Literature Review in Games and Learning John Kirriemuir, Angela Mcfarlane

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REPORT 8: Literature Review in Games and Learning

John Kirriemuir, Ceangal Angela McFarlane, Graduate School of Education, University of Bristol FUTURELAB SERIES

REPORT 8: CONTENTS:

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 2

Literature Review in SECTION 1 INTRODUCTION 5

Games and Learning SECTION 2 GAMES CULTURES AND PLAY 7 John Kirriemuir, Ceangal SECTION 3 Angela McFarlane, Graduate School of Education, University of Bristol GAMES AND LEARNING 13

SECTION 4 KEY ISSUES IN DEVELOPING GAMES FOR LEARNING 19 FOREWORD SECTION 5 FUTURE DIRECTIONS Computer games are today an important research in the field, in particular the IN GAMES AND LEARNING 24 part of most children’s leisure lives and increasing interest in pleasurable increasingly an important part of our learning, learning through doing and BIBLIOGRAPHY 29 culture as a whole. We often, as adults, learning through collaboration, that END NOTES 34 watch in amazement as children dedicate games seem to offer. At the same time, hours to acting as football coaches, the review takes a measured tone in designers of empires, controllers of acknowledging some of the obstacles and robots, wizards and emperors. In the challenges to using games within our past, computer games have been current education system and within our dismissed as a distraction from more current models of learning. It goes on to ‘worthy’ activities, such as homework or propose some ways in which designers, playing outside. Today, however, researchers and educational policy researchers, teachers and designers of makers might draw on the growing body learning resources are beginning to ask of research in the field to create learning how this powerful new medium might be resources and environments that go used to support children’s learning. beyond a sugar-coating of ‘fun’ to the full Rather than shutting the door of the engagement that computer games seem school against the computer game, there to offer so many children today. is now increasing interest in asking whether computer games might be We are keen to receive feedback on offering a powerful new resource to the Futurelab reports and welcome support learning in the information age. comments at [email protected]

This review is intended as a timely Keri Facer introduction to current thinking about the Director of Learning Research role of computer games in supporting Futurelab children’s learning inside and out of school. It highlights the key areas of

1 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY games, or game players, cannot be mapped onto one research discipline. AIMS Relevant areas of study include, but are not limited to computer science, education, psychology, youth and media This review provides: and cultural studies. As a result, aspects of investigation into games and game • a summary of the contemporary state of players can ‘straddle’ several different the computer and video gaming academic disciplines. industry, market and culture • an overview of the main developments in As games have become more complex in research into gaming and the terms of graphics, complexity, interaction educational relevance of video games, and narrative, so a variety of genres have and a summary of the literature come to dominate the market. There is, resulting from this research however, no standard categorisation • a basis for communication between the of such games; different stakeholders educational research community and in the games industry eg game outlets, the commercial sector on the subject of developers, academics, web review sites, the use of games technologies in the use a taxonomy appropriate to their own design of learning resources audience. Nonetheless the differences between genres, and even between games • a basis for discussion within educational within one genre, differentiate the way communities on the use of digital they are played, and their potential to games within educational settings. support learning. Thus attempts to generalise the effect of games or gaming may be unhelpful. attempts to CONTEXT generalise the Perhaps as a result of the diversity and Computer games are a growing part of our complexity of games themselves, and effect of games culture; the global market is worth billions the range of perspectives taken by or gaming may of dollars, related activities range from researchers, there are few hard and fast published magazines to spontaneous findings in the literature. In order to better be unhelpful internet communities, and the impact of understand games and game play, and games play on young people has attracted how they contribute to learning, it may significant interest from the popular be necessary to distinguish more clearly media. Three quarters of children play the nature of gaming and the nature of regularly – is this harmful or beneficial, learning and the learner. are they learning as they play, and if so what? This review considers the findings of research into the relationship between GAMES AND GAMERS games and players, and the theoretical and actual implications for learning. Researchers and commentators have attempted to understand the lure of The research evidence is complex, and computer games. This has been thinly spread. The study of computer characterised as a combination of fantasy,

2 REPORT 8 LITERATURE REVIEW IN GAMES AND LEARNING JOHN KIRRIEMUIR, CEANGAL & ANGELA MCFARLANE, GRADUATE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF BRISTOL

challenge and curiosity, and a level of integrated into the curriculum. Reasons the experience engagement described as ‘flow’ where for this include: players become oblivious to distractions. of game play Concern has been expressed that this • it is difficult for teachers to identify seems to leads to a neglect of other activities, often quickly how a particular game is assumed to be automatically more worthy. relevant to some component of the be affecting Other authors see games play as statutory curriculum, as well as the learners’ inherently valuable, leading to a accuracy and appropriateness of the development of a range of skills and content within the game expectations competences that may transfer to other • the difficulty in persuading other school of learning social and work-related uses of digital stakeholders as to the potential/actual activities technologies. educational benefits of computer games The debate around violence and gaming • the lack of time available to teachers to is as yet unresolved. There are two familiarise themselves with the game, perspectives; that games increase and methods of producing the best aggression or that games provide a release results from its use for pent-up aggression. In all likelihood • the amount of irrelevant content or both are legitimate conclusions, and the functionality in a game which could not outcomes varies with game and player. be removed or ignored, thus wasting valuable lesson time. Gender is a common subject of games related research, focusing mainly on the Nonetheless, teachers and parents image of females within games, or the role recognised that games play can support of gender in influencing games play. There valuable skill development, such as: are few clear outcomes, but the proportion of gamers who are female seems to be • strategic thinking growing and this may be related to the • planning increase in social gaming through on and offline multiplayer options. • communication • application of numbers • negotiating skills GAMES AND EDUCATION • group decision-making Research into the use of mainstream • data-handling. games in education is relatively novel, but growing rapidly. Research is mainly Significantly the experience of game concerned with the development of related play seems to be affecting learners’ competences and literacies during game expectations of learning activities. play, or the role of games in the formation Preferred tasks are fast, active and of learning communities either while exploratory, with information supplied gaming or related to game play. in multiple forms in parallel. Traditional school-based learning may not meet Use of mainstream games in schools these demands. remains rare, and is unlikely to be

3 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

DEVELOPING GAMES FOR EDUCATION learning. Yet much research evidence contradicts this, arguing that children do There are two key themes common to the enjoy learning when they have a sense of development of games for education, their own progression and where the namely: learning is relevant and appropriate. This focus on ‘fun’ and on ‘concealing the 1 The desire to harness the motivational learning’ within educational games may, in power of games in order to ‘making fact, be a red herring. Instead, it might be learning fun’. worth returning to some early analyses that describes the pleasures of games play 2 A belief that ‘learning through doing’ in as a ‘flow’. games such as simulations offers a powerful learning tool. concealing the The conditions likely to induce the flow state are characterised by Malone (1980) Software designed to support young learning within as: people’s learning often borrows from game educational design in an attempt to replicate the levels • the activity should be structured so that of engagement and harness this to games may be the player can increase or decrease the facilitate more traditional learning. These level of challenges faced, in order to a red herring attempts are not always successful and match exactly personal skills with the the results do not always convince a requirements for action discerning gamer. • it should be easy to isolate the activity, Most edutainment has failed to realise at least at the perceptual level, from expectations, either because: other stimuli, external or internal, which might interfere with involvement in it • the games have been too simplistic in • there should be clear criteria for comparison to competing video games performance; a player should be able to • the tasks are repetitive ie continually evaluate how well or how poorly (s)he is doing sums, and thus quickly become doing at any time boring and ‘work’ • the activity should provide concrete • the tasks are poorly designed and do feedback to the player, so that (s)he can not support progressive understanding tell how well (s)he is meeting the criteria of performance • related to this last point, the range of activities is severely limited within the • the activity ought to have a broad range game, usually concentrating on one of challenges, and possibly several skill, or accumulation of homogenous qualitatively different ranges of content challenge, so that the player may obtain increasingly complex information about • the target audience becomes aware that different aspects of her/himself. it is being coerced into ‘learning’, in possibly a patronising manner. Another commentator, reflecting on how to design engaging learning experiences, The debate on ‘making learning fun’ often draws on these definitions to propose eight assumes that children do not enjoy characteristics as essential:

4 SECTION 1 INTRODUCTION

• task that we can complete 1 INTRODUCTION • ability to concentrate on task As is widely reported across many media, • task has clear goals computer and video games are • task provides immediate feedback increasingly popular. In 2002, the world • deep but effortless involvement (losing market for ‘games and edutainment/ awareness of worry and frustration of reference software’ realised 16.9 billion everyday activity) US dollars, with 3.3 million games consoles being sold in the UK alone • exercising a sense of control over (ELSPA 2003). People of all ages, but most our actions visibly children, play these games, often • concern for self disappears during dedicating long periods of time in total flow, but sense of self is stronger concentration to the amazement and after flow activity sometimes concern of watching adults. • sense of duration of time is altered. Games were still a relatively new Rather than aiming for an experience phenomenon when a wide range of people, that superficially resembles leisure-based including parents, teachers, educational ‘fun’ activities, or one which attempts to specialists and media commentators conceal the educational purpose, it might began to ask one of two related questions: be argued that we should understand the deep structures of the games play 1 Games take up large periods of time, experience that contribute to ‘flow’ and which could be spent on more worthy build these into environments designed activities, such as education and to support learning. learning. Therefore, how do we ‘wean’ children off games and into these activities? 2 Games promote levels of attention and concentration that teachers, parents and policy makers wished children applied to learning. Therefore, what can the education sector learn and use from these games in order to ‘enhance’ the in 2002, the learning process? world market This report examines the research for ‘games and associated with these two stances on edutainment/ games and learning. Particularly, it examines three research questions: reference software’ 1 What is happening during the game-playing process, and what can realised the educational sector learn or use 16.9 billion from this? dollars

5 SECTION 1 INTRODUCTION

2 Can conventional computer games be • hardware, known as video game used as a vehicle for formal learning, eg consoles (examples being the Sony classroom-based curriculum related Playstation series, Microsoft Xbox and content delivery? Nintendo GameCube), which are 3 What components or features of operated through a television conventional computer games can be • personal computers taken and used in learning software or • mobile devices, eg phones and practice? dedicated gaming machines such as the Nintendo GameBoy Advance. The key focus of this report is primarily on school age children, and the design of Digital games will include those that are games (both for learning and for leisure) mass-market products developed for the for children of these ages. leisure or education market, including those with cross-over potential.

1.1 DEFINITIONS AND RESEARCH Niche digital gaming media, such as watch BASE FOR THE REPORT or LCD panel-based games, are outwith the scope of this report since at present There is a wide variety of definitions of they are somewhat ephemeral and digital games across the range of simplistic. academic, internet and media writing. The terminology also varies between authors and over time, and is often interchangable. 1.2 RESEARCH ISSUES For example, the terms ‘computer game’ AND CREDIBILITY and ‘video game’ used to refer to PC- based games and console-based games There are three key issues surrounding respectively but are now used research into games and learning that interchangeably. require acknowledgement.

For the purposes of this report, we will • Games and publication cycles define a digital game as one that: The time taken for peer reviewed articles • provides some visual digital information to reach publication often means that or substance to one or more players games described as ‘current’ may be somewhat out of date compared with • takes some input from the players current market practices. This is not to • processes the input according to a set say that this research has no lessons to of programmed game rules offer developers and teachers, simply • alters the digital information provided that it is important to supplement to the players. conventional academic research with research from other sources, while at We will also define games as programmes the same time recognising that these that operate on the following platforms: alternative sources are not subject to the same degree of peer-reviewed scrutiny as academic publications .

6 SECTION 2 GAMES CULTURES AND PLAY

• Games as an interdisciplinary subject 2 GAMES CULTURES AND PLAY Games have been a subject for research in a wide range of different fields, 2.1 CATEGORISING GAMES including computer science, media and cultural studies, psychology, education, As games have become more complex in physics and youth studies. For anyone terms of graphics, complexity, interaction interested in games and learning, then, and narrative, so a variety of genres have there are two challenges: first, to locate increasingly come to dominate the market. all the research across all these areas There is, however, no standard and second, to overcome the sometimes categorisation of such games; different confusing overlap and difference in stakeholders in the games industry, eg terminology used in respect of games game outlets, developers, academics, web across these different research fields. review sites, use a taxonomy appropriate to their own audience. Such categorisations are discussed in Orwant (2000), who also • Games researchers as ‘defenders’ illustrates the system employed by Herz of games (1997) which closely resembles that used Given the many social concerns around by many in the contemporary games computer games, many researchers in industry. this field find it necessary to defend computer games against attacks. Those The Herz system presents these reading the research need to adopt a major categories: balanced perspective towards accounts that can sometimes be read as a • action games - these can be ‘celebration’ of games in the face of subcategorised into shooting games, sustained social criticism. Additionally, ‘platform’ games (so called because the readers need to beware of a tendency players’ characters move between on- for some researchers to generalise from screen platforms) and other types of personal experience and to be cautious games that are reaction-based of accounts that attempt to describe • adventure games - in most adventure ‘typical games players’. games, the player solves a number of logic puzzles (with no time constraints) in order to progress through some described virtual world • fighting games - these involve fighting computer-controlled characters, or those controlled by other players • puzzle games - such as Tetris • role-playing games - where the human players assume the characteristics of some person or creature type, eg elf or wizard • simulations - where the player has to succeed within some simplified

7 SECTION 2 GAMES CULTURES AND PLAY

recreation of a place or situation eg (A Bug’s Life). However, such simplistic mayor of a city, controlling financial comparisons are increasingly questioned; outlay and building works for example, the aforementioned • sports games comparison does not take into account the cost of the game ($50) against that of the • strategy games - such as commanding cinema ticket ($6), the demographics, armies within recreations of historical release dates, or the life of the product, battles and wars. since it is common for up to 90% of film revenue to be generated from DVD and Even with this taxonomy, there are video rather than cinema release. exclusions; a small number of games will be released every year that defy The recent transfer of characters between categorisation. In addition, some games computer game and cinema screen is fall into more than one category; for evidence that computer games, once seen example, football manager games (where as a minority interest, are increasingly an you buy, sell, select and position players) established and powerful aspect of our arguably fall into the categories of cultural landscape. Such transfer does not simulation, strategy and sports games. always work; many of the game ‘brands’ This classification also leaves out the that have been turned into movies, such individual or multiplayer contrast, which is as Resident Evil, Mario Brothers and Tomb making a real difference to how games can Raider, have been poorly received by both be played. critics and audiences. Similarly, most attempts to produce ‘spin-off’ video games based typically on summer 2.2 THE PREVALENCE blockbuster movies have been poorly OF GAMES PLAY received by critics and have failed ultimately to sell in the volume that Statistics for game hardware and software successful games titles now do. revenue and the volume of players indicate a major social and entertainment culture That said, digital games are clearly an (though the actual ‘size’ of the mainstream important part of most young people’s video game industry at present is open to lives today. Recent figures suggest that interpretation). Industry commentators and nearly 70% of children play computer digital game researchers often quote game games every week, and mobile games statistics in relation to other media. For play is increasingly common, with 68% example, Sony’s Playstation2 console of children playing games on their phone launched in Japan in February 2000, every week (Facer 2001). A growing body selling 980,000 units in its first weekend of research points to games currently and thus becoming the biggest launch of being the most frequently used ‘interactive any electronic consumer device in history media’ amongst children. Beentjes (2001) (Poole 2000). There is also the oft-quoted and Feierabend & Klingler (2001) showed observation that over the Christmas 1998 that playing games was the most period in the US, one videogame (Zelda: prominent PC-related activity of children Ocarina of Time) grossed $160 million, far between 6 and 13. exceeding the most popular cinema film

8 2.3 WHY DO PEOPLE PLAY GAMES? • 87% of most frequent computer and for children to video game players said the number Research on the motivations for games one reason they play games is because enjoy playing, playing have been carried out by it’s fun the game must researchers across a number of • games are challenging (72%) disciplines. One of the earliest, and most be neither too cited, research works is by Thomas Malone • games are an interactive social difficult nor (Malone 1981) who identified three main experience that can be shared with ways in which games were able to motivate friends and family (42%) too hard players: fantasy, challenge and curiosity. • games provide a lot of entertainment Other research confirms these findings; value for the money (36%). for example, in research using educational software, Amory et al (1988) identified Therefore, no clear consensus emerges on curiosity (“what happens if I do this”) the reasons why people play digital games. as a common motive in playing a game. This is unsurprising since the games Presumably the fact that something does themselves vary enormously and, as some happen encourages players to proceed, researchers point out, the individuality of and the quality of what happens in terms the player provides a sometimes complex of user engagement is the factor that set of reasons for game play. Poole (2000) keeps them playing. The TEEM data notes that: suggests that degree of difficulty is important here; for children to enjoy “Videogames are powerful, but they are playing, the game must be neither too nothing without humans to play them. So difficult nor too hard (McFarlane et the inner life of videogames - how they al 2002). work - is bound up with the inner life of the player.” A key concept that frequently emerges in the literature is that of ‘flow’, first discussed by Csikszentmihalyi (1990). This 2.4 CONCERNS AROUND is summarised by several researchers as COMPUTER GAMES PLAY “the state in which we are so involved in something that nothing else matters”, which has clear relevance to research into 2.4.1 Games displacing games and play. Debate on the issue of other activities ‘flow’ centres around how the ‘state’ can be created in an individual, and measuring The impression of much of the mass- how it might make a person more media, and some research, is often of a receptive to receiving, comprehending and population of children playing video games using educational-based content and skills to the exclusion of all other activities. The (we will go on to discuss in more detail implication often being that time how ‘flow’ might apply to the design of traditionally dedicated to ‘better activities’ learning games in Section 4). such as social play and physical recreation, is spent on anti-social, A 2001 survey (ESA) produced four main physically unhealthy and mentally numbing reasons for gameplay, namely: game playing, possibly leading to addictive

9 SECTION 2 GAMES CULTURES AND PLAY

longitudinal patterns of use. Though research is often Gender differences in game players and oriented towards ‘snapshot’ results as the games they play have been research does opposed to tracking game-players over increasingly discussed across a range of not show a long- longer periods of time, longitudinal research and media during the last research does not show a long-term decade, but clear conclusions remain term significant significant commitment to games over elusive. Circumstantial/informal evidence commitment to other activities. points to a substantial proportion of players of video games being female. It is games over Creasey’s study (1986) of American 9 to 16 difficult to identify any historical trends in other activities year-olds shows an initial rise in game gendered use of digital games, or how the playing time at the expense of other attitude of boys or girls towards games leisure activities when such a medium is change as children grow older. While introduced, but this soon decreased. Some games are no longer exclusively the research evidence suggests younger preserve of teenage boys, it is still the case children (at primary or lower secondary that the intense games players are more levels) are more likely to play games likely to be boys than girls, with figures regularly than children in the upper years varying between research reports of secondary school (Facer 2001, according to the criteria used. Girls may McFarlane et al 2002). Durkin (1995) play the same games as boys, but they concludes that what appears to be may play them differently (McFarlane et al game-playing addictions are: 2002). From an analysis of surveys Fromme (2003) hypothesises that girls “…actually transient phases of excessive generally lose interest in games as they involvement rather than enduring age and use PCs for other uses, while boys dependencies from which the victim will still use PCs primarily as games machines. find it very difficult to escape.” McFarlane (2002) surveyed English schoolchildren and discovered that: (Marsh 2001) analysed the activities of a sample of English families and discovered “There is a tendency among girls to play that 3 to 4 year-olds watched television for games when they are bored or have time periods far greater than involvement nothing more interesting to do, whereas in any other ‘leisure pursuit’, including the boys are more likely to play games as a playing of video games. Other studies first choice activity.” support this, such as a European comparative study in 1997/1998 which showed that people aged between 6 and 16 2.4.2 The effects of violence spent on average 32 minutes per day on game players playing electronic games, but 136 minutes watching television. Recent informal The issue of violence within games is an comment indicates an increasing important one, as it crucially affects the awareness amongst the general public acceptability of digital games in general that games offer various forms of mental and especially in the educational sector. stimulation (BBC 2003), often in Views on violence and game players are comparison to a perceived ‘dumbing down’ often polarised and entrenched, even in the content of television programmes. amongst academic researchers.

10 However, the reporting on this issue often reviews, including a brief filed by 33 fails to distinguish between separate, scholars with the US Court of Appeals though related, issues: (Heins 2002).

1 Are games ‘violent’ (and what is defined The longevity of the effects of violent video as ‘violent’), and different to violence games on people, and especially children, demonstrated in other media such as is questioned by several reviewers of the TV, cinema, comic books and literature? literature in this area, eg Bensley (2000). It 2 Do ‘violent’ video games attract players is pointed out that the nature of research who already possess violent behavioural of this type is that results are collected attributes, or does the playing of during or shortly after the experiment, ‘violent’ games make the games player therefore not providing any data that can more aggressive, or facilitate the indicate the long-term effects of violent transfer of violent acts from the game content or conduct within games. into their own lives? Several researchers, such as Anderson it is highly A large number of studies and and Dill (2000), note the increasing investigations have been carried out on the ‘realism’ within video games and state unlikely that the second issue (considerably less on the this as a reason for ongoing research issue of games first) since the early 1980s. Much of this into any linkage between such media work comes from psychology and and violent or aggressive behaviour. and violence will sociology, and focuses on the effects of A widely discussed example is in the be ‘resolved’ games on younger schoolchildren in game Grand Theft Auto III, where the particular. The classical stance on this player is able to engage in sexual practices issue takes one of two positions: with a prostitute, then (in a separate act) kill her to retrieve the fee. Even with 1 The General Aggression Model, where this example, there are proposals “violent media increase aggression by that this might be used as a resource teaching observers how to aggress” to stimulate classroom debate on (Anderson and Bushman 2001). morality within contemporary culture (Gillespie 2002). 2 The Catharsis Theory, where “video game playing may be a useful means of In summary, it is highly unlikely that the coping with (or releasing) pent-up issue of games and violence will be aggression” (Emes 1997). ‘resolved’ (it should also be noted that parallel debates surrounding other media Reviews of the research and resulting have existed for much longer). As well as literature produces an unclear picture with having vocal proponents on both sides, the often contraditory conclusions on the large amount of research (of varying effects of violent games on people (Dill and quality, and often fragmented or out of Dill 1998; Griffiths 1999). The underlying context) has failed to reach a consensus. methods, results and conclusions of some This is arguably because more reliable studies which produced positive research would require researchers to correlations between violent games and study significantly more players, to explore behaviour have been questioned in several other factors in violent behaviour and to

11 SECTION 2 GAMES CULTURES AND PLAY

examine cause-and-effect relationships example of Tomb Raider, to assume a over long periods of time (years, instead female persona or on the implications of days or even hours). for young male players of the dominant models of male personality and appearance represented in games 2.4.3 Gender images such as Grand Theft Auto.

In Bryce and Rutter’s (2002) key review of Research into role-playing games, gender and gaming research it is noted however, suggests that the question of that much of the discussion to date has gender and character identification may focused around the content of the games, not be quite so straightforward as earlier as opposed to deeper analysis of gender- commentators suggested. In role-playing specific motivation to play games. In other games where avatars are created by words, there is a focus on analysing the players, for example, there seems to be a representations within a game, rather than pattern that the first creations do indeed on the experience of playing. Predominant mimic the player’s gender and age identity, in both mass-media coverage and but that later characters play with gender, research, for example, is the character of age, ethnicity and sexual orientation. This Lara Croft from the Tomb Raider series of play with identity is widely believed to be so games. The focal point of debate is common that experienced players do not whether Lara presents a positive role assume an avatar reflects the player. In model or an unhelpful vision of the ‘perfect recent research with 16 to 28 year-old woman’ (Kennedy 2002). Research in the boys, they expressed no interest in young field that has looked across a number of female avatars in the MMORPG (Massively different games, however, emphasises that Multiplayer Online Role-Playing Game) there is “a general lack of female game they were playing, assuming they would be characters, and the sexualised and middle-aged men in reality (Burn et al stereotypical representations of those 2003). Bryce and Rutter conclude by included female characters” (Bryce and arguing that: Rutter 2002a; Dietz 1998; Greenfield 1994; Kafai 1996; Kinder 1996). “It is apparent that gaming practices are undergoing rapid social and technical In considering the appeal of characters, changes and, at the same time, it is there are concerns that females are noticeable that gendered perceptions of alienated if they do not have identities in gaming are changing… this is not a the game they can relate to. This has led to phenomenon unique to gaming and is crude attempts by the gaming industry to consistent with the increased participation attract female game players, by producing of females in other leisure activities.” both hardware and software that reinforces classical gender stereotypes, eg pink Their conclusion is that gender relevance games consoles, or games based around to games and gaming is a complex and dolls (Cassell and Jenkins 1998). rapidly evolving issue, and effectively needs to be researched within a wider In contrast, however, there is little debate social context than that of the gaming on why males seem happy, as with the experience alone.

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3 GAMES AND LEARNING or development of capacity to operate within particular communities. Today, 3.1 LEARNING THEORIES however, many researchers would argue that these processes are not mutually In order to understand the potential role of exclusive, indeed, one particularly mainstream games in supporting learning, pragmatic researcher in the field of games we need first to ask what we mean by and learning argues that the model we ‘learning’. This is harder than it looks as apply to learning should depend on what it there are multiple and evolving definitions is that we are trying to ensure people learn of learning, with significant areas of at any given time (Prensky 2001): disagreement both as to what it means to learn, and what forms of learning are “It seems to me… that there is another way valuable. The table below is adapted of looking at all of this… and that is: ‘How from Smith (1999) and defines key do they learn what?’… We must fit the ‘how ‘battle lines’ in this debate. do people learn?’ question to ‘what it is they are learning?’ “ (p80/82) These models view learning, as alternatively a process which leads to Given the state of the debate is seems change in behaviour, change in ways of clear that the potential roles and value of thinking, achievement of personal potential games in education will vary depending on

Aspect Behaviourist Cognitivist Humanist Social and situational

View of the Changes Process entirely A development Interaction/ learning behaviour in the head of of personal observation in process the learner (inc- potential a group context, luding insight, akin to an information apprenticeship processing, memory, perception)

Site of External Making connec- Emotion, Learning needs learning resources and tions in learner’s attitude and a relationship tasks are what head is what thinking are between people matters really matters important and environment

Purpose Produce Develop capacity Become Full participation in education behavioural and skills to self-reliant, in communities change in learn better autonomous of practice, ie desired you graduate direction from apprentice to craftsman

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who is learning what, where, and why. from the structure of computer games and With that caveat in mind, we now attempt psychological theory rather than direct and to summarise how researchers in this field sustained empirical evidence. Recent have described the role of mainstream studies at Futurelab have raised some games in supporting learning both in questions as to whether children are in fact school settings and as part of children’s able to move from intuitive problem solving leisure time. in the game to an understanding of effective processes for identifying problems and generating hypotheses and solutions in 3.2 LEARNING WITH GAMES other contexts. OUTSIDE SCHOOL Other research has identified that In line with developments in learning children’s use of computer games may play theory, research that has examined a significant role in developing effective use children’s self-motivated computer games of computer-mediated information play sees their learning as a process of resources. Mackereth (1998) for example, participation in practice rather than a argues that “there is evidence to suggest process of acquisition of facts or that familiarity with, and interest in, video disconnected ‘pieces’ of information, ie games can influence children’s confidence ‘doing’ rather than ‘knowing’. This takes a when using computers for more variety of different forms. professional applications” and goes on to argue that children unfamiliar with video games: 3.2.1 Learning ‘competencies’ “…may not develop the skills necessary to relate with electronic media, such as Certain researchers have focused on dealing with dynamic visual change, children’s interactions with individual parallel processing of multiple streams of games can games in order to attempt to identify ‘what information and the ability to experiment in children have learnt’ from playing. Since support the free-form, ill-defined problem domains.” games are often characterised by a trial- development of and-error approach to overcoming Two studies of children’s use of computers challenges or obstacles, commentators logical thinking in the home argue that children’s early have suggested that these games can interactions with computer games and problem support the development of logical thinking encourage them to develop a playful and problem solving skills (Inkpen et solving skills approach to computers (Downes 1998), al1995; Higgins 2000; Whitebread 1997). which develops the expectation that ‘trial Much of this research has focused on and error works’, and that linear ‘strategy or adventure games’, which progressive models for using computers encourage students in exploratory (such as those characterised by quest-like scenarios with a high degree worksheets or computer manuals) are of control over their progress (Malone often the least effective way of engaging 1983; Russell 1990). with computer-based technologies (Facer et al 2003). This could have implications for To date, however, it could be argued that the way that children approach computer- much of this research relies on inference

14 based learning tasks, making it difficult to number being developed and marketed as games are often integrate these with other resources or a ‘social experience’ or ‘party game’. activities. Massanari (1998) also records Communication within games is becoming a facilitator teachers’ concern that gaming in schools more complex; one prime example of this to social, com- may make it harder to engage children with is Moto GP (Moto GP), an online (Xbox) the computer as a tool in more motorbike racing game where, through a munication and conventional learning tasks. microphone, the players can communicate peer activities with those bikers who are close by on the track. The emergence of role-playing and 3.2.2 Learning to learn – new online gaming as predominant genres adds approaches to collaboration to this culture of playing, if not always physically together, then in communication Research into the wider context of games with others. play indicates that, contrary to populist media opinion, games are often a facilitator Until recently, there were few attempts to to social, communication and peer understand how mainstream games activities. This has always been the case; generate motivation, engagement and, in the early years of computer gaming, arguably, learning experiences through the a ‘playground culture’ of discussing, discussions and collaborations generated swapping, buying and selling games between players. One specific game, emerged. A Tale in the Desert (ATITD) is attracting particular interest amongst the research An early study (Greenfield 1984), for community. Described as a ‘social example, argued that half of all young experiment’, it is an online game with no people who spent time in video games combat, only art, architecture and thought. arcades weren’t actually playing games at There is also no end point to the game; the all - rather they were using the arcade as a main underlying motivation to continue social gathering space. Fromme (2003) playing seems to be the social interaction. describes several surveys indicating that playing games with others is popular with Perhaps surprisingly, this replacement of a German children, while Tobin (1998) argued defined end goal with social interaction is that boys’ gaming was not simply a process becoming an increasingly common theme of ‘playing the game’ but embedded in in games. The acclaimed Nintendo title social interactions. Animal Crossing (AC) (named Animal Forest in the US) is set in a series of virtual Examination of the culture, and marketing, towns, where players earn money in order of video games reveals a wealth of material to pay off their mortgage and accumulate available to support games cultures and possessions. However, the game opens up conversations. News and opinion on games when the various communication systems comes from a number of sources, including are used, through which players can send games magazines, websites and online ‘post’ to each other (in the game), as well forums, encouraging reading and as mail items, swap access codes, and visit discussion amongst game players. The play each other’s towns and houses. itself may also be social; many games have a multiplayer option, with an increasing Interactive communities often develop around mainstream games with or without

15 SECTION 3 GAMES AND LEARNING

developers’ encouragement, as enthusiasts which images and words, sounds, music, create websites, discussion boards and movement and bodily sensations are other communication environments to factors, and their recognition and exchange information, experiences and production evidence of the learning of even resources related to a game. these emerging literacies. For Gee, video games are a family of semiotic domains What these studies suggest is that one of defined by the characteristics of specific the more interesting relationships between genres such as first-person shooters, computer games and learning is not simply fantasy role-playing games, real-time the interaction between the player and the strategy games and so on, although these game; rather, through processes of generic domains overlap just as they might discussion, collaboration and reflection on in certain branches of science. Such games embedded in peer group cultures, domains are also, Gee points out, far from children are learning how to play, and static objects defined only by their content, perhaps learn, in collaboration with others but rather they are predicated on lived, (Williamson and Facer 2003). historically changing sets of distinctive social practices in which content is continually renegotiated and transformed.” 3.2.3 Learning to participate in practice Central to the argument about what video games offer to learning is Gee’s assertion James Paul Gee’s recent book (Gee 2003) that semiotic domains are shared by ‘What Video Games can Teach us About groups of people, described as ‘affinity Learning and Literacy’, has excited debate groups’, sharing knowledge, skills, tools within games and learning forums. His key and resources to form complex systems of contention is that through informal games interrelated parts. Within an affinity group, play, children learn to participate in what learners gain resources from fellow he calls ‘semiotic domains’, which are members that equip them to solve shaped by children’s interaction with problems within, and perhaps outside games texts and with each other. Gee uses of, the specific domain - and this is the term ‘semiotic domain’ to mean a set evidence of ‘active learning’. For Gee, of things that can take on meaning, eg however the crucial aspect of this words, gestures or pictures, used to practice is ‘critical learning’: communicate distinctive types of meaning, for example the specialist language used “The learner needs to learn not only how to understand and produce meanings in a through by doctors or the way graffiti artists use image. The following extract from a recent particular semiotic domain that are informal games review of Gee’s book (Williamson 2003) recognisable to those affiliated with the highlights the key arguments: domain, but, in addition, how to think play, children about the domain at a ‘meta’ level…(and) learn to “Gee begins by describing games as how to produce meanings that, while recognisable, are seen as somehow participate in ‘multimodal texts’ (texts that mix words and pictures) belonging to distinct ‘semiotic novel or unpredictable.” (p23) ‘semiotic domains’ that employ a range of strategies contributing to new forms of literacy in In other words, players must understand domains’ what they are doing and develop their

16 comprehension of both a game’s ‘internal • active vs passive design grammar’, or the ways in which its • play vs work content is presented, and its ‘external design grammar’, or the ongoing social • payoff vs patience practices that determine the principles and • fantasy vs reality patterns through which members of the • technology as friend vs technology domain recognise all the activities and as foe. practices which comprise it. Such systemic thinking, Gee argues, allows players to These ten characteristics of new methods think about and critique games as of learning could be explained as young systems and designed spaces rather than people developing the ability to process simply moment-by-moment playable information very quickly, determining what environments. Such critical thinking is not is and is not of relevance to them; the playing computer only absent in many schooling practices, ability to process information in parallel at but goes unnoticed in much appreciation of games is the same time from a range of different what games can offer in terms of learning sources; the familiarity with exploring encouraging (Williamson 2003). information in a non-linear fashion – ie by young people to ‘jumping’ through a range of different information resources, creating links rather learn in different Games play and changing 3.2.4 than following a ‘story’; the tendency to ways from those expectations of learning access information in the first instance through imagery and then use text to valued in the What is key to most research into games clarify/expand and explore; familiarity with school setting and learning outside school, then, is a non-geographically bounded networks of sense that playing computer games is communication; a relaxed approach to encouraging young people to learn in ‘play’, viewing this as a valid activity and different ways from those often in evidence, conceptualising the computer as primarily or explicitly valued, in the school setting a ‘play tool’; expecting intrinsic reward for (although it should be noted that much of activities; and having a model of doing in this research is often driven by a desire to order to learn, rather than learning in transform schools and sometimes paints a order to do. Finally, these characteristics pessimistic picture of current practices). also include a relaxed acceptance of Marc Prensky, a leading advocate of games fantasy as a valid space of experience and a for learning (or training) argues that young view of technology as a friend they have people today expect different approaches to grown up with (Prensky 2001). learning. The ‘new vs old’ tensions are summarised as: While we would wish to raise some notes of caution about any attempt to define an • twitch speed vs conventional speed entire generation of young people as having • parallel processing vs linear processing a shared set of expectations and practices, this attempt to theorise new approaches to • graphics first vs text first learning raises some interesting questions • random access vs step by step about how we currently conduct formal • connected vs standalone education in schools (Facer 2003a). In particular, Prensky’s theories and the

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research outlined in the preceding sections tips and models of learning to other raises key questions around the role of play children. Perhaps more than any other in learning, the ‘purpose’ of education, the aspect, this reconceptualisation of children role of learning through activities perceived as bearers of expertise, as capable of as intrinsically motivating to children, and acting in the role of expert, raises serious the changing roles of children as learners. questions about how we currently structure learning experiences in schools. The identification of any games as a site for ‘playful’ learning is repeatedly emphasised through the research literature, sometimes 3.3 LEARNING WITH MAINSTREAM as an extreme opposition to children’s GAMES IN SCHOOLS experiences in school: While the majority of research discussed so “Games are… the most ancient and time- far has been concerned with what and how honored (sic) vehicle for education. They children learn in their informal playing of are the original educational technology, the computer games, in recent years there natural one, having received the seal of have been a number of studies of the use approval of natural selection. We don’t see of mainstream computer games in schools, mother lions lecturing cubs at the intended to explore whether these games chalkboard; we don’t see senior lions can have any role in supporting current writing their memoirs for posterity. In light educational objectives. Given the research of this, the question, ‘Can games have above on the potential of games to support educational value?’ becomes absurd. It is learning of competencies, collaboration not games but schools that are the and participation in practice, however, newfangled notion, the untested fad, the there are some significant tensions in violator of tradition. Game-playing is a vital evidence when introducing mainstream educational function for any creature games into the school setting. capable of learning.” (Crawford 1982) Three recent studies in the UK attempted The notion of playful learning emphasises to understand how mainstream games experiences such as experimentation, could be used in school. Each included exploration, trial and error, imagination, surveys of predominantly UK teachers roleplay, and simulation of experience who had attempted, or wanted, to use suggesting that it might be possible to mainstream games in the classroom develop environments for learning based (Becta 2001; McFarlane et al 2002; on these activities. Kirriemuir 2002). The most frequently encountered perceived or actual Finally, observing children’s play of obstacles were: mainstream games in leisure time raises questions about the role we ascribe to • it was difficult for teachers to identify children as learners in schools. The review quickly how a particular game was of literature around children’s social games relevant to some component of the play, for example, repeatedly highlights the statutory curriculum, as well as the ways in which children take on the role of accuracy and appropriateness of the teachers, providing advice, support, hints, content within the game

18 SECTION 4 KEY ISSUES IN DEVELOPING GAMES FOR LEARNING

• the difficulty in persuading other school However, neither teachers nor parents stakeholders as to the potential/actual were happy with the notion of playing educational benefits of computer games games in lesson time since such skill • the lack of time available to teachers to development did not match the criteria familiarise themselves with the game, assessed in high stakes national tests. and methods of producing the best results from its use 4 KEY ISSUES IN DEVELOPING • the amount of irrelevant content or functionality in a game which could not GAMES FOR LEARNING be removed or ignored, thus wasting valuable lesson time. As far back as 1979, it was envisaged that the motivational aspects of digital The key disadvantage with mainstream games play might be used to support games used ‘cold’ in the classroom was the acquisition of knowledge outside the amount of time taken for both the the game itself. Some of the distinctions student and teacher to orient themselves between the resulting ‘learning games’ within the game. Squire (2003) describes and ‘mainstream games’ are shown several sessions where historical strategy in Fig 1. simulation games are used in a classroom, showing the considerable effort needed by There are two key themes common the teaching staff to keep the students ‘on to the development of games for track’ within the game. This extra-topic education, namely: play may or may not be valuable to learning generally but in either event the school • the desire to harness the motivational curriculum has clear boundaries and power of games in order to ‘making objectives related to high stakes assessment learning fun’ – wandering beyond these boundaries is • a belief that ‘learning through doing’ in seen as wasting valuable time. games such as simulations, offers a powerful learning tool. It is not only extraneous content that takes gaming outside the boundaries of the set This section of the report will examine curriculum. In the TEEM report (McFarlane both these aspects of the design of games et al 2002), teachers and parents for learning, and ask whether they are recognised that games play can support well-founded objectives for design and children take valuable skill development such as: development of digital game-based learning resources. on the role • strategic thinking of teachers, • planning 4.1 ‘MAKING LEARNING FUN’ providing advice, • communication support, hints, • application of numbers The central ethos of traditional tips and models • negotiating skills ‘edutainment’ software has been to make learning ‘fun’ although this is usually of learning to • group decision-making shorthand for the encouragement of • data-handling. engagement. One strategy is to introduce other children

19 SECTION 4 KEY ISSUES IN DEVELOPING GAMES FOR LEARNING

Mainstream digital games Learning-oriented games

•widely known as computer •historically known as ‘edutainment’, and/or video games though negative associations with this word mean it is largely avoided by • developed solely for fun for contemporary games publishers the user and to maximise profit for the publisher •almost exclusively produced for the PC; very few titles for the Mac or • typically developed for PCs and video dedicated games consoles games consoles. Contemporary titles usually require the most powerful • games are more simplistic, are hardware currently available produced in a range of formats, eg the debate on Flash, Shockwave, Java, Visual Basic • increasingly developed in relatively ‘making learning simplistic format for mobile •most titles are designed for sole-user, fun’ also often telephones offline play. assumes that • typically sophisticated in terms of •development costs are typically a fraction children do not graphics, interface and complexity; of those of major pure digital games production budgets similar to small enjoy learning to medium sized film budgets • not typically marketed to users, instead marketed mainly to parents • marketed directly to games players and teachers as being fun and exciting, graphically superb, the best game of its • marketed as being accurate, relevant particular genre to formal curriculum, developing specific skills/knowledge •uses high review scores in games magazines and tie-ins with other • uses recommendations from teacher, media as marketing aids parent and educational organisations as marketing aids

Fig 1: comparison between mainstream and ‘learning’ games

content into a game-like scenario by and adventure. Children are attracted to stealth. In theory this is an attractive such activity easily and will quite willingly arrangement (Ahuja 1994): go through a session, indeed, sometimes ask for it. A good example of this is the “In conventional education, the learner game Where in the World is Carmen is usually aware of the objectives of the San Diego, where the child learns history activity he or she is engaged in. For and geography in the process of being children, such learning objectives often a detective.” have little meaning… In interactive edutainment, on the other hand, the Where in the World is Carmen San Diego objective can be hidden while the activity has indeed been a successful exemplar appears driven by exploration, discovery of this concept, focusing on providing

20 elementary school reading, maths, doing sums, and thus quickly become geography, word, and critical thinking boring and ‘work’ skills. Other educational games that • the tasks are poorly designed and do have been shown to be successful in not support progressive understanding research studies focus on increasing a range of skills; for example, a piano tutor • related to this last point, the range of software package with overtones of video activities is severely limited within the game elements requires concentration, game, usually concentrating on one a sense of timing, accuracy and rhythm skill, or accumulation of homogenous (Sims 2001). content • the target audience becomes aware that There are, however, some researchers who it is being coerced into ‘learning’, express disquiet at the amount of focus possibly in a patronising manner. purely on motivation as a reason for playing games. For example, the authors Finally, the debate on ‘making learning of Project KID DESIGNER (Rieber et al fun’ also often assumes that children do 1998) write: not enjoy learning. Yet much research evidence contradicts this, arguing that “…limiting the discussion to motivation is children do enjoy learning when they have apt to designate the role of games as a a sense of their own progression and form of educational ‘sugar coating’ - where the learning is relevant and making the hard work of mathematics or appropriate for them. The ‘learning by language arts easier to ‘swallow’. We take stealth’ approach suggests that learning games much more seriously as we can only be enjoyable when it is consider both their motivational and unconscious. This is a significant area of cognitive elements. Whereas most children contention, with some researchers arguing play prepackaged games in school given to that reflection is an important part of the them by teachers, we are interested learning process, and others pointing out learning is at instead on the process of game design that we don’t necessarily reflect on our itself and how it can enhance learning.” own actions in day to day life, and yet still its most vibrant manage to learn from them (Prensky when it has And indeed today it seems that there 2001). There seems less doubt however, are other concerns about the notion of that learning is at its most vibrant when it relevance to ‘sugar coating’ education as a game, has relevance to the learner and is the learner both in terms of motivation and in terms therefore truly authentic, regardless of the of the extent to which these resources degree of consciousness (McFarlane 1997). actually achieve their educational objectives. To date, arguably, attempts to create truly engaging and effective 4.2 FROM ‘FUN’ TO ‘FLOW’ learning games have foundered for the following reasons: This focus on ‘fun’ and on ‘concealing the learning’ within educational games may, in • the games have been too simplistic in fact, be a red herring. Instead, it might be comparison to competing video games worth returning to some early analyses • the tasks are repetitive, eg continually that describes the pleasures of games play

21 SECTION 4 KEY ISSUES IN DEVELOPING GAMES FOR LEARNING

as a ‘flow’ experience (Malone 1980; characteristics as essential (Jones 1998): Csikszentmihalyi 1990). Prensky summarises this as: • task that we can complete • ability to concentrate on task “In the flow state, the challenges presented and your ability to solve them • task has clear goals are almost perfectly matched, and you • task provides immediate feedback often accomplish things that you didn’t • deep but effortless involvement (losing think you could, along with a great deal of awareness of worry and frustration of pleasure. There can be flow in work, everyday activity) sports, and even learning, such as when concepts become clear and how to solve • exercising a sense of control over our problems obvious.” (p124) actions • concern for self disappears during flow, The conditions likely to induce the flow but sense of self is stronger after flow state are characterised by Malone as: activity • sense of duration of time is altered. • the activity should be structured so that the player can increase or decrease the Rather than aiming for an experience that level of challenges faced, in order to superficially resembles leisure-based match exactly personal skills with the ‘fun’ activities, or one which attempts to requirements for action conceal the educational purpose, it might • it should be easy to isolate the activity, be argued that we should understand the at least at the perceptual level, from deep structures of the games play other stimuli, external or internal, which experience that contribute to ‘flow’ and might interfere with involvement in it build these into environments designed to • there should be clear criteria for support learning. performance; a player should be able to evaluate how well or how poorly (s)he is doing at any time 4.3 LEARNING THROUGH DOING • the activity should provide concrete feedback to the player, so that (s)he can Simulations are one of the most popular tell how well (s)he is meeting the types of games. Cruickshank (1980, p76) criteria of performance defined a simulation game as one “…in which participants are provided with a we should • the activity ought to have a broad range simulated environment in which to play”, understand the of challenges, and possibly several while defining simulations in their own qualitatively different ranges of right as (p75) “the products that result deep structures challenge, so that the player may obtain when one creates the appearance or of the games increasingly complex information about effect of something else”. Laurel (1991) different aspects of her/himself. (p14) play experience claims that: that contribute Another commentator, reflecting on how to “Educational simulations (as opposed to design engaging learning experiences, tutorial and drill-and-practice forms) excel to ‘flow’ draws on these definitions to propose eight in that they represent experience as

22 opposed to information. Learning through environment. For example, many people direct experience has, in many contexts, in the nuclear power industry train been demonstrated to be more effective extensively on PC-based simulations. and enjoyable than learning through ‘information communicated as facts’. However, this last example is pertinent to Direct, multi-sensory representations have one drawback of simulations, in that they the capacity to engage people intellectually can rarely simulate every nuance of a real- as well as emotionally, to enhance the world situation, and therefore (especially in contextual aspects of information, and to critical industries) cannot totally replace encourage integrated, holistic responses.” real-world training. In the nuclear industry, it would be worrying if workers In other sectors of society, simulations had no experience of a real nuclear are a recognised part of training. In the reactor, and only simulated experience, simulation business and economic sectors, before dealing with a crisis involving one. simulations are used heavily, as it is games are used obviously better to lose ‘virtual money’ In theory, as more powerful gaming increasingly when a novice than a company’s actual technology and graphics capabilities money. In medicine, simulations are used become standard, so simulation games in schools to test various treatments and to train can become more realistic in terms of medical staff without the need to cut open appearance and plausibility. However, this people, and in the military, simulations are is not necessarily the case; real-world extensively used (and increasingly situations often involve long periods of converging with contemporary games inactivity, punctuated by periods of action, technology) for quick and safe combat which does not map well onto the scenario training. The simulation field has ‘continuous flow’ and engagement of a its own long-established research game. For example, Shenmue, a recent community, grounded in a range of game for the Dreamcast, attempted to disciplines including mathematics, logic, provide a realistic impression of living. philosophy and engineering. However, the player spends some of the game at a bus stop, waiting for a bus to Simulation games possess several arrive (or not). Even though the game clock attractive properties: uses a speeded up version of real time, the game was still criticised in some quarters • they can be designed so the player for being ‘boring’ during these sequences. receives instant feedback regarding the consequences of their actions Simulation games are used increasingly in • the game controller or designer can schools, though their take-up so far has add, remove or adjust various factors been patchy. The Sim City game, where within the game people design complex cities against a metropolitan budget, is used possibly more • compared to real-world training where than any other mainstream game across materials and resources are used, a the educational system and has been simulation is often a much cheaper option evaluated within classroom settings (Sim • they enable dangerous actions to be City 2002). Various research projects have undertaken in a safe virtual analysed the use of this game in the

23 SECTION 5 FUTURE DIRECTIONS IN GAMES AND LEARNING

classroom and consistently report to predict how widespread simulation favourably, showing that this (and similar) games will become in education at school games enable group discussion and level, but until simulations can reliably re- experimentation, and often facilitate a create real world contexts using explicit wider range of skills than immediately models that reflect those being taught, apparent from the game (in the case of widespread adoption remains unlikely. Sim City, these include mathematical skills, urban planning, economics, engineering, environmental awareness and 5 FUTURE DIRECTIONS IN GAMES a host of others that can be mapped AND LEARNING directly onto academic subjects). 5.1 WHERE NEXT FOR RESEARCH until simulations Many other games on the market have simulation potential. For example, Super INTO GAMES AND LEARNING? can reliably Monkey Ball, which involves rolling a re-create real monkey around a maze without falling off In this report we have examined research the sides, demonstrates (and allows being carried out into the relationship world contexts, experimentation with) the concepts of between computer and video games and widespread velocity, friction, acceleration and gravity. learning. There has, since the turn of the The increasingly popular genre of fishing decade, been a much wider acceptance of adoption simulation, in games such as Sega Bass the potential for such games in education. remains unlikely Fishing, allows players to fish in a variety Traditional agencies are increasingly of locations. To be successful, the player funding research for a number of reasons, needs to acquire various information including a desire to keep up with (either from the manual or through trial contemporary technologies; the hope of and error), such as where the fish lies tapping in to the large commercial rewards (deep or shallow, shaded or sunlit water) of the gaming industry; and a small but and which bait is most effective for which increasing number of games-in-education situation. Here the player, to be success stories. This research is beginning successful, has to learn of the ‘ways of the to provide insights into how games fish’; this knowledge accumulation is might support learning both in children’s continually examined/tested by playing the day-to-day lives and in school. game itself. In order to continue to develop under- However, titles involving monkeys and standing in this field, the following fishing are rarely if ever used in the challenges now need to be acknowledged classroom, possibly because the and met: simulation and ‘learning’ possibilities seem less obvious (and the game appears • developments with technologies that to be more frivolous). One promising area host computer and video games are for the use of simulation is science, but moving at a rapid rate, in often many products with apparent potential for unpredictable directions. This creates this subject are inaccurate or simplistic problems with even short-term and therefore not widely used (McFarlane research, where the nature of and Sakellariou 2002). It remains difficult contemporary games can change significantly during the life of a research

24 project. Researchers and publishers of 5.2.1 The development of research research will need to develop new and educational games flexible approaches to conducting and attention to the communicating research rapidly Traditional edutainment titles of the educational uses repetitive drill form embedded within of mainstream • the underlying and historical research games are still being produced and covers a very wide arena of subjects, marketed to both schools and parents. games is often containing competing, complex While such ‘drill and practice’ is a proven gaining theories and positions. Educationalists principle of education and learning themselves cannot agree on the (McFarlane 1996), it is questionable momentum concepts of education and learning; whether such activities should occupy a games researchers often have to learn significant part of the school day, where about educational theory from the children have access to teachers, basics. To carry out rigorous research resources and more demanding and without making conscious or accidental creative learning tasks. assumptions in this field will require researchers to develop a good - and There are, however, a growing number of updated - working knowledge of games, examples of more imaginative software learning and education (all rapidly whose design is informed by educational evolving fields). theory, practice and research; Kar2ouche, the product of a collaboration between Despite these obstacles, research academic and industry partners using attention to the educational uses of gaming technology, is one such example. mainstream games is both growing and The high profile successes of more gaining momentum, as evidenced by the rigorously researched and innovative number of publications, new academic software may well result in a greater research groups, and conferences proportion of educational games being dedicated solely to this field. It is developed which are based on higher order increasingly obvious that a key element in principles of education and learning. maintaining this momentum will be an Key to success in this area is likely to be increase in the rigorous investigation of the development of effective collaborations examples where computer and video between both educators and those with games have been used in educational an in-depth understanding of games. settings (both the school and home), in At present there are a number of barriers order to add to models of how people learn to the games industry’s involvement in through gaming, and to provide justifiable such development, including: cases for others to examine and follow. • an awareness that producing software for this market will require different 5.2 WHERE NEXT FOR DEVELOPMENT standards and requirements of content OF GAMES FOR LEARNING? and game • developing and mass-marketing just one There are three main directions we can product to a country or even a continent now take to the development of computer is relatively cheap; more localised and video games for learning: requirements would push up the costs

25 SECTION 5 FUTURE DIRECTIONS IN GAMES AND LEARNING

• ‘conflicts of image’ may occur, where a increasing concern amongst the games games developer or producer would be research community that the use of producing both ‘fun’ or ‘cool’ games, such games in schools has now been and ‘learning games’ widely discussed for a number of years, • the almost total lack of video gaming but has still failed to take place in any equipment in schools, as opposed to coherent manner homes, would require a massive • cultural acceptance of games as media investment in hardware for producers of through which learning can take place. console-based games. This is to a degree outside of the control of the educational sector, which must contest or deal with wider public 5.2.2 Using mainstream games perceptions of games in schools • compatibility with school hardware, licencing agreements, and arguably The use of mainstream computer and other software, eg allowing the video games is both potentially very player/user to easily port the financial interesting and very challenging for formal results of a session on a business educational settings. Numerous simulation game into Excel challenges surround the use of these • there is a need for developers of games games in a classroom setting; while some (and other software) aimed at the formal it is in a titles offer more scope for learning in the education sector to consider the various less constrained home context. compromise stakeholders involved, and to consider both their needs (and how these may be between The key issues concerning the use of fulfilled by the game) and their reaction mainstream games in schools are: edutainment to such a device . and mainstream • the many roles and requirements of the Nevertheless, there is sufficient interest in teacher in terms of training, games that the use of these games in the classroom understanding of the game, keeping the to encourage further exploration in this area. the greatest students ‘on track’ and troubleshooting. It is arguable that the role of the potential lies teacher, or mediator, is often as 5.2.3 Using ‘lite’ versions of important as the game itself in terms of whether useful learning has taken place mainstream games (Birmingham 2001) It is perhaps in a compromise between • identifying games that may be edutainment and mainstream games that successful or useful in a classroom the greatest potential to classroom- situation. Here, educational funding useable games lies. These would: bodies need to ensure that a ‘chicken and egg’ situation does not develop, • have all unnecessary content removed where schools wait to view the results of (thus providing ‘immediacy of learning’) the successful deployment of games in other schools before introducing the • have their content and underlying rule technology themselves. It is of base verified and tested by educational organisations

26 • include background/help/training attention to the role of such interaction by materials for both the teacher/ creating online communities within which motivator, and for students various ‘educational games’ can be found. • include curriculum-relevant tasks Examples of this include the SparkIsland and content site, Grid Club and others. To date, however, these tend to be restricted to • allow users to save at regular intervals online communities ‘surrounding’ • be compatible with the original ‘full’ educational resources, rather than versions, so students could continue communities within which the games using the game at home activities generate discussion and debate. Trends indicate that such virtual • be offered to schools on an attractive communities could contribute significantly licensing system. to learning related to games play and, as virtual such, this activity warrants research and There is potential here for the games evaluation. communities industry to develop an attractive, and low- cost, solution. As the code already exists could contribute The value of collaborative learning, and the for the games, development costs for the role of computers in promoting such significantly to ‘lite’ versions should be very low. activity have been thoroughly researched. Marketing of the games would both open learning related Whilst such collaboration cannot be up new revenue streams, and extend the assumed, and children have to learn to to games play longevity of the original title, as students work together, computer-based activities keen on the game purchase it for their own can help in this process. How this use. This does however assume that there collaboration translates into a multiplayer are enough existing or planned games with gaming environment and how these sufficient content relevant to school-based environments might be used to support learning to form a ‘lite’ version. learning, remain some of the most interesting areas for potential further research and development. 5.2.4 Developing game-based learning communities 5.3 FINAL CHALLENGES The role of online communities associated with games in education is in its infancy The central theme of this report has been and little related research or evaluation a consideration of the case for developing, exists. The evidence from trials of games and using, computer and video games for play in school does point to the importance educational purposes. In various of children’s wider gaming culture. idiosyncratic ways, and mainly isolated Discussion, reflection and planning are all instances, such games and technologies collaborative activities that go on as are already being used in some children talk about their gaming, and plot classrooms (mainly in western countries). their next session. Moreover they see this However, various issues relating to talk as a vital part of the fun of gaming. perceptions of games, relevance to In recent years educational software curriculum, accuracy of content and developers have begun to pay more suitability for use in timetabled classroom

27 SECTION 5 FUTURE DIRECTIONS IN GAMES AND LEARNING

environments have so far prevented this becoming a mainstream activity in schools.

Before games can take on a meaningful role in formal or informal education, the education sector and the wider public and media need to better understand the potential and diversity of such ‘tools’. In addition, the games development industry needs to understand the constraints on schools, teachers, parents and above all children of time, resources, and the requirements of curriculum and examination if games with more direct educational value are to emerge. Though a rapidly growing and maturing body of research is helping to develop a clearer understanding of the educational potential of games, there are as yet a small number of games that have a clear contribution to make to the educational agenda.

28 BIBLIOGRAPHY

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33 END NOTES

END NOTES and game books: www.gameculture.com/index.html (i) Various web-only publications contain • The Digiplay website contains a stimulating and detailed research of high searchable database of computer quality; for example, Fromme’s paper on gaming books: computer games as a part of children’s www.digiplay.org.uk/books.php culture (Fromme 2003). The archives of the mailing forums populated by postings from • One particular site contains an extensive the key researchers in the field, such as listing of publications concerning the GamesNetwork (GamesNetwork) list, studies of role-playing games: provide pointers to where contemporary www.rpgstudies.net/ thought, debate and research are heading. The problem, especially to researchers In addition, several online journals used to traditional information-seeking (some peer-reviewed, and some not) procedures, is of tracking down and dedicated to the study of computer and validating such information. video games have recently started offering articles and references solely For those interested in identifying such in this particular research domain. information, the following indexes are Three in particular appear to be good particularly relevant: ‘starting points’ for further investigation: Computers in Entertainment (Computers • The Game Culture website provides in Entertainment), IJIGS (IJIGS) and references to online and journal articles, Game Studies (Game Studies).

34 (ii) Fig 2: Stakeholders to consider in the development of games for use in schools

Actor Affect School child Plays the game Friends of school child Peer pressure and group social behaviour can alter a school child’s perception or use of the game Teacher Needs to know how to use the game to best effect. Will examine the game critically Parent Keen to see that their child receives the best and most appropriate education and teaching Governor Approves or oversees teaching practice within the school Head teacher Approves financial spending on items such as technology and software within the school Technician Can determine, or enable, what technologies and software can work within the classroom Local funding body Affects funds that the school receives National educational body Indirectly affects funds that the school receives; prescribes curriculum that the school follows Media Reports on school and education matters, which can affect the attitude of the various actors

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