Microbiomes of Clownfish and Their Symbiotic Host Anemone Converge
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Émie et al. Microbiome (2021) 9:109 https://doi.org/10.1186/s40168-021-01058-1 RESEARCH Open Access Microbiomes of clownfish and their symbiotic host anemone converge before their first physical contact Audet-Gilbert Émie†, Sylvain François-Étienne†, Bouslama Sidki† and Derome Nicolas*† Abstract Background: One of the most charismatic, and yet not completely resolved example of mutualistic interaction is the partnership of clownfish and its symbiotic sea anemone. The mechanism explaining this tolerance currently relies on the molecular mimicry of clownfish epithelial mucus, which could serve as camouflage, preventing the anemone's nematocysts' discharge. Resident bacteria are known as key drivers of epithelial mucus chemical signature in vertebrates. A recent study has proposed a restructuration of the skin microbiota in a generalist clown fish when first contacting its symbiotic anemone. We explored a novel hypothesis by testing the effect of remote interaction on epithelial microbiota restructuration in both partners. Methods: With metataxonomics, we investigated the epithelial microbiota dynamic of 18 pairs of percula clownfish (Amphiprion percula) and their symbiotic anemone Heteractis magnifica in remote interaction, physical interaction and control groups for both partners during a 4-week trial. Results: The Physical and Remote Interaction groups’ results evidence gradual epithelial microbiota convergence between both partners when fish and anemone were placed in the same water system. This convergence occurred preceding any physical contact between partners, and was maintained during the 2-week interaction period in both contact groups. After the interaction period, community structure of both fish and anemone’s epthelial community structures maintained the interaction signature 2 weeks after fish–anemone pairs’ separation. Furthermore, the interaction signature persistence was observed both in the Physical and Remote Interaction groups, thus suggesting that water-mediated chemical communication between symbiotic partners was strong enough to shift the skin microbiota durably, even after the separation of fish–anemone pairs. Finally, our results suggest that fish–anemone convergent microbiota restructuration was increasingly associated with the parallel recruitment of three Flavobacteriaceae strains closely related to a tyrosinase-producing Cellulophaga tyrosinoxydans. Conclusions: Our study shows that bacterial community restructuration, in the acclimation process, does not only rely on direct physical contact. Furthermore, our results challenge, for the first time, the traditional unidirectional chemical camouflage hypothesis, as we argue that convergence of the epithelial microbiota of both partners may play essential roles in establishing mutual acceptance. Keywords: Microbiota, Microbiome, Clownfish, Aanemone, Amphiprion percula, Heteractis magnifica, Cellulophaga * Correspondence: [email protected] †Audet-Gilbert Émie, Sylvain François-Étienne, Bouslama Sidki and Derome Nicolas contributed equally to this work. Institut de Biologie Intégrative et des Systèmes, Université Laval, 1030 avenue de la Médecine, Québec, QC G1V 0A6, Canada © The Author(s). 2021 Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data. Émie et al. Microbiome (2021) 9:109 Page 2 of 15 Background also never been done, and yet, this data is essential to deter- The interaction of anemones and clownfish is a charismatic mine if the putative restructuring of the transient epithelial example of mutualistic partnership [1], in which the anem- microbiome of both partners actually participates in estab- one protects the clownfish against predators [2], while the lishing mutual acceptance, or if it is merely an artifact of clownfish provides the anemone’s endosymbiotic zooxan- the physical contact between both hosts. In order to detect thellae algae with excreted nutrients (ammonia, sulfur, and evolutionary relevant microbiota changes regarding mutual- phosphorus) [3]. This mutualism is contingent upon a pro- ism, we focused on Amphiprion percula, a clownfish species tective mechanism for clownfish against the anemone’s exhibiting narrow host specificity, which is mainly associ- nematocyst discharge. Numerous studies and reviews that ated with the Heteractis magnifica sea anemone. A. percula attempted to identify the protective mechanism in different is a common and locally abundant clownfish species, inha- clownfish species have highlighted two main non-exclusive biting lagoons and seaward reefs from the western Pacific hypotheses: either clownfishes beneficiate from an innate off Queensland and Melanesia (e.g. northern Great Barrier protective mechanism in their skin mucus, and/or they Reef, northern New Guinea, New Britain, Solomon Islands need to coat their body with anemone mucus [4, 5]asa and Vanuatu) [17, 18]. In nature, A. percula lives in small chemical camouflage. Interestingly, during clownfish– groups consisting in one breeding pair and few non- anemone acclimation (i.e. prior to first physical contact), breeders, all of them being in close interaction with one the epithelial mucus immunological profile of clownfish host sea anemone. Like the 29 other clownfish species, A. changes to mimic that of the anemone [6–8]. Thus, clown- percula has a biphasic life cycle with an ecological transi- fish epithelial mucus is suspected to act as a “chemical cam- tion from pelagic to demersal habitat: after a 10–15 day dis- ouflage” preventing “not-self” recognition associated with persive oceanic phase at the larval stage, and following the nematocysts’ discharge [4, 5, 9, 10]. Most importantly, completion of metamorphosis 2 days later, a sedentary reef transferred amino acids from the anemone mucus to the phasestartsasyoungjuvenilesactively look for settling into clownfish skin mucus were measured after few hours of a host sea anemone [19]. Clownfish lay their eggs on a rock physical and remote interaction [11], thus suggesting that in the close vicinity of sea anemones in such way it is hy- chemical modification of clownfish skin mucus starts before pothesized that eggs are exposed to anemone metabolites physical interaction with the anemone. Given that skin mi- without being stung by nematocysts [20]. From hatching to crobial communities are important drivers of the chemical the first contact of the sedentary reef phase, clownfish spe- and immunological profiles of vertebrates’ epithelia, which cies are sensitive to sea anemone nematocysts [21]. There- modulate host–parasite interactions [12], including in fish fore, we targeted young juvenile stage of so-called “naïve” [13, 14], it is relevant to investigate to which extent clown- individual (i.e. no prior contact with anemone) to model as fish anemone symbiosis translates into epithelial micro- much as possible the natural acclimation process step in biome shifts in both partners. In addition, as clownfish are controlled conditions. Our objective was to test two hy- known to hover near/above their partner anemone, before potheses: (1) Is anemone-clownfish mutualistic partnership first contacting its tentacles, it is relevant to test whether associated with a significant restructuration of epithelial fish and anemone microbiome shifts may precede their microbiotas in both partners during acclimation? and (2) physical contact. To date, the structure of clownfish skin Does this skin microbiota restructuration precede physical microbiome after contact with their symbiotic anemone contact between partners? Then, we aimed to characterize has only been investigated partly, without anemone control the microbial taxa driving the observed community dynam- groups during the contact phase, nor testing the remote ics. To achieve our goal, four experimental groups were interaction [15, 16]. For instance, Pratte et al. [15]con- compared: anemone control, fish control, physical inter- ducted an investigation targeting a generalist clownfish spe- action (i.e. fish and anemone in the same tank), and remote cies (Amphiprion clarkii) known to have an innate interaction (i.e. fish and anemone in different tanks, both mechanism of protection against nematocyst discharge. connected to the same water flow). We tested the hypoth- However, their experimental design included physical inter- esis that there would be a gradual convergence of the skin action groups that shared the same water flow than the fish mucus microbiota structure of both symbiotic partners dur- control group [15], and thus, the control group was con-