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Home , Canaan, Jerusalem, Palestine (region)

Tawfik : His Life and Works* Khaled Nashef

Tawfik Canaan was a physician, an author, an advocate for the Palestinian cause, and a prominent scholar who is little known outside specialized circles. graduated from medical school in 1905 and immediately began a career in which he occupied medical and administrative positions in several -area hospitals and clinics until his retirement at age 75. Canaan was a prolific writer. In 1914, at age 32, he published in German his first book, entitled Superstition and Popular Medicine in the Land of the .1 He also authored more than 37

* Khaled Nashef is director of the Palestinian Institute of at University, . This article was translated from by Khalil Sleibi. 1 From here abbreviated as "Superstition and Popular Medicine." The present article is an abridged version of its counterpart in Arabic, published in Majallat ad-Dirasat al-Filastiniyya(h) 50 ( 2002), pp. 69- 91. The reader is referred to the latter for extensive notes and bibliography, and to the electronic version of JQF. 12

Spring.p65 12 13/09/23, 01:31 ã medical studies in his field of conformity in much of the information. specialization, tropical medicine; and in Neither biographer seems to have bacteriology, particularly malaria; and in benefited from the obituary placed by other topics, such as leprosy, tuberculosis, Bishop Daud Haddad in 1964 or to have and health in Palestine. In 1932, his name consulted what Canaan himself wrote. and a synopsis of his life were included in Furthermore, references to Canaan in a book published in Germany under the sources outside the fields of medicine and title, "Famous Doctors in Tropical folklore were not considered. These are Medicine" by Dr. G. Olpp, who was the crucial omissions. director of the -known medical center More recently, the biographical for tropical medicine in the of information on Canaan was enriched. A Tübingen. catalog was published in Arabic and Canaan had interests outside the field of English on the occasion of an exhibition medicine. He was keenly interested in organized by at the end Palestinian folklore, popular beliefs, and of October 1998 under the title, Ya kafi, ya superstitions. He collected a prodigious shafi ...The Tawfik Canaan Collection of number of amulets and produced more Palestinian Amulets: An Exhibition. than 50 articles in English and German on Unfortunately, this catalog was not widely folklore and superstition. Beyond that, distributed, and some of the information in Canaan wrote two books on the Palestine it was brief and incomplete. problem. They reflected his involvement This article aims to present a new and in confronting British imperialism and thorough survey of Tawfik Canaan's life , and thus prompted the British that draws not only on information Authorities to arrest him in 1939. contained in primary sources, but also on inference from sources that are not Previous Biographies directly related to Canaan, such as diaries Tawfik Canaan lived the Palestinian and memoirs by Palestinian celebrities of tragedy since its beginning. As a the period. distinguished physician in Jerusalem before 1948, and later as the director of Childhood and Youth the Augusta Victoria Hospital, he enjoyed Tawfik Canaan was born in on an eminent status in Palestinian society, September 24, 1882, the second child of particularly in Jerusalem. Given his Bechara Canaan and Katharina Khairallah. stature, it is surprising that Canaan's After completing his elementary school, biographies were brief and in many cases Tawfik, like his father before him, was limited. Before 1998, two biographical enrolled in Schneller School, where he articles on Canaan were available. The completed his secondary education from first was written by the well-known the Teacher's Division (Seminar). In 1899, biographer Ya'qub Al-'Awdat in 1971, and he went to to study medicine at the the second was written by Yesma, Syrian Protestant College (now known as Canaan's daughter, in 1981, and was the American University of Beirut). published in the journal Society and Shortly after he arrived in Beirut, his Heritage (al-Bireh). A comparison father died from pneumonia. This put him between the two articles reveals in a very difficult situation. The family

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Spring.p65 13 13/09/23, 01:31 ã which was later reflected in his writings such as the article entitled, "Plant-lore in Palestinian Superstition," published in 1928. Faith and learning were givens in the Canaan household. The impact of the family and early upbringing remained strong in the children throughout their lives. Tawfik says, "At all stages in our lives, we the children carried a deep sense of the family blessing." Tawfik Canaan graduated with honors from the medicine school in 1905, and he delivered the graduation speech on June 28, 1905. Entitled "Modern Treatment," his speech was published in Al-Muqtataf - seemingly to have been his first published piece. In it, he touched on the medical use of serums, animal organs, and X-rays. The Beginning of Canaan's Tawfik Canaan and Margot Eilender Professional Life Jerusalem 1912 Work had increased at the German Photo credit: Birzeit University Archive Hospital (German Hospital) was poor and depended on the salary in Jerusalem in 1904, and there was a need earned by his sister Lydia, a teacher, and to appoint an assistant doctor. The hospital the pension his mother received for her offered Canaan the before he deceased husband. Tawfik started giving graduated. He started his work in the private lessons and doing other work at the summer of 1905 under the supervision of university to supplement his income. hospital director Dr. Grßendorf, a brilliant Bechara left a strong impact on his son, surgeon. Canaan notes in his diary: but we do not know the mother's impact "Dr. Grußendorf was a skillful surgeon, on him. Tawfik says the following about and I learned a working under him. In his father: "We used to go with my father order to gain as much scientific on short and long trips all over the country knowledge as possible, I worked a in order to acquainted with the country minimum of nine hours a day. Because of and the people. This continuous contact this, I could not open a private clinic with the people nurtured in all of us, and during that period."3 In 1906, Dr. particularly in me, love for the country Grußendorf went with some of the and the people. This feeling of belonging deaconesses on vacation and asked and unshaken loyalty remained with me Canaan, together with Dr. Adolf Einszler, till this day."2 Maybe these trips explain to assume the medical administration of his knowledge of nature in Palestine, the hospital as a shift physician.

2 Abdullah 1998, p. 17. 3 Schwake 1983, pp. 323-324.

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Spring.p65 14 13/09/23, 01:31 ã After Canaan's appointment at the German 'Ajloun, Houran, and Al-), which Hospital, the hospital's capacity increased witnessed a deterioration and negligence from 5,749 to 11,110 patients. And because in agriculture starting from the Ayyubid physicians were scarce in Jerusalem at the Period, and particularly during the outset of the twentieth century, it was Ottoman period, was doing much better in common practice for physicians to seek the recent times. It is obvious from reading help of their colleagues to carry out specific the article that Canaan (and with him, duties or to act as hospital administrators in most probably, the original audience) was their absence. In 1906, Shaare Zedek concerned about the poor state of the Hospital (The German-Jewish Hospital) Palestinian peasants after centuries of sought the help of Canaan as manager, most exploitation and negligence. This probably because Dr. Grußendorf was negligence led to the deterioration of the departing for Germany for a period of eight agricultural land and terraces, despite the months. The hospital director, Dr. Moritz fertility of the land and its potential for Wallach, was also in Germany to promote exploitation if modern means had been the newly established hospital. Yesma used within the framework of a Canaan mentions that her father also comprehensive economic policy. worked for two periods of six months each Canaan's ideas on agricultural potential at "The English Hospital" that belonged to were influenced by experiments the Anglican "London Jewish Society" for performed in Palestine, particularly by the missionary work among , but she does German (Templar) colonies. Canaan urged not give specific dates. It was no wonder to learn from their that Canaan would, from time to time, work experiments and also to imitate Jewish at the English Hospital, because its capacity colonies (even though he also took a increased remarkably between 1902 and negative attitude toward them, describing 1912. them as "wholly depending on the contributions of wealthy Jews").4 Canaan the Researcher: Despite the article's shortcomings, it The Beginnings remains a basic reference on the In 1909, Canaan's first long article was development of agriculture in Palestine published in the geographical journal and a good diagnosis of its condition. In Globus. The article, entitled "Agriculture this first article outside the field of in Palestine," was a translation from medicine, Canaan establishes himself as a Arabic into German of a lecture delivered well-versed researcher in the field of so- by Canaan on , 1909. called "Oriental Studies." It is noticeable Unfortunately, the occasion on which the that he quotes not only the familiar names lecture was delivered is not known, but the of his age, such as Schumacher, Bauer, subject matter gives us an idea about the Guthe, Burckhardt, and others, but also intellectual and political atmosphere that classical sources, such as and prevailed in Palestine on the of the , as well as Arab sources like collapse of the . The basic Mujeer ad-Din. The article demonstrates idea of the article is that Palestine (by Canaan's interest in the future of his which Canaan meant the West and East Bank of , and includes the Golan, 4 Canaan 1909, p. 286. 15

Spring.p65 15 13/09/23, 01:31 ã country by studying the conditions of him with the necessary statistics from the peasants, who were at that time the hospital. productive force in Palestine. His interest In 1912 and 1913, and during the first in the peasants may have led him to study four months of 1914, Canaan specialized superstitions prevailing in the countryside, in tropical medicine and microbiology in and particularly the use of amulets. Germany under Professors Mühlens, Ruge, Much, and Huntemüler. Mühlens was chief marine physician at an institute The Bible, particularly the Old in Hamburg for ship and tropical diseases, Testament, is one of the basic sources that particularly malaria, and was the founder Canaan depended on in his comparison of of the International Health Bureau. past and present agriculture. Studies of the Canaan likened this Bureau to the French were proceeding quickly Pasteur Institute. Mühlens headed the during Canaan's time, and he knew the famous Malaria Mission to Jerusalem and leaders of these studies, such as Gustaf prepared a report that gave a Dalman, , and . comprehensive description of the health Canaan used the four years that separated conditions in Jerusalem on the eve of his graduation and the date he published I. According to Leila his first article to absorb the contemporary Mantoura, Canaan's daughter, Canaan was trends in biblical studies, and the Old Mühlens' assistant in this mission. From Testament in particular. We cannot this we can conclude that Canaan attribute Canaan's focus on the Bible specialized in tropical medicine in solely to his religious background. We Hamburg, and while he was there he may must assume that Dalman, who headed have contacted the publishing house L. "The Evangelical German Institute" since Friederichsen & Co., which specialized in 1903, had influenced Canaan, especially publishing studies on the third world, to considering that the two apparently shared publish his book Superstition and Popular the idea that it is not possible to Medicine. Canaan studied tuberculosis understand the Old Testament without with Hans Much, who also headed a studying Palestinian folklore. mission to Palestine to study tuberculosis and published the results in 1913. Canaan Specialization contributed three research papers to this In the summer of 1910, Canaan was put report. in charge of a polyclinic for the Municipality of Jerusalem and remained Palestinian Folklore there until the clinic merged in 1912 with In 1913, the Zeitschrift des Deutschen a municipal hospital established in the Palästinavereins (Journal of the German Shaykh Badr area. In 1911, he published Palestine Society) published an article by his first basic medical article, entitle Canaan entitled "The Calendar of Palestinian "Cerebro-Spinal Meningitis in Jerusalem," Peasants," which was his first work in the in Al-Kulliyeh (Beirut) journal. In it, he field of Palestinian folklore. In 1914, he pointed out that he was conducting published his first book, Superstition and detailed studies with Dr. Wallach, director Popular Medicine. Over the next thirteen of Shaare Zedek Hospital, who provided years, he published a number of articles in 16

Spring.p65 16 13/09/23, 01:31 ã The Journal of the Palestine Oriental spiritual systems related to sanctuaries are Society, established in 1920 by Albert T. reflections of previous conditions or a Clay, the American Assyriologist. Canaan reproduction of it, including historical was chosen as a member in that Society. He elements that are embodied in the sanctuary was also a member in The American School and its weli or shaykh. The sanctuary of for Oriental Research, which was Shaykh al-Qatrawani in 'Atarah village, established in 1900 and whose Jerusalem north of , for example, is a branch was headed from 1920 till 1929 by personification of an earlier figure, namely, the American archaeologist William Foxwell Saint Catherine, to whom a was Albright. In the articles that Canaan dedicated in the area surrounding the published during this period, he showed a sanctuary (the example is Canaan's). The special interest in superstition; examples Shaykh, according to the popular tale, came include "Haunted Springs and Water flying from a distant place (Gaza) and settled in Palestine" (1920/1921), "Tasit in 'Atarah. The tradition seems to reflect an ar-Radjfeh" (Fear Cup; 1923), attempt to absorb a Christian religious "Mohammedan Saints and Sanctuaries in personality within the Islamic system. Palestine" (1924-1927), and "Plant-lore in Palestinian Superstition" (1928). Demonology If sanctuaries are the material expression Popular Beliefs of popular beliefs, the place of performing Canaan's interest in popular beliefs relevant rituals, and what confers focused on the spiritual beliefs as they protection and blessings on the villages, relate to daily practices, primarily among then this must be because the supernatural peasants, and not on the practices as such, forces are found everywhere, affect the as was the case with other researchers, course of life, and bring good or bad luck, such as Bauer, Dalman, and Granqvist. particularly diseases. This was the topic of Canaan specifically focused on the Canaan's book, "Belief in Demons in the superstition of the peasants and lower " (1929, in German). In it, classes in . Popular beliefs often have Canaan discusses the life of demons, their roots in folkloric substrates from various names, and areas of their effect. His periods, some of which predate perception of demons was the traditional monotheism, and are somehow related to one, namely, that they were originally magic. The article entitled "Mohammedan within the polytheistic system, or Saints and Sanctuaries in Palestine," within the framework of what Canaan which was also published as a monograph, called "primitive religions." With the became a classic in the field of Palestinian advent of monotheism, the status of these folklore. The sanctuary () is the , good or bad, was downgraded, but material expression of popular beliefs. The they subsisted in the unconscious of the phenomenon of maqamat is perhaps the community as demons. Canaan gathered best source of information about in his book every reference to demons in ideological trends among Palestinian Palestinian popular beliefs. He detailed their peasants. Contrary to monotheism, which food, dress, appearance, and dwellings is especially espoused in cities, and contrary (terrestrial spirits and "" spirits), such as to written history, also produced in cities, the the tree. Canaan also gathered a long 17

Spring.p65 17 13/09/23, 01:33 ã list of names and their classes. It not on Canaan's article, "The Calendar of should be noted that the names of some Palestinian Peasants," which was diseases refer to names of long-forgotten published in 1913. demons, such as al-khanuq (diphteria), Canaan could not have completed the ar-rih al-asfar (cholera), and at-ta'un research for his book Superstition and (plague). Popular Medicine without a long process lasting years during which he gathered an Superstition extensive collection of amulets. In his It is not known when Canaan developed 1912 article, Canaan wrote, "I have his interest in superstition, which he occupied myself during the past year with singled out from the components of the subject 'Popular Palestinian Medicine' Palestinian folklore. But it is possible to and have gathered a large number of say that Canaan's interest in superstition, amulets that are used in curative and particularly amulets, had started when he preventive ways. It is certainly not returned after completing his studies and sufficient merely to possess such a began his professional life. Leila collection and to know superficially what Mantoura, Canaan's daughter, says: "It each object means; therefore, I have was through the polyclinic [of the endeavored to find how and where they Jerusalem Municipality] and his visits to were made, how they are used in the outlying villages and hamlets, on different parts of the country and for what horseback, carrying a bag full of ailments, how they act, etc."6 Leila medicines, that he noticed many women Mantoura stated that her father started and men wearing amulets. After treating collecting amulets in 1905. One can them, he would discuss with the patients therefore surmise that his ideas on this what protection these amulets offered, ... topic matured between 1910 and 1912. He often bought the amulets, or took them Superstition is reflected in the use of in lieu of payment for his treatment."5 amulets, including charms and talismans. Later on, peasants would bring amulets to The importance of Canaan's studies in this Canaan's house, and when he had no field derives from the fact that he was the opportunity to go around in the country, he first to study the amulets within their used to buy the pieces from antique context in the culture of Palestinian dealers. peasants and , and by an Arab His first article on superstition, "Demons who was able to understand their as an Aetiological Factor in Popular connotations to the people who used them. Medicine," was published in 1912 in Al- The language of these amulets is Kulliyeh (Beirut) and was a translation expressed in words, gestures, and from German into English of part of his drawings. In the foreword of Superstition book Superstition and Popular Medicine and Popular Medicine, Canaan wrote: (published in 1914). Accordingly, the "How many issues in superstition cannot starting point for investigating the be uttered or hinted at except through particularity of Canaan's thought would be strange words that seem to reach the realm 1912 with a focus on the above book and of the intangible. The word should be

5 Mantoura 1998b, p. 9. 6 Canaan 1912, p. 150.

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Spring.p65 18 13/09/23, 01:33 ã replaced by drawings, pictures, signs, and word and its related branches. The former conduct because uttering the word exposes relates the stages of the disease to healing through superstition to failure. superstition, or supernatural forces, and Thus, we enter a world of interrelated attributes remission to magical practices. superstitious symbols which overwhelm Accordingly, Canaan, the "scientific" the entire oriental life."7 physician, classifies amulets under the The difficulty encountered by the subheadings etiology, diagnosis, prognosis, researcher and by Canaan in this field has prophylaxis, and treatment and divides the to do with an esoteric knowledge chapters of his book accordingly. Under the possessed and protected by a minority of subheading "Etiology" come evil spirits, such specialized persons, such as sheikhs and as the Qarinah, "Mother of Boys," and evil fortune-tellers, whose positions are similar eye; and under the subheading "Prophylaxis" to that of shamans. Some sheikhs have come charms, amulets, and special types of published books that deal with various beads, such as the blue bead, eyes, alum, aspects of this knowledge, such as Shumus and finally the mes-branch taken from the al-Anwar by Ibn al-Haj at-Talsamani, and mes-tree (celtis australis) that grows within Shams al-Ma'arif al-Kubra by al-Bouni, the precinct of al- in Jerusalem. The two sources that Canaan drew on in branch is put in a necklace or on the head writing his book. He also consulted a and has a special effect if harvested on manuscript at Al-Khalidiyyah Library in Laylat al-Qadr (27 ), the night Jerusalem that contains explanations of when believe the was talismans. These books, however, were revealed. Under the "Treatment" subheading mostly a collection of remarks and are listed amulets and all kinds of talismans. instructions, which their authors used as In this chapter, Canaan touches on the topic manuals in their profession and were not of jewelry, which has the effect of amulets, meant as analysis or interpretation. and on special kinds of amulets, such as "the Canaan made use of various historical soul's bead," "the cat's eye," "the milk's sources and the information gained from bead." (for the flow of milk), and others. sheikhs and from the patients themselves He also touches on special parts of to formulate his own interpretations. animals, such as the al-hitit-horn (against The phrase "popular medicine" in the poisoning). title of the book does not refer to inherited popular practices for the treatment of Marriage and the Home somatic diseases, or to the use of (plant or In January 1912, Canaan married Margot other) natural extracts, as it might seem at Eilender, the daughter of a German first glance. Canaan rarely touched on this importer, and the wedding gift was a piece form of treatment or the materials used in of land in al-Musrarah where, in 1913, it. Nor did he take up fortune telling, they built a house. Three of Canaan's performed by the sheikhs or fortune-tellers, children (Theo, Nada, and Leila) were born in his writings in general. Instead, he in this house. In the new family house, compared what he called "popular medicine" Canaan opened a clinic, the only Arab clinic with medicine in the scientific meaning of the in Jerusalem. The house fell in the "no man's land" between the years 1948 and 1967, 7 Canaan 1914, p. VIII. and it is still there to this day. 19

Spring.p65 19 13/09/23, 01:33 ã . Leprosy was considered an In 1913, Canaan was appointed director incurable disease; however, the progress in of the Malaria Branch of the International the field of bacteriology and microscopic Health Bureau, which was a world center examination, in which Canaan himself for conducting medical research and participated, made it possible not only to microscopic examination established by treat that disease, but to cure it by using The German Society for Fighting Malaria, chaulmoogra oil. Canaan said that since The Jewish Health Bureau, and The 1921, "Every case which had some hope Jewish Physicians and Scientists for of recovery, regardless of how small, was Improving Health in Palestine. treated with determination at the Leprosy After spending four months in Germany, Hospital."9 Canaan returned to Palestine in August In 1923, the German Hospital was 1914 to work in the German Hospital with reopened with a capacity of fifty patients, Grußendorf. He might have stayed in this but actual medical work could not be position but for the coming of October started until the following year because it when the Ottoman Empire actually entered needed further renovations. The Hospital World War I. Since he held the Ottoman consisted of three divisions: Internal nationality, he was forced to join the Medicine, Gynecology, and Surgery. Ottoman army and to work under difficult Canaan was in charge of the Internal conditions. Like many officers at that Medicine Division, where he remained time, he contracted cholera and typhoid. until 1940, when it became difficult for the At the beginning, he was the physician for German Hospital to continue to operate. a contingent in , but in the same German citizens had already left Palestine year he was transferred to 'Awja al-Hafeer, by 1939, including his friend Eberhard where the German chief physician Gmelin (who headed the Surgery Division appointed him as Head of the Laboratories of the hospital), or were arrested by the on the Sinai Front. In this capacity, he was British Authorities. able to move between Beer as-Sab', Beit Political Struggle Hanoun, Gaza, and Shaykh Nouran. Canaan took advantage of this movement The British authorities arrested Canaan between cities, including , on , 1939, the very day that , and Aleppo, and collected more Britain and France declared war on than two hundred amulets. Germany. He appeared twice in court and was ordered released, but the so-called The The Leprosy Hospital Criminal Investigation Department objected At the end of the war, Canaan resumed and he was imprisoned for nine weeks in his professional activity and, in 1919, he Akka. His wife was arrested because she became director of the Leprosy Hospital was German, and so was his sister Badra, (Asylum of the Lepers) in Talbiyyah, who was accused "of inciting Arab women which used to be called Jesushilfe, against Britain."10 His wife and sister were following the of its director, Dr. Einszler.8 It was also the only leprosy 8 In many cases, Canaan's time at different hospitals hospital in , Palestine, and overlapped. 9 Canaan 1926, p. 46.

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Spring.p65 20 13/09/23, 01:33 ã imprisoned in the women's prison in and its symbols under the pretext of the war. with Jewish criminal prisoners, Since the beginning of the 1936 revolt, the first for nine months, and the second for Canaan clearly expressed his rejection of four years. When their periods of detention British and Zionist policies, in particular the ended, they were sent to Wilhelma, policy of open-door Jewish immigration to southwest al-'Abbasiyyah (near ), one Palestine. He opposed Zionism whenever of the German colonies that were possible, as was shown in his response to an transformed into detention camps for article that appeared in one of the German German Palestinians. medical periodicals in 1925, in which the Canaan's wife and sister Badra had been writer commented on Jewish health politically active since the beginning of establishments and on Zionism and touched the revolt in 1936. Leila Mantoura wrote: briefly on Palestinian establishments. Canaan "In 1934, my mother and aunt Badra were published his response in the same among those who founded the Arab periodical. He pursued this approach even Women's Committee in Jerusalem. This after 1948. In 1949, he wrote a short was a charitable society at the outset, but article to refute the claims of an official soon took on a political nature in the year U.S. report "that the death rate among the 1936 during the general strike."11 In fact, [Palestinian] refugees is running no higher the Arab Women's Committee was than normal for the ."13 involved in political activity prior to 1936, at least since the establishment of The Palestine Arab Cause committees in Jerusalem and other cities, Canaan's political position was clearly following the convening of a general expressed in two works of his, namely, conference for Palestinian women in The Palestine Arab Cause and Conflict in October 1929. By , the the Land of Peace, both written in 1936. Committee was strong enough to publicly The former was published in English, call for civil disobedience and Arabic, and French. The 48-page booklet continuation of the strike. Badra The Palestine Arab Cause, originally participated as assistant secretary in the written in English, resembled a political Palestinian delegation to The Eastern pamphlet directed at British public Women's Conference that was held in opinion. It was originally published in the in mid- in support of form of articles in the local and foreign Palestine. press shortly after the outbreak of the Ya'qub Al-'Awdat claims that Canaan, general strike in 1936. For the British his wife, and his sister were accused of Mandate, Canaan's writing was considered "propaganda for Hitler's Germany."12 It is subversive. Canaan questioned whether not known whether this was the official the British policy was intended "to force charge, nor do we know the type of court Palestinian to evacuate their whole in which they were tried. This was part of land in order to make room for Jews."14 He the British policy for eliminating what was went further by describing the policy as "a left of the Palestinian resistance movement destructive campaign against the Arabs with

10 Mantoura 1998a. 12 Al-'Awdat 1971, p. 32. 11 Mantoura 1998b, p. 12. 13 Canaan 1949, p. 33.

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Spring.p65 21 13/09/23, 01:33 ã the ultimate aim of exterminating them from which enumerated the "benefits" that the their country." Canaan also questioned the inhabitants of Palestine derived from the nationality laws enacted by the Mandate that Jewish immigrants. Canaan refuted the prevented Palestinian immigrants in the presumed benefits, such as the availability of , who were at that time citizens of scientists at the Hebrew University and the Ottoman Empire, from obtaining hospitals, the funds that were brought into Palestinian citizenship. Palestine (for example, through land The Palestine Arab Cause concludes purchases, of all things!), the improvement in with these words: "We appeal to the sense agriculture, the rise in the average wages of of justice of every Britisher to help us in the Palestinian worker, and the improvement our fight for existence..."15 Canaan in the health conditions among peasants. asserted: "We will continue our struggle With respect to the last point, Canaan, who for life in peaceful ways until we attain, was well-versed on the subject, did not with 's help, a better life, or we die deny that the Jews had dried out some of never to rise again," in case there was no the swamps and streams here and there, response to the basic demand of the and thus contributed to the control of the Palestinian Arabs, namely, an immediate widespread malaria epidemic. However, and complete halt to Zionist immigration. these preventive measures were Canaan had a clear, uncompromising, and undertaken, primarily, for the benefit of unreconciliatory position concerning the Jewish colonists themselves, and for national demands, as shown in a document transforming land bought at a very low sent to the Higher Arab Committee on price into agricultural land. Canaan also August 6, 1936 and signed by Canaan, as pointed out that the Jews employed well as many national personalities. There Egyptian laborers for digging wide is even an unconfirmed evidence that channels necessary for the drying out Canaan strongly supported providing Arab process and that tens of these laborers rebels with arms. Canaan's approach in died, as was documented in a booklet this booklet reflects an appraisal of the entitled . He wrote, "Baron De Palestinian problem from a clear national Rothschild supplied the money and the perspective, notwithstanding the gave their lives."16 apologetic language he sometimes used Canaan also stated what the Zionists did towards Britain that might seem not, namely, that the Palestinians too had inappropriate from a modern perspective. dried out the swamps under the supervision of the Department of Health Conflict in the Land of Peace and that their achievement in this respect In his book, Conflict in the Land of was, undoubtedly, greater than that of the Peace, Canaan documents the . The Arabs had provided financial problem in greater detail and responds to support and unpaid labor in the following those who criticized The Palestine Arab areas: Birkat Ramadan, Rubeen, Cause, particularly the "comments" by an Wadi al-Qabbani, Al-Lajjoon, Nahr an- anonymous person published in a pamphlet, Na'ameen, At-Tanturah, Deir al-Balah, and tens of other valleys throughout Palestine. 14 Canaan 1936a, p. 10. 15 Canaan 1936a, p. 21. 16 Canaan 1936b, p. 87.

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Spring.p65 22 13/09/23, 01:33 ã Finally, Canaan stated that the work done attack on the Syrian Parliament, the Society by the Jewish Hydro-Electric Co. of offered 700 pounds to support relief work. Rutenberg brought down the level of water The Society also planned to implement a at Lake , which led to the spread number of projects but was thwarted by the of malaria. He cited two reports issued by events that took place in 1947/1948. the Department of Health for the years Among these projects was "The Piaster 1924 and 1935 to the effect that the Project," which called for collecting increase in the malaria cases around contributions for building a hospital in Tiberias was the direct result of the low memory of Badr Al-Khalidi. The level of the lake, which provided an ideal Society was able to collect the amount of environment for the growth of the malaria 1,500 pounds. microbe. There had always been cases of The Society played an effective role malaria infection among the and when the political and security situation in in the Arab villages around Tiberias, such Palestine deteriorated, and did its best as Tall Hom, At-Tabighah, Al-Majdal, and despite difficult and dangerous Tiberias. circumstances, such as the killing of Drs. Mikhail Ma'louf and Jabra Nasser and the The Arab Medical Society of Palestine wounding of Raghib al-Khalidi. The The Arab Medical Society of Palestine Society began to train and organize relief was established on August 4, 1944 in units and centers in the cities and villages, accordance with a decision taken by the and to provide medical aid to the Arab Medical Conference, which was held Palestinian and Arab freedom fighters. It in in 1934. The Society consisted of also contacted the Red Cross and started the other medical societies in the various cooperation with it for the protection of cities. Canaan was chosen as president for hospitals and the other humanitarian that Society, Dr. Rushdi at-Tamimi (Haifa) institutions. The Society did its best to as Vice-President, Dr. Mahmoud Taher ad- provide the necessary resources; it sent an Dajani as Secretary and Office Manager, appeal to the medical societies and Red and Dr. Sa'id ad-Dajani as Treasurer. In Crescent and Red Cross organizations in a December 1945, the first issue of the number of Arab capitals. Some of these Society's journal (al-Majallah at- groups responded by sending limited Tibbiyyah al-'Arabiyyah al-Filastiniyyah) medical aid. was published in Arabic and English. With the approach of the end of the Canaan was a member of the editorial Mandate, the Higher Arab Relief board and Mahmoud ad-Dajani was Committee was established on 24 January, editor-in-chief. The Society held its first 1948 so as to assume the task of receiving medical conference in Palestine in July 1945. aid coming to the country and supervising Among the invited guests was Howard its distribution. The Committee was Walter Florey, who was awarded the Nobel established with initiative from the Society Prize that year in Physiology and Medicine and in coordination with the Higher Arab for isolating and purifying penicillin for Committee, and was headed by Dr. general medical use. Hussein Fakhri al-Khalidi, and had among From its inception, the Society's activities its members Tawfik Canaan, Zleikhah ash- were not confined to Palestine. Following an Shihabi (Head of the Women's Union), 23

Spring.p65 23 13/09/23, 01:33 ã Izzat Tannous (Secretary of Beit Al-Mal Al- Medical Society of Palestine, he continued 'Arabi), and Mahmoud ad-Dajani, Secretary to carry out his duties to his country, as of the Society. witnessed by 'Abdallah at-Tall and Izzat Tannous. The Catastrophe and the To preserve the hospitals, the Arab On 22 February, 1948, bombs and mortar Medical Society of Palestine succeeded, shells hit some Arab houses in al-Musrarah after arduous negotiations with the Quarter. It is likely that by the end of that Mandate Government, in taking over a month Canaan's children left the house, but number of hospitals in Jerusalem and Tawfik, his wife, Badra and Nora, Canaan's Bethlehem. These were the Central sister-in-law, remained. Leila Mantoura tells Hospital, the Hospital, the us that Canaan was able to deposit his Infectious Diseases Hospital near Beit collection of amulets and 250 icons at an Safafa, and the Mental Hospital in international organization in Bethlehem. In early , the at the beginning of the year. She says that Society officially took control of the the family left the house after it suffered a Central Hospital, with its facilities in the direct hit on 9 May. Each of them took a (al-Mascobiyyah), and small suitcase, and the group entered the the Austrian Hospice Hospital. The at night in accordance with Central Hospital, which was supervised by arrangements made between Canaan and As'ad Bisharah, started receiving the the Patriarchate. They sneaked in wounded and the sick. However, the Red through a small door that led to the roof of Cross flag that flew over the building did the Latin convent. The Greek Orthodox not prevent the Jews from shelling it and Patriarch gave the family a room in the destroying a big part of it. Then, the convent to live in. The family stayed in Jewish occupied the surrounding this room for two and a half years. houses and a part of the hospital and Mantoura wrote the following about this continued shelling the medical facility, tragic event in the family's life: "Mother preventing anyone from getting to it. The and father would go daily to the top of the Society was forced to evacuate in October Wall of Jerusalem to look at their home. 1948. The Austrian Hospice, which the They witnessed it being ransacked, Mandate Government transformed into a together with the wonderful priceless hospital in early 1948, was managed by library and manuscripts, which mother Canaan, who, together with a number of guarded jealously and with great pride. physicians, nurses, and volunteers, did their They saw mother's Biedermeyer furniture best to keep going during the Jerusalem being loaded into trucks and then their battle, until they were finally forced to home being set on fire."17 Canaan lost his evacuate due to the continuous shelling. house and his library, as well as three manuscripts ready for publication. New Beginning Despite these painful events and fear of At that difficult period in Jerusalem, and a potential Zionist attack on the Old City, following the influx of refugees there, the Canaan continued his work as physician Lutheran World Federation (LWF) and treated patients in his new, humble home. In his capacity as head of the Arab 17 Mantoura 1998b, p. 13. 24

Spring.p65 24 13/09/23, 01:33 ã appointed Canaan as manager of medical number of other physicians from operations. Canaan contributed to the Jerusalem before he died in 1931. He also establishment of clinics at the Saint John removed a bullet from the thigh of Abu Hospice, near the Eighth Station in the Old Jildah, the notorious Palestinian rebel and City, and in 'Aizariyyeh, , Beit hero to some, most probably in 1936. Jala, and (near Ramallah). He also Canaan's name was frequently used to regularly visit the mobile clinics, mentioned in the biographies of the which were established by the LWF in Palestinian elite: he spent one evening rural areas. with Khalil Sakakini in Damascus in 1918, In 1950, UNRWA and the LWF jointly where the latter had to stay until the end of established the Augusta Victoria Hospital the war. Then Secretary of Beit Al-Mal was established, in the same building and Al-'Arabi Izzat Tannous mentioned him on with the same name, on the at-Tur (Mount several occasions. Many of his of ). Canaan played a role in its acquaintances gave him amulets as gifts, establishment, too, and he was appointed like Mousa Kadhim al-Husseini, and the its first medical director, a position he held Lebanese Dr. Ibrahim Bek 'Alam ad-Din, until the spring of 1955. head of the Venereal Diseases Division at the Department of Health. The Last Years Among his non-Arab friends were Canaan and his wife could not overcome Hermann Schneller, grandson of the the loss of their son Theo, an architect founder of the Syrian Orphanage House who died in 1954 while renovating an and manager of the House until 1940, and archaeological monument in Jerash. When Lydia Einszler, the wife of his colleague Canaan retired, at the age of seventy-five, Adolf Einszler, with whom he used to he was offered a house on the grounds of exchange amulets. Canaan was acquainted the Augusta Victoria Hospital. There he with a number of specialists in the field of lived with his family and continued to Palestinian archaeology and Old write until his death on January 15, 1964. Testament. These included William It is likely that he died before his last Foxwell Albright, , and article, "Crime in the Traditions and Kathleen Kenyon, all of whom worked in Customs of the Arabs in Jordan," was the field of Palestinian archeology, and published (in German) in the Zeitschrift des Albrecht Alt, Martin Noth, and Hans Deutschen Palästinavereins, No. 80, in Wilhelm Hertzberg, who were pioneers in 1964. He was buried in the Evangelical Old Testament studies in Germany. Lutheran Cemetery in Bethlehem, near Among the many physicians Canaan knew Beit Jala where he had spent his was the famous Jewish Czech childhood. ophthalmologist, Albert () Ticho, who was a surgeon and headed the Jewish Status and Esteem Ophthalmology Hospital (closed in 1918). By virtue of his position, Canaan came in Among his friends and acquaintances were contact with virtually all segments of Dr. Shafiq Hanna Haddad from Haifa, Palestinian society. He treated people from who was a specialist in tropical medicine all social classes. He examined Sherif and who, like Canaan, studied at the Hussein of in Amman with a American University of Beirut, and Dr. Yusuf 25

Spring.p65 25 13/09/23, 01:33 ã Hajjar, of Lebanese origin, who worked as same year, he was awarded The Federal a physician and first surgeon at the Merit Cross from the Federal of Government Hospital in Jerusalem. Among Germany. the people who used to frequent Canaan's The works of Tawfik Canaan are of house was L. Magnes, who major significance, especially today, when participated in founding the Hebrew Palestinian heritage is still being University and became its president during systematically silenced and replaced by the period 1925-1948. He was well-known elements foreign to Palestine and partly for his conciliatory attitude between Arabs artificial. All through his folkloric and Jews, and he was author of the book writings, Canaan, like Dalman, has Like All the Nations?, which Canaan exemplified the close and intimate quoted often in his books. connections between Palestinian and Canaan also knew many sheikhs who biblical traditions. This should lend some prepared his amulets, as well as fortune- thought to the essential question of who tellers and Sufis. Among these were are the true "owners" of the land in the Ibrahim Hassan al- (Ad-Danaf), a broad cultural sense. custodian of al-Haram al-Sharif, Shaykh 'Atif ad-Disy, a Qadiriyyah follower, and the famous Shaykh Mahmoud al-'Askari Bibliography al-Falakki from al-Dhahiriyyah, who Abdullah, Wissam. 1998, Tawfik Canaan: A practiced fortune-telling in Jerusalem. Biography. Pp. 17-26 in Nashef, K., ed., 1998. Canaan also was acquainted with antiquity Mantoura, Leila. 1998a, "Letter dated 20 June dealers, from whom he bought amulets, 1998." Courtesy Vera Tamari, Birzeit University. such as Ohan, the well-known Armenian dealer, who had a shop in ad-Dabbaghah Mantoura, Leila. 1998b, Father, Friend and Inspiration. Pp. 9-15 in Nashef, K., ed., 1998. Quarter in Jerusalem until 1948. Canaan was a permanent member of the Nashef , Khaled, ed.,1998, Ya kafi, Ya shfi, The Young Men's Christian Association Tawfik Canaan Collection of Palestinian Amulets. Birzeit University Publications. (YMCA) Board of Directors in Jerusalem. He was chosen as president three times and when he retired, he became an honorary member of YMCA for life. Canaan laid the cornerstone for the new Leprosy Hospital on an-Najmah Mountain on the road to Birzeit. The hospital was rebuilt under the supervision of the Moravian Sisters and Canaan was a consultant there until 1956. Canaan was awarded eight medals that we know of: The Order of the Red Crescent and The Iron Cross, both during World War I, and the Holy Sepulchre Cross with a red ribbon, awarded by the Greek Orthodox Patriarch in 1951. In the See footnote 1 for more source references. 26

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