Station (currently Diamond Lake Visitor Center) and grading began from the Toketee Control Center to Stump Lake. In 1964 the highway was completed. A “ribbon” cutting ceremony involving loggers cutting logs out of the new roadway, rather than the usual ribbon, symbolized the completion of the highway from Interstate 5/Highway 99 to Highway 97. The ceremony was held in August at Briggs Camp.
Special Uses
North Umpqua Hydroelectric Project
The North Umpqua Hydroelectric Project began with reconnaissance work done by the California Oregon Power Company (Copco), who filed an application for a preliminary permit for engineering studies in 1922. A series of debates, surveys, and licensing requirements followed. These were interrupted by World War II. In February of 1947 the Federal Power Commission issued Copco a license, and road clearing and camp construction began on the project. The Diamond Lake Highway was plowed to allow for May access to the work site. A school was opened in 1953 at the Lemolo Camp for use during the construction of the Lemolo 1 Project. Part of the construction camp location would become the future site of Lemolo Lake Lodge. Associated with these projects were the right-of-way clearing of forest for miles of transmission and distribution lines and the development of construction access routes and maintenance roads. PacifiCorp, a subsidiary of Scottish Power, currently administers the hydroelectric project.
Within the analysis area, transmission lines were located across the length of Oak Flats, and on the north side, roughly parallel to the North Umpqua River. Access and spur roads were constructed during the initial construction process. Many of these roads are still in use for maintenance of the transmission lines.
Part of this project included installing power distribution lines to customers down river of the project. Near Illahee Flats the distribution line was located next to the transmission line. From there to Dry Creek, then to Horseshoe Bend Campground, a separate power line corridor exits. These power line corridors will continue to remain in the analysis area.
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In 1971, American Telephone and Telegraph Co. completed a project that installed phone lines in the North Umpqua Corridor. Prior to that time the only phone system was the USFS single wire system. Buried phone lines were installed along Highway 138 and to the private parcels on Forest Service Roads 4770, 4760, and 4760-030. These phone lines will continue to remain in the analysis area.
Mining
There is limited record of mining activity in the analysis area, except in Copeland Creek. The Stroubs Mines were located on the northwest side of Copeland Creek and were reported to have been active from 1929 thru 1933. The two claims were located in T27S, R2E, Sections 14 and 23. These two claims have been held by various claimants since that time. The most recent recorded activity was the termination of claim rights in 1988 by the Bureau of Land Management (BLM). The most recent claimants apparently lost interest in the two claims and did not fulfill the requirements to continue holding the claims. There is mention of a “Gaylor” claim in Section 14 from 1981 to 1985, but no information to confirm exactly where it was located. This may have been just a renaming of one of the Stroubs Mines.
Questions are often received about suction dredging or gold panning in Copeland Creek. There is no “withdrawal from mineral entry” on the stream at this time, so these activities are permitted.
The very limited interest in mining activity in the watershed analysis area is expected to continue in the future. The lack of profitable mineral concentration will make it unlikely anyone will file a claim in the future.
Forest Products
Timber
Analysis Procedures, Assumptions, and Data Gaps
Timber products have been produced as commodities since shortly after WWII. District information contained in the timber atlas provides volume and species information on trees that constituted at least 5% of the original overstory stocking.
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Reference and Current Condition
At the beginning of the reference period (prior to 1940), timber direction was to convert old- growth forests to vigorous young stands by the year 2035. With the adoption of the NFP emphasis and focus shifted to one that would produce sustainable, late-seral habitat. During the five decades of timber harvest the emphasis was also on distributing the cut evenly across the forest, commensurate with road building. In the Copeland-Calf Watershed, one main access was established within the upper flat surrounding O.K. Butte and extending to Doehead Mountain. Similarly, two access roads paralleling Deception Creek and Copeland Creek were developed for timber harvest in those areas.
To date, there has been a total of 9,116 acres of regeneration harvest within the watershed since the 1950’s. This shows that approximately 19% of the watershed has been regeneration harvested in the last 50 years. Using an average of 60 thousand board feet per acre (mbf/acre), it is probable that around 546.9 million board feet (mmbf) has been harvested from the watershed. Growth estimates indicate that over 620 mmbf has grown in this same time period. From the commercial thinnings it is estimated that an average of 15 mbf/acre was harvested. Thinnings were applied to a total of 1,019 acres for a harvest total of 15.2 mmbf across the watershed.
Much of the timber harvest has occurred on the gentle/moist land units, which dramatically reduced stable, interior habitat. Here the largest trees were found and the highest road densities were established. High elevation sites were also similarly impacted. Volumes per acre were similar to low elevation sites, though much of the higher elevation harvest came from true fir (silver and white), Douglas-fir, western white pine, and western hemlock. At the lower elevations much of the volume came from Douglas-fir, ponderosa pine, sugar pine, incense cedar, and grand fir.
Processes or Causal Mechanisms Responsible
Harvest for commodity products was accomplished from a combination of ground, skyline, and helicopter logging. Tractor yarding was the most common method used in the gentle/moist land units (see the “Site Productivity” section of “Soils” in Chapter Four for maps and details). Skyline yarding has been used over a majority of the landscape on slopes that were over 35%. Helicopter logging has been used in remote areas and along Calf Ridge after the Apple Fire in 1987.
Future Trends
Future logging will occur as a result of management plans for watershed restoration. The majority of the activity will be prescribed for the young, managed stands. It is important to schedule commercial thinnings in stands under 80 years of age to re-establish stand species
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Influences and Relationships to Other Ecosystem Processes
Timber harvesting in the past has not generally matched desirable stand development patterns needed in the future. Instead of multiple cohorts establishing within the reference pine strongholds as a result of fire thinning, one main age class is now the norm for the lower elevations of the analysis area. This has affected the current shrub and forb communities and the wildlife response to these developing structures. Severe disturbance on the gentle/moist land units would not have occurred to the same extent with natural disturbance processes working within the landscape. There is a need to re-establish late-seral habitat on these sites, which eventually may create some quality interior habitat over the next 60-125 years.
Similarly, large and contiguous high elevation sites have been dramatically altered within the Copeland-Calf Watershed. It is a desirable restoration effort to re-establish mature and old forest cover on these sites. Given the shorter growing season above 4,000 feet elevation, it is expected that these sites will take from 150-200 years to achieve late-seral, interior habitat conditions.
Recreation
Reference Condition
Recreation activity in the study area is reported to have started in the early 1900’s. Perry Wright, who homesteaded at Illahee in 1909, would pack hunters and fisherman to places in the forest. He is reported to have packed people into Twin Lakes to fish and taken hunters to places between Illahee Flats and Mountain Meadows east of the study area.
This interest in recreation continued to grow. In 1936 the Forest Service put out a folded recreation brochure that showed recreation opportunities on the forest. The legend indicated “Free Public Camp or Picnic Grounds” with a wall tent graphic. These were shown at Cow Camp, Snowbird Camp, and Snuff Shelter Camp. A shelter symbol was shown for Twin Lakes.
At about this time there was a big promotion for a resort to be located at Dry Creek. The lodge facilities were to be located there, with a landing strip on Illahee Flats. This resort was promoted nation-wide using famous hunter and sharpshooter artist Gus Peret’s name to draw investors to fund the project.
The 1930’s brought the CCC into the North Umpqua Corridor, with a camp located one mile up Steamboat Creek and a spike camp at Dry Creek. The CCC built Eagle Rock Campground. This was the first developed recreation facility in the watershed analysis area. Boulder Flat would
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis Chapter Four Reference and Current Condition, Synthesis, and Interpretation 177 come later, in the late 1950’s. The Twin Lakes basin campsite development was completed in the late 1960’s.
American Indians had travel routes within the analysis area. Many of these were used for Forest Service trail locations. These trails were in turn used for recreation access when use increased. With road construction in the study area, many of the trails were obliterated. Recreation use on trails in the study area has steadily increased. The trails in the river corridor, at Twin Lakes and the Snowbird Trail are expected to increase about 5% over the next five years. Other trails are expected to remain stable or increase slightly.
Current Condition
In the North Umpqua Corridor campgrounds, recreation use is expected to increase about 20% over the next five years. At the present time, summer season occupancy rate average is 28% in Boulder Flat, which is open all year, and 19% in Eagle Rock.
Use in the Twin Lakes basin has been on a steady increase since the 1960’s. The basin has become a favorite for large group gatherings. Recreation use in the basin is expected to increase about 5% over the next five years.
Dispersed recreation within the watershed has increased about 5% as a by-product of converting all developed campgrounds in the river corridor to fee sites in 1997. This level of use is expected to stabilize at its present rate and not increase in the next five years.
Transportation
Analysis Procedures, Assumptions, Data Gaps
The approach used to develop the Copeland-Calf ATM plan (see Appendix F) follows the steps outlined in the 1999 USDA publication FS-643, “Roads Analysis: Informing Decisions About Managing the National Forest Transportation System”. However, public input was not solicited and a Road Analysis (RA) will be completed, as described in the above referenced publication, in the near future or as funding allows. The Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis also incorporates an analysis process derived from the Upper Steamboat Watershed Analysis ATM that dovetails well with the 1999 USDA RA directives. In the analyses, the “costs” of roads are compared, integrated, and balanced with the “benefits” of roads in order to develop a set of opportunities for managing the road system to meet USFS objectives. Costs are defined as natural resource impacts associated with retaining roads in their existing condition. Benefits are defined as keeping a road available for access by people.
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This process was developed in an attempt to display the human uses of roads compared to the resource effects of roads. The results of these comparisons could be used as a framework for decision making on whether to maintain, stormproof (reduce risks to aquatic environments), or decommission roads. The process is intended to be dynamic, in that the factors evaluated and their relative weightings should differ for each watershed, depending on the land management allocations, human uses, and driving ecological processes in that watershed. It requires interdisciplinary interaction and integration. This includes a high degree of involvement by an appropriate mixture of experienced individuals from appropriate disciplines being placed on the team, based on the specific characteristics of the watershed being analyzed. Good judgment based on the expertise of the team members is necessary to apply the process as intended. The methodology, of the planning, as well as the results, can be found in Appendix F.
The Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis area does not have a stream crossing culvert inventory. Professional judgment based on contour crenulations and stream intersections with roads was used to rate out various road segments. This data was then “normalized” by using a common denominator to show the number of stream crossings per linear mile of road.
Reference Condition
The reference condition is considered to be the time before any roads existed in the analysis area, which would be prior to 1930. Transportation within the analysis area was limited to trails prior to 1930. Although trails are considered transportation routes, their impact on the analysis area at that time is considered to be negligible.
Current Condition
The first serviceable road constructed within the analysis area was built by the USFS in 1930. From 1950 to 1970, about 70-75% of the existing roads were built in the Copeland-Calf Analysis area. Many of these roads were the main access routes and local roads to provide access to various management activities such as timber sales. Roads built at this time had lower construction standards than roads of today.
In the 1970’s and 1980’s, mitigation called “Best Management Practice” (BMP) guidelines began to be applied to northwest forests, mainly to address water quality and cumulative effects issues. In addition to these, an ecosystem-based management plan, created by the Forest Ecosystem Management Assessment Team (FEMAT 1993) evolved into the NFP, which included the ACS and differing land allocations.
Beginning in the 1980’s, Regional and Forest plans began to address road and resource issues, putting forth objectives and standards and guidelines for road construction and maintenance. Forest Service Manual (FSM) and Forest Service Handbook (FSH) direction became more specific during this period. In the 1970’s and 1980’s, roads were built in the Copeland-Calf
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Analysis area using these directives. Many temporary roads associated with timber sales have been decommissioned since the 1980’s. Very little road construction was done in the 1990’s.
The UNF ATM plan places road systems into three general types; primary, secondary, and “other” remaining roads. Primary road systems are those open for use and fully maintained for passenger car use. Secondary road systems are open for use and fully maintained for high clearance vehicles. The “other” category includes maintenance level 2 and all maintenance level 1 roads that are not, in many cases, fully maintained.
Today there are approximately 180 miles of road in the watershed, with about 75% having been built prior to 1980. Potential situations exist on some road systems that could create more fine sediment in the future. Situations such as undersized culverts, drainage structures with diversion potential, partially plugged culverts, stream network extension from lack of enough ditch relief culverts, and riparian area roads have been identified. The period of major road construction is past. New road locations with large numbers of stream crossings are not likely to occur today as they have in the past. Today, major concerns are maintenance, rehabilitation, and restoration to reduce erosion and sediment input into streams.
Trends in Road Construction
Since the early 1980’s road construction methods within the Copeland-Calf Analysis area have improved significantly. During the 1990’s, little if any new construction of system roads has been done. It is expected that little new road will be constructed in the future.
Future Trends
Several factors have the potential to affect the management of the transportation system in the Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis area. Implementation of the NFP, specifically ACS objectives 2 and 5, that address the relationship of the transportation system to the ecosystem process, will affect management. Conforming to the ACS portion of the NFP will force an increased recognition of effective road location and design practices. The level of road maintenance will probably continue to decline due to reduced budgets and limited resources. This could result in an inability to support elements of the NFP. Several monitoring elements incorporate the need to evaluate the transportation system, based on maintenance level. Due to reduced budgets, portions of the transportation system will receive little, if any, necessary maintenance.
Using guidelines such as the RA (when completed) and the ATM plan will help in analyzing the existing road system and set in motion watershed health and restoration based on careful consideration of all aspects of the policies and agendas. It will require inventory and intensive survey to develop base data. When each watershed is analyzed, a basis will be developed to guide future planning for new road development, maintenance plans for existing roads, decommissioning of unused roads, and restoration of our watershed systems. Watershed health
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis 180 Chapter Four Reference and Current Condition, Synthesis, and Interpretation and restoration, integrated with sustainable forest ecosystem management that has allowances for the growing trend in recreation demands from the public, will also help guide long-term decisions on our forest roads.
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CHAPTER FIVE
RECOMMENDATIONS AND ANSWERS TO THE KEY QUESTIONS ------
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this chapter is to:
Answer the key questions based on what was learned through this watershed analysis.
Outline a desired range of conditions based on an understanding of the physical, biological, and human processes and features, and their interactions within the watershed.
Make management recommendations that are responsive to ecosystem processes identified in the analysis.
Identify monitoring and research activities that are responsive to the issues and key questions.
GEOMORPHOLOGY/GEOLOGY
1) What are the dominant erosional processes affecting the watershed? Where have they taken place in the past and where are they likely to occur in the future?
Mass wasting is the dominant erosional process within the Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis area and is noted by a variety of landslide types. Two basic forms of mass wasting occur throughout the watershed, depending upon the character of the landscape. On steep, well- dissected hillslopes, rapid-shallow landslides are prevalent. These include debris avalanches and channelized debris flows. On the weakly dissected, gentle to moderate gradient topography, deeper-seated, slow moving slumps and earthflows are widespread and typically clustered in complexes that encompass tens to hundreds of acres. The overwhelming majority of these landslide-earthflow complexes are dormant in the present day climatic regime, although areas of localized ground movement do occur within these complexes. Areas of active movement constitute unstable and potentially unstable ground. Geomorphic landtypes within the watershed with high landslides rates include active landslide-earthflow complexes, inner gorge, and steep sidelopes.
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Landslide frequency is largely driven by cyclic natural disturbance patterns, notably from intense ROS events. Based on a chronological aerial photo interpretation that lacks field verification, there appears to be a higher frequency of landslides associated with low-volume roads and timber harvest (clearcut) units, relative to unmanaged forested terrain. An extensive body of geomorphic literature that discusses various aspects of hillslope erosional processes throughout the Pacific Northwest Region supports this conclusion.
With respect to low-volume roads in steep, forested terrain, stream crossing intersections pose a substantial risk for mass wasting and sediment delivery into the aquatic environment as a result of culvert failure due to plugging or overtopping during a major storm event. Shallow-rapid landslides in timber harvest (clearcut) units are more likely to occur during the interim period when soil binding root strength is lost and vegetative cover becomes firmly re-established.
Recommendations
Although current road building and timber harvest activities appear to cause considerably less environmental damage to beneficial uses (resources) than in previous decades, there still remains a need to evaluate areas where slope instability is suspected. Skills, training, and experience of geotechnical engineers, hydrologists, geologists, and soil scientists should be utilized.
The primary objective is to allow the watershed to recover from the synergistic effects of past management practices and restore the natural resiliency of drainage networks. The following generalized guidelines are useful in achieving these management goals.
During the initial project planning (development of proposed action) and scoping stages, determine the need for specialized technical services relative to prospective issues regarding slope stability.
Utilize the landslide inventory, geomorphic coverage, and the SHALSTAB digital terrain model when possible, as landscape level tools in the initial planning stages of the project to identify potential areas of ground instability. Areas of unmanaged landscape can be delineated using SHALSTAB to determine areas that are prone or susceptible to rapid, shallow slope failure (landslides).
2) What road systems (segments) in the watershed pose the most significant potential for erosion and sediment delivery into aquatic habitat?
Roads systems (segments) that are suspected to pose the most significant potential for erosion and sediment delivery into the aquatic environment within the Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis area are identified in the ATM plan. The following criteria (aquatic impact risk factors) were used to evaluate the potential risk of erosion and sediment delivery into aquatic habitat: (1) relative percent of road segment located within high risk SHALSTAB delineation; (2) relative
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frequency of stream crossings along road segment; and (3) relative percent of road segment located within Riparian Reserves. Aquatic impact risk factors are defined in Appendix F.
Recommendations
Use the results of the ATM plan to help complete a Roads Analysis. Results of the ATM plan are documented in Appendix F.
SOIL
1) Where does soil structure/productivity affect management activities?
Management activities have most affected soil structure on the flat areas where ground-based harvesting has occurred. This activity has led to areas of high compaction, which inhibit soil moisture, slowing nutrient cycling and soil development, resulting in a reduction in soil productivity. Other sensitive areas are high elevation sites where site preparation removed organic material. This material is important for moisture retention, nutrient cycling, and buffering soil temperatures.
Recommendations
Maintain a minimum of 85% effective ground cover on soil that has severe environmental limitations to seedling survival. This includes soils that are frigid, shallow soils (<40 inches in depth), or soils having low water holding capacities (S & G no. 2 and 3, LRMP IV-67, Umpqua National Forest 1990, and Examples of Appropriate KV Projects FSM 2409.19-92-3, page 7 of 11).
Insure unsuitable areas that have been harvested in the past are protected from additional disturbance and degradation.
Harvest and slash disposal techniques should meet acceptable standards and the site shall not be severely altered as a result of future management practices.
Seedlings will be planted before soil moisture tension values exceed 0.8 bars.
Seedlings shall be planted when soil temperature conditions are sufficient for seedlings to become established and initiate growth.
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2) Which 6th field watersheds have chronic sedimentation/erosion? Is it background or accelerated?
Soil erosion is a natural occurrence, however, through human activity the process can be accelerated. Natural soil erosion is defined as a wearing away of the land surface by the forces of water, wind, ice, or other geologic agents. Accelerated erosion is defined as rapid loss of soil, caused by the activities of man, animals, or catastrophic events such as wildfire, that expose the soil surface. When considering the issue of erosion in the watershed, accelerated erosion is the most detrimental to soil health. The soil eroded or lost from the site usually represents the most fertile, which is the upper horizon of the soil profile.
All of the 6th field watersheds have chronic erosion. Some of the sources of this erosion and sediment production are related to past harvest sites, as modeled by WEPP (Table 32). When harvest units were modeled with the full vegetative cover there was a significant reduction in the amount of sediment generated. The last harvest in the analysis area was in 1995. These harvest units will not show a significant reduction in erosion and sediment production until they have a 5-year-old stand, according to the modeling done for this analysis. The upper-most criteria for full vegetative cover in the WEPP model are 20-year-old stands. Some of the harvest units in these watersheds dating from the 1950’s and 1960’s remain classified as grass and shrub vegetative cover. A source of future erosion and sediment potential will be understocked plantations and areas where surface water runoff is allowed to concentrate.
Accelerated erosion has also been caused by roading. Roads built from the 1950s’-1970’s were generally constructed at lower standards, thus are more inclined to contribute to erosion/sedimentation.
The “Erosional Processes” section of Chapter Four discusses erosional processes in both the accelerated and background context. Figure 16 in this same section shows areas of potential high slope instability.
Table 32. Totals of erosion generated from harvest activities; modeling based on current vegetative cover of harvest units within the Copeland-Calf Watershed.
Watershed Total Erosion From Harvested Total Sediment From Harvested Areas Areas (in tons/acres) (in tons/acre)
Calf 2,871 1,467 Copeland 3,687 2,627 Illahee Facial 3,125 1,577
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Recommendations
Re-vegetate plantations that are under-stocked and are promoting erosion processes. This can be accomplished by treating compaction and using organic amendments where loss of soil productivity is slowing the establishment of vegetative growth.
Soil restoration may include, but not be limited to, decompacting the soil to a minimum depth of 18 inches. The objective of soil restoration should be to improve soil tilth, increase water infiltration, decrease surface water runoff, and increase vegetative health and vigor.
3) Where are there opportunities to restore/enhance soil development/productivity?
Soil compaction, displacement, and erosion potential represent significant impacts to long-term soil productivity. Soils in frigid temperature regimes can also be significantly impacted by minor losses in surface organic material. Figure 45 shows areas with soil degradation in order of restoration priority. Priorities where assigned using erosion potential, compaction, and soil temperature regimes on sites with the highest site potential. Harvest units on deep to very deep soils that where harvested using ground skidding, had a high to very high erosion potential, and are in a frigid soil temperature regime where assigned the highest priority for soil restoration.
Recommendations
Land units that have greater than 20% of the area in an unacceptable soil condition (severely burned, unacceptable compaction, or unacceptable displacement) should be considered unsuitable for re-entry without implementing some degree of soil restoration (S & G no. 1, LRMP IV-67, Umpqua National Forest 1990).
Soil restoration shall include, but not be limited to, decompacting the soil to a minimum depth of 18 inches. The objective of soil restoration shall be to improve soil tilth, increase water infiltration, decrease surface water runoff, and increase vegetative health and vigor.
Sites identified in erosion mapping as having less than 5 year forested stands that are deficient in surface organic matter should be considered for organic amendment restoration such as the application of respreading topsoil, or placement of biosolids and woodchips. Soils with severe environmental limitations to seedling survival shall be given a high priority for organic restoration. This includes soils that are frigid, shallow soils (<40 inches in depth), or soils with low water holding capacities. Insure unsuitable areas that have been harvested in the past are protected from additional disturbance and degradation (S & G no. 2 and 3, LRMP IV-67, Umpqua National Forest 1990, and Examples of Appropriate KV Projects FSM 2409.19-92-3, pg 7 of 11).
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Figure 45. High priority units for restoration, based on site productivity, erosion potential, unacceptable soil disturbance, and temperature regime.
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4) How does unsuitable soil affect potential forest health silvicultural activities?
The 1990 UNF LRMP recognizes two land condition classes where adequate stocking cannot be obtained within 5 years. These condition classes are: 1) physical limitations to planting seedlings; and 2) environmental limitations to seedling survival. When either condition (1 or 2) prevents adequate stocking, the land is classified as “Unsuitable – Poor regeneration potential” (FEIS Appendix B-11, Umpqua National Forest 1990).
Lands with physical limitations to planting seedlings are those where at least 250 well-distributed trees per acre cannot be physically planted due to high gravel, cobble, or stone contents in the surface soil. Lands with environmental limitations to seedling survival are those where local experience indicates that we do not have a reasonable assurance of having 125 well-established tress per acre surviving 5 years after final harvest, due to droughty soil and climatic conditions.
Lands where full stocking can be obtained in 5 years, but that are considered marginal to seedling survival due to environmental limitations, are considered to be “Suitable – with severe environmental limitations”.
Recommendations
Maintain a minimum of 85% effective ground cover on soil that has severe environmental limitations to seedling survival. This includes soils that are frigid, shallow soils (<40 inches in depth), or have with low water holding capacities (S & G no. 2 and 3, LRMP IV- 67, Umpqua National Forest 1990, and Examples of Appropriate KV Projects FSM 2409.19-92-3, pg 7 of 11).
Insure unsuitable areas that have been harvested in the past are protected from additional disturbance and degradation.
HYDROLOGY
1) How has previous management affected the hydrologic condition of the watershed? What management actions could be used to improve the hydrologic condition within the watershed?
Clear-cut harvesting has occurred throughout the watershed. Large portions of Upper Calf, Deception, and Lower Copeland drainages have been heavily harvested in the past five decades (see Figure 15, “Cumulative harvest, by decade” in Chapter Two). Roads are also concentrated in these areas and many are chronic sources of sediment. Ground compaction caused by tractor harvest and road construction, interception of ground water at road-cut slopes, and extension of the channel network due to road ditch-lines and relief culverts have all been shown to alter the
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis 188 Chapter Five Recommendations and Answers to the Key Questions timing of water delivery to the stream network. Timber removal within riparian areas was commonplace before the NFP and harvesting occurred in many of the Riparian Reserves (Figure 46). Large woody debris was also removed from many of the stream channels. Riparian roads and harvesting have reduced recruitment of LWD into stream channels.
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Historic Riparian Harvesting Within the Analysis Area
Figure 46. Historic riparian harvesting within the analysis area.
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Harvesting and roads have increased sediment loading over reference conditions in the tributaries. Sediment storage in first and second order streams associated with mass wasting has likely increased, whereas sediment storage in third and fourth order streams has decreased, due to LWD removal (Stillwater Sciences, Inc. 1998).
Peak flows have probably increased in many of the drainages. Combined with the effects of removing the LWD, there has been a reduction in stream stability, channel complexity, and diversity. Channel widening, due to peak flow and sediment increases has likely increased the water temperature and degraded water quality.
Recommendations
Use a variety of silvicultural methods to restore vegetation in second-growth stands. Prescribed fire, thinning (cutting), girdling, or inoculating trees with a species of fungus can be used to help reduce stand densities and encourage large tree growth within riparian areas. Similarly, prescribed fire can be used to help thin out understory components (where desirable) as well as thin-barked species such as hemlock. To restore species diversity within management-created second-growth stands, thinning and release can be coupled with planting. This could include planting native conifers, hardwood, and shrub species.
Restore the aquatic and riparian habitat by placing LWD within the stream channel where it has been removed by past management practices.
Decommission or improve roads to reduce chronic and catastrophic sediment delivery to stream channels, as well as to help restore hydrologic function within the watershed. Road improvement activities would include: installing waterbars and drain dips, installing stand pipes, placing splash aprons below culvert outlets, upsizing culverts, exchanging culverts for stream-simulation culverts or bridges, adding relief culverts, and pulling back over- steepened road fills and landings. An ID Team should develop specific recommendations for the road system based on site specific and cumulative watershed effects analysis.
2) What areas are most hydrologically resilient to proposed future management activities?
Due to topography and geology, some areas of the watershed are more susceptible to ROS events (Figure 47). The eastern portion of Calf, East Copeland, and Upper Dry Creeks have the greatest percentage of susceptible land. Harvesting within these areas may increase the risk of augmented peak flows.
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Areas of High Hydrologic Susceptibility
Areas of High Susceptiblity to Rain-on-Snow Events Earthflow Terrain
Figure 47. Areas of high susceptibility, due to ROS events and earthflow terrain, within the analysis area.
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The deep, finer-textured soils of the earthflow terrain are highly susceptible to stream down cutting and bank erosion. Increases in peak flows can reduce channel stability and decrease available aquatic habitat. Disturbance in earthflow terrain often results in copious increases in fine sediment in the stream channel. Foster Creek, in the Lower Copeland drainage, is predominately earthflow terrain and is the major contributor of turbidity to the mainstem of Copeland Creek during high flows.
Earthflow terrain has deep soils and water storage capability, which make it less predisposed to increased flows during ROS events. However, areas of high susceptibility that are upslope and contribute to streams in earthflow terrain would potentially have the greatest influence on bank erosion and channel scour if tree canopy was removed. Deception and Upper Copeland drainages have areas susceptible to ROS events in the headwaters and downstream tributaries within earthflow terrain.
Recommendations
Regeneration harvest should not be implemented on erosive terrain where stream channels are currently showing indications of accelerated fluvial erosion and increased channel degradation beyond reference conditions. An Interdisciplinary (ID) Team should develop target canopy closures based on site-specific and cumulative watershed effects analysis.
3) How has the PacifiCorp project affected the natural processes within the mainstem of the North Umpqua River?
A ramping event occurs when stream discharge increases or decreases and the water surface elevation correspondingly rises or falls. Flow changes can alter channel morphology and detrimentally affect aquatic habitat. Increases in flow (upramping) may displace fish eggs, as well as juveniles and adult fish. Decreases in flow (downramping) can strand eggs or juvenile species along dewatered areas of the channel. Ramping can also reduce benthic species diversity, density, and biomass by eliminating species less tolerant to flow fluctuations. Flow fluctuations can also affect water quality parameters like water temperature, dissolved oxygen concentration, turbidity, and sediment.
The upstream hydroelectric operations influence the frequency, magnitude, timing, and the rate of ramping events in the North Umpqua River. Flood frequencies and magnitudes appear to have changed slightly with the most dramatic changes in floods, with return intervals of at least 5 years. The 5-year flood discharge at the downstream gaging station, North Umpqua at Winchester, increased from 60,000 to 73,000 cfs in the period after regulation. This increase is likely caused by climatic changes (Stillwater Sciences, Inc. 1998). Natural ramping occurs during storms. At the gaging station, North Umpqua above Copeland, a 1950 storm caused upramping of 0.7ft/hr and downramping of 0.5 ft/hr. Increased ramping also occurs during unplanned shutdowns. Downramping of 0.5 ft/hr was
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recorded in this reach during an emergency fire shutdown in August 1996. Ramping of this magnitude during the seasonal baseflow period likely would be extremely detrimental to the aquatic ecosystem and would be unlikely to occur under a natural flow regime.
The smaller ramping fluctuations that routinely occur during low flows have likely reduced habitat quality. The hydroelectric project affects the hydrology of the basin downstream by increasing flows during peak electric usage and reducing flows by refilling reservoirs and forebays during non-peak hours. While mean daily flow at the gaging station, North Umpqua River above Copeland Creek, during August and September is 873 ft3/sec (USGS 1999), there can be daily fluctuations in flow of more than 50 cfs, resulting from changes in water release from the hydropower project in order to meet power demands (USGS 1998). However, daily fluctuations in streamflow were recorded at the gaging station ranging from 400-700 cfs in late June and early July of 2000. Daily changes of this magnitude during the seasonal baseflow period are also unlikely to occur under a natural flow regime.
Reductions in LWD and channel sediment transport and storage have occurred in mainstem reaches immediately below Soda Springs Dam. This has caused a reduction in sediment delivery, particularly gravel and small-cobble, creating coarsening and simplification of bed particle size downstream of Soda Springs Dam. Instream sediment transport and storage is outside the range of variability, and is on a trend away from the natural range (North Umpqua Ranger District 2001).
A comprehensive discussion of the effects of Soda Springs Dam on water quality is discussed in the “North Umpqua River Wild and Scenic Corridor Watershed Analysis” (North Umpqua River Analysis 2001) and the “North Umpqua Cooperative Watershed Analysis” (Stillwater Sciences, Inc. 1998).
Recommendations
Continue monitoring water quality and aquatic habitat in the North Umpqua River. Monitor PacifiCorp’s provisions and mitigation measures outlined in the North Umpqua Hydroelectric Project Settlement Agreement.
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FIRE
1) What areas of the watershed have the highest potential for a fire with effects exceeding the historic natural fire process?
Fire behavior predictions were accomplished using the high 10% fire danger conditions (temperature, humidity, and fuel moisture) from weather data collected from the Forest weather stations during the period 1970 to 1996, and fuel model, slope, and aspect as mapped in GIS. These predictions were then stratified into: 1) no fire behavior; 2) predicted fire behavior with less than 4 foot flame length; or 3) predicted fire behavior greater than 4 foot predicted flame length.
Flame length is a visual indicator of fire intensity and can be estimated for a given set of environmental parameters. Fire intensity is the primary factor in determining whether hand crews can be successful in initial attack. Access and difficulty of fireline construction are the other main factors. When flame lengths continuously exceed 4 feet, the fire is approaching conditions where stand replacement intensity levels and/or crowning is likely.
Areas of the watershed that have the highest potential for a fire with effects exceeding the historic natural fire process are contiguous locations where predicted flame lengths exceed 4 feet (Figure 48). This analysis area is unique in that a majority of the area has predicted flame lengths that exceed 4 feet. The area was then stratified into: high risk (greater than 4 foot), very high risk (greater than 6 foot), and extreme risk (greater than 8 foot).
PROBACRE indicates that in a 10 year period there is a 52% probability that between one and four fires ranging from 100 to 1000 acres will occur somewhere within the analysis area. In the next 40 years there is a 77% probability that one to four fires between 100 and 1000 acres will occur. The probability of a large fire increases with time. Long range probabilities were derived using the same prediction model. Predictions were based on a percentage of the watershed burning within a given time period. The probability of 5% of the watershed burning over the next 30 years is 55%. The probability of 10% of the watershed burning over a 60-year period is 60%. Much of the area in the very high risk category, along with high risk and extremely high risk was also in high intensity fire regime V, as mapped in 2001 by the Forest. Stand replacement is considered a normal part of this fire regime; therefore, even though the risk of stand replacement is high, it does not exceed the natural fire process.
Recommendations
Update the fuel models, map snowdown areas, and re-calculate predicted fire behavior at the Forest level.
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Risk to Analysis Area of Fire Effects Exceeding Natural Processes
Legend - No to Low Risk
- High Risk
- Very High Risk
- Extremely High Risk
- Natural Fire Regime is High Intensity/ Stand Replacement.
- Streams
Figure 48. Risk to analysis area of fire effects exceeding natural processes.
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2) What are the high priority areas and appropriate strategies for reducing fire risk within the analysis area?
The following five areas/conditions should be priority to survey or recon on the ground to determine the actual hazard. Following ground-truthing the areas can then be prioritized based on need and developed proposals.
Recommendations
Prioritize the following areas to determine the fire hazard and needs:
Contiguous areas shaded in gray, as shown in Figure 49.
Around buildings and facilities on federal land, campgrounds, and day use areas managed by the USFS, and along powerlines, especially the high voltage transfer lines.
The narrow point or “neck” of the LSR and areas that adjoin the narrow point that have LSR characteristics (see Figure 2). This is a critical area. A large fire with areas of high, stand replacement intensity burned in 1996, degrading desirable LSR characteristics. A future similar fire could effectively “disconnect” the LSR into two pieces. Reducing the risk of a high intensity fire in this area will help maintain LSR characteristics in and around this narrow gap.
The Wild and Scenic corridor. A high intensity, stand replacement fire will change the scenic characteristic along this corridor. Historically, most human-caused fires in this watershed analysis area have started along the highway, river, and power line corridor.
The USFS managed land surrounding privately owned land, especially where there is a “burnable” investment such as timber, buildings, and businesses, or individuals that rely on burnable characteristics of the private land.
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Methods to reduce hazard and risk are:
Underburn in strategic locations. Underburning the area of concern creates fuel breaks to reduce the continuity of predicted flame length exceeding 4 feet. The objective is to change areas having Fuel Model 10 to Fuel Model 8. Require pre-treatment of specific locations by removing some of the hazard through mechanical means. Use treatments such as handpiling and burning, pruning and chipping, or utilization by other means. Commercially thin areas of concern. In this prescription, smaller, fire intolerant trees are harvested, followed by slash disposal. The objective is to reduce stand density, remove ladder fuels, and leave Fuel Model 8 on the ground following harvest. This would help to break up the continuity of predicted high intensity fire areas. The location to be treated is the area of concern Any combination of the above three methods. Management activities that create dead, down fuel, such as road clearing and brushing, powerline brushing, timber harvest, scotchbroom cutting, hazard tree removal, etc. If left untreated, fuel will continue to accumulate and add to the hazard that already exists. Treat by burning, chipping, or utilizing any slash created when accomplishing any management activity.
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Predicted Fire Behavior, by Flame Length
Legend
Predicted Flame Length < 4’ Predicted Flame Length > 4’ Streams Figure 49. Predicted fire behavior, by flame length.
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3) What are the high priority areas for restoration utilizing prescribed fire?
One high priority area is LSR, especially the Oregon white oak plant series and ponderosa pine areas that have been identified as benefiting from fire. Also of high priority are the areas where prescribed fire can be applied as a maintenance burn, similar to a low or moderate severity fire in reference conditions.
The Oregon white oak plant series is in Fire Regime I, as defined by the National Fire Plan. Fire Regime I typically has frequent, low-severity fires occurring, on average, every 0-35 years. Average fire return interval in the Oregon white oak plant series on the UNF is estimated to be 15 years (see the Fire Section of Natural Disturbances in Appendix E). Climax ponderosa pine plant communities and very dry white fir have a similar fire regime.
The main factor affecting pine health seems to be fire exclusion, which has led to the establishment of abnormally high stand densities in historical pine areas. Competition for limited site resources stress individual trees and leave them vulnerable to impacts from insects and disease. Within the Copeland-Calf Watershed, main areas for pine health are mapped (Figure 24 in Chapter Four illustrates primary pine distribution).
The Douglas-fir, Oregon white oak, and white fir plant series areas, particularly at low-mid elevations, and the silver fir/white fir plant series on the high elevation flats are high priority areas. Oregon white oak plant series occurs in the main Oak Flats area east of Copeland Creek, Illahee Flats, and on Little Oak Flats. A successful prescribed fire project exists for a portion of Little Oak Flats.
Recommendations
A successful prescribed fire program already exists for Illahee Flats and a portion of Little Oak Flats. This program should be continued. Prescribed fire projects and/or vegetation management plans should be explored for other desired areas, such as Oak Flats.
Establish an active program of running light fires periodically throughout historical pine areas. Priority areas for the low elevations are the mapped earth-flow terrain to the west of Copeland Creek in sections 25, 26, 35, and 36 in T26S, R02E, and in sections 2 and 3 in T27S, R02E in the Oak Flats, Little Oak Flats, Illahee, and Deception/Wilson Creek areas.
Use prescribed fire in the LSR where it can be applied as a maintenance burn, with the result being a low to moderate intensity underburn. The objective is to maintain the appropriate fire regime, prevent continued accumulation of fuels, and retain fire as a component of the ecosystem.
See also the recommendations under the “Forest Health” section of Chapter Five.
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4) Under what conditions is prescribed fire not appropriate in Riparian Reserves in the Copeland-Calf Creek Watershed?
The Final Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement on Management of Habitat for Late- Successional and Old-Growth Forest Related Species Within the Range of the Northern Spotted Owl (FSEIS) addresses fire in Riparian Reserves numerous times. It states to limit the size of all wildfires in the Riparian Reserves, yet to recognize and identify instances when some fire suppression measures could be damaging to the reserve. The FSEIS also states that the role of fire in ecosystem function should be recognized and that some natural ignitions should be allowed to burn.
Some key elements in a riparian system that can be affected by wildfire or prescribed fire are large coarse woody material, riparian vegetation, duff, shade, and potential for future large woody recruitment. Fish and other aquatic organisms can also be affected by fire in the Riparian Reserves.
Fires naturally occurred within the riparian areas. Depending on numerous fire behavior factors, many of these historically did not burn much due to the moister nature of riparian areas. At other times the amount of available fuel, shape, slope, and aspect of the drainage contributed to a hotter, more consumptive fire.
Recommendations
Prescribed fire will only occur when the project meets the intent of the ACS. Treatments such as handpiling, fuel break construction, and jackpot and underburning at the moist end of the prescription are some alternatives that can be used to use to meet the requirements of the ACS.
Future underburning may be proposed in some planning areas within portions of Riparian Reserves. Any project proposal will be analyzed by an ID Team during the NEPA process. The team should include a hydrologist, fisheries biologist, botanist, silviculturist, and a fire specialist.
When treating fuels for hazard reduction purposes, determine if the hazard can be effectively alleviated without treatment occurring in the Riparian Reserve. Consider if the treatment can be practically undertaken without also occurring in an adjacent Riparian Reserve. An example of an ineffective treatment area would be where the steepness of the slope, aspect, and contiguous, heavy fuels were combined to make hazard reduction treatment difficult or impossible to implement without inadvertent treatment also occurring in a Riparian Reserve.
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Prescribed fires utilized to restore ecosystem function also restore diversity and complexity to a Riparian Reserve. These fires can provide large woody recruitment if planned and implemented carefully. In most instances duff, vegetation, and coarse woody material consumption should be kept to a minimum. Only limited ignition should occur within the Riparian Reserves. The fire should back into the reserve where a change in the micro- climate (higher humidity, slope, fuel moisture, and amount of fuel) or the weather produce a lessening of fire intensity. Due to the exclusion of fire from the ecosystem, a prescribed fire will not always behave as a natural fire. Some ignition within the reserve may be necessary as a method of controlling direction, rate of spread, and consumption.
In some circumstances measures needed to keep fire outside of a Riparian Reserve may be more destructive than allowing the reserve, or portions of the reserve, to burn. Under these circumstances, prescribed fires should be allowed to burn within the reserve. An effective method of reducing fireline construction is to allow the fire to back to a location where either the conditions change, preventing the fire from burning, or conditions change sufficient that the fire edge can be beaten out or a small “check-line” can be constructed. Factors that can reduce fire spread that are common to many Riparian Reserves are: reduced dead and down material, increased shade, increased humidity, increased live and dead fuel moisture, change of aspect, and change in slope.
Oregon white oak areas have developed with, and are maintained by, fire. These areas are also very wet areas that have a high number of ponds and intermittent streams. To achieve the desired condition throughout the area, implement prescribed fire.
Naturally ignited, prescribed fire for ecosystem maintenance and restoration should be allowed to burn within Riparian Reserves as fire historically did. These fires will be utilized to restore function and diversity to the ecosystem. Under a prescribed natural fire plan, a risk assessment and burn plan are completed. If there is good probability of success and the fire meets the objectives, the fire will be allowed to burn while being monitored. A wilderness fire plan is currently being prepared that will utilize natural ignitions.
Prescribed fire should not be allowed in Riparian Reserves under the following conditions:
When the effects of prescribed fire are likely to be inconsistent with the intent of the ACS.
When hazard reduction (reducing the fuel loading in and around an area of value) can be accomplished without treating the Riparian Reserve. Recognizing that in the event of a wildfire, the Riparian Reserve may be at greater risk than the surrounding treated area.
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When the hazard reduction cannot take place and maintain the coarse woody material, vegetation, duff levels, shade, or other components that are determined to be desirable by the ID Team for the proposed project.
When an ID Team has determined that the riparian area at a landscape level is degraded such that the Riparian Reserves are not functioning properly and may be further degraded by applying fire.
5) Are natural and management-ignited, prescribed fires in the portion of Boulder Creek Wilderness within the analysis area, consistent with wilderness management objectives?
A wildland fire resource objectives plan was being prepared for the Rogue, Umpqua, Winema, and Deschutes National Forest that would include the Boulder Creek Wilderness. This plan has been on hold due to lack of funds. This plan will allow fire to be returned to the wilderness only when a risk assessment has been completed and there is a good probability of successfully meeting objectives.
Recommendations
The wildland fire plan should be completed and implemented.
FOREST HEALTH
1) What constitutes a healthy, viable population of sugar, ponderosa, and western white pine at both the stand and landscape scale? Do current populations constitute a healthy, viable population?
Healthy, sustainable populations of pine depend on an appropriate mix of seedlings and saplings to augment established cohorts of mid-seral and late-seral pine throughout the historical range of the species within Copeland-Calf Watershed. At the watershed scale it is important to maintain components and processes to sustain pine health and vigor. A healthy population would be one that can co-exist with the natural fire regime for a given land unit area and maintain large tree structure components for two to four centuries of time. At the watershed scale, distribution is also a primary key to healthy species populations.
In the Copeland-Calf drainage approximately 20,000 acres (40% of the analysis area) had primary, historical pine cover that was greatly influenced by fire and had healthy and sustainable populations. Within the Copeland-Calf Watershed a healthy and sustainable western white pine
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis Chapter Five Recommendations and Answers to the Key Questions 203 population existed at the higher elevation flat between Limpy Mountain and Doehead Mountain. At the middle elevations both sugar and ponderosa pine were represented. At the lower elevation sites ponderosa pine and sugar pine were the main pine species. After over 50 years of fire exclusion there is not a healthy or sustainable population of pine remaining in the watershed. At the stand scale healthy pine populations depend on adequate growing space to maintain healthy crowns and vigor. Additionally, stand-level healthy pine will be mainly clear of any disease like WPBR, or will have developed a resistance to the disease.
2) What factors are affecting pine health?
The main factor affecting pine health seems to be fire exclusion, which has led to the establishment of abnormally high stand densities in historical pine areas. Ingrowth competition for limited site resources stress individual trees and leave them vulnerable to impacts from insects and disease. Both mountain and western pine beetle activity is closely correlated to above average stand densities. The introduced disease WPBR has been active in the watershed since around 1920. This disease has caused mortality on over 95% of the regenerating cohort, severely limiting future healthy five-needle pine populations of sugar and western white pine.
3) What management actions can improve the health and vigor of current pine populations? How can these actions approximate natural disturbance processes? How are these actions compatible with the LSR Assessment?
An active program targeted to retain healthy older pine and securing healthy conditions in younger pine stands holds the most promise for maintaining adequate pine populations over time. Individual trees can be treated in either older or younger stands. Fire, thinning, pruning, and planting are tools available to resource managers. Prescribed fire does approximate natural disturbance events when applied in prescription to match desirable burning conditions. Creating openings around selected individuals approximates small-scale disturbance consistent with natural processes, particularly when large trees are left surrounding a desirable pine tree. The prescribed activity is consistent with the LSR 222 assessment, which recommends basal area and clearing levels around pine trees in an attempt to maintain the species in the province. All proposed actions in Riparian Reserves will be analyzed in the NEPA process. Any action proposed in Riparian Reserves for pine health needs will be consistent with the ACS and its objectives.
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Recommendations:
At the landscape scale assure that historical areas have stand densities that support pine health, giving priority to areas where pine are the only large tree structure. Treatment priority should also be given to the Douglas-fir, Oregon white oak, and white fir plant series areas, particularly at low-mid elevations, and to the silver fir and white fir plant series at the high elevation flats. Main areas for pine health treatments within the Copeland-Calf Watershed are mapped (see Figure 24 in Chapter Four). Priority treatment areas for low elevations are the mapped earth-flow terrain to the west of Copeland Creek in sections 25, 26, 35, and 36 in T26S, R02E; and in sections 2 and 3 in T27S, R02E in Oak Flats, Little Oak Flats, Illahee Flats, and the Deception and Wilson Creek areas.
Limit basal area density around desirable pine by thinning stands or reducing competition through the use of prescribed fire. At the individual tree level provide for adequate clearings around selected individuals by clearing trees less than 24 inches dbh and shrubs from around the pine. At the stand scale, plant pine stock that shows resistance to WPBR. In the sapling and small tree sizes, practice active pruning to remove light-moderate infections of WPBR on limbs farther than 6 inches from the bole of the tree or remove the infected tree.
Establish an active program of running light fires periodically throughout historical pine areas after stand densities and current ladder fuels are reduced. Maintain historical pine areas with stocking levels less than 180 sq. ft. of basal area/acre. Plant resistant stocks of sugar and white pine whenever possible. Manage an active pruning program to eliminate light-moderate infection sources on pine trees already established in clearcuts and thin to give these trees adequate room to grow.
The South Cascades Late Successional Reserve Assessment (LSRA), for portions of LSR 222 in the Copeland-Calf Watershed, provides guidance for land managers on pine health. Both density management and prescribed fire are deemed appropriate treatments in stands with trees less than 80 years old. In table #53 (LSRA pp. 188-194) management of early and mid-seral stand densities around sugar and white pine are recommended to levels less than or equal to 140 sq. ft. per acre. Similarly, management levels for ponderosa pine are recommended to range from 120-180 sq. ft. basal area per acre, depending on moisture regime. In mixed species stands, vary density in species other than pine. Prescribed fire plan exemptions are listed on page 138 of the South Cascades LSRA.
For late seral or complex mid-seral stands with large sugar or ponderosa pine, the LSRA recommends removing competing vegetation near large pines under 24 inches dbh to the pine drip line, plus 20 feet. Priority should be given to areas where pine are the only large tree structure (particularly the white oak series). In situations where mortality risk is caused by trees >24 inches dbh, individual trees may be killed and left standing.
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4) What is the current condition of white oak habitat? Is there a management need to sustain healthy oak habitat? If so, what prescriptions should be implemented on a stand and landscape scale? Are these compatible with the LSR Assessment?
Historically, Oregon white oak habitat occupied only a minor percentage of the land base (<1%) within the analysis area. The oak plant series in LSR 222 totaled around 400 acres. They are considered important for providing diversity of meadows and unique habitat areas, which provide food and shelter for species more closely associated with pine stands. Currently, these important areas have been vanishing due to fire exclusion. In the past, white oak played a role in the Illahee Flats, Little Oak Flats, and the main Oak Flats area east of Copeland Creek.
Recommendations:
Implement active maintenance of openings using prescribed fire and/or manual or mechanical clearing. On the landscape scale, concentrate on the Oregon white oak plant series in LSR 222 and in meadows with tree and shrub encroachment.
Apply density reduction treatments around late-seral individual oak trees to reduce ingrowth competition that has resulted from the lack of natural fire. These actions are supported in the South Cascades LSRA on pages 149-150 in discussions on meadow and special habitat maintenance and also in discussions of pine management (pp. 144-147).
5) Are there current or potential insect and disease problems that could lead to landscape level changes in forest structure that could negatively affect LSR objectives? If so, what management actions should be undertaken to address the problem?
There are both insect and disease problems within the watershed that will negatively affect LSR development objectives. Historical stand conditions that were maintained by frequent, periodic, understory fires evolved with endemic levels of insect and disease activity.
Insects take advantage of overstocked conditions and blowdown to increase their populations. Today, the Douglas-fir beetle, mountain pine beetle, western pine beetle, and pine engraver beetles are active within the watershed. The Douglas-fir bark beetle has increased endemic populations to higher levels since the blowdown event of 1996. Scattered pockets of mortality are still occurring in small groups of from 4-25 trees, regardless of density conditions in Douglas- fir. In contrast, pine mortality is strongly correlated to stand density. High stand densities reduce pine vigor and increase attractiveness to bark beetles and pine engravers.
Disease is also a natural disturbance process at work within the analysis area. Management practices have negatively promoted an increase in disease activity through soil compaction, road development, species selection, and the lack of timber stand improvement projects. Laminated
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root rot has been extended by planting non-resistant stock within openings of the forest created by the disease. This has lead to localized species composition changes. Black stain root rot can be aggravated by leaving green thinning slash on the ground in the immediate vicinity of infected Douglas-fir for the root weevils to re-infect after emerging in the spring.
White pine blister rust has been devastating to seedling, sapling, and pole-sized 5-needle pine trees like sugar pine and western white pine. It has been present in the drainage since the early 1900’s. Currently it has killed, or will kill, over 95% of the regenerating 5-needle pine species. It does not kill larger pine, but will cause top and branch tip mortality on these larger individuals. Significant pine mortality will impact the functioning of the oak/pine habitat type by losing a key component of the ecosystem. All of the negative consequences may not be known concerning impacts to wildlife and stand development.
Recommendations:
The management of WPBR involves removing lightly infected cankers from sugar and white pine seedlings, saplings, and pole-sized trees where the infection is in the branches and over 6 inches from the bole. Trees with cankers already established on the bole are not salvageable. Damage can initially be limited by utilizing a pruning program on the 5- needle pine trees to attain a lift (remove the lower branches) over the immediate danger zone of infection within the first 8 feet of the ground. A second lift, up to 16-feet, may be desirable in areas with high levels of blister rust innoculum or in high hazard area zones.
Resistant trees should be planted in root disease pockets to establish conifer cover in those openings. For laminated root rot pockets less susceptible conifers like western hemlock, pine species, cedars, and immune hardwoods should be favored and species like Douglas- fir, white fir, grand fir, and mountain hemlock should not be planted. Concern about laminated root rot should be related to the extent and intensity of the disease in an area and to management objectives. Where cover is important, active management of the disease involves removing susceptible hosts from infection centers and creating 50-foot buffers. Follow this up with replanting of resistant species. It is important to note that the effects of disease pockets such as openings, diversity, and down and dead trees are often quite desirable if the affected area is not too extensive or contiguous.
Additional early and mid-seral stand guidelines for the management of root disease are listed on page 143 of the South Cascades LSRA. Specific guidelines are developed according to the age of the stand. In stands less than 25 years of age, thinning should be avoided if more than 10% of the area is determined to contain root diseased trees, unless root disease susceptible species can be discriminated against in favor of resistant species. Species with resistance to certain root diseases are also listed for interplanting or for selecting as leave trees in precommercial thinning disease pockets. In stands greater than 25 years of age do not conduct intermediate entries where root disease is present on more than 25% of the area.
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Black stain root rot can be kept from intensifying beyond its current level by minimizing site disturbance and carefully avoiding soil compaction from associated tractor logging. Other steps, like harvesting or precommercial thinning of young Douglas-fir, and road building and maintenance should be done between June 1 and September 30 when possible. Such measures will be particularly worthwhile in areas within one mile of existing black stain centers.
Pine densities should be managed to lower levels, as discussed in the above pine section, to avoid stress from dense competition. With adequate spacing and light (and monitoring for WPBR in sugar and white pine), pine health should improve in the watershed and the distribution and establishment of the species will be furthered, even without an active prescribed natural fire program.
6) Are current stand densities or species composition retarding the development of late- successional habitat? What age classes are being affected? Where and when should management occur to accelerate late-successional stand characteristics? What silvicultural treatments could be utilized to accelerate LSR characteristics, while approximating natural disturbance processes? How are these treatments compatible with the LSR Assessment?
Current stand densities and species composition mix are factors affecting the development of late-successional habitat. Harvesting patterns over the last 40 years have concentrated cutting on the rolling and flat terrain, which includes the pine country in the Copeland-Calf Watershed. Most of these stands were replanted with Douglas-fir at high densities and many have been precommercially thinned to again favor Douglas-fir and full stocking. Full stocking for Douglas- fir is generally adverse to vigorous pine health. The age classes most affected by past management are the early to mid-seral stands initiated over the last 40 years.
At first glance the ensuing development of these sites may appear to be healthy since the trees are thinned, green, and with generally full crowns. However, the mix of species is incorrect, given historical tree cover from that site. As previously stated, many of the young stands should also support a strong component of pine and intolerant species like incense cedar and hardwoods like white oak, Pacific madrone, and big-leaf maple. In some cases pine represented 10-40% of the original stand, where today it represents less than 5%. These stands are not currently on a trajectory to re-establish healthy pine cover across historic pine areas.
Another problem that retards the development of late-successional habitat on some Copeland- Calf riparian sites is overstocking. Riparian areas, which have been clearcut without stream buffers have been planted extensively with Douglas-fir. Though similar to Douglas-fir problems in pine areas, dense Douglas-fir cover acts to exclude native riparian conifers like western redcedar, grand fir, western hemlock, and Pacific yew. Hardwood species like dogwood, golden chinquapin, Oregon ash, red alder, big-leaf maple, and cottonwood are also displaced or reduced.
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As stated previously, root rot incidence can also affect the development of late-seral cover where large holes are created in a stand. In cases where disease incidence is noted on over 25% of the stand, commercial thinning entries are not encouraged so as to not re-activate the root disease pocket expansion. Areas in the stand outside of these larger pockets that are not thinned may not develop late-successional characteristics due to high densities. As stated previously, entry into older, root disease-infested stands to speed the development of late-successional characteristics may have an undesired, opposite effect unless resistant species are present.
High stand densities from ingrowth have negatively affected both mid-seral and late-seral stands within the watershed since the early 1900’s. While on the surface it looks as if these older stands in pine habitat have continued to develop old-growth characteristics, many of the stands are now multi-storied. Historically, they were mainly two-storied with small group openings maintained by regular and periodic underburning. The habitat present today in some of these mid-seral and late-seral stands is now designated as nesting, roosting, and foraging (NRF) habitat for the northern spotted owl. This habitat though, has a high fire risk due to ladder fuel concentrations from high stand density. Moreover, the continued lack of fire will continue to lead to additional insect mortality.
Density management rationale is listed on page 125 of the South Cascades LSRA. Both precommercial and commercial thinning treatments are viable silvicultural tools available to use to achieve stocking goals. In the South Cascades LSRA prescriptions designed to meet a desired future condition (DFC) are exempted from the Regional Ecosystem Office (REO) review because such projects have a high likelihood of benefiting late-successional forest conditions. Key elements in the prescriptions describe how the proposed treatment is needed to achieve the DFC.
Silvicultural treatment standards for commercial thinning within the South Cascades LSR are listed on pages 138-142 of the LSRA. Treatment standards address increasing diversity within relatively uniform stands by including variable spacing without simplifying structural components, and allowing for areas of heavy thinning and no thinning within these managed stands. Silvicultural treatment standards for precommercial thinning, release, and reforestation are listed in the LSRA on pages 123-124. Reduction of overstocking is recommended when current stocking levels will significantly delay reaching the objectives of late-successional conditions. Prescriptions for stands currently growing in the Copeland-Calf Watershed are supported by required growth modeling.
For more detailed local development guidelines, please refer to the white paper in Silvicultural Appendix B, titled “Analysis of Precommercial Thinning Densities within Late-Successional Reserve 222”, authored by District Silviculturist Rick Abbott. His analysis shows that development of late-successional habitat suitable for the northern spotted owl varied, depending on various spacing regimes in young stand stocking.
Heavily stocked, managed stands will not develop into late-successional habitat within 200 years without density management at 10-30 years of age. Precommercial thinning densities of 100-200 leave trees per acre optimize development of late-successional characteristics and dispersal and NRF habitat for the northern spotted owl over a 200-year window. Also, the need for additional entries is minimized.
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Management of riparian areas within managed stands should also address species mix during project planning. On the older managed stands (>15 years of age), releasing diverse species during precommercial thinning is desirable. The challenge in restoring good, late-successional riparian habitat is that historically, many of the stream segments were represented by an all-aged diverse stand, which is in opposition to the trajectory the stand is on today. The current trajectory is simplified to one age class with primarily one species, Douglas-fir. Passive riparian strategies may not be able to alter this course of development.
It should be noted that where younger stands or portions of younger stands are developing adequately, and are beginning to become valuable to late-successional species, such stands should be left untreated unless they are at substantial risk to large-scale disturbance. Thinning can easily remove structural components or impede natural processes such as decay, disease, or windthrow, reducing the value of the stand to late-successional forest species. Prescriptions that leave only the best, healthiest trees could eliminate structural components important to LSR objectives.
Recommendations:
It is imperative to match site expectations to site potential. On steep and dry sites objectives will not be the same as for young stands in gentle and moist landscape areas or for riparian forests. The potential future patch size, natural rotation age, and disturbance impacts should guide management direction despite inherent site problems with disease and insects. Various land units within the Copeland-Calf portion of LSR 222 will have different expectations for future structure and development time and young stand management needs to address these issues, for a fully-functional forest to develop.
Treatments likely to result in desirable future stand structure will use various combinations of spacing that include: unthinned patches, heavily-thinned patches, openings up to 1/2 acre in size, and moderately-lightly thinned areas (see pages 121-147 in the South Cascades LSRA for specific guidelines for project work and sideboards for their application). Thinning, to release already established stands with desirable diversity, approximates the natural disturbance process selection for these sites. Variable densities are also more closely aligned with natural selection and stocking processes. This should primarily occur in the early-seral, or younger mid-seral stands within the watershed. Where younger stands are developing adequately and are beginning to become valuable as late-successional species, defer treatment, unless they are at substantial risk to large-scale disturbance.
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The use of prescribed fire may be used in stands when the bottom of live crowns is above prescribed fire levels. This may not initially be available unless a pruning treatment is applied to secure a lift and the created fuel load compresses down after 7-10 years. Similarly, the use of prescribed fire may be available in thinning units after the created fuel loading has diminished. Managing for prescribed fire will naturally reduce stand density conditions.
Pruning treatments, specifically for pine health to eliminate WPBR, should be targeted to watershed areas rated to have high incidence of rust cankers or alternate hosts. It may be desirable to prune a certain number of trees per acre (e.g., 100 tpa) or to designate all “healthy” pine trees as needing treatment. Crown lifting is a natural process that proceeds under increasing overstory shade conditions. Pruning approximates this lifting in a one- year treatment. Managing for average pine density and health will naturally reduce stand density conditions.
Precommercial thinning treatments within riparian zones will augment species composition balance and variably thin areas to release desirable hardwood and conifer species along perennial stream channels. Riparian treatments should address inherited problems like compaction from ground-based harvesting, where practical or essential, to mitigate current accelerated overland flow due to poor water infiltration. Riparian treatments address the issue not only of stand density, but also of species composition, providing all-aged stands in the future where they historically were located on the landscape.
Where riparian development is naturally simplified in species composition and structure (upper reaches of the stream network in first, second, and third order streams) within intermittent stream areas, stand development should favor lower conifer densities to accelerate the development of large, fire-resistant trees on the landscape. Precommercial thinning of small pockets within selected riparian reaches is recommended to accelerate the production of large woody material trees for stream reaches void of a large wood component.
Snag levels and large woody material requirements should be addressed and provided for, to the level practically possible, during thinning operations. Girdling or inoculating trees are methods available to develop snags and future down woody material. These actions will further reduce stand densities.
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7) What reforestation needs currently exist within the watershed? In what situations do they occur? What reforestation prescriptions should be used to address these needs?
Currently, there are reforestation needs within the watershed. Though the units clearcut in the 1990’s have been replanted and seem adequately stocked, there are existing holes within young managed stands created by root disease or WPBR. It is recognized in the South Cascades LSRA that the large white pine component is generally missing and at risk within the high elevation sites between Limpy Mountain and Doehead Mountain.
Some stands have been planted exclusively with ponderosa pine in the lower reaches of the analysis area. Normal stand diversity is lacking.
Openings from fires will generally fill in without intervention unless seed sources are far removed from the edge of the burn. Where this is the case, replanting new burn areas may be desirable. As roads are decommissioned and other openings like erosion sites are restored, planting will be needed to effectively implement the project.
Riparian areas lacking native hardwood cover also have current reforestation needs. Hardwoods such as red alder, willow species, black cottonwood, big-leaf maple, and Oregon ash are integral to effective riparian functioning.
Oregon white oak cover in Oak Flats, Little Oak Flats, and Illahee Flats is diminishing. This is due primarily to conifer encroachment caused by fire exclusion.
Recommendations:
One main recommendation is to re-establish appropriate species on sites, which will be determined at the project level scale. To secure their re-establishment, stand management tools such as animal control, pruning, and release should be utilized when needed.
Active pine management is essential to providing fully functioning ecosystems within future forests. Prescriptions that provide planting pine on wider-than-normal spacing (i.e., 12 feet) should be employed. In mixed stands, vary density in species other than pine.
Avoid treatments where it would be likely to enhance non-native species or noxious plants by exposing mineral soil during periods of time when these species are establishing and expanding on the landscape.
Maintain native, nitrogen-fixing plants like the Ceanothus spp. and red alder wherever possible.
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Restoration efforts would be benefited through planting, as well as natural regeneration after fire reintroduction. This action would approximate natural disturbance regimes within the pine-oak habitat type. Areas that would benefit would be sites such as Oak Flats. Primarily hardwood species would be planted.
Native conifers, hardwoods, shrubs, forbs, and grasses can be planted to shade out undesirable, non-native species and provide soil stability to disturbed areas. Areas that would benefit would be landslide areas, obliterated roads, etc.
Utilize disease-resistant stock wherever possible in artificial reforestation efforts.
Additional Silvicultural Recommendations for the Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis area
Forest Health
Schedule treatments over the first two decades on the “hotspots” of forest health, which would include pine health and over-stocked stand conditions.
Manage the entire land base including the riparian areas where restoration and health needs can be addressed.
Schedule timely thinnings to maintain adequate growth and stand development.
Explore funding sources for all precommercial thinning needs in the LSR.
Silviculturally manage each landscape area according to the rotation length, patch size, desired structure, density and stand basal area range, and growing space allocations as listed below and in Table 33to attain DFC structure:
Uneven-aged Management (UEAM)
Apply individual tree and group harvest selection methods (from 1/2-5 acres) as the primary harvest prescriptions.
Manage all age classes (cohorts) during a stand entry, including precommercial thinning.
Monitor uneven-aged regeneration and sapling development at regular intervals.
A return cycle of approximately 20-25 year will be used, when possible.
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Use natural regeneration as the main reforestation method.
Treatments of riparian plantations should include thinning for compositional and size diversity, density reduction for accelerating large tree development, and interplanting native species, including hardwoods and shrubs, when possible.
Precommercial thin to moderate and moderately-wide spacing and retain stocking levels that are approximately ½ of what they would be for the same age, by species, in an even-aged system.
Table 33. Desirable criteria for mature stands within the Copeland-Calf Analysis area
D-fir O/S M/S U/S Stand Natural Stand Develop- (Layer1) (Layer2) (Layer3) Basal Landscape Rotation DFC Patch Density mental Growing Growing Growin Area Area Age in Structure Sizes Indices by Stages Space Space g Space ranges Yrs. Cohort %/Tpa %/Tpa %/Tpa /acre Max =570
LSR ML1 @ 342 (60% All-even max) 10-15% 350 aged w/ O/S=222 65-70% 15-20% Gentle/ w/550+yr multi- SI, SE, M/S =68 100-120 200- Moist residuals stories Larger UR, OG U/S = 51 25-30 tpa 40-60 tpa tpa 280 ML* @ 285 (50% max) 10-15% 150-200 All-aged O/S=200 70-75% 10-15% w/350 yr. w/ few SI, SE, M/S =43 80-120 160- Moderate residuals stories Med. UR U/S =42 35-50 tpa 40-60 tpa tpa 220 ML* @ Even- 256 10-25% 80-100 aged (45% max) 75-90% 0% w/250 yr. w/single O/S=205 15-30 120- Steep/Dry residuals stories Small SI & SE U/S =51 50-80 tpa 0 tpa tpa 180 ML* @ 342 Even-all (60% max) 15-25% 350 aged O/S=222 60-70% 10-15% High w/650+yr w/few SI, SE, M/S= 51 100-150 220- Elevation residuals stories Med.-Lg. UR, OG U/S =68 60-80 tpa 20-40 tpa tpa 300 1ML = Recommended Management Level. Long’s Stand Density Index Ratings (1986). Stand density index (SDI) levels indicate a relationship between the stand’s tree density and site occupancy. An SDI value of 35% is considered fully occupied with vigorous growing trees. At an SDI of 60%, the stand begins to show signs of suppression mortality from inter-tree competition.
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Overall Management guidelines for the four main landscape areas are as follows:
UEAM in Late-Successional Gentle/Moist would:
Limit removal to trees under 20 inches dbh, unless REO approval for larger trees is given.
Retain trees with characteristics of quality old-growth habitat, like cavities, forked tops, and large limbs.
Use UEAM with some group openings from ½-5 acres in late-seral stands that are at risk due to fire-prone conditions.
UEAM in Late-Successional Moderate would:
Create some group openings from ½-3 acres in late-seral stands that are at risk due to fire- prone conditions.
Continue to focus on pine treatments where historical pine distribution is documented. Create small group openings around pine and by thinning the surrounding stand in a doughnut-circle shape around that tree. Thin to low-moderate density levels (i.e., 120-180 sq. ft. basal area/acre).
Maintain complexity with two-storied stand structure (overstory and understory) components, concentrating on health.
Retain large-sized trees within the stand for fire resilience and genetic diversity.
Limit removal of trees to those under 20 inches dbh, unless REO approval for larger trees is given.
UEAM in Late-Successional Steep/Dry would:
Create some group openings from 1/2-2 acres in late-seral stands that are at risk due to fire- prone conditions.
Continue to focus on pine treatments where historical pine distribution is documented. Create small group openings around pine and by thinning the surrounding stand in a doughnut-circle shape around that tree. Thin to low-moderate density levels (i.e., 120-180 sq. ft. basal area/acre).
Minimize complexity by carrying a single-storied stand structure.
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Retain large-sized trees within the stand for fire resilience and genetic diversity.
Limit removal of trees to those under 20 inches dbh, unless REO approval for larger trees is given.
Precommercial thin to wide spacing.
UEAM in High Elevation would:
Utilize UEAM with some group openings from 1/2- 2 acres in size.
Focus on maintaining an adequate duff layer to retain site nutrients.
Complement Douglas-fir and incense cedar stocking with true fir and western white pine components.
Provide for the possibility of higher basal area retention due to fewer limitations for resources like sun and moisture.
Late-Successional Refugia Core Areas (Gentle/Moist Areas)
Management objectives should focus on maintenance of existing late-successional habitat, thinning plantations to accelerate the development of late-successional forests, removal of barriers (clearcuts, roads, and culverts), and large diameter wood placement.
The first priority should be to implement density management in plantations with greater than 275 tpa that are dense enough to prohibit or slow the development of characteristics associated with late-successional forests, such as large crowns, limbs, and multi-layers of understory vegetation.
The second priority should be on density management in younger plantations to maintain the current diversity of conifers, hardwoods, and shrubs that have established naturally on the site following harvest. These stands include the verified precommercial thinning stands and other stands clearcut since 1985. A mix of species and ages of native conifers and hardwoods is desirable to facilitate the development of late-successional cover in refugia areas. Once diversified, these young stands can help in the recovery of the various cutover refugia.
Thinning should be focused on larger blocks of older plantations that can direct stand trajectories toward late-successional habitat over contiguous landscapes, as opposed to scattered individual stands.
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Use variable thinning spacing to accommodate complex vegetative needs such as maintaining full live crown ratios, and developing large branch sizes and thick bark.
Thin to various levels at wide spacing(e.g., 50 tpa) in managed stands in refugia areas by utilizing areas of no treatment to compliment the main stocking prescription (from 100-200 trees per acre).
Release desirable hardwood and shrub components that exist in the stand.
Interplant shade-tolerant conifers such as western redcedar and hardwoods such as Oregon ash in riparian areas.
Maintain and/or develop intermediate layers.
Provide conditions to ensure success on natural regeneration of trees, shrubs, and forbs.
Utilize variable spacing, by species, that prescribes different levels of retention between the riparian and the terrestrial environments.
Where feasible, restore compacted soils on sites within refugia habitat to augment water infiltration where current and past harvest has altered soil conditions on over 40% of the site.
Place large diameter wood within riparian zones.
General LSR Landscape
Over the next 10-15 year period it is reasonable to assume that younger forest stands will need treatment in order to maintain stand vigor, adjust relative species composition rates, and promote proper tree crown development. On dry and warm environments variable spacing and less dense stands are desired, while on moist and cool sites even spacing and areas of higher tree densities are prescribed. Silvicultural treatments that will move the ecosystem back towards the desired condition in the general landscape are summarized below:
Design density management treatments to release a variety of conifers, hardwoods, shrubs, and forbs tailored to fit the site.
Place large wood within riparian and terrestrial portions of key areas identified by an ID Team.
Utilize uneven or species spacing precommercial thinning in the youngest managed stands in order to retain the highest amount of compositional and structural diversity possible.
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Interplant resistant tree stock in areas with root diseases or blister rust if maintenance of a closed canopy is desired. Balance this treatment with maintenance of open areas as described in the insect and disease recommendations.
Interplant riparian areas with native plants (including conifers) where the cover of native species is lacking or where non-native species invasion is occurring.
Slowly reduce stocking in areas of structurally unstable conifers where height/diameter ratios are greater than 90).
Prioritize treatments in refugia areas to create large blocks of habitat where possible.
Treatments to enhance water infiltration are recommended in moderate to severely compacted harvest areas.
Schedule work on higher site potential land, if possible, before work is done on areas with lower site potential.
Reduce the backlog of precommercial thinning needs. Accomplish this by treating stands as needed, within an area where density management is prescribed for the older managed stands in that area.
FISHERIES
1) Considering the management impacts to streams that have occurred, how can aquatic and riparian habitat be restored? What is the range of historic and current condition of aquatic and riparian habitats and how has land management affected them?
The range of historic and current watershed conditions and the effects of land management on aquatic ecosystems are described previously in Chapters 2 and 4 of this document. See Chapter Two for watershed characterization and Chapter Four for historic and current conditions.
Instream wood placement
One method of restoring aquatic and riparian habitat is the placement of large wood within the stream channel in places where it has been removed by past management practices. Logs can be placed to imitate natural wood delivery and accumulation processes within stream channel and floodplain areas. This would include the placement of single logs and accumulations of logs to simulate wood input events such as wind-throw and bank undercutting. Wood placement would
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis 218 Chapter Five Recommendations and Answers to the Key Questions also include the creation of accumulations of numerous logs or “jams” at tributary junctions and other channel “nick-points”. Logs used in jams would be keyed into large stable features such as large mature conifers, boulders, existing large wood, and bedrock outcroppings.
The stability and longevity of wood within stream channels is strongly linked to the size of the wood, its orientation to flow, and the percentage of the log that is in the active channel. The presence of rootwads and branches on trees also plays a role in increasing its stability, since these features increase the overall mass of the wood and increase its ability to “hang up”. The placement of logs and logs with rootwads attached via helicopter or ground-based equipment are two methods of wood placement. “Tree-lining”, or the pulling over of trees, would be another method for increasing the amount of large wood within stream channels.
Riparian Silviculture
The restoration of riparian vegetative conditions in second growth stands can be accomplished using a variety of silvicultural methods, as well as prescribed fire. Thinning (cutting), girdling, or inoculating trees with a fungus can be used to help reduce stand densities and encourage large tree growth within riparian areas. Similarly, prescribed fire can be used to help thin out understory components (where desirable) as well as thin barked tree species such as hemlock. In order to help restore species diversity within management created second-growth stands, thinning and release can be coupled with planting in order to help restore species diversity. This could include planting both native conifers and hardwood species.
The disposition of wood resultant from thinning should be dealt with on an individual stand basis. All proposed actions in Riparian Reserves will be analyzed in the NEPA process. Any action proposed in Riparian Reserves for restoration needs will be consistent with the ACS and its objectives.
Road Reduction and Improvement
The decommissioning and improving (upgrading) of roads can help reduce chronic and catastrophic sediment delivery to stream channels as well as help restore hydrologic function within a watershed. Road decommissioning is the removal of those elements of a road that reroute hillslope drainage and present slope stability hazards. Decommissioning can also include site preparation and revegetation of decommissioned areas. Decommissioning can range from simply restoring water routing and eliminating slope stability hazards, to full fill removals and hillslope re-contouring. Decommissioning activities would include a combination of oversteepened road fill and landing pullback, full culvert removals and stream channel restoration at road crossings, roadbed ripping, hillslope recontouring, erosion control, and revegtation of disturbed sites. The level of decommissioning on each road would be determined by an ID Team.
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Road improvements are focused on reducing sediment delivery to streams and improving hydrologic function within a watershed, while maintaining a drivable road surface. Road improvement activities would include installing waterbars and drain dips, installing stand pipes, placing splash aprons below culvert outlets, upsizing culverts, exchanging culverts for stream-simulation culverts or bridges, adding relief culverts, and pulling back over- steepened road fills and landings.
Monitoring
Once the above restoration activities have taken place, monitoring will ultimately be required to answer the Key Question “How can aquatic and riparian habitat be restored?” Only through monitoring and reporting of the findings can a determination of efficacy and efficiency in our restoration activities be determined.
Recommendations
Place large wood in streams that have reduced wood densities as a result of management activities such as stream cleanout and management related debris flows.
Prescribe thinning and planting activities in previously harvested stands adjacent to perennial streams in order to accelerate development of larger trees for stream shading and coarse wood. In thinned stands, assess the need for down wood on site, especially in floodplain areas. Assess the potential to use thinned trees for floodplain and instream wood placement, as well as upland restoration activities.
Complete a full road analysis. After completing road analysis and NEPA, implement results of road analysis to reduce risks to the aquatic environment associated with roads.
Monitor the above restoration activities in order to determine effectiveness and contribution to adaptive management.
Determine the need for continuing to stock Twin Lakes with brook trout, since they are naturally reproducing at this time.
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WILDLIFE
1) What wildlife species use the analysis area and which ones are at risk?
Of the 29 species of TES, S & M, and MIS reviewed, 19 had potential habitat in the analysis area. During the Characterization phase of the analysis in Chapter Two, the following six species were identified as having populations or habitat components at risk: spotted owl, harlequin duck, flammulated owl, white-headed woodpecker, Roosevelt elk, and black-tailed deer.
Recommendations
Management actions that can help maintain or enhance habitat for these species at risk include:
Maintaining existing spotted owl habitat while promoting development of future habitat. Any commercial thinning activity should be concentrated in the best growing sites and should use harvest prescriptions that avoid or minimize the loss of suitable NRF habitat.
Hastening development of dispersal and suitable NRF habitat by employing density management techniques in seedling and sapling stands. Give higher priority to better growing sites and stands that will develop interior habitat quicker.
Obtaining a better understanding of occupied spotted owl habitat and facilitating better land management decisions. This could be accomplished by revising spotted owl NRF habitat mapping using satellite imagery or stand exam data.
Better understanding spotted owl populations and trends by establishing and implementing a spotted owl monitoring program within the LSR .
Maintaining secluded harlequin duck habitat by avoiding new road development in potential harlequin duck habitat (remote riparian zones of major streams).
Restoring flammulated owl and white-headed woodpecker habitat by beginning to manage historic oak and ponderosa pine dominated sites (see Figure 29 in Chapter Four) as open forest habitat. Within these areas, employ vegetation management techniques to control competing conifers, control overall tree density, regenerate oaks, and restore historic fire disturbance patterns. Many of these activities have already been reviewed and exempted by the REO. In the event they are not, consider forwarding the project for future REO review.
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Minimizing loss of big game forage on winter range within LSR by using vegetation management techniques (including prescribed burning, seeding, planting, mechanical regeneration, fertilizing, etc.) to maximize desirable forage areas, while remaining consistent with LSR objectives. Forage enhancement is compatible with oak and ponderosa pine habitat restoration areas, as well as within natural openings.
Maximizing elk and deer utilization of decreasing amounts of available forage within the LSR by maintaining seasonal road restrictions around forage treatment areas.
2) How have changes in vegetation pattern altered habitat availability and wildlife populations?
Timber harvest and fire exclusion have resulted in decreased spotted owl habitat and a relocation and redistribution of mature, multi-storied forest habitat. Conversely, timber harvest has also increased edge habitat and the amount of available big game forage, producing enhanced elk and deer habitat conditions. Fire exclusion has resulted in the loss of open forest habitat favored by flammulated owls and white-headed woodpeckers.
Recommendations
Following the first, second, and sixth recommendations from Key Question #1 would help restore historical vegetation patterns and habitat availability.
Manage landscape patterns to restore patterns more consistent with natural patterns (e.g., larger, more contiguous land blocks).
Maintain and restore unique white oak habitat and revise oak habitat management area mapping as new information becomes available.
3) Are there barriers to wildlife movement patterns?
Natural and human-created barriers to movement of wildlife exist within the analysis area in many forms. Examples of natural barriers include such things as waterfalls to fish or fire created gaps in the forest for some late-successional species. Human-created barriers might include clearcut harvest units, highways and roads, stream crossing culverts, canals, and powerline corridors.
Movement of wildlife is an important ecological process that allows species to evolve and adapt in changing environmental conditions. Movement also allows recolonization of areas where they may have been previously displaced. One of the objectives of the ACS (ROD, B-11) is to restore
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connections, both terrestrial and aquatic, where they have been broken by past management activities.
This Key Question focuses on both aquatic and terrestrial connectivity for wildlife and summarizes the changes or disconnects that have been caused through past land management practices.
Recommendations
Recommendations that can be employed to begin restoration of aquatic and upland habitats include:
Utilizing the Road Analysis procedure to determine which road segments may be removed (decommissioned) from the system. Road decommissioning is the preferred remedy to reconnect the aquatic ecosystem. Try to reduce road density to less than 2 miles/miles².
When road removal is not feasible, use Stream Simulation Culverts (Bates et al. 1999) when replacing culverts for road maintenance or upgrades. Stream simulation is a design process to create natural stream processes within a culvert. Sediment transport, fish and wildlife passage, and flood and debris conveyance within the culvert are intended to function as they would in a natural channel. Culverts designed for stream simulation are sized substantially wider than the channel width and the bed inside the culvert is sloped at a similar or greater gradient than the adjacent stream reach. These culverts are filled with a boulder/cobble mix that resists erosion and is unlikely to change grade unless specifically designed to do so. This fill material is placed to mimic a stream channel and allowed to adjust in minor ways to changing conditions (Bates et al. 1999).
Stream simulation design culverts are usually the preferred alternative for steep channels and long culverts. Generally, the stream simulation design option might be applied in the following situations (from Bates, et al. 1999):
When new and replacement culvert installations are done.
For complex installations such as moderate to high natural channel gradient and culvert length.
When passage is required for all species.
When ecological connectivity is required.
The minimum culvert width is 6 feet.
The culvert slope does not greatly exceed the slope of the natural channel.
In narrow stream valleys.
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Placement of large wood along segments of streams/riparian areas in which large wood has been removed by past land management activities. Large pieces of wood span stream channels, connecting stream banks and increasing the connectivity of the Riparian Reserves for many terrestrial wildlife species. Large wood also provides a missing natural component that serves as food, shelter, and ecosystem productivity.
BOTANY
1) What Integrated Pest Management (IPM) options exist for treating documented and potential populations of noxious weeds throughout the analysis area?
Neither Districts nor the Forest currently have an EIS or other official document addressing the management of noxious weeds. Until a document is in place, herbicide use is not a management option. Current integrated management is based on inventory and early treatment using manual methods, competition by native species, and biological controls such as insects and pathogens.
Current management options specifically entail manual control such as lopping inflorescences on bolting plants. This method strategically aims to treat the plant when it has used up extensive amounts of energy on reproduction and is just beginning to set seed. Some literature has shown this to be an effective method when consistently used to treat large populations of many species.
Another manual control is hand pulling. This can become costly and time consuming, but usually meets desired conditions as entire populations are eradicated. Individual species biology must be considered when hand pulling because some plants have deep rhizomatous roots that can actually increase in numbers if the entire root is not pulled out.
Solarization is a process where noxious weeds are covered by strips of black plastic and deprived of sunlight. This method has been proven to work well on small, isolated patches just becoming established.
In all instances where noxious weeds are removed, consideration should be given as to what native species could replace the unwanted vegetation. This technique can become a method for treating noxious weeds in itself. Out-competing noxious weeds with native plants is an essential aspect of IPM.
Of the listed noxious weed species, Scotch broom, meadow knapweed, St. Johnswort, and rush skeletonweed are of particular concern. Each of these species has the ability to change patterns of succession. It has been observed in various meadows that St. Johnswort is currently altering successional patterns.
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Scotch broom is being treated both mechanically and with a biological control in the form of insects. Roadside inventories for the area are complete. Data from this effort is being used to identify management options on a site-by-site basis. Biological controls have the potential to reduce seed production significantly. They will not, however, eradicate the species. Best control options continue to be to treat small infestations via manual weed cutting and hand pulling efforts, while targeting large infestations with bio-controls. It is important with Scotch Broom that native plants are immediately established on the treatment site in order to out compete the new Scotch Broom plants that will try to re-establish.
St. Johnswort apparently was spread during grazing activities. It is present in nearly every meadow in the analysis area. Biological controls have proven effective at containing the species, except when populations are stimulated by fire. In some cases it may become the dominant species after a burn. This is of concern when treating meadows with fire. It is recommended that any treatment of unique habitat include efforts to resolve this concern. Some biological controls have elevational limitations, so other methods should be pursued in order to contain this species.
Meadow knapweed was planted in the early 1960's by the USFS for roadside erosion control and winter forage. It is an aggressive colonizer that has become widespread. Sites within the watershed area have been selected for preliminary field tests of biological controls of this species. The eventual goal will be based on the results of these tests. For small populations just getting established the bolting or solarization method and competition with native plants may prove effective.
Rush skeletonweed is infesting a plantation of 30 acres and approximately 30 years of age near the Oak Flats area. This is the largest site on the UNF and is a high priority. At this time no treatment is occurring at the site. This is due to the biology of the species that make it very difficult to treat. No biological controls are available and most manual controls severely increase numbers of the plants due to its vigorous re-sprouting nature. Funding is currently being sought to treat this population by increasing canopy coverage in the plantation to levels that would completely shade out the plant within about 15 years.
Recommendations
Continue programmatic efforts including:
Education of field personnel in identification and reporting of noxious weeds.
Stipulation requiring cleaning of earthmoving equipment in contracts for soil disturbing projects.
Inventory and evaluation of infestation in quarries, gravel storage sites, and waste dumps. Also, the establishment of a tracking system for monitoring movement of contaminated materials.
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Continuing inventory and assessment of new infestations.
Implement species specific management as follows:
Meadow knapweed: Establish biological controls and seek small sites to test manual controls. Monitor and document effectiveness.
Rush skeletonweed: The long-term solution is inter-planting the plantation with dense-canopied conifers to shade out plants and eradicate the population.
Tansy ragwort, Canada thistle, bull thistle: Continue monitoring biological controls already established and reinforce as necessary, particularly for tansy ragwort. Isolated infestations of tansy and Canadian thistle should be pulled.
St. Johnswort: Careful assessment of the use of prescribed fire in infested areas to prevent encouraging the species. Areas where dense St. Johnswort patches are changing succession in meadows could be treated with the bolting method, solarization, and out-competition.
Scotchbroom: Manual control of small infestations. Application and monitoring of biological controls on large infestations.
Himalayan blackberry: Inventory and use manual methods for treatment.
Japanese knotweed and Dalmatian toadflax: Detection surveys and adjustment of any management efforts, as necessary.
2) Is there a need for any unique plant community restoration within the analysis area? If so, what management options exist to accomplish this?
Currently the answer is unknown. Insufficient inventories have been conducted to adequately address this question. Recommendations (other than for an initial inventory) are assuming a need for unique plant community restoration.
Field checks conducted as part of the Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis indicate existing boundaries identifying unique habitat are highly inaccurate, particularly with regard to timber-meadow mosaic. Quantitative analysis of habitat restoration has not been undertaken on the UNF. Anecdotal information indicates that under some conditions native grasses are slowly making a comeback. Observations of unimpacted sites in the analysis area indicate that there is a need for improvement. However, few of the sites have been reviewed and little is known of potential response to restoration efforts.
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Recommendations
Inventory unique habitat throughout the analysis area including:
Ground-truthing of polygon boundaries.
Determination of habitat type using the key to Non-Forested Habitat on the UNF, written by the Forest Botanist.
Documentation of species composition, richness, and structure.
Documentation of sites that can be used as baselines.
Selection of sites best suited to facilitating preliminary testing of restoration techniques.
Identification of species appropriate to use in restoration efforts of the various habitat types.
Mapping of collection areas for seed of native species to be used in restoration.
Working with other disciplines like Wildlife, Silviculture, and Fire to create integrated strategies.
Define the goals of the native vegetation program, especially as it applies to the Copeland Calf Watershed.
Retain ecotone buffers around unique core areas, when possible and appropriate. Core areas are maintained by appropriate soil conditions (shallow, wet, rocky, etc).
Restore balanced species composition to areas compromised by grazing and non- native annual grass dispersal.
Prevent infestation by noxious weeds.
Facilitate re-establishment of cryptogamic crusts in hot, dry, shallow-soiled sites damaged by grazing.
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Undertake tests of experimental restoration treatment on selected sites. Re-evaluate the need for restoration based on outcomes. Restoration techniques to consider include:
Utilizing prescribed fire, realizing that any treatment of unique habitat with fire must include efforts to resolve the possibility of enhancing noxious weeds.
Seeding and planting (bare root, plugs, and containerized) with native species. A diverse mix of native species should have seed collected from them and used to replace native plants in unique plant communities. This is a very important step in restoring species like native bunchgrasses, which are fire tolerant and provide excellent forage, slope stabilization, and competition against noxious weeds.
3) What needs and options are there for rare plant habitat improvement within the analysis area?
In general the area has been too poorly inventoried for determination of rare plant habitat needs at this time. Early indications from the Spring Fire in 1996 demonstrate that Kalmiopsis benefits from light to moderate burning. Periodic monitoring of Kalmiopsis in other areas demonstrates a decline in vigor, however, evidence has not been quantified. Monitoring efforts and appropriate conservation plans should be established in order to maintain the health of sites within the analysis area. These sites are highly important to the continued viability of the species.
Many of the rare plants that are documented in the analysis area are known to occur within unique plant communities. Some sites may provide for botanical concerns as well as wildlife, silvicultural, and fire objectives. However, care should be taken to understand the biology of each plant so as not to propose prescriptions that may jeopardize populations.
Recommendations
Inventory the analysis area for rare plants.
Prioritize unique and mosaic habitats first since these provide the most likely habitats.
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Inspect known locations of rare plants to determine management needs and options.
Monitor the health and vigor of rare plant populations and determine if any habitat enhancement is necessary.
Work with professional botanists, plant ecologists, and interested members of the public to establish a collaborative, landscape scale inventory and monitoring project in the analysis area.
Continue monitoring Kalmiopsis in fire areas and establish a management plan for prescribed fire at other sites.
4) What options exist for botanical recreation opportunities for the public?
As interest in recreation rises so does enthusiasm for the local flora in the Umpqua basin. Considering this, it may be necessary for the USFS to begin programs that can interpret and provide guidance for interested public individuals and groups. Areas of botanical interest have been delineated and mapped (Figure 44 in Chapter Four), indicating where local botanists feel people could find wildflower viewing, unique plant communities, and other natural features that could provide recreation.
The botanical recreation opportunities for the public are extensive in the analysis area. Perhaps the greatest restrictive feature of this type of recreation is lack of available information. Botanical activities require not only knowing where to go, but when. The current Recreation Opportunity Guide (ROG) does not include pertinent botanical information. Information should be provided in the form of site profiles similar to existing ROGs.
Currently, efforts are being made for the creation of a web site to provide a medium for the dissemination of information on plants within the UNF. This will provide the public with information on flowering periods at different elevations.
The analysis area is a prime area for botanical exploration as the diversity of species is quite high and accessibility is relatively easy. Areas such as Twin Lakes, Illahee Flats, Oak Flats, Little Oak Flats and other unique areas provide the public with many choices for quality outdoor experiences. Botanical recreation occurs primarily along trails, although roads and unroaded areas provide opportunities. Walking allows discovery, inspection, and appreciation of the details of plants, as well as the larger-scale changes in flora and floristic diversity that come with moving through large areas. The features of the analysis area cannot be fully appreciated from existing trails. Consideration should be given to maintaining current trails and re-establishing historic trails to facilitate this. Connection to the Hemlock Lake area via Snowbird Shelter, the North Umpqua River corridor via Deception Ridge, and the Upper Copeland drainage via Twin Lakes Mountain, Doehead Mountain, Buckhead Mountain, and Raven Rock would provide a
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unique opportunity to observe the diversity in habitat and flora of the western slope of the Cascade Mountains.
Recommendations
Manage the analysis area to promote healthy and diverse native flora.
Maintain existing trails, unless adversely affecting other resource values.
Consider reconstructing portions of historical trails that tie into the Twin Lakes area, and nearby long distance routes. Decisions should be made in an ID Team environment.
Consider rebuilding the Deception Way Trail to extend from the current trailhead north of Twin Lakes, past the meadows at Hole in the Ground, to the North Umpqua Trail.
Consider rebuilding the trail across Twin Lakes Mountain, Doehead Mountain, and Buckhead Mountain, to Raven Rock.
Consider rebuilding the trail tie from Twin Lakes to Snowbird Shelter.
Consider rebuilding the BVD Trail from Twin Lakes North Trailhead to Raven Rock.
Continue efforts to establish a botanical recreation program that works in concert with existing recreation programs. Explore funding, partnerships, and opportunities to develop a recreation area that emphasizes native plant viewing in the watershed.
5) What are the known locations of Sensitive and Survey and Manage plant species within the analysis area? How much suitable habitat exists in the area that has not yet been inventoried?
Seven Sensitive vascular plant species occur within the analysis area. One S & M bryophyte has been located. The locations, based on species, can be observed in Figure 40 in Chapter Four. It is known that the analysis area is quite diverse from a rare plant perspective even though less than 5% of the available land base has been surveyed. Of the 5% that has been surveyed, about 3% constitutes high probability habitat for rare plants. The amount of high probability habitat that has been surveyed is estimated at about 10% of the amount that exists. This would leave an estimated 90% of high potential habitat unsurveyed. These numbers are very rough estimates.
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis 230 Chapter Five Recommendations and Answers to the Key Questions
Recommendations
Complete thorough inventories of high potential habitat for the seven known vascular plants and one known bryophyte.
Implement inventories of other species that are likely to occur and document the distribution accurately.
Continue Strategic Surveys for S & M lichens, bryophytes, and fungi in order to determine the diversity and distribution of these organisms in the analysis area, if appropriate.
6) What areas currently exist within the analysis area that could produce seed stock for use in vegetative restoration efforts in the watershed?
The watershed analysis area has had only limited inventories for native seed production areas. Within these limited areas, potential for blue wild rye (Elymus glaucus), California fescue (Festuca californica), red fescue (Festuca roemeri), and wild oat (Danthonia californica) have been evaluated. Potential collection sites for blue wild rye and red fescue were identified. There are many other species that can be expected to provide reproductive material. Big Deer Vetch (Lotus crassifolius) was observed along some roads in large quantities. This species from the pea family is excellent wildlife forage and fixes nitrogen into depleted soils. Serviceberry (Amelanchier alnifolia) is quite common in some of the lowland areas around meadows such as Oak Flats. Many of the common ceanothus species occur in abundance within the analysis area and could provide adequate quantities of seed stock for use in restoration of soil erosion, competition against noxious weeds, forage for wildlife, and various other needs. As remaining areas within the watershed are inventoried it is expected that more species and sites will be located to provide good quantities of seed and plant materials for use in restoration efforts.
When choosing potential areas to collect reproductive material from, several things must be considered. The site must be easily accessible. If a site is a great distance from a road it can be difficult and costly to collect effectively. Another consideration is the ecologic condition of the site. Areas infested with noxious weeds, non-local natives or hybrids should be avoided. Areas of high potential in the analysis area include the Oak Flats and Little Oak Flats areas. A complex of dry, south-facing meadows on the west side of Copeland Creek proved to have large amounts of prospective seed sources. Many of the meadow complexes occurring high in the headwaters of Calf Creek may be good potential collection areas.
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis Chapter Five Recommendations and Answers to the Key Questions 231
Recommendations
Inventory the watershed for good sources of reproductive material from individual species. Store inventory data on an Arc-View layer for both North Umpqua and Diamond Lake Ranger Districts to access. This will promote the creation of a reproductive material “bank” that can support restoration projects.
For reproductive material that does not store well, identify needs on a project by project basis and collect seed and plant material as needed.
Consider aspect, slope, elevation bands, and micro-site characteristics when determining where to collect seed.
Use caution so that no areas, especially unique plant communities, are over-collected from.
Use a diverse mix of species to ensure viability at the site level.
Avoid collecting in areas populated by noxious weeds, non-local natives or hybrids.
HERITAGE RESOURCES
1) Do we have sufficient information about heritage resources in the watershed?
Forty-two percent of the Copeland Creek drainage and 10% of the Calf Creek/Illahee Facial drainage had completed inventory surveys for heritage resources prior to the watershed analysis. These surveys are located in the eastern portion of the study area and along stream/river bottoms. A larger and more geographically balanced inventory would provide a better picture of activity areas within the watershed.
Archaeological evaluations are needed to determine site size and eligibility for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places. Archaeological information on sites within the study area is minimal. Further studies would provide information on the past life ways of American Indians who were using the area.
Data gaps exist in the historic, as well as prehistoric record. At least two known historic sites need recordation. Additional inventory of historic features are needed before all traces disappear.
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis 232 Chapter Five Recommendations and Answers to the Key Questions
Recommendations
Take advantage of funding for restoration projects in the study area to conduct more comprehensive surveys within the watershed.
Volunteers under the Passport in Time Program (PIT) could be used to accomplish surface inventory surveys in areas where restoration work is not proposed.
Consult with the Cow Creek, Grande Ronde, and Siletz tribes prior to making decisions to close any roads in the study area. This permits them the chance to comment and allows them the opportunity to exercise their right to maintain access to a traditional use site or area.
Explore opportunities to secure funding to reprint and scan photo collections that pertain to the study area to document activities and environmental conditions in the watershed.
Additional inventory of historic features are needed before all traces disappear. Take advantage of funding for restoration projects in the study area to document historic features in the watershed.
2) How does current and future land management affect heritage resources? How will these resources be preserved?
There are 88 recorded prehistoric sites, 57 recorded isolates/possible prehistoric sites, four historic sites, and an unknown quantity of yet to be discovered sites within the watershed. Most of the known sites were discovered as the result of project activity in the study area. Proposed restoration work within the watershed can be expected to impact known or unknown sites within the study area.
Prior to any ground disturbing activity being conducted in the watershed funding will need to be provided by the impacting project for Heritage surveys to evaluate proposed project activity impacts. If prehistoric or historic sites will be impacted by restoration activity, that project will need to fund a Heritage Site evaluation prior to disturbance.
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis Chapter Five Recommendations and Answers to the Key Questions 233
RECREATION
1) What recreational activities occur in the watershed and where do they occur? Are they decreasing or increasing?
Developed recreation site camping is one of the more popular recreational uses in the study area. This occurs in Eagle Rock and Boulder Flat Campgrounds, located in the North Umpqua River corridor. Developed overnight camping and white water rafting were analyzed in the Watershed Analysis for the North Umpqua River Wild and Scenic Corridor, published April 2001, and will not be analyzed here.
Dispersed site camping occurs at Twin Lakes, Illahee Flats Trailhead, and at other CUAs in the watershed. Many of these CUAs are used as hunting camps, while others are used as a place to camp and relax.
Hunting is one of the most popular recreational activities in the watershed. Use is concentrated primarily in the late summer through fall period, during the deer and elk seasons. Fishing occurs on a moderate basis, primarily in the North Umpqua River. Little fishing pressure occurs on the tributary streams.
Nation wide, driving for pleasure and viewing scenery are the number one recreational activity. While not the top recreational activity in the study area, it is one of the dominant uses.
Recreation use in the study area is generally on the increase. The demand for recreational opportunities is expected to continue to increase in the future.
Recommendations
Evaluate CUA campsites for impacts to Heritage and other resources. Explore possibilities to harden sites, where appropriate, and reduce site sizes to limit impacts to resources.
Maintain the same or similar number of camping sites available for public use. Before an identified site is closed to the public, contact the users of the site to identify alternate campsite locations.
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis 234 Chapter Five Recommendations and Answers to the Key Questions
2) What trails occur in the watershed? Are additional trails planned or are there historic trails that could be re-established? Will road closures provide opportunities for conversion to multi-use trails?
Eight trails are maintained within the study area. The North Umpqua Trail was finished in 1991. All of the other trails have been in place for 50 years or more.
One trail has been proposed on the south edge of the study area. The proposed Snowbird Tie Trail would connect Snowbird Trail #1517 with Twin Lakes Trail #1500. This trail actually is the reconstruction of a trail that appears on a 1918 USFS map. It would provide a trail connection between Twin Lakes and Yellowjacket Glade URMAs. Some relocation would be necessary because of later road construction. Another trail proposal would re-activate the old Grassy Ranch Trail from Illahee Flats to Illahee Lookout.
The study area did not have an abundance of historical trails. Most of the trails not still in use have been obliterated by road construction.
Recommendations
Secure funding for construction of the Snowbird Tie Trail to further enhance recreational use between the Yellowjacket Glade and Twin Lakes URMAs.
Explore the opportunity for multi-use trails in the southwest portion of the study area where roads were placed in the “Quandary” category during the ATM process. Historical trail locations could be combined with restored road locations and new trail construction to form a multi-loop trail system. Locations to examine would be in the areas of Cow Prairie, Snowbird Shelter, Cinderella Springs, and the confluence of Calf Creek and Twin Lakes Creek.
Explore funding for reconstruction of the BVD and Copeland Trails to bring them up to standard.
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis Chapter Five Recommendations and Answers to the Key Questions 235
3) To what extent will road-dependent recreation activity in the analysis area be impacted by the results of road analysis?
A complete and full road analysis was not completed in this watershed analysis process. The result of the ATM process resulted in recommendations of how to treat road segments. Impacts to the road dependent recreation activity could not be determined.
Recommendations
Conduct a road analysis complete with input from the recreating public that use the study area to determine what, if any, impact will occur from road closures and other restoration work.
4) Which roads do the recreating public frequently use? Which roads will the public consider high priority to keep?
A complete and full road analysis was not conducted in this watershed analysis process. The ATM process resulted in recommendations of how to treat road segments. Results of the ATM plan can be found in Appendix F.
Recent traffic count surveys were not available for roads within the study area. Public input to determine which roads were high priority for recreation use was not solicited.
Recommendations
Conduct a road analysis complete with input from the recreating public that use the study area to determine what roads are used for recreation on a regular basis.
Conduct traffic count studies on all four-digit roads and spur roads over one mile in length within the study area to determine where recreating vehicle use is occurring.
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis 236 Chapter Five Recommendations and Answers to the Key Questions
ADMINISTRATIVE
1) What administrative uses occur in the watershed? Where do they occur?
There is one administrative facility located in the study area. That is the Doehead radio repeater, located on the southern boundary of the watershed. This repeater is used in the USFS radio system for safety and operations.
The other major administrative use occurs on roads in the study area. These roads are used to gain access to the various resources throughout the watershed for fire protection, recreation administration, road maintenance, restoration activities, species monitoring and management, etc.
Recommendations
Maintain those roads necessary for access to administrative sites and for safe, long-term management of all resources.
2) How many activities occur under the Special Use Permit authority? Where do they occur?
There are five types of activity that are under permit within the study area. Permits have been issued for power line corridors, telephone line corridors, water line and road easements, and road use to private property. Most of this activity is located within one mile of the North Umpqua River corridor.
Recommendations
Maintain those roads necessary for access to Special Use permitted sites and for safe, long- term management of all resources.
3) How many private in-holdings are present in the watershed and where are they located? Do they have road access now or will they need it in the future?
Five parcels of private land exist within the study area in the vicinity of Dry Creek (see Figure 2 in Chapter Two). These are located along Highway 138 and on Forest Service Roads 4760, 4760-030, and 4770-080. Four of the parcels have road access suitable for passenger cars. The Davis Ranch property has road access for high clearance vehicles only and could conceivably request better access some time in the future.
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis Chapter Five Recommendations and Answers to the Key Questions 237
Recommendations
Continue to maintain Roads 4760, 4760-030, 4770, and 4770-080 to provide access to private property under the easements.
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis
Chapter Six List of Preparers 239
CHAPTER SIX
LIST OF PREPARERS ------
Rick Abbott --- District Silviculturist/District Study Coordinator
BS Forest Management, Penn State University, 1978 Forest Engineering Institute, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, 1990 Five seasons USFS Presale, Fire, and Silviculture experience One year USFS presale experience Three years Bureau of Indian Affairs timber sale administration experience Ten years USFS timber sale planning experience
Jim Archuleta – District Soils Scientist
A.S. Natural Resources, Haskell Indian Nations University, Lawrence, Kansas, 1997 B.S. Crop and Soil Science, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, 1997 Conservationist Trainee, NRCS, Franklin County, Kansas, 1994 Soil Science Trainee, Umpqua N.F., Roseburg, Oregon, 1995-1997 Soil Scientist, Diamond Lake R.D., Umpqua NF, Toketee, Oregon, 1997-Present
Joy Archuleta --- District Hydrologist
A.S., Saint Thomas Aquinas University, Fishkill, NY, 1993 B.S. Biology, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas, 1995 M.S. Environmental Soil Science, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 1998 Hydrologist Trainee, Umpqua National Forest, Roseburg, Oregon, 1997-1999 Hydrologist, North Umpqua Ranger District, Umpqua National Forest, Glide, Oregon, 1999-Present
Alan Baumann --- Forester
B.S. Forest Management --- Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, 1979 Forest Technician -Big Bar R.D., Shasta-Trinity N.F., Weaverville, California, 1977-1979 Forest Research Assistant --- F.I.R. Program Medford, Oregon, 1979 Forest Technician --- Steamboat R.D., Umpqua N.F, Idleyld Park, Oregon, 1980-1983 Forest Technician --- North Umpqua R.D., Umpqua N.F., Glide, Oregon, 1983-1992 Forester --- North Umpqua R.D., Umpqua N.F., Glide, Oregon, 1992-Present
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Jeff Bohler --- District Wildlife Biologist
B.S. Wildlife Management, University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point, 1984 Forestry Technician, Gunnison National Forest-Taylor River R.D., 1984 Wildlife Technician, Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, 1985-1987 Fisheries Technician, Alabama Department of Game and Fish, 1987-1988 Biological Technician, Fremont National Forest, Silver Lake R.D., 1988 Wildlife Biologist, Malheur National Forest, Bear Valley & Long Creek R.D.s, 1988-1990 District Biologist, Colville National Forest, Kettle Falls R.D., 1990-1994 District Biologist, Arapaho-Roosevelt National Forest, Clear Creek R.D., 1994-1995 District Biologist, Colville National Forest, Republic R.D., 1995-1999 District Wildlife Biologist, Umpqua National Forest, Diamond Lake R.D., 1999-present
Wayne Brady --- District Lead Heritage Resource Technician District Resource Technician, Recreation, Minerals, Special Uses
A.S. Forestry, Umpqua Community College, 1969 Forest Service Cultural Technician Certification, 1976 &1994
Lawrence D. Broeker --- Umpqua N.F. Geologist
B.A. Geology, University of Montana, Missoula Montana, 1972 Certified (USFS) Minerals Examiner, No. 037 Mining Geologist, South Idaho Zone Minerals, Boise, Idaho, 1986-1990 Geologist, Umpqua N. F., Roseburg, Oregon, 1990-Present
Ray Davis --- District Wildlife Biologist
B.S. Fisheries and Wildlife Sciences. New Mexico State University, 1991 Co-Op Education Student and Scholarship. Waldport Ranger District, Siuslaw National Forest, Waldport, OR, 1989-1991 District Wildlife Biologist, Waldport Ranger District, Siuslaw National Forest, Waldport, OR, 1992-1995 District Wildlife Biologist, North Umpqua Ranger District, Umpqua National Forest, Glide, OR, 1995-Present Wildlife Habitat Management Short Course, Virginia Polytechnic and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia, 1999 Wildlife Habitat Management Short Course - Instructor, Virginia Polytechnic and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia, 2000
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis Chapter Six List of Preparers 241
Clint Emerson --- District Botanist
Field Technician (Plants), NRCS-Plant Material Center, Corvallis, OR, 1996 B.S. Botany/Plant Pathology-Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, 1997 Biological Technician (Plants), Tiller R.D., Umpqua NF, 1997 & 1998 Botany Consultant, David Evans & Assoc., Portland, OR, 1998-1999 Botanist, Diamond Lake R.D., Umpqua NF, 1999-2000 District Botanist, Diamond Lake R.D., Umpqua NF, 2000-present
Rick Golden – District Fisheries Biologist
B.S. Fisheries-Utah State University, Logan, Utah, 1987 M.S. Pharmacy - Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, 1992 Laboratory Technician, Utah Water Research Laboratory, Logan, Utah, 1985-1986 Fishery Biologist, Red River R.D., Nez Perce N. F., Elk City, Idaho, 1992-1995 Fishery Biologist, Diamond Lake R. D., Umpqua N. F., Toketee, Oregon, 1995-Present
Glenn Harkleroad --- District Fisheries Biologist/Watershed Analysis Teamleader
B.S. Aquatic Ecology- Humboldt State University, Arcata, California Fisheries Biologist, North Umpqua R. D., Umpqua N. F., Glide, Oregon, 1992-Present
Jill Napper – Diamond Lake Ranger District District Fire/Fuels Planner
A.S. Forest Technology, Lane Community College, Eugene, Oregon, 1985 A.A.S Data Processing/Computer Programming, Lane Community College, Eugene, Oregon, 1987 Certificate of Completion of Technical Fire Management, Washington Institute and Colorado University, 1992 Seventeen years experience in Fire Management on the Umpqua National Forest
Greg Orton --- District Soils Scientist
A.S. Recreation and Natural Resource Management, King River Community College, Reedley, California, 1978 Wilderness Soil Mapping, Sierra and Inyo National Forests, 1987-1988 field seasons B.S. Soil Science, California Polytechnic University, San Luis Obispo, California, 1990 Soil Scientist, North Umpqua Ranger District, Glide, Oregon, 1990-present
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis 242 Chapter Six List of Preparers
Angie Snyder – District Heritage Program Manager
B. A. History, Humboldt State University, Arcata, California, 1979 Certificate of Completion of REC 7, Cultural Resource Technician Training, 1989, 2001 Presenter of “A C.R.T. Example” portion of this training session, 1993, 1994, 1995, 2001 Completion of Archaeological Resource Protection Act Training, 1994 Seven years cultural resources damage assessment experience Programmatic Agreement Training, 1995 Attendance at REC 9, including Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act Training, 1996 Excavation Experience: Annually, 1994-present 15 years USFS experience, 12 years USFS cultural resources experience, 9 years program management
Craig Street --- District Biological Sciences Technician, Watershed Analysis Writer/Editor
A. S. Fisheries Technology, Mt. Hood Community College, Gresham, Oregon, 1980 Four years Silvicultural and Fire experience, Steamboat R.D., Umpqua N.F., Steamboat, Oregon, 1980-1983 Four years experience USFWS, Little White Salmon National Fish Hatchery, Cook, Washington, 1984-1987 Thirteen years experience in Silviculture, Fire, Fisheries, Hydrology, Wildlife, and Genetics, Diamond Lake Ranger District, Umpqua N. F., Toketee, Oregon, 1988-Present
Mark Tacheny --- District Civil Engineering Technician
A.S. Land Surveying and Civil Technology, Dunwoody Industrial Institute, Minneapolis, MN, 1980 Five years Biological Technician, Plants, USFS PNW, Forest Science Laboratories, 1991- 1996 B.A. Economics, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, 1993 M.S. Natural Resources Management, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, 1996. Ten years Civil Engineering Technician. USFS Superior N.F. 1981-1983, Tongass N.F. 1983-1991 Three years Forestry Technician, Silviculture. USFS Clearwater N.F., 1996-1999 Two years Civil Engineering Technician, Diamond Lake R.D., Umpqua N.F., Toketee, OR, 1999-Present
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis Chapter Six List of Preparers 243
Lisa Wolf --- District Botanist
B.A. Practice of Art, Mills College, Oakland California, 1977 Four years Floristic Diversity and Plant Ecology Field Studies, Western United States, 1980 --- 1989, 1998 Graduate Studies, Vascular Plant and Bryophyte Systematics, University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon 1986- 1987, 1995 Graduate Studies, Vascular Plant Systematics and Plant Ecology, Southern Oregon College, Ashland, Oregon 1991, 1993, 1994 Undergraduate Studies; Lichen Systematics, Umpqua Community College, Roseburg, Oregon, 1993-94 Graduate Studies, Lichen Systematics, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, 1996 Eleven years USFS Botany experience: Siskiyou and Umpqua National Forests 1989-1999, 2000-2001
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis 244 Chapter Six List of Preparers
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis Chapter Seven List of References 245
CHAPTER SEVEN
LIST OF REFERENCES ------
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Beckham, S. D. 1986. Land of the Umpqua, A history of Douglas County, Oregon. Douglas County Commissioners, Roseburg, Oregon.
Black, M. July 2001. Personal communication with District Wildlife Biologist Jeff Bohler.
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Duncan, Robert A., and LaVerne D. Kulm 1989. Plate tectonic evolution of the Cascades arc- subduction complex; In Winterer, E.L., D.M Hussong, and R.W Decker, editors. The Eastern Pacific Ocean and Hawaii. Boulder, Colorado, Geological Society of America, The Geology of North America, N:413-438.
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CHAPTER EIGHT
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ------
ACS Aquatic Conservation Strategy Alec Ancient landslide-earthflow complex ATM Access and Travel Management Avf Alluvial valley floor (floodplains and terraces) BLM Bureau of Land Management BMP Best Management Practice(s) C Celsius CCC Civilian Conservation Corp CFR Code of Federal Regulations Cfs Cubic feet per second CHU Conservation Habitat Unit Cm Centimeter Copco California-Oregon Power Company CUA Concentrated Use Area CVS Current Vegetation Survey CWM Coarse Woody Material Dbh Diameter at breast height (4.5 feet) º Degrees DEQ Department of Environmental Quality DFC Desired Future Condition Dlec Dormant (inactive) landslide-earthflow complex DO Dissolved Oxygen DTM Digital Terrain Model EA Environmental Analysis EIS Environmental Impact Statement EPA Environmental Protection Agency Et al. And others F Fahrenheit FEMAT Forest Ecosystem Management Assessment Team FERC Federal Energy Regulatory Commission FSEIS Final Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement FSH Forest Service Handbook FSM Forest Service Manual FY Fiscal year G/cm3 Grams per cubic centimeter GIS Geographic Information System GLO General Land Office Gms Gentle-moderate gradient sideslopes HRP Hydrologic Recovery Procedure
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HUC Hydrologic Unit Code Ig Inner gorge ID Inter-Disciplinary IPM Integrated Pest Management IVMP Interagency Vegetation Mapping Project KV Knutson-Vandenberg Act of 1924 Lfbt Lava flats, benches, and tablelands LRI Land Resource Inventory LRMP Land and Resource Management Plan LSR Late-Successional Reserve LSRA Late-Successional Reserve Assessment LWD Large Woody Debris M Meters Ma Million years ago Mbf Thousand board feet Mg/l Milligrams per liter Mmbf Million board feet MOU Memorandum of Understanding M.p. Mile post N Natural occurring NEPA National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 NFP Northwest Forest Plan. 1994 Record of Decision for Amendments to Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management Planning Documents Within the Range of the Northern Spotted Owl NRCS Natural Resources Conservation Service NRF Nesting, roosting, foraging habitat ODA Oregon Department of Agriculture ODEQ Oregon Department of Environmental Quality ODFW Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife ODOT Oregon Department of Transportation PAG Plant Association Group PAOT People at one-time PAYCO Payment to Counties PB Protection buffer pH Symbol for the degree of acidity/alkalinity of a solution PIT Passport in Time PMR Pacific Meridian Resources PNW Pacific Northwest Qls Landslide deposits QTba Basalt of Toketee – basalt and basaltic andesite lava flows R Road related RA Road Analysis REO Regional Ecosystem Office ROG Recreational Opportunity Guide ROS Rain-on-Snow
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis Chapter Eight Acronyms and Abbreviations 255
R3E Range 3 East SDI Stand Density Index S & G Standards and Guidelines S & M Survey and Manage SO Supervisor’s Office SRI Soil Resource Inventory Ss Steep gradient sideslopes T Timber harvest related TDS Total dissolved solids TES Threatened, Endangered, Sensitive Thi Hypabyssal (shallow-seated) intrusive – basalt and basaltic andesite Tpa Trees per acre Tsv Silicic vent complex – dacite and rhyodacite lava flows, tuff and volcanic breccia of the Little Butte Group T25S Township 25 South Tu Undifferentiated volcanic and sedimentary rocks of the Little Butte Group Tub Undifferentiated basalt and basaltic andesite lava flows, tuff and volcanic breccia of the Little Butte Group Tus Undifferentiated tuffaceous sedimentary rocks of the Little Butte Group Tut Undifferentiated welded and non-welded ash-flow tuff of the Little Butte Group UEAM Uneven-aged Management UPAD Umpqua Project Activities Database UNF Umpqua National Forest URMA Unroaded Recreation Management Area USDA United States Department of Agriculture USFS United States Forest Service USFWS United States Fish and Wildlife Service USGS United States Geological Survey WEPP Water Erosion Prediction Model WPBR White pine blister rust
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis 256 Chapter Eight Acronyms and Abbreviations
Copeland-Calf Watershed Analysis