Waste As a Resource Development Opportunities Within Zambia’S Waste Value Chain and Management System

Waste as a Resource Development Opportunities Within Zambia’s Waste Value Chain and Management System

Luke Muller, Erica Ciaraldi, Andrew McNaught, Jonathan Allaire, and Andrew 23/05/2017 Ngwenya for the ILO Zambia

Green Jobs Programme

Table of contents Table of contents ...... 1 List of acronyms and abbreviations ...... 4 1. Executive summary ...... 5 2. Local context ...... 6 2.1 Social climate and demographics ...... 6 2.2 Communications, media and ICT ...... 6 2.2.1 Mobile technology ...... 6 2.2.2 Internet access ...... 6 2.2.3 Newspaper ...... 6 2.2.4 Radio ...... 6 2.2.5 Television ...... 7 2.2.6 Mobile banking and mobile money ...... 7 2.4 Energy usage and power supply ...... 7 2.4.1 Electricity ...... 7 2.4.2 Petroleum ...... 7 2.4.3 Charcoal ...... 7 2.4.4 Coal ...... 8 2.4.5 Renewable ...... 8 2.5 Economic activities ...... 8 2.5.1 Copper Mining ...... 9 2.5.2 Agriculture ...... 9 2.5.3 Manufacturing ...... 9 2.5.4 Foreign investment ...... 10 3. Investment incentives ...... 10 3.1 Business in Zambia ...... 10 3.1.1 Tax incentives ...... 10 3.2 Manufacturing ...... 11 3.3 Infrastructure ...... 12 3.4 Agriculture ...... 12 3.5 Tourism ...... 12 3.6 Energy ...... 12 4. Governance framework ...... 13 4.1 Legislation ...... 13 4.1.1 National legislation ...... 13 4.1.2 Waste management ...... 15 4.1.3 Extended producer responsibility ...... 16 4.2 Local policies ...... 17 4.3 Tax and tariffs ...... 17 5. Stakeholders ...... 17 5.1 Environmental management stakeholder framework ...... 17 1 5.2 Critical stakeholder analysis ...... 18 6. Waste management (household, commercial, industrial) ...... 19 6.1 Overview ...... 19 6.1.1 State of city specific waste management infrastructure and equipment ...... 19 6.1.2 Solwezi case study ...... 21 6.2 Waste collection ...... 23 6.2.1 Household ...... 23 6.2.2 State of city specific household waste collection ...... 23 6.2.3 Commercial ...... 27 6.2.4 State of city specific commercial waste collection ...... 27 6.2.5 Industrial ...... 27 6.2.6 State of city specific industrial waste collection ...... 27 6.3 Disposal sites ...... 32 6.3.1 Landfills and dumpsites ...... 32 6.3.2 Incinerators (Medical & Hazardous) ...... 32 6.4 Future infrastructure and city developments ...... 32 6.4.1 Lusaka ...... 32 6.4.2 Livingstone ...... 33 6.4.3 Chipata ...... 33 6.4.4 Kitwe ...... 33 6.4.5 Ndola ...... 34 6.4.6 Solwezi ...... 34 7. Waste Characterisation study ...... 34 7.1 Lusaka ...... 37 7.2.1 Lusaka waste audit ...... 37 7.2 Livingstone ...... 39 7.2.1 Livingstone waste audit ...... 39 7.3 Chipata ...... 41 7.3.1 Chipata waste audit ...... 41 7.4 Kitwe ...... 43 7.4.1 Kitwe waste audit (numbering of figures) ...... 43 7.5 Ndola ...... 45 7.5.1 Ndola waste audit ...... 45 7.6 Solwezi ...... 47 7.6.1 Solwezi waste audit ...... 47 8. Behaviour, attitudes and awareness around waste ...... 49 8.1 Waste disposal behaviour ...... 50 8.2 Waste disposal attitudes ...... 51 8.3 Waste management awareness ...... 52 9. Waste markets ...... 54 9.1 Buy back and transfer stations ...... 54 9.2 Local waste markets ...... 54 2 9.2.1 Recycling and composting in Lusaka ...... 54 9.2.2 Recycling and composting in Livingstone ...... 54 9.2.3 Recycling and composting in Chipata ...... 54 9.2.4 Recycling and composting in Ndola ...... 54 9.2.5 Recycling and composting in Kitwe ...... 54 9.2.6 Recycling and composting in Solwezi ...... 55 9.2.7 Recycling and composting markets, summary table ...... 56 9.3 International waste markets ...... 57 9.4 Industry bodies ...... 57 10. Summary of challenges ...... 57 11. Opportunities ...... 58 11.1 Organic waste ...... 58 11.1.1 Composting ...... 59 11.1.2 Black Soldier Fly ...... 61 11.1.3 Biochar ...... 62 11.1.4 Biogas ...... 62 11.1.5 Bioethanol ...... 63 11.2 Tyres ...... 64 11.3 Glass ...... 64 11.4 Plastic recycling ...... 65 11.5 Waste - Energy ...... 67 12. Further work and Recommendations ...... 68 13. References ...... 69 14. Appendix ...... 74 14.1 Social climate and demographics in the focus areas ...... 74 14.1.1 Lusaka social climate and demographics ...... 74 14.1.2 Livingstone social climate and demographics ...... 74 14.1.3 Chipata social climate and demographics ...... 74 14.1.4 Kitwe social climate and demographics ...... 74 14.1.5 Ndola social climate and demographics ...... 74 14.1.6 Solwezi social climate and demographics ...... 74 14.2 Stakeholder maps ...... 75

List of acronyms and abbreviations

CBE – Community-Based Enterprises CBD – Central Business District CEC – Copperbelt Energy Corporation COMACO – Community Markets for Conservation CSO – Central Statistical Office DAC – Development Assistance Committee (DAC) ECZ – Environmental Council of Zambia EMA – The Environmental Management Act, No. 12 of 2011 ENRMD – Environment and Natural Resources Management Department EPPCA – Environmental Protection and Pollution Control Act no. 12 of 1990 EPR – Extended Producer Responsibility GDP – Gross Domestic Product IEA – International Energy Agency IECC – Inter Agency Environmental Coordinating Committee ILO – International Labour Organisation IMF – International Monetary Fund LCC – Lusaka City Council MDG – Millennium Development Goal NSWMS – National Solid Waste Management Strategy NWASCO – National Water Supply and Sanitation Council OECD – Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development PRB – Population Reference Bureau SDG – Sustainable Development Goals SME – small- and micro-enterprise SWM – Solid Waste Management TAZARA – Tanzania Zambia Railway Authority UN – United Nations UNDP – United Nations Development Programme UNEP – United Nations Environment Programme VAT – Value Added Tax WIEGO – Women in Informal Employment: Globalizing and Organizing WMU – Waste Management Unit ZDA – Zambia Development Agency ZDHS – Zambia Demographic and Health Survey ZEMA – Zambia Environmental Management Agency ZESCO – Zambian Electricity Supply Corporation ZICTA – Zambia Information and Communications Technology Authority ZRA – Zambia Revenue Authority RDA – Road Development Agency

1. Executive summary

This report gives an overview of the current state of waste management infrastructure, related businesses, legal and regulatory frameworks, plans, and challenges in six major cities in Zambia: Lusaka, Livingstone, Chipata, Ndola, Kitwe and Solwezi. It also characterises the major waste streams in these cities to understand how different streams of waste are being handled by the public, private and informal sectors in residential, commercial and industrial settings. Local, national, or international market opportunities for the recycling or re-purpose of waste materials are identified, and potential opportunities to support green job creation. Identified opportunities can catalyse small- and micro-enterprise (SME) development, encourage private sector investment, and leverage Public-Private Partnerships that support the growing green economy in Zambia.

The International Labour Organisation (ILO) Green Jobs Initiative focuses on jobs that contribute to preserve or restore the environment. This can be achieved by increasing resource efficiency and minimising waste. The idea that economic growth can occur even while significantly reducing environmental impacts – is being touted as a way of achieving sustainable development without sacrificing economic gains. According to the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the green economy contributes to improved human well-being and social equity, while significantly reducing environmental risks and ecological scarcities (UNEP, 2011). Proponents of green growth theory posit that environmental measures and policies to ‘green’ the economy can generate significant growth and employment. UNEP explain that the poor control most of the natural resources in developing countries. Therefore, the conservation and sustainable management of these resources has the potential to both reduce poverty and generate growth in resource-dependent countries (Jacobs, 2012).

Around the world, population and economic growth are responsible for changing consumption patterns and generating huge amounts of solid waste. The improper management and disposal of solid waste in cities poses a real threat to public health and environmental preservation. Minimising and managing this waste in developing countries is a significant challenge, requiring a combination of sound environmental protection measures and policies. Capturing the full potential of the waste value chain will require a paradigm shift at the macro and micro levels, from viewing waste as a service to viewing waste as a resource. Waste must be viewed as something from which economic opportunities can be derived, for both the public and private sectors.

The collection and disposal of solid waste is a complex, crosscutting issue that comprises political, social, environmental, legal and economic issues. Waste minimisation and recovery often necessitate industrial processes, which require developed energy, water, sanitation, and transportation infrastructure. This is supported by a business-friendly environment, open and stable market, and public awareness and participation. An analysis of the challenges and constraints is equally complex, and solutions require a comprehensive and integrated approach that takes into account the current landscape of the aforementioned areas, anticipates their future development direction, and is responsive to the needs and desires of a plethora of stakeholders. To truly understand the larger factors impacting solid waste management in Zambia, this report provides a high-level overview of the current state of these areas, including: social-climate and demographics, national communications and information platforms, infrastructure, major economic activities, and the political landscape.

The existing policy, legislative, regulatory, and accountability frameworks that govern solid waste management within Zambia are complex, opaque, and insufficient to catalyse investment and job creation within the waste management sector. At the national level, the Ministry of Lands, Natural Resources and Environmental Protection has responsibility for the formulation, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of policies on the environment, natural resources, and pollution control. Through the Ministry, the Zambia Environmental Management Agency (ZEMA), assists other government Ministries and local authorities to regulate and advise on environmental protection measures. At a sub-national level, responsibility is further decentralised, with several departments within City or Municipal Councils mandated to oversee different aspects of solid waste management. While guided by national policies, these local authorities are responsible for developing their own by-laws around waste management.

Assisting the creation of green jobs is important in Zambia’s rapidly growing and urbanising population. Underdeveloped infrastructure and waste markets create challenges, but valuable waste streams are underutilised and opportunities exist for business growth and industrial synchronisation. Limited public awareness around waste management, recycling, and the environment, can also be improved. Potential solutions include reducing the high percentage of organic waste at many dumpsites through decentralised composting, biochar and bio-gas initiatives. This will reduce the mixing of organic and inorganic waste at source, and lower recycling costs. 5 Waste characterisation studies found high levels of organic waste in five of the six major cities, but many forms of inorganic waste are also underutilised including plastics, glass and tyres. Inorganic waste can often be viably recycled, used in the construction industry, or converted from waste to energy. Small and medium scale recycling businesses are currently operating in Zambia. The viability of recycling larger waste streams is possible if coordinated efforts enable both large and small businesses to access waste sources and markets.

2. Local context

2.1 Social climate and demographics Zambia is a land-locked country in sub-Saharan Africa that borders eight countries and covers a land area of 752,612 square kilometres (CSO, 2014). As of July 2016, it is estimated that Zambia’s population is approximately 15.9 million (PRB, 2016a). Zambia is ranked as the 5th youngest population in the world, with 46.08% of the population below 14 years of age and 66.08% of the population below 24 years of age. Zambia is the 8th fastest growing country in the world, the population is estimated to reach 24.1 million by mid-2030 and 41 million by mid-2050. Rapid population growth can worsen poverty and places a strain on the country’s infrastructure, particularly their ability to adequately provide social services (PRB, 2016a; The World Factbook, 2016; UN Habitat, 2007a).

Further demographics for the six focus areas in this study can be found in section 14.1 of the appendix.

2.2 Communications, media and ICT Improved waste management and waste minimization is predominantly a behavioural issue, provided adequate management systems are in place. As a critical platform for information dissemination, the media and other communication platforms can play a vital role in raising public awareness around waste and changing behaviour towards improved waste management practices.

2.2.1 Mobile technology The estimated number of active mobile subscribers in Zambia in 2016 is 11.3 million, equating to a national penetration rate of 70.5% (ZICTA, 2016a). As of 2015, 78% of the population was covered by a mobile network (ZICTA, 2016b). Of the three mobile operators, MTN and Airtel share the majority of the market with approximately 43% of network coverage each. Zamtel, the government-owned telecommunication company, ranks third at 27% (ZICTA, 2016b). Despite the improving availability and affordability of internet access, discussed in section 2.2.2, only 14% of people have a smart phone. As such, SMS is still a widely used form of communication, with over 1.4 billion SMS sent in 2015 (ZICTA, 2016b).

2.2.2 Internet access Internet connectivity is steadily becoming more widespread throughout the country. However, only 7.1% of households have a computer and only 9% of households across the country have access to any device with internet access (The World Factbook, 2016; ZICTA, 2015). Fixed internet subscription is still low (0.22% in 2016) (The World Factbook, 2016), despite the increased availability of providers offering fast broadband (such as fibre- optic cable networks) and the relative affordability of their services. Many people access the internet through their mobile devices. As of 2016, there are 5.7 million mobile internet users, which equates to a penetration rate of 35% (ZICTA, 2015).

2.2.3 Newspaper Even with the increasing use of mobile and internet services, newspaper, radio and television remain critical and widely accessed platforms for communication and information-dissemination in Zambia. The main independent newspaper in Zambia was the Post, which had a large readership but was closed in 2016 after a tax row. The Times of Zambia and the Zambia Daily Mail are the two largest state-owned newspapers.

2.2.4 Radio The proportion of households owning a working radio decreased from 52.6% in 2013 to 45% in 2015, with a faster reduction in urban areas (ZICTA, 2016b). However, radio still has the largest reach of all media, as devices are cheap and many people listen to the radio through their mobile phones.

6 2.2.5 Television Zambians have limited access to television in households (33% in 2015) (ZICTA, 2015). Zambia National Broadcasting Corporation (ZNBC) operates one TV station with three channels TV1, TV2 and TV3 and is the principal local-content provider. There are several private TV stations, the largest of which is TopStar TV, accessed by a one-off subscription fee. Additional popular TV stations include Muvi TV, Prime TV, QTV and Covenant Broadcasting Company (CBC) among others.

2.2.6 Mobile banking and mobile money Mobile or electronic payments platforms are growing in popularity in Zambia. In 2015, Zambia had more mobile money accounts than back accounts (GSMA, 2015). Donor-financed projects are also underway to reach additional users of digital finance (UNDP, 2015). The combination of high mobile penetration with widespread availability of retail agents means operators are placed better to connect unbanked people with the basic financial services they need.

2.4 Energy usage and power supply 2.4.1 Electricity In 1996, the Zambian government set a goal for universal access to electricity by 2030. As of 2015, access to and usage of electricity by Zambian households is still relatively low; only 25% of the urban population and 3% of the rural population have access to power (USAID, 2016). Efforts are underway to expand the power transmission and distribution network infrastructure, supplying power from the national grid to additional provinces and districts (ZESCO, 2016a).

There are currently two main electricity companies in Zambia: The state-owned Zambian Electricity Supply Corporation (ZESCO) and the Copperbelt Energy Corporation (CEC), established after the privatisation of a state- owned copper mine. Other smaller companies include Zengamina Generation Plants (hydropower), Lusemfwa Generation Plants (hydropower), Western Power (hydropower), Ndola Energy Generation Plants (Heavy Fuel Oil), and Rural Electrification Authority Generation Plants (solar) (ERB, 2016a). The majority of the households who access power from the national grid access it through the utility companies, including a number of smaller companies, but a small proportion of households utilise alternative energy sources such as solar panels (17%) and generators (1%) (ZICTA, 2015).

Of the total installed electricity generation capacity of Zambia (2,410 MW), hydropower is the most important energy source in the country (94% or 2,268 MW), followed by diesel, which contributes about 4% (92 MW) of the national energy supply. Heavy Fuel Oil and Solar contribute 50 MW and 0.06 MW respectively (ERB, 2016a). The national potential for hydropower is estimated at 6,000 MW, well above the 2015 levels. And, 99% of ZESCO’s electricity generation is hydropower (ZESCO, 2016a). To maximise Zambia’s installed generation capacity, the government is undertaking 11 new electricity generation projects. The majority of these are hydropower, but two are thermal (diesel powered).

2.4.2 Petroleum Zambia is self-sufficient in all its energy sources with the exception of petroleum, which in 2014 contributed about 9% to the nation’s total energy requirements. Petroleum – namely diesel, unleaded petrol, kerosene, heavy fuel oil and Jet A1 - is widely used in the agriculture, transport, and mining sectors (ERB, 2016a). With the expected completion of new agricultural and mining projects, the demand is projected to grow 40% per year on average (though this figure will now be impacted by load shedding) (ZDA, 2014b). In October 2016, the fuel subsidy was removed, increasing prices by almost 40%, from 9.87 kwacha/litre of petrol to 13.7 kwacha/litre (ERB, 2016b).

2.4.3 Charcoal Globally, less than 40% of people in low-income areas use electricity for lighting and many households still rely on charcoal for cooking and heating, and candles or paraffin for lighting (IEA, 2010). About 8 million bags of charcoal are consumed every year in Zambia. The production of charcoal occurs mainly outside of the urban areas by individuals working in the informal economy.

7 Figure 1 Charcoal being delivered to Chipata. Image source: Luke Muller, January 2017

Energy consumption in Zambia is dominated by the use of traditional wood fuels, namely charcoal and firewood. According to the Energy Services Delivery in Zambia Report 2004, the “present consumption of wood fuel exceeds the potential sustainable supply”. Deforestation is a serious threat to the total forestry land cover, which is currently estimated at 66% of the total land area. The unsustainability of charcoal, combined with significant health risks posed by the use of charcoal-powered indoor cook-stoves, necessitates the promotion of alternative energy sources.

2.4.4 Coal Zambia’s proven coal deposits, located in Southern province, are estimated at approximately 80 million tonnes and potential coal resources in the North and West of the country are estimated at 700 million tonnes. The country’s only two coalmines, Maamba Collieries Limited and Collum Coal Mine, are both located in Southern Province. Zambia exports its coal to several neighbouring countries, but most of the supply goes to satisfy local demand. Major domestic coal customers include the copper mines, breweries, tobacco farmers, and manufacturers (ZDA, 2014a). The contribution of coal to the total energy balance has been declining over the years, however, “with the regional power deficit, coal could become a major source of power generation especially with improved and more efficient generation technology” (ZDA, 2014a).

2.4.5 Renewable Given its geography and topography, “Zambia has enormous potential for increased power production from a vast array of renewables, including solar, hydro, (solid) biogas, biodiesel, ethanol, and waste to energy” (USAID, 2016). Currently, 88% of total energy consumption in Zambia comes from renewable resources, namely hydropower (PRB, 2016b). With an increased focus on sustainable development, the country is currently devising a renewable energy strategy to “increase the deployment of renewable energy”. Solar, wind, and geothermal energy, as well as mini- or micro-hydros are forms of renewable energy with immediate development potential in Zambia (ZDA, 2014a). The Power Africa: Beyond the Grid Program, a joint initiative that launched in Zambia in 2016, aims to provide one million Zambians with access to clean energy.

2.5 Economic activities The Zambian economy is heavily dependent upon the mining and export of copper, but the government is currently pursuing an economic diversification program to reduce its reliance on the copper industry. The program includes initiatives that pivot toward a focus on tourism, energy, agriculture, and agro-processing. Currently, major industries in addition to copper mining include agriculture, construction, transportation, and manufacturing. Manufacturing industries include food, beverages, tobacco, wood and wood products, paper and paper products, chemicals, rubbers and plastics, non-metallic mineral products, basic metal industries, and fabricated metal products. In 2015, it was estimated that agriculture comprised approximately 9% of Zambia’s GDP, the manufacturing industry comprised only 8%, mining was 10% and services were 61.1% of the GDP (The World Factbook, 2016; UNDP, 2016). Despite large growth in the manufacturing sector and other industries, much of the population, particularly in rural areas, is underemployed and dependent upon subsistence agriculture (UNDP, 2016).

2.5.1 Copper Mining With 6% of the world’s known copper reserves, Zambia is Africa’s second largest copper producer, having been surpassed by the Democratic Republic of Congo in 2014 (UNDP, 2016; ZDA, 2015b; ZDA, 2016c). High copper prices and the privatization of the mining sector – which has attracted over US $8 billion in investment since 2000 - helped spur large-scale economic growth. It is expected that copper production will reach 1.5 million tonnes by 2018, due in large part to new mining projects under development in the Copperbelt and North-Western Provinces. While the mining sector is dominated by the production of metallic minerals (copper, cobalt, gold, zinc and lead, iron ore, manganese, nickel and platinum group elements), the Zambia Development Agency hopes to attract further investment in the extraction and processing of gemstones (diamonds, emeralds, aquamarine and tourmaline) and industrial minerals (feldspar, sands, talc, barite, apatite, limestone, dolomite, clay) (ZDA, 2015b).

2.5.2 Agriculture 31.7% of Zambia’s land is used for agriculture (The World Factbook, 2016). Major crops include: maize, sorghum, rice, millet, sun flower, groundnuts, soya beans, wheat, mixed beans, sweet potatoes, and cassava. The production of “traditional” food crops, particularly those that are less reliant on heavy rainfall, is an approach that has been heavily promoted as a means to “achieving sustainable food production and enhancing agricultural productivity” (UN DESA, 2016).

Major crops in Lusaka province include soya beans and wheat. In the Eastern Province, they include maize, rice, sun flower, ground nuts and soya beans. In the Southern Province, major crop production includes maize, sorghum, sun flower, groundnuts, soya beans, sweet potato. In the Copperbelt Province, maize, soya beans and wheat are most common. In the North-Western Province, maize, sorghum, groundnuts and cassava are widely produced. Additional agricultural products include corn, vegetables, flowers, tobacco, cotton, coffee, cattle, goats, pigs, poultry, milk, eggs and hides (CSO, 2016).

2.5.3 Manufacturing The manufacturing sector is pivotal for economic development. In 2014, the manufacturing sector in Zambia accounted for approximately 11% of the GDP, with an annual growth rate of 3%. Manufacturing output grew by 50% between 2000 and 2011, driven largely by the agro processing (food and beverage), textile and leather subsectors. While government is responsible for creating an enabling policy and regulatory environment, it is the private sector that undertakes all manufacturing activities in the country (ZDA, 2014b). As of 2014, the composition of Zambia’s manufacturing sector was as follows:

Figure 2 Zambia’s manufacturing sector in 2014*

*Data source: Ministry of Energy and Water Development, 2016

9 2.5.4 Foreign investment Zambia is one of the main recipients of Foreign Direct Investment in Africa. The Zambia Development Agency (ZDA) serves as the resource for foreign investors wanting to do business with Zambia. Major investors include China, Canada, Australia and the United Kingdom. The ZDA endeavoured to establish an enabling policy environment to promote and attract foreign investment, “there are no laws or practices that discriminate against foreign investors by prohibiting, limiting or conditioning foreign investment in any sector of the economy” (US Department of State, 2015). Foreign direct investment in Zambia is focused primarily on mining and agriculture, but additional sectors where the government is particularly keen to draw foreign investors include infrastructure development (construction), tourism, manufacturing, and energy (UNDP, 2016; ZDA, 2016b).

3. Investment incentives

3.1 Business in Zambia According to the Zambia 2016 Investor Guide Handbook, GDP growth in 2016 is driven by the construction, manufacturing, transportation and communication, and food services sectors. The mining, agricultural, and electricity sectors are all predicted to contract over the year to varying degrees, though still play a significant economic role. The Zambian investment climate is ripe with potential and the government has developed an enabling policy environment that aims to attract investment and international trade from across sectors, while also boosting domestic economic growth. Further, government has privatised many of the priority sectors in an aim to foster an entrepreneurial spirit (ZDA, 2016c).

Zambia ranks at 111th out of 189 countries in the World Bank’s Ease of Doing Business 2016 index, up 14 places from the previous year. It scores well in terms of access to credit (23rd), sits in the middle in terms of starting a business (68th), and ranks poorly in terms of accessing electricity (126th), registering property (152th) and cross- border trading (177th). However, investors in recent years have also been deterred by irregular energy supply, inadequate infrastructure, underdeveloped ICT infrastructure and human resource skills, and weak governance (UNDP, 2016).

The Zambia Development Agency Act of 2006, amended in 2014, provides a range of fiscal and non-fiscal investment incentives to encourage private sector and foreign direct investment. A high-level overview of the investment incentives available to qualifying investors in Zambia’s major economic sectors is included below.

3.1.1 Tax incentives General tax incentives apply for investors meeting a certain investment threshold (US $500,000) in all of the identified priority sectors (ZDA, 2016c).

Incentives are important to encourage participation in waste management and processing, however existing incentives are focussed on larger business and industry, such as recycling or waste to energy. For smaller businesses looking to enter the waste management industry there are no or limited incentives within the current framework. It is also difficult for SMEs to break into this market due to restricted framework and licenses to operate.

3.1.1.1 Income tax • “Income earned by companies in the first year of listing on the Lusaka stock exchange qualifies for a 2% discount on the applicable company tax rate in the particular sector. However, companies with more than 1/3 of their shareholding in the hands of Zambians qualify for a 7% discount • Implements, machinery and plant used for farming, manufacturing or tourism qualify for wear and tear allowance of 50% of the cost per year in the first two years • Building used for manufacturing, mining or hotel qualify for wear and tear allowance of 10% of cost in first year and 5% of cost per year in subsequent years • Duty free importation of most capital equipment for the mining and agricultural sectors • Corporation tax at 15% on income from: farming, fertiliser production, and non-traditional exports (all exports other than copper and cobalt) • Farm works allowance of 100% of expenditure on stumping, clearing, prevention of soil erosion, bore holes, aerial and geophysical surveys and water conservation • Development allowance of 10% of the cost of capital expenditure on growing of coffee, banana plants, citrus fruits or similar plants 10 • Farm improvement allowance – capital expenditure incurred on farm improvement is allowable in the year of incurring the expenditure • Dividends paid out of farming profits are exempt for the first five years the distributing company commences business • Initial allowance of 10% on capital expenditure incurred on the construction or improvement of an industrial building is deductible • Foreign exchange losses of a capital nature incurred on borrowings used for the building and construction of an industrial or commercial building are tax deductible • Dividends declared by companies assembling motor vehicles, motorcycles and bicycles are exempt for the first five years of initial declaration of dividends • Carry Forward of Losses: Copper and Cobalt mining (10 years); Other mining (5 years); Non-mining (5 years); Farming and non-traditional exports (5 years) (ZDA, 2016b)

3.1.1.2 Value added tax Value Added Tax (VAT) is charged at 16% for non-registered clients. VAT incentives are: • Relief for VAT registered enterprises on imports of eligible capital goods (VAT deferment) • Zero rate on export of taxable products • Relief of VAT on transfer of business as a going concern • Equal treatment of services for vat-reverse VAT • Cash accounting for specialised associations, e.g. association of building and civil engineering • VAT relief on input tax paid for purchases made by registered suppliers • Input tax claim for three months prior to vat registration for businesses that have already commenced trading

• Reduction of VAT rate for investors in tax free zones (ZDA, 2016c)

There are specific VAT incentives per priority sector.

3.1.1.3 Non-fiscal incentives Persons or entities investing US $250,000 or more in any sector or product NOT provided for as a priority sector or product under the ZDA Act of 2006 are entitled to the following non-fiscal incentives: • Investment guarantees and protection against state nationalization

• Free facilitation for application of an investor’s permit, secondary licenses, land acquisition and utilities (ZDA, 2016c)

3.1.1.4 Facilitation services The ZDA also facilitates registered investors to: • Acquire land, obtain water, electric power, transport, and communication services and facilities required for their investments • Regularise their immigration status • Acquire other licenses required to operate a business in any particular sector • Access any other after-care assistance that may be required

Investors in Zambia also enjoy the following guarantees: • Free repatriation of profits and dividends • Business cannot be compulsorily acquired by government, except by Act of Parliament in extreme circumstances • Protection against non-commercial risks, as Zambia is a signatory of Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA) and Africa Trade Insurance Agency • Impartial forum for resolving disputes

• Special bilateral Investor Protection Agreements exist, while new ones can be entered into (ZDA, 2016c)

3.2 Manufacturing According to the ZDA, the manufacturing sector has considerable investment potential given that “the domestic economy is relatively well endowed with resource factors such as raw materials, required labour force, abundant land, water and rich materials” (ZDA, 2014b).

Again, priority areas for investment in the manufacturing sector include processed and refined foods and beverages, textiles and clothing, mineral processing, chemical products (fertilisers, cement, adhesives,

11 explosives), engineering and metal works (processing copper, iron ore, steel and other minerals), leather products, electrical appliances, pharmaceutical products, and packaging materials (ZDA, 2016c).

As per the April 2016 Investor Guide Handbook, “investors who invest not less than US $500,000 and are located in Multi-facility Economic Zones, an Industrial Parks or a Rural areas” are entitled to several fiscal (tax) incentives in the early years of their business (ZDA, 2016c). Investors in this sector, as in all other priority sectors, are also entitled to all non-fiscal incentives listed – in the form of investment guarantees and protection, and facilitation services (ZDA, 2016c).

3.3 Infrastructure A priority sector is the construction and establishment of infrastructure for improved tourism, education, health, housing, agriculture, energy, and water and sanitation systems in Zambia. The renovation, expansion, or refurbishment of the aforementioned infrastructure is not considered priority and therefore the same investment incentives do not apply to works of this nature (ZDA, 2016c).

All general tax incentives (income and VAT) outlined in Section 2.8.1 apply, as do both non-fiscal incentives. However, there are no sector specific VAT incentives and the only fiscal incentive offered for investors in this sector is a zero percent import duty rate on capital equipment and machinery for five years (ZDA, 2016c).

3.4 Agriculture Only 10% of Zambia’s 42 million hectares of arable land is cultivated each year. To diversify the economy and shift away from its dependence on copper production and exports, the government is working with partners on a variety of measures to enhance the productivity of both commercial and small-scale farmers. Investments in the agriculture sector that qualify for fiscal and non-fiscal incentives include the construction of crop and grain storage facilities. In addition to all general tax incentives, non-fiscal incentives, and the fiscal incentive of zero percent import duty rate on capital equipment and machinery for five years, qualifying investors are also eligible for the following VAT incentives specific to agriculture: Input tax claim for three months prior to VAT registration for businesses that have already commenced trading and Reduction of VAT rate for investors in tax free zones (ZDA, 2016c).

3.5 Tourism Zambia’s tourism industry is an important contributor to socioeconomic development and is already generating substantial revenue in both the public and private sectors, with much more growth potential. As such, the government is keen to expand the tourism infrastructure through the construction and establishment of hotels, convention centres, exhibition centres, museums, theme parks, art galleries, theatres, and commercial retail complexes (ZDA, 2016c).

In addition to all general tax incentives, non-fiscal incentives, and the fiscal incentive of zero percent import duty rate on capital equipment and machinery for five years, qualifying investors are also eligible for the following VAT incentives specific to tourism: Zero rate-tour packages, zero rate-other tourist services, refund to non-resident tourists and visitors and no import VAT on all goods temporarily imported into the country by foreign tourists (ZDA, 2016d; ZDA, 2016b).

3.6 Energy Hydro - and thermal - electricity power generation, supply and distribution are important investment opportunities for Zambia, which is rich in water resources and coal reserves. Demand for energy, and specifically electricity, is growing and so the government is encouraging investments in power and fuel. Incentives apply for qualifying investors in the following areas: building and installation of power stations, building and installation of processing and refinery plants for bio-fuel, construction of petroleum refineries, construction of pipelines, and construction of rural filling stations (ZDA, 2016d; ZDA, 2016c).

All general tax incentives (income and VAT) outlined in Section 2.8.1 apply. However, there are no sector specific VAT incentives and the only fiscal incentive offered for investors in this sector is a zero percent import duty rate on capital equipment and machinery for five years. All non-fiscal incentives listed apply (ZDA, 2016c).

12 4. Governance framework

4.1 Legislation At the national level, the Ministry of Lands, Natural Resources and Environmental Protection – through the Environment and Natural Resources Management Department (ENRMD) - has responsibility for the formulation, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of policies on environment, natural resources and pollution control (MOH, 2015). The ENRMD is assisted by the ZEMA, which works with other government Ministries and local authorities to regulate and advise on environmental protection measures (UN Habitat, 2007a; MOH, 2015).

Also at the national level, an Inter Agency Environmental Coordinating Committee (IECC), which sits under ZEMA, acts as a convening platform or mechanism of engagement for stakeholders involved in environmental management and regulation (ZEMA, 2016). A limitation of ZEMA and the IECC is that larger stakeholders dominate them. As a result, the informal sector and small-and micro-enterprises, which are critical to effective SWM in Zambia’s cities, are systematically – if unintentionally – excluded from policy and decision-making. At the local level, SWM is regulated by the Ministry of Local Government and Housing (now the Ministry of Local Government) and also the City or Municipal Council (the Local Authority). Under the City Council, planning for and provision of SWM services is mandated to the Department of Public Health and the Department of Planning. Services are administered by the local Waste Management Unit, which falls under the local Department of Public Health, or a private entity (ECZ, 2004; ZEMA, 2011). No information was available online about these private companies or the tendering process by which they are selected.

The number of relevant institutions and agencies has resulted in a complex environment that presents major challenges to coordination and effective service provision and implementation. The governance and accountability structure is opaque and requires further clarification from what could be determined online.

Figure 3 Governance and accountability structure. Image source: Jonathan Allaire, 2017

Zambia’s environmental protection laws inform the basis for the country’s waste management legal, regulatory and institutional framework. While all of the government stakeholders above are guided by their own specific legislation, and in some cases, local by-laws, the principle pieces of legislation applicable to this report include:

4.1.1 National legislation Zambia Environmental Protection and Pollution Control Act, No. 12 of 1990

13 The Environmental Protection and Pollution Control Act no. 12 of 1990 (EPPCA), which came about in 1992 and was amended in 1999, was designed to protect the environment and control pollution in Zambia. It was the principal legislation for managing the environment in Zambia. It established the Environmental Council of Zambia (ECZ), comprised of a wide range of stakeholders, and endowed the Council with the functions and powers deemed necessary to oversee its mandate. The Council was assigned responsibility for the condition and protection of Zambia’s water resources and air quality, collection, storage and disposal of all waste streams, regulation of pesticides and toxic substances, control over noise pollution, handling of all ionizing radiation, and the broad directorate of natural resource conservation (ZEPPCA, 1990).

The National Solid Waste Management Strategy, 2004 Devised as a “multi-sectoral integrated and holistic approach involving all key stakeholders” (ECZ, 2004), the NSWMS came about because it was recognised that Zambia was facing a “critical waste management problem” (ECZ, 2004) and needed a coordinated response to waste management. The Strategy aims to enhance environmental protection and pollution control, promote sustainable waste management practices, protect human health, and regulate the use of natural resources for future generations.

The Strategy identified the importance of increased investment in equipment, infrastructure, and capacity building for waste management services. Domestic, commercial, industrial, mine, hazardous, health care, and agricultural waste are all identified as the primary waste streams with which Zambia is dealing. The Strategy outlines a roadmap to meet the national objectives of minimised waste generation, maximised waste collection efficiency, reduced volume of waste requiring disposal, maximised economic value of waste, and the development and adoption of environmentally sound treatment and disposal methods. Reuse and recycling features prominently in the Strategy, which proposes to promote them through the following measures:

• Enhancing waste characterisation and separation at the source • Introducing incentives • Promoting and encouraging investment in the establishment of infrastructure and technology for the reuse and recycling of waste • Supporting industries that are reusing and recycling waste through reducing the external costs of reuse and recycling

• Developing packaging waste regulations to encourage recycling of problematic waste materials” (ECZ, 2004)

Though this policy is from 2004, it still serves as the guiding framework for the implementation of the national waste management strategy. City and municipality specific management approaches are handled by the Local Authorities.

The Environmental Management Act, 2011 The Environmental Management Act, No. 12 of 2011 (EMA), enacted by Parliament in 2011, repealed and replaced the EPPCA. It was amended by the Environmental Management Act, No. 10 of 2013. Now the country’s principal regulatory environmental framework, it was developed to address emerging challenges. The Act renamed the ECZ as the Zambia Environmental Management Agency (ZEMA) and charged the body with the following responsibilities: • Provide for integrated environmental management and the protection and conservation of the environment and the sustainable management and use of natural resources • Provide for the preparation of the State of the Environment Report, environmental management strategies and other plans for environmental management and sustainable development • Provide for the conduct of strategic environmental assessments of proposed policies, plans and programmes likely to have an impact on environmental management • Provide for the prevention and control of pollution and environmental degradation • Provide for public participation in environmental decision-making and access to environmental information • Establish the Environment Fund • Provide for environmental audit and monitoring • Facilitate the implementation of international environmental agreements and conventions to which Zambia is a part (ZEMA, 2011)

Sections of the EMA that are of relevance to the establishment and implementation of adequate SWM services (from waste minimisation to disposal), and which speak to Zambia’s policies around reuse and recycling, are noted below.

14 Section 6 of the EMA, Principles governing environmental management, stipulates that “the generation of waste should be minimised, wherever practicable, and waste should, in order of priority, be reused, recycled, recovered and disposed of safely in a manner that avoids creating adverse effects”. And, Section 63 requires that the agency “prohibit and regulate the disposal of re-usable, recyclable and recoverable wastes” (ZEMA, 2011). Further, Section 6 intimates that the producer of a given product must consider the products’ life cycle and where possible minimise its impact on the environment. This principle of reducing ones environmental impact is described further in the Extended Producer Responsibility Regulations (see Section 4.1.3), but its inclusion – and the prohibition of the disposal of reusable and recycling materials – in Zambia’s environmental regulatory framework is an important indication of an enabling environment for progressive waste management policies and services (ZEMA, 2011).

Section 40, Promotion of cleaner production and sustainable consumption of good and services, expands on the idea of the responsibility of producers and consumers to minimise environmental impact. ZEMA is tasked with promoting cleaner production technologies and techniques, pushing for sustainable consumption policies, and also establishing guidelines for the industrial, tourism, trade, mining, and other sectors (ZEMA, 2011). The lack of proper technical guidelines around SWM in these industries, as well as insubstantial human resources at ZEMA to provide advisory services and implement these policies, has been cited as a significant shortcoming in achieving appropriate SWM across the nation (UN Habitat, 2007a).

Section 55, Waste Licenses, describes the waste management mandate of any enterprise granted a license. This includes those who “reclaim, reuse, recover or recycle waste” (ZEMA, 2011). This language is problematic in that it includes recyclable products under the umbrella term of “waste”, allowing them to be disposed of in the same way as other waste categories. Further, Section 66 describes one of ZEMA’s responsibilities as publicizing “the correct means of storage, collection and disposal of any class of waste” (ZEMA, 2011). If recyclables were classified as an entirely different waste category within the policy framework, then it would help institutionalise the practice of sorting waste and handling re-usable products in a different manner.

Section 56 of the EMA also defines the role of local authorities (LA) in waste management. It stipulates that every City or Municipal Council is responsible for the collection of all waste within its own city boundaries, including providing litter receptacles in all public spaces. The LA is responsible for preparing and submitting an integrated waste management plan to ZEMA for approval and reporting to ZEMA on the types and quantity of waste generated and disposed of on an annual basis. ZEMA is then responsible for monitoring the implementation of those plans (ZEMA, 2011).

Sections 62 and 63, which elaborate on the Agency’s regulations relating to waste management, treatment and disposal, are discussed in Section 3.1.2 below. In summary, it is the role and responsibility of ZEMA, as mandated through the EMA, to ensure and protect the right to a clean, safe and health environment for all persons living in Zambia (ZEMA, 2011).

Current Policy Efforts The Ministry of Local Government and Housing is in the process of developing a National Water Supply, Sanitation and Solid Waste Policy “to elaborate and strengthen the policy, legal, regulatory and institutional frameworks for efficient and effective provision of water supply, sanitation and solid waste management in Zambia” (Ministry of Local Government and Housing, 2016c).

The Ministry of Local Government and Housing, in coordination with local city and municipal councils, is working to institutionalise the Keep Zambia Clean campaign by supporting community garbage collection efforts – such as the Street Vendors Foundation – by providing them with collection bins (Ministry of Local Government and Housing, 2016c).

And, the Lusaka City Council is in the early stages of engaging the private sector with the aim of establishing a waste-to-energy plant that will be managed through a public private partnership (Ministry of Local Government and Housing, 2016c). Finally, a government sub-committee has been created to consider the impact of banning the production, distribution and use of plastic bags in the country and create a roadmap that works toward phasing out their use (Ministry of Local Government and Housing, 2016c).

4.1.2 Waste management Sections 62 and 63 of the EMA lay out the regulations around the separation, transportation, storage and disposal (via landfill or incinerators) of Zambia’s waste. These regulations build on those included in the NSWMS. First and foremost, it falls to ZEMA to educate all persons, enterprises and industries that produce waste on the proper 15 means of storing, collecting and disposing of any class of waste. They are also responsible for classifying and defining waste categories (of which recyclables is not currently defined as a category), and determining which substances fall under those umbrella categories. Section 63 also stipulates that waste must be physically separated into these categories by persons involved in the generation, management or disposal of waste. Further, it prohibits the disposal of re-usable, recyclable and recoverable wastes (ZEMA, 2011).

While separation of waste is a critical first step to recycling efforts, anecdotal evidence shows that this is not a widespread or regulated practice in Zambia. However, in developing countries, waste workers in the informal sector (defined by ILO as individual, small or micro-enterprises that intervene in waste management without being registered and without being formally changed with providing waste management services) are central to the effectiveness of waste management systems, managing an estimated 15-20% of the waste generated. These informal waste pickers deliver economic and environmental benefits, recovering recyclable materials and reducing solid waste management costs for municipalities (Gupta, 2012).

With regard to transportation, ZEMA mandates that all waste collectors must be licensed and adhere to a set of regulations, including that waste must be transported to a disposal site or another facility for the permanent disposal or storage of waste. Possession of a waste license also allows for the transit, trade in, or export of (non- hazardous) waste (Ministry of Local Government and Housing, 2016c).

Additional regulations apply regarding the monitoring and regulation of waste disposal sites, to prevent any contamination and environmental degradation. To address final waste disposal, the NSWMS outlines certain steps be taken, including decommissioning dumpsites that are not environmentally sound, revising guidelines on disposal site selection criteria, regulating waste picking at disposal sites, and including Material Recovery Facilities as part of a comprehensive disposal system (UNEP, 2016). Little was found in the literature with regard to other approved treatment methods, including incineration and composting. Dumping and burning, as described above, are common informal disposal methods, though they are illegal and may be punishable under the EMA.

Finally, to enhance recycling and reuse, the NSWMS outlines several measures or strategies, which are detailed above in Section 4.1.1.

To improve the provision and sustainability of SWM services, which local authorities no longer have the capacity to adequately provide on their own, the government must continue to work with a range of stakeholders, including local communities, the informal sector, and the private sector (UN Habitat, 2007a).

4.1.3 Extended producer responsibility The Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) Regulations (2009), outlined in Section 96 of the Environmental Protection and Pollution Control Act and Section 58 of the EMA, are Zambia’s policy approach to extending producer’s responsibility for the treatment or disposal of post-consumer products. Extended producer responsibility (EPR) in Zambia applies to those products for which a refundable deposit is not paid and which cannot be returned for reuse, including conical cartons, glass bottles, and plastic bottles (ZEMA, 2009).

According to the EPR Regulations, producer responsibility measures include “waste minimisation programmes; financial contributions to any fund that has been established to promote the minimisation, recovery, reuse or recycling of waste; awareness programmes to inform the public of the impacts of waste emanating from the product on human health and the environment and any other measures to reduce the potential impacts of the product on human health and the environment” (ZEMA, 2009). It is important to note that the regulations make allowances for programmes or campaigns to improve public awareness and affect behaviour change with regard to SWM. Research in other countries has shown that these programs are critical to bridge the education and awareness gap, but are only effective when contextually and culturally appropriate and involve the participation of the community (McAllister, 2015; Bolaane, 2006).

This document also gives the ECZ, now ZEMA, the ability to institute key regulatory decisions, including: • Specify the requirements in respect of the implementation and operation of a waste minimisation programme, including the requirements in respect of the avoidance of waste generation, recovery, reuse and recycling • Indicate the percentage of products that must be recovered under a waste minimisation programme • To prohibit or restrict the sale of any product or classes of products in such circumstances as may be prescribed (ZEMA, 2009)

It should be noted that, as of December 2016, the EPR is still in draft form – as it has been for the past seven years – and has not officially been accepted by the Government of Zambia. 16

4.2 Local policies At the local level, City or Municipal Councils are mandated by ZEMA to develop their own SWM systems and by- laws on environmental protection (ZEPPCA, 1990). Field research found that SWM funding was completely decentralised in the six cities included in this study.

4.3 Tax and tariffs Once again, existing incentives (in the form of taxes are tariffs) are focused on larger-scale business and industry, which would benefit efforts such as recycling or waste to energy. For smaller businesses, or small- and micro- enterprises looking to enter the waste management industry, there are no or limited incentives within the current framework.

The tax system is administered by the Zambia Revenue Authority (ZRA), which was established in 2004. Incorporated companies and branches of foreign companies are required to pay a company tax. Those companies that fall under the priority sectors identified by the Zambia Development Agency Act of 2006 are entitled to the following benefits: • Scaled exemption from income tax in the first decade that taxable profits are made (full exemption in the first five years, 50% in years six to eight, and 25% in years nine to ten) • Exemption of tax on dividends for five years following the date of commencement of operations • 100% improvement allowance on capital expenditure for the improvement or upgrading of infrastructure

Further tax incentives per priority sector are described in greater under Section 2.8, Investment incentives of the Zambia Development Agency Act.

Small enterprises (with annual turnover up to K800 000) are subject to a “Presumptive Tax” of 3%. For larger companies (with annual turnover over K800 000), corporate tax has remained steady over the years at 35%, which is relatively high compared to South Africa’s flat 2016 rate of 28% (Deloitte & Touche, 2013).

There are different income tax rates for different sectors. As of 2013, charitable organizations generating income from commercial activities were taxed at 15%, agriculture at 15%, rural enterprises and mining companies were taxed at 30%, and farmers, exporters of non-traditional products, and producers of chemical fertilisers were taxed at 10%. Unless indicated, other sectors were taxed at the basic rate of 35% (ZEMA, 2011).

VAT registration is voluntary for businesses with an annual taxable turnover below K800 000. The standard rate for VAT is 16%. Goods and services exempt from VAT include infant formula, health, education, domestic house rentals, water, transport, financial and insurance services, conveyancing services, funeral services, statutory fees and insurance brokering (Deloitte & Touche, 2013).

Zambia has no export taxes or charges but, as of April 2007, applies a 3% income tax on all commercial imports. Imported goods are subject to import or customs duty, and taxed at rates ranging from 0% to 25% depending upon the item (raw material, intermediate, or finished good) (Deloitte & Touche, 2013).

5. Stakeholders

5.1 Environmental management stakeholder framework The Board of ZEMA, the environmental regulatory body, is comprised of a wide berth of stakeholders, including representatives of the Ministries of: • Environment and Natural Resources • Health • Mines and Minerals Development • Local Government and Housing • Agriculture • Energy and Water Development • National Planning

Other stakeholders represented on the Board include the Attorney General, the Zambia Association of Chambers of Commerce and Industry, institutions involved in scientific and industrial research, and non-governmental 17 organizations working in environmental management (ZEMA, 2011). Additional relevant government stakeholders include City or Municipal Councils, which are the Local Authorities responsible for waste management in their respective areas.

Other stakeholders critical to waste management include those that generate waste (households, commercial, industrial), relevant industry bodies, community groups, NGOs, informal waste pickers and the private enterprises, whether small or large, engaged in collecting, storing and disposing or recycling of waste (LCC, 2014). The commercial and industrial stakeholders will vary from city to city, depending upon the dominant economic activities and industries present in each area.

5.2 Critical stakeholder analysis A scoping exercise was undertaken to identify potential stakeholders in different industries so as to understand their current waste management practices, characterise their waste streams, and identify possible markets and/or partnership opportunities to repurpose and recycle certain categories of materials. And, prior to undertaking field research, the team has identified the following stakeholders (see organograms below) in each city based upon the economic profile of the area (for example, agro-processing companies in areas heavily dependent upon agriculture, mining companies in the Copperbelt region, hotels and lodges in tourist areas, etc.).

The different questionnaires used for each stakeholder are included at the end of this document. An overview of the information attained through interviews with different stakeholders in each target area is included below:

Local and National Government: • How SWM legislative and regulatory framework is implemented and enforced • State of local SWM infrastructure (formal & informal service providers) • Local by-laws • City/municipal strategic or integrated development plans • Local socio-economic context • Major economic activities and potential stakeholders

Industry: • Waste generated (composition and volume) • Separation of waste • Waste collectors contracted with (including service cost and reliability) • Reuse of recyclable materials • Knowledge of anyone (formal/informal) in city processing recycling material

Commercial Enterprises: • Waste generated (composition and volume) • Separation of waste • Waste collectors contracted with (including service cost and reliability) • Reuse of recyclable materials • Knowledge of anyone (formal/informal) in city processing recycling material

Households: • Waste collection service use • Willingness to pay • Waste disposal behaviour • Socio-economic context

Waste Collectors / Processors: • Possible transformations • Are there markets • What gets picked

A stakeholder scoping exercise identified the following groups for the TrashBack team to interview during the field research. Mind maps of identified stakeholders are attached in section 14.2 in the appendix.

18 6. Waste management (household, commercial, industrial)

6.1 Overview Zambia, and particularly its urban population, is faced with a range of environmental problems stemming from “rapid urbanisation, unsustainable population growth and inadequate town planning” (UN Habitat, 2007a). Poor waste management – partially a result of unchecked growth – is identified as a major cause of environmental degradation, and weak capacity at the institutional level to enforce Zambia’s environmental protection laws is cited as a major challenge (UN Habitat, 2007a; Guerrero, et al., 2013).

According to Zambia’s National Solid Waste Management Strategy, the country “is faced with a critical waste management problem, which is threatening the health of the people of Zambia, socio-economic development, as well as the environment” (ECZ, 2004). Industrialization and rapid population growth (concentrated largely in unplanned, urban and peri-urban settlements) has led to a significant increase in the quantity of waste generated, particularly in the densely populated capital of Lusaka. While there is a fairly comprehensive legal framework for solid waste management in Zambia, how well it is implemented and enforced is another question (UNEP, 2016). To further enhance the existing legislation, the government has also devised a separate national plan for the management of health-care waste for 2015-2019, which thus far was largely unregulated, and is in the process of developing legislation to address the growing issue of e-waste (UNEP, 2016).

Under the oversight of each Local Authority, a Waste Management Unit (WMU) plans, organises, executes (directly or indirectly) and supervises waste management services in select areas, as well as the management of disposal sites. WMUs handle the collection of fees for waste disposal and manage the public collection of waste, though these collection services are limited in their scope due in large part to the lack of financial and human resources. They are also responsible for managing contracts with private waste collection companies, all of which must pay a fee to the local council, obtain licenses and adhere to conditions and standards set by the Environmental Council of Zambia (now ZEMA) (LCC, 2014). Zambia’s regulatory framework encourages city authorities to engage private enterprises in solid waste management, and their role in municipal waste management is steadily increasing.

Community-based collection strategies, which range by location, supplement both the private and public collection services and generally operate in areas not regularly serviced by the formal collectors. Further, informal waste collectors, which are important contributors to the local economy, public health, and environmental sustainability, are prevalent in Zambia’s cities; a study from 2007 found that informal pickers in Lusaka recycled almost as much as the formal sector (though still only 3% of the total recyclable waste), contributing to cost savings of nearly 1.5 million euros on waste collection and disposal (WIEGO, 2016a). In cities in developing countries, it is estimated that waste pickers perform 50-100% of ongoing waste collection. By selling the recovered recyclable materials to formal businesses, as well as individuals and informal enterprises, they are able to derive some economic benefit while also cutting costs for the municipality (WIEGO, 2016b). However, waste pickers in Zambia are not included in any of the aforementioned legal frameworks and therefore are not recognised as part of the formal municipal waste systems. Despite this, waste pickers are recognised as “the major force behind existing recycling efforts” (Scheinberg et al., 2007)

While there is limited information available online with regard to recycling in Zambia, a meta-analysis was identified which looked at factors influencing sustainable recycling of municipal solid waste in developing countries. The authors found that government policy and finances, household demographics (including socio- economic and educational factors), waste characterization, waste collection and separation, education amongst SWM personnel, administration of SWM systems, local markets for recyclables, availability of technological and human resources, and land availability all influencing recycling in these settings (Troschinetz et al., 2009). As described in the policy framework section, there is a broad framework that recognises the importance and value of recycling, but a dearth of information on the topic in Zambia indicates that has not translated into implementation of recycling practices at scale.

6.1.1 State of city specific waste management infrastructure and equipment This information has been obtained through City/Municipal Integrated Development Plans, interviews with officials in the local Public Health departments charged with oversight of the waste management system, and observational reporting by the data collection team. This section aims to report at a high-level on the waste management infrastructure within each city, including information on existing waste management companies,

19 areas they service, capacity of collection equipment, and disposal sites. It also provides an overview of the mix of public, private, and informal SWM services in each city.

6.1.1.1 Lusaka The Chunga landfill was built in 2004 and designed to service Lusaka for 25 years. Improper management of the landfill has turned it into a dumpsite that is overflowing with waste. Illegal pickers are risking their life on a daily basis and fires are constantly burning with the uncontrolled emanation of methane gas. The site is equipped with pipes for collecting the methane gas, but the improper distribution of garbage prevents the methane from being captured properly. There are constant complaints by the locals living in informal settlements beside the landfill about odours and air pollution.

The Lusaka City Council estimates that only 40% of waste in Lusaka is actually reaching the dumpsite, 60% is illegally dumped or burnt in people’s backyards. City Council truck breakdowns are common which means that all the collection processes are delayed and garbage piles up beside the skips in the compounds. Delayed collections result in fires being lit by some people to prevent rodents and flies from being attracted to the waste.

6.1.1.2 Livingstone Livingstone has two dumpsites, one managed by the local municipality and the other by a local hotel (the Royal Livingstone). The municipality manages waste collection from the central city, and outsources other collections to contractors in zones, on which more detail is given in section 6.2.2.2 Livingstone. The main challenge indicated by the municipality is collection of payments from waste generators. A study evaluating the effectiveness of a public awareness campaign to improve SWM in Livingstone asked respondents about the state of the local waste collection system. Most residents felt there was no recognizable, formal system, particularly in the residential areas. And, most agreed that waste collection and disposal is the sole responsibility of the local city council. With regard to engaging the community to determine the most effective strategies for SWM in the area, it was suggested that Community Based Organizations (CBOs) could be formed and given responsibility for conducting sensitization and education within communities (Chilinga, 2014).

6.1.1.3 Chipata The city council cites insufficient vehicles and machinery as the biggest challenge in waste management. For instance, there is only one skip vehicle servicing all of the markets in the Chipata district. When this vehicle breaks down there is no alternative. Another challenge is cleaning up after residents who do not make use of the proper waste disposal services. Informal dumping and littering clogs drainage ditches and pollutes the environment.

Figure 4 Informal waste pickers near fires in the Chipata dumpsite. Image source: Aurelien Deyde, July 2016

Challenges with the municipal dumpsite include no fencing and no onsite monitoring, leading to illegal picking and dumping. The location of the municipal dump is also problematic. A small stream runs below the dump site and a better location is needed to avoid water contamination. The city council is in the process of looking for a new site, and has started negotiations with local authorities and chiefs. 20 6.1.1.4 Ndola A case study of SWM (Edema et al., 2012) described the changes in waste management in Ndola from the early 1980s to present. Early on, the strong economy enabled Ndola City Council (NCC) to provide households with free collection and disposal of solid waste. Many of the government companies (parastatals) based in the city provided their own collection and disposal systems, but SWM in Ndola collapsed completely after the privatization of said companies. The NCC was overburdened and unable to provide the extent of services required by the growing urban population; in 2001 they had only one collection truck. Since 2007 SWM services have improved after a small influx of investment from donors, but the study noted that it was still sub-par and waste still littered the streets (Sibanda, 2010). The Kaloko dumpsite in Mushili services Ndola.

The city council is experiencing issues with old equipment and trucks used to collect waste frequently breaking down. Only one of four tipper trucks, and three of four skip loaders were operational at the start of 2017. The dumpsite bulldozer is also out of operation and a replacement is currently hired from the army. Other equipment includes a compacting truck and a front-end loader. Vandalism or theft of 50l bins is common, most are broken or stolen. There is a lack of public sensitisation around waste management. Private companies use their own vehicles. There are seven companies servicing specific areas, but it is also possible for them to subcontract each other’s services.

6.1.1.5 Kitwe The city council collects waste in the CBD, markets, and compounds. Equipment and machinery is shared between the Engineering and Public Health Departments and is often in short supply. In addition, the department faces the challenge of frequent equipment breakdowns. More hand tools, including garden forks, spades, shovels, and wheelie bins are also needed. Eight tipper trucks are owned by the city but only three are currently operational. The city also has one skip truck, out of two, one tractor, and one compactor operational.

A private company, COP-Waste, collects waste from businesses and households and manages the current dumpsite close to the city centre. Most of COP-waste’s equipment is getting old and is reaching the end of its useful lifecycle yet there is no capital investment available for replacing the equipment that is over 10 years old. Breakdowns are frequent, even with a mechanic employed to fix equipment. Only three of five compactor trucks, three of four skip loader trucks, and one tipper truck are operational.

6.1.1.6 Solwezi The council has two reliable vehicles, one skip truck and one flatbed truck. Two to three cleaners are employed to work in smaller markets and six to seven in larger markets or the main street. Wana Cleaning Services uses four flatbed trucks to collect waste. Five drivers and 17 people are employed for collections and 30 People are employed on the dumpsite for maintenance and sorting.

The government initiated Interim Environmental Fund (IEF) IEF has funded a number of resources on the dump site, including solar power, water, a bailer and a loader. The council, under the IEF, is in the process of constructing a refuse bay in the Zambia market, and has installed a weighbridge at the dumpsite that will be operational in 2017.

One of the biggest initial challenges was that that the local community did not want the dump site to be located near them. Wana had to look at ways to gain acceptance from the community through many discussions with the chiefs and local community and provide them with opportunities.

6.1.2 Solwezi case study Out of all the six regions’ dumpsites visited, Solwezi’s dumpsite is the best managed and guarded site. The dumpsite was not always well maintained, and has improved dramatically from a decade ago. In 2009, a Private Public Partnership (PPP) signed with Wana Cleaning Services. This led to the city’s official dumpsite going through major changes, including moving waste away from the main road and organising it into areas where it can be sorted. A fence was put up in the front and parts of its perimeter. No informal waste pickers can be seen on site, which contributes to a good control of all the on-site operations. In contrast, informal waste pickers were found at all of the other five dumpsites.

21 Figure 5 Solwezi disposal site - with the guard house on the right and sanitary facilities on the left – front view taken from the main road. Image source: Jonathan Allaire, January 2017

Figure 6 Future weighing station at the Solwezi dumpsite. Image source: Jonathan Allaire, January 2017

The dumpsite management was made possible with funds obtained from the IEF with support from Finish and Danish donors. This funding contributed to the building of infrastructure for the security guard and proper sanitary facilities for all workers. A weigh bridge has also been installed for weighing all waste and recyclables coming in and out of the dumpsite.

In 2016, Wana received the ZEMA 2016 Waste Management Award for their good site management and was donated a fuel powered bailing machine. This bailing machine has been used by sorters hired by Wana to separate recyclable material from other waste, and bailing the materials for future sales to the recycling market.

Jane and Grace, the two business partners currently running Wana, cite the following challenges frequently faced by the business: • Capital funding remains their main challenge. Wana is forced to work with unpredictable capital flows as residents do not pay on a regular basis for collection services. • The rainy season increase the weight of loads carried by trucks, which leads to frequent breakdowns. • Outdoor work is hampered during heavy rains. Less collections and waste separation happens during the rainy season. • Dumping of hot charcoal creates fire hazards and is dangerous for on-site workers.

Figure 7 Jane Nyambura Nderitu and Grace Luwi Munenu Chibanda, the co-founders of Wana Cleaning Services, beside a waste truck being serviced by their mechanic. Image source: Luke Muller, January 2017

Wana met with local workers at markets and tried to teach them how to separate their waste. It is difficult to change their behaviour without incentives or proper workshops. Wana has evaluated that 60% of the waste coming from the markets is organic. An orchard was started at the dumpsite as a pilot project to show local farmers how easy it is to make your own compost from organic waste.

Part of the success of the dumpsite managed by Wana, and SWM in Solwezi can be attributed a 22 PPP with the Solwezi City Council (SCC). Mr Justin Mbashill is the director of housing and services, but also oversees the waste management department. Mr Mbashill is contributing to the city’s success through proactive measures and extra hours working on new solutions for a better and greener city. The combination of having two passionate partners (Wana and the SCC) working together as a team contributes to the successes achieved in Solwezi and can be taken as a good example for other cities throughout Zambia.

6.2 Waste collection

6.2.1 Household Efforts have been underway to increase and improve garbage collection in Zambia’s major cities, which are now organised into waste management zones with different private companies or local WMUs having responsibility for waste collection in each zone. It should be noted that peri-urban areas (informal settlements) are not widely served by private waste collection companies, as many cannot afford their fees, and instead rely on Community Based Enterprises (CBEs) and public WMUs for primary and secondary waste removal (LCC, 2012).

Household waste – largely comprised of paper, plastics, wood shavings, yard materials and food refuse – is generally not separated out, but disposed of all together through a combination of informal, public and private channels (ECZ, 2004). In planned residential areas, it is the responsibility of land and homeowners to contract a waste collection company to service their area (ECOZAMBIA). Collection of waste from the unplanned settlements, which generate most of the waste in cities, poses a significant challenge as the road infrastructure makes it difficult for waste collection trucks to reach most households or collection points (Guerrero et al., 2013; ECZ, 2004; LCC, 2012). Additional challenges impacting waste collection and transport can include an insufficient number of vehicles for waste collection, improper bin collection systems, distances to collection bins, lack of information around collection schedules, unwillingness of users to pay for the service, and substandard infrastructure (Guerrero et al., 2013).

In these areas, much of household waste is disposed of informally, either dumped into pits and/or burned. According to Zambia’s 2010 census, the most recent year for which there is country level data, the most common method of waste disposal in every province was “burying/pit” (CSO, 2013a). In most other provinces the secondary method was “other dumping”, followed by “burning” and then “roadside dumping”. These practices are prohibited by ZEMA and punishable by a steep fine or jail time (ECOZAMBIA).

The census also looked at households with regular and irregular waste collection, which are considered the two “improved methods of garbage disposal” (CSO, 2013a). The province with the highest percentage of households with regular waste collection was Lusaka Province at 26.3%, followed by Copperbelt Province at 9.4%. The remaining provinces had between 1-3% of households with regular waste collection. While formal waste collection is mostly found in planned neighbourhoods, even in the peri-urban settlements some households do pay for waste collection services from a private franchise collection company (LCC, 2012). Irregular waste collection is also highest in Lusaka, with 7.3% of households, but rare in all other provinces. These numbers also differed by rural and urban area, as households in urban areas have greater access to formal waste collection services than those in rural locations. However, burning and burying/pit were equally prominent in both rural and urban areas (CSO, 2013a).

The National Solid Waste Management Strategy explicitly notes the importance of recycling and reuse. Noted actions or strategies to enhance recycling include: introducing incentives, generation of a database of recyclable products, encouraging the reclamation of mining waste, improving environmental reporting, enhancing waste characterization and separation at source, and “development of legislation to obligate producers on their responsibility for their products” (ZDA, 2016c).

6.2.2 State of city specific household waste collection Literature shows that disposal sites in developing countries are frequently not up to standard, that local councils lack sufficient resources to provide waste collection and disposal services, and that waste is illegally disposed of both in and out of the official dumpsites (Guerrero et al., 2013). This section covers city-specific by-laws on the matter, information from City/Municipal Integrated Development Plans, and conversations with city officials.

6.2.2.1 Lusaka In 2003, Waste Management Unit (WMU) was established under the Lusaka City Council. Its function is to manage the solid waste services of Lusaka City. Community-Based Enterprises (CBE) collect waste under the management of the WMU. CBEs are registered with the city council and given the mandate to collect waste in 23 their respective residential areas. There are nine private companies that expand the capacity of the city’s solid waste management. Chunga Sanitary Landfill is the only disposal site in Lusaka City

Households are required to arrange for waste to be collected from their homes from the company charged with servicing their zone. However, formal waste collection is sub-optimal in Lusaka’s crowded, peri-urban settlements. Waste collection is carried out using wheelbarrows, pushcarts or bicycles (LCC, 2012). The council provides large disposal containers, which are placed around compounds. The CBEs then pay the city council’s Waste Management Unit to come and collect the waste once the bins are full (ECOZAMBIA).

In September 2016, LCC commenced a pilot project together with CARE Zambia, Lusaka WSC and NWASCO to increase access to low-tariff SWM services in Chipata Compound. A portion of the cost of water purchased from Water Trust, together with fees from households accessing water from private boreholes, will go toward the provision of SWM services in the community. CBEs are to be responsible for collecting these fees (LCC, 2016).

Lusaka regulations and fees ZEMA assists the Lusaka City Council with recommendations regarding regulations. ZEMA is responsible for regulating liquid hazardous waste and providing permits to private waste management companies. Zobit is the company in charge of collecting medical waste from Lusaka’s hospitals and delivering it to the incinerator at UTH or at the dumpsite. Two incinerators are currently active in Lusaka. Companies are charged K20 per ton of waste deposited at the landfill. Households and businesses are charged monthly waste collection fees. Collecting fees from households in peri-urban areas remains a challenge. Collection fees are divided into the following categories: • Low-income households K15-K60 • Medium-income households: K60-K90 • High-income households: K70-K130 • Commercial: SME & NGO: K90-K150 • Big business: K120-K200 • Industrial: K170-K300

6.2.2.2 Livingstone Waste in Livingston is collected by six private contractors. In addition, the city council collects waste with two tractors and a compactor truck. Waste collection in the month of October 2016 amounted to 4072 drums (each approximately 125 litres) from 365 pickup stations.

Livingstone regulations and fees The Livingstone dumpsite is managed during working hours but there is no security or management to prevent illegal dumping after hours. Individuals are fined K100 for illegal use of the dumpsite and businesses are fined K500. A fine of K9000 is charged for illegal dumping elsewhere. Registered individuals pay K100 per month for domestic refuse collection. Registered and licenced companies pay K200 per month for collection, and non- registered individuals or companies pay K400 per month. Lodges and hotels are charged K2000 for refuse collection.

6.2.2.3 Chipata The city’s waste is managed by a section of the department of Housing and Social Services. Waste volumes are dependant on the seasons, especially holidays and harvesting seasons. Waste collection is highest during the festive season over Christmas and New Year. Monthly waste collection from the markets is roughly 1 500 tonnes, based on collected council data. The total recorded municipal waste collection for 2015 was 16 177 tonnes. The table below summarises total tonnages from markets:

Table 1 Chipata waste collection Quarter (2016)* Total tonnage from markets First 1 563 Second 4 417 Third 4 438 Fourth Not released Two private companies expand Chipata’s collection capacity with one vehicle each, a truck and a tipper truck. The city council’s equipment list includes a skip truck, a three-ton light truck, a tractor, a compactor truck, a front-end 24 loader, and a tipper truck that is currently non-operational. There are also seven operational skip bins and 140 wheelie bins.

Chipata regulations and fees A ‘dumping fee’ of K20 per ton is charged for people using their own vehicles to dump at the dumpsite. Charges are based on weight estimates using the truck or vehicle capacity because no weighbridge is available. However, it is often difficult to monitor and charge dumping fees because there are no authorities or guards stationed at the dumpsite. The local authority’s monthly waste management charges are K30, K40, and K50 for low, medium, and high income residential areas respectively. Small shops are charged K20 and large shops or industries are charged K200 to K250 per month.

6.2.2.4 Ndola There are three staff working in the waste management department and human resources are constrained. The city is growing faster than the work force leading to a number of problems. Illegal dumping is particularly troublesome in an overpopulated area near Masala. Private companies are responsible for waste collection, but when no collection happens illegal dumping is common.

Sensitisation efforts by the education department are not working properly. Low standards of living make it impossible for the city to collect fines, and illegal dumping goes unpunished.

Hazardous waste from clinics and hospitals is mismanaged. This poses a serious danger for waste pickers. There have been incidences of waste collectors being exposed to needles and hazardous waste is sometimes found at the dumpsite. There is high ground water contamination and no water monitoring or leachate collection.

Table 2 Ndola 2016 monthly waste collection in tonnes Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec City N/A N/A 3617 4117 3297 2707 3102 2402 2992 3012 2653 3152 Private* 1522 3078 1501 1500 2837 2551 2448 3230 2909 2586 3244 2411 Total N/A N/A 5118 5617 6134 5258 5550 5632 5901 5598 5897 5563 *There are seven private companies that regularly collect waste in Ndola, COP-Waste, Rounale, Luakayi, Citi-Mop, Kathumba, Catrone, and Rojo.

Ndola regulations and fees The Ndola City Council charges households K50 per month for a maximum of six bin liners. If extra waste is produced it must be collected by private companies. For commercial and industrial collection, fees are divided into K25 for 210l drums, K350 for a skip bin and K500 for a 15 ton truck. Private collection fees are capped at K80 per month for households and K50 per 210l drum for commercial collections. The hospital has an incinerator that is supposed to handle all hazardous medical waste. The City Council is responsible for cleaning the town centre and market. Illegal dumping and burning penalties are K450 for households and K1500 for businesses. Businesses that break regulations will also have waste permits removed.

6.2.2.5 Kitwe There are a number of private companies that collect waste in Kitwe. The dumpsite is privately managed by COP- Waste. The gate of the dumpsite is guarded and there is a charge per ton for dumping waste. Tonnage is estimated because there is no weighbridge. COP-Waste collect waste as a business, collecting from areas where they can collect fees. COP-waste find that there is not a high willingness to pay for waste management in Kitwe. Payments not always made and there is a seasonal fluctuation of customers. During some months, it is necessary for COP-Waste to use a system of willingness-to-pay. In addition, the City Council does not always pay COP- Waste on time.

Waste composition has changed from 30 years ago, when it was largely biodegradable, to more non-degradable packaging. Illegal dumping occurs all around the city and even at the dumpsite since the guard is only stationed from 06:00 to 18:00.

25 Table 3 Kitwe City Council Waste Collection December 2016 (excluding COP-Waste) Type of equipment Total number of loads Estimated tonnage collected Skip loader 129 2580 Tipper truck 61 1830 Tipper truck 39 1170 Tipper truck 21 630 Tractor 33 165 Compactor 4 160

The total tonnage collected by the City Council in December 2016 was 6535 tonnes, down from roughly 9000 tonnes in November. Lower collections were largely due to equipment shortages and breakdowns.

Kitwe regulations and fees The Council relies on the Public Health Act Cap 295, and a statutory instrument (number 100 of 2011) that is specifically aimed at waste management. The Environmental Management Act is used when pollution is created, such as burning. It is difficult to enforce the law due to long response times by ZEMA (in Ndola) or the government. Dumpsite fees are K30 for one ton or less, K60 for one to three tonnes, and K300 for more than three tonnes. A standard K450 penalty is paid for illegal burning or dumping. Illegal pickers are hard to manage since there is no fencing around the dumpsite. COP-Waste charges residential households K10 per week for collections and businesses K60 per week. Skip bins are charged at K650 per collection.

6.2.2.6 Solwezi The mines surrounding Solwezi manage their own waste and are regulated directly by the environmental agency, and have their own dump site. A private company - Wana Refuse Collection and Cleaning Services Company - has been contracted to collect waste from businesses and households where waste management fees can be charged. The council concentrates on public areas, including six markets and areas near bus stations, where it is more difficult to collect fees.

Wana is contracted to manage the dumpsite. This is the only private company currently contracted by the Council. The conditional monopoly is a deliberate arrangement because Wana are mandated to perform some functions that do not generate any income. The PPP agreement is for ten years. This timeframe is intended to give Wana time to stabalise and develop systems. Once waste management reaches a larger scale, there are plans to introduce competition.

Most of the city’s waste management activities are entirely financed by the local economy. Economic activity within Solwezi is not yet large enough to maintain a proper waste management system, and the community’s willingness to pay for waste services is low. However, according to recent surveys, willingness has increased from 10% to 50% in the last four years. The number of people paying for waste collection has also increased from around 35 to 600 over the same period. This is still a fraction of overall households, considering a population of roughly 280000 people in the region. Other challenges include the informality of many businesses and traders in Solwezi, a lack of public awareness, and a lack of clear policy and regulation.

Table 4 Solwezi dumpsite monthly tonnage for 2016 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Total 1041 803 896 550 1182 1198 1202 1009 1038 632 2602 1377 13529

Solwezi regulations and fees Dump site fees are charged per ton, but are currently estimated. There is a new weighbridge at the dumpsite that is not yet operational, but will enable accurate charges and record keeping in future. Households, businesses and industries do not pay set collection fees, but the fees are rather calculated on a volume basis. Higher fees are charged for larger waste volumes, this encourages self-reduction of waste. When a customer is enlisted, their waste volume is assessed and they are charged accordingly. The City Council has instructed the private partner company to charge in a similar way. For 80-100kg of waste collection per month you will pay K50.

26 There is a standard fine of K450 if someone is caught illegally dumping or burning waste. This is the fine required by law but it does not take into account the type, or volume of waste. For example, the illegal dumping of hazardous or organic waste would both incur a K450 fine.

ZEMA issues waste permits and can sometimes issue a permit without recommendation or without informing the city council, leading to confusion. The city council suggests that role of issuing permits should be decentralised.

6.2.3 Commercial Waste generated by businesses and commercial enterprises in Zambia is generally comprised of office paper, cardboard, plastic and packaging (Edema et al., 2012). Commercial areas generate lower levels of organic waste than residential and farming areas. In the high-density areas, it is reported that beverage containers, particularly for the “opaque beer” commonly served at bars around the country, generate significant amounts of waste and are rarely disposed of correctly (Edema et al., 2012).

6.2.4 State of city specific commercial waste collection Commercial businesses used either Council or private waste collection services, depending on their location and city. Reliable and timely collections were frequently mentioned as desired improvements in commercial waste collection. Business is negatively affected when waste collections are not made or there are major delays. It is important for businesses to operate in a clean and sanitary environment.

6.2.5 Industrial Industrial waste is any material, hazardous or non-hazardous, generated during manufacturing processes from factories, refineries, chemical plants, extractive operations (mines) and more. According to a needs assessment by the United Nations Environmental Program, Zambia’s regulatory framework does not yet account for industrial waste management. And, hazardous and non-hazardous materials must be handled and disposed of differently, as per EMA regulations. Beyond the required policy level changes, ZEMA describes a lack of technical area expertise among the few working in the sector in Zambia as one of the main challenges around regulating disposal of industrial waste (Guerrero et al., 2013; UNEP 2016). Another challenge is the lack of country-specific technical guidelines necessary to implement a comprehensive industrial waste management approach. Further, there is inadequate infrastructure to implement the required waste management activities and a lack of finances committed by the public and private sector to procure or provide the necessary infrastructure (UNEP, 2016).

6.2.6 State of city specific industrial waste collection 6.2.6.1 Lusaka Lafarge case study Lafarge Zambia is the leading supplier of building materials (such as cement, aggregates, and concrete) in Zambia and the Democratic Republic of Congo. It's a member of the international LafargeHolcim Group. Lafarge operates its own Landfill which is expected to be full by June 2017. Lafarge is seeking an alternative to building a new dumpsite.

Approximately 80% of the houses surrounding the Lafarge plant are currently owned by Lafarge former or current workers. Lafarge Estate has approximately 60 houses with an average of four to five people per household. Nemchem used to be the waste management company collecting all garbage from the estate until September 2016 when Lafarge stopped paying them and asked the estate’s Owners Association to pay for the collection but this request is being met with opposition. Garbage is now being burnt at four sites because Nemchem cannot collect a K25 fee, per household per month.

Surrounding the Lafarge plant is the Chusamba compound, where many informal small dumpsites are also being used to burn the general waste of the community. Since Lafarge stopped funding collections, Nemchem is now asking the community (approximately 600 units or 4-5 person) to split the collection fee of K5700.

6.2.6.2 Livingstone Case study Industries in Livingstone were unavailable for interviews at the time of the field research.

27 6.2.6.3 Chipata Cargill case study Cargill is a grain, oilseeds and cotton sourcing and trading company based in Lusaka and Chipata. Cargill generates two main streams of waste, chemical waste from various chemicals used in agriculture, and solid waste. The biggest challenge with chemicals is how to get rid of them when they have expired. Expired chemicals, that do not pass retests, have to be sent out of the country to be incinerated and destroyed.

Cotton gin trash is one of the main wastes generated within Cargill’s production process. The cotton gin trash is generated during a process where the cotton seed is separated from the lint. The cotton lint is exported to countries such as India, China, and South Africa for their textile industries. The remaining organic waste used to be thrown away, but an agreement was reached with local authorities to allow surrounding communities to use the cotton gin trash to make compost.

Cargill is licenced by ZEMA to make the compost. It is collected for free by local farmers who use it extensively to grow maize in the surrounding communities. It reduces (sometimes to nil) the amount of other fertilisers used in surrounding farms, creating positive environmental and economic effects. The compost replenishes soil fertility without pushing up acidity levels. Chipata is an agriculture-based economy and any plans to compost organic waste are welcome. A cost challenge is that Cargill has to pay ZEMA roughly K13 000 per year to maintain the compost site.

Cargill does not allow any burning of waste on the premises whatsoever. Chemical containers are taken by a private company that has been authorised by ZEMA to dispose of them. Paper waste is stored until the quantity is large enough to sell and send to Lusaka for recycling. Likewise, scrap steel from mechanical processes is kept in separate storage until quantities are large enough to sell and send to a steel recycling plant 45km from Lusaka. There are also a few recycling operations that have been opened by Chinese nationals in Lusaka. Cargill outsources the transport of scrap or often the recyclers are prepared to pick it up. Old woven sacks and sacking material are given away for free to farmers, employees, and three other companies that sell them for recycling.

Comaco case study Community Markets for Conservation (COMACO) partners with small-scale farmers to farm organic produce and add value to products (such as peanut butter and honey) through processing. The Zambian-registered non-profit organisation aims to protect local environments. Conservation is part of the Comaco ethos . Most of the waste created, as a by-product from Comaco’s processes, is reusable. For example, ground nut shells are used to make briquettes to use as fuel for roasting the nuts and unused soybeans are sold to other industries that refine the oil. Ash is dumped in a pit and wet. It is then bagged and disposed of. The most significant quantity of waste is generated during the rainy season when processing mangoes. The mango skins and seeds create a major source of organic waste which is not composted or used. Other organic waste generated is generally sweepings and the shriveled nuts. A private company handles both the organic and plastic waste disposal for K520 per month.

Figure 8 A sign outside the Comaco premises in Chipata. Image source: Luke Muller, January 2017

28 Figure 9 A sign painted outside the Mafuta Brewery in Chipata. Image source: Luke Muller, January 2017

6.2.6.4 Kitwe Mopani Copper Mines case study Mopani generates both hazardous and non-hazardous waste. Hazardous waste is a challenge because there is no established dump site for hazardous waste in Zambia. PCB oils and expired chemicals have to be trucked to South Africa for proper disposal, at great cost.

Puma, a petrochemical company, handles Mopani Copper Mine’s hazardous used-oil waste. Contractors take the used oil to the Zambezi Paper Mill to be used as a fuel. Oil filters are crushed and incinerated. Medical waste is incinerated separately. Florescent tubes are crushed and stored in drums. As of now these are simply stored and quantities are building up.

COP-waste collects refuse from Mopani and although it is often separated, the waste is dumped together. Mopani has been approached by some companies wanting to collect plastics but discussions are still in the initial stages. Disposal of tyres is a challenge for the mine. Lafarge wanted to set up a facility at Ndola to shred tyres and use them as fuel, but the project never took off. It was going to be implemented using expertise from France but the project was halted after some management changes. Disposal is now ad-hoc, in the past they have been buried in pits and covered in overburden. Mopani is prepared to deliver used tyres to Ndola themselves if there was demand for them.

It is important for Mopani to operate in a clean environment and continually improve. Mopani have ISO 14000 and the parent company Glenco adhere to global standards. Mopani monitor water and air samples in the surrounding environment. ZEMA is encouraging continuous monitoring. Ambient air units are installed around the smelter to continuously monitor and model scenarios. Experts are being brought in to do modelling on sulphur dioxide emissions, to enable the prediction of future scenarios and production rates. There are plans for water and discharge monitoring to be done at remote sites using hardware that runs on solar energy.

In the smelter, there is a process where silica is added to separate the iron from the copper, and release sulphur dioxide as a by-product. The idea has been put forward to use broken glass instead of mined silica in the production process. Silica is the primary component of glass and the smelter could potentially use it if the correct quantities and types can be sourced. Silica is currently being mined by a third party.

Ideas and concerns are regularly shared with the Kitwe council. There are also open committee meetings that Mopani attends.

29 Figure 10 Mopani Copper Mines Corporate Office. Image source: Luke Muller, January 2017

6.2.6.5 Ndola Ndola Lime Company case study Ndola Lime Company is a supplier of quicklime and other limestone products for mining, cement, and other industries. One of their largest waste challenges is disposing of used tyres from mining trucks. They are currently just stacked and stored on the premises indefinitely. Used oil filters are also stored after being drained of oil. Hazardous waste is also a challenge. ZEMA provides the conditions under which hazardous waste must be managed. Low grade lime is dumped in Ndola Lime Company’s private dump site that is licenced by ZEMA every three years. The licencing fees have been revised upwards, from K72 000 to K189 000. The dump is located 1.5 kilometres from the process plant where the waste is generated. The dump site is managed and monitored with methods that ensure it is stable and does not pose any risk to the environment. There are currently no other uses for low grade lime that Ndola Lime Company is aware of. Core ash and core powder are also by-products of the production process and are dumped at the same site in smaller volumes.

It is extremely important for Ndola Lime Company to ensure a clean operating and overall environment. Ndola Lime Company follows global best-practices. Even if ZEMA did not exist, Ndola Lime Company would continue to follow international standards. Ndola Lime Company certified by the ISO (International Organization for Standardization) and are registered with them as an institution. Following this regulatory framework is one of the ways Ndola Lime Company ensures health, safety and environmental best-practices are followed.

Figure 11 Ndola Lime Company. Image source: Luke Muller, January 2017

Afrox case study African Oxygen Limited (Afrox) produces gases and welding products for the sub-Saharan African market. Afrox produce both general and hazardous waste. Gas canisters cannot be recycled because they are imported and sourced from specifically recommended producers who put them through vigorous testing requirements. Waste oil is used by a smelter as fuel for a furnace. Other waste produced by Afrox is common garden and refuse waste.

30 The main form of waste is carbide sludge (Ca(OH)2), a useful by-product of acetylene production. The sludge is emptied into settling ponds and the lime by-product is then packaged into bags once the water is removed and recycled back into the ponds. The carbide sludge by-product is used by some people for painting houses and it is used by the mines to neurtralise acid effluent. The waste product is given away for free but demand from the mines is not consistent and their tanker has experienced breakdowns. The demand is not large enough to counteract supply. It is packed in bags and stored if not used. There used to be demand from Tanzania to be used as paint in the past.

Afrox have a disposal certificate from ZEMA, but it would be preferable to reuse waste. Excess carbide sludge is taken to the dump in accordance with the ZEMA guidelines. The certificate is paid for annually and costs K30 000.

Figure 12 Empty gas canisters line the road outside Afrox in Ndola. Image source: Luke Muller, January 2017

6.2.6.6 Solwezi Kansanshi Mine case study Kansanshi is the largest copper mine in Africa and is 80% owned by a First Quantum subsidiary. First Quantum Minerals LTD is a global company producing mainly copper, gold, nickel and zinc. The company maintains global standards and are monitored locally by ZEMA.

Kansanshi’s hazardous waste facility has a storage shed that receives used batteries, oil, grease, plastic containers, and drums. The hazardous waste dump has a concrete floor, an oil separator, and a shed for storage. Oil filters are incinerated before being dumped. The used batteries and oil are bought and collected by two contracted recycling firms. Drums are recycled for various operations on site. Plastic containers are cleaned as much as possible, some are used again on site and the others are taken to the disposal site. The numbers of plastic bottles have been reduced because of a decrease in construction projects and efforts by the Kansanshi mine to discourage plastic bottle usage. The challenges created by plastic bottles have led to a program being launched to issue every employee with re-usable bottles.

Grease is not reused. All the grease accumulated by operations, thus far, was recently incinerated after transportation to South Africa. The transportation costs are high and stockpiling grease for transportation to be incinerated is not an ideal solution. Other mines in surrounding areas deal with the same challenge of disposing of grease. There was a recommendation two years ago to develop a recycling company for hydrocarbons in Zambia’s Copperbelt region. This would be a welcome solution for many mines.

A separate non-hazardous facility is used to dump chemical bags, plastics, bottles, used conveyor belts, and tyres. Tyres and conveyor belts are separated and kept aside. Some of the conveyor belts are used for flooring in surrounding schools, but not all of them. The big tyres (for heavy machinery) are used on site for the demarcation of roads. These are not replaced often, only once every one or two years. The smaller tyres pose a challenge and are currently stockpiled in large quantities. 31

Mining waste ends up largely in the pits and in the tailings dump for the tailings residue left over after extracting the copper. The mining waste generated is (babeding) material that is taken to a dump site and the sludge generated from the plant is treated and dumped. Kansanshi recycles waste water. A new pipeline was installed from the point of discharge to recycle waste water.

A private contractor, Transco transports all waste from generation points to the dump site, and from the residential golf estate. Transco employ about 50 staff. Organic waste generated in the residential estate is composted and used to maintain the golf course.

6.3 Disposal sites 6.3.1 Landfills and dumpsites In the start of 2017 the six cities included in this study had designated municipal dumpsites but no operational landfills. The landfill in Lusaka has become a dumpsite due to mismanagement. A new site has been designated in Kitwe for a new landfill construction. The dumpsites in Livingstone and Chipata are poorly located near to waterways and new locations are being sought by the respective City Councils.

6.3.2 Incinerators (Medical & Hazardous) Incineration is the main, preferred method of safe disposal of health care waste (HCW) in Zambia. According to the recently enacted National Health Care Waste Management Plan 2015-2019, small and large hospitals alike are encountering challenges in adhering to the regulations around disposal of hazardous waste. Some hospitals have the resources to incinerate their HCW, but those that cannot afford an incinerator or to pay another hospital to use theirs are forced to use informal, unapproved methods including open air burning, burying the waste on site, or sending it to the dumpsite. Not only is this against Zambian regulations, but also the improper disposal of hazardous waste in the dumpsite endangers the health and safety of informal waste pickers (MOH, 2015). Hazardous waste found in all six city dumpsites, shown in the following photograph.

Figure 13 The improper disposal of medical waste in the Kitwe dumpsite. Image source: Jonathan Allaire, January 2017

6.4 Future infrastructure and city developments 6.4.1 Lusaka The 2009 Urban Development Plan for Lusaka aims to densify the inner-city territory with efficient land use, adequate density distribution, and controlled urban growth within the proposed Outer Ring Road. Satellite cities will be established in medium and long terms in the adjacent Chibombo, Chongwe and Kafue districts.

32 The Urban Development Plan outlines three development challenges towards 2030: 1. Promotion of industrial development and job opportunity creation for the urban poor, 2. Environmentally sustainable & well controlled urban growth/development, and 3. Full service of urban infrastructure and social facilities for both formal and informal settlements.

6.4.2 Livingstone The Livingstone City Council aims to encourage future public/private partnerships and build an enabling environment conducive to private sector growth, support for community-based development, and the protection of natural assets. There are plans to development and rehabilitate priority infrastructure in and around Livingstone. Priority infrastructure includes roads, drainage, solid waste/landfill management, water supply, sewerage/sanitation, fire, health and social services.

In a 2005 the Livingstone City Council had plans to construct a new landfill and implement a public awareness program to improve responsible waste handling and to limit littering and illegal dumping. The current dumpsite is poorly situated next to waterway. Council waste management priorities are listed in the table below.

Table 5 Livingstone waste management priorities Priority Project Involvement Financing options 1 Construct proper sited and developed MLGH/LCC World Bank engineered landfill. 2 Rates determination and implementation of City Council MLGH a cost recovery system. 3 Obtain the correct landfill operating City Council LCC/PPP Partner equipment and train staff to operate the landfill correctly. 4 Expand collection fleet and improve City Council LCC/MLGH collection of waste / street cleaning in the CBD. 5 Implement a public awareness program. City Council City Council Source: Livingstone Structure Plan 2005

6.4.3 Chipata There are plans for the creation of a satellite town to meet the growing need for land and housing in Chipata. The initial paperwork has been completed and discussions with chiefs are continuing in the Mtenguleni village region. The next step is for the council to create lots. Plans are to develop a self-sufficient town with all the necessary facilities. The land has not yet been demarcated but work on the ground will start after the 2016/2017 rainy season.

The current sewerage system is under pressure from the growing population. Plans have been made for a new sewerage system with ponds and an anaerobic treatment plant. The new sewerage infrastructure will be paid for with German funding.

The city council would like to develop a new landfill. Plans are still in the initial stages and a suitable site is yet to be chosen. Various site visits have been done but negotiations are necessary with the different Chiefs in each potential location.

A major challenge for Chipata is the growth of unplanned settlements, seven in total. These settlements have high density populations. One of the main reasons a satellite town is being planned is to slow the growth of unplanned settlements. There are also plans to improve the unplanned settlements, in agreement with the Urban Planning Act, and provide them with water access or water kiosks.

6.4.4 Kitwe A landfill development is being planned to replace the current dumpsite. The City Council has obtained the title deed for a 20-hectare site donated by Mopani Copper Mines. The Council is now looking for a private partner to manage the landfill.

The existing dump site run by COP-Waste and is located on an old mine tailings dump site. The tailings have now been sold to another company for reprocessing. COP-Waste and the City Council have to stop using the existing dumpsite. Land is the biggest challenge for development in Kitwe. Land prices are high and restrict future

33 development. The Council was having difficulty finding suitable land so they approached Mopani. A suitable plot of land was provided by the mine and ownership was transferred to the council.

The 20-hectare site has recently been inspected by ZEMA as part of the project document review process. If there are no further issues, construction of the new landfill could begin shortly. ZEMA has been advised by Mopani to require that the Council partners with experienced experts who know how to run a landfill effectively.

6.4.5 Ndola Road and infrastructure developments are ongoing in Ndola. 108km of road rehabilitation has been completed so far, with an aim to continue rehabilitating at least 25km per year. There are plans to construct and upgrade public amenities, including public toilets, community halls, and market infrastructure. A low-cost housing project is going to be implemented as a PPP with Henan Gorji. The agreement is signed and the project is ready to commence.

Plans have been initiated to build a new sanitary landfill. This project requires a large capital investment and proposals are being put together to source funding from the European Investment Bank. There are also plans to construct a refuse transfer station, to improve waste management and allow for potential recycling. New waste management partners and recycling companies are being sought by Council in Ndola, especially under a PPP relationship. The city council’s waste management has plans to sort waste into categories at its source, but believes it will first be necessary to sensitise people to the idea of waste sorting.

6.4.6 Solwezi Plans to expand the current township were initiated in 2006/07 but expansions require ongoing negotiations with local chiefs over tribal land. The expanding urban population cannot wait for lengthy negotiations to take place and for new boundaries to be drawn. Many unplanned developments have taken place, making previous plans obsolete. There are three districts in the region and there is no single gazetted chief to sign the extended boundary plans. The Solwezi Municipal Council is engaging the Ministry of Local Government and Housing on how best to update the Solwezi IDP within boundary constraints. Traditional leadership and local communities need to be engaged in order to update the IDP. Resources are constrained and the creation of three separate districts was not foreseen, these are the main factors preventing infrastructure and road upgrades. The current dumpsite will continue to be used and upgraded in the foreseeable future. The local Council has been started looking at biogas and composting options to reuse and reduce organic waste.

7. Waste Characterisation study

A research audit in the six prioritised cities helped the study team to understand the life cycle of all waste generated by households, commercial and industrial businesses in the respective areas. Interviews with, and surveys of, various stakeholders provided qualitative data on the SWM situation in cities, to supplement the waste audit. The waste audits were conducted in municipal dumpsites with the involvement of a team of five locals who were each provided with protective equipment, as well as an incentive to participate. Trucks from the various companies providing SWM services that visit the disposal site were asked to provide information about the source of waste collections. After the load is deposited, the audit team took a uniform sample from the entire load of waste. The team sorted through this pile, measuring 1x3 meters, and separated the waste into 17 categories. These materials were then weighed and further quantitative data analysis of the sample was performed. Considering seasonal waste fluctuations and limitations in terms of the time frames in which to conduct the waste audits, TrashBack would recommend a more in-depth waste audit be conducted. Multiple audits would need to take place throughout the year to collect a wider range of data.

The field research survey process was undertaken with the help of two well-trained enumerators, surveying specific areas of the city, with a specific questionnaire for each stakeholder. Surveys were devised and pilot tested by TrashBack in Lusaka. The target for each city was to reach household, commercial and industrial areas within a 10 km radius of the city centre. All data were captured through a mobile tablet survey app and using paper surveys. The questions asked were divided into four themes: Communications channels, waste management behaviour, waste management awareness and incentives attention.

The waste audits were conducted in municipal dumpsites with the involvement of a team of five locals who were each provided with protective equipment, as well as an incentive to participate. Trucks from the various companies providing SWM services that visit the disposal site were asked to provide information about the source of waste collections. After the load is deposited, the audit team took a uniform sample from the entire load of waste. The team sorted through this pile, measuring 1x3 meters, and separated the waste into 17 categories. 34 These materials were then weighed and further quantitative data analysis of the sample was performed. Considering seasonal waste fluctuations and limitations in terms of the time frames in which to conduct the waste audits, TrashBack would recommend more in-depth waste audits be conducted in future. Multiple audits would need to take place throughout the year to collect a wider range of data.

During visits to the different cities, the field research team also met with the different City/Municipal departments – including the Waste Management, Public Health, and Planning departments – to further understand the anticipated development and future action plans for the city. See section 5.2 with stakeholders given questions. During the visit to the different cities, the field team also met the with different City/Municipal departments – including Waste Management, Public Health, and Planning – to further understand the anticipated development and future action plans for the city. The charts below show total waste statistics from waste audits across all six cities. Separate figures are given for each city in the six section that follow.

Figure 14

Figure 15

35 Figure 16 Solwezi dumpsite waste audit team field team. Image source: Jonathan Allaire, January 2017

7.1 Lusaka 7.2.1 Lusaka waste audit The waste audit was conducted at the Chunga landfill, with multiple loads originating from commercial, industrial, and high-income, medium-income, and low-income residential areas. The landfill was poorly managed and has become a dumpsite.

Figure 17

Figure 18

37 Figure 19

Figure 20 The Chunga landfill in Lusaka. Image source: Jonathan Allaire, October 2016

7.2 Livingstone 7.2.1 Livingstone waste audit The waste audit was conducted at the Livingstone dumpsite. The Road Development Agency’s weighing station was used, with their cooperation, to obtain load weights for all vehicles entering the dumpsite. A total of six vehicles were intercepted. A total of 5 waste audits were performed. The dumpsite is badly managed with dumping on either side of a 2.5km long narrow dirt road. The dumpsite is also situated close to the source of a stream.

Figure 21

Figure 22

39 Figure 23

Figure 24 Livingstone dumpsite. Image source: Jonathan Allaire, October 2016

7.3 Chipata 7.3.1 Chipata waste audit The waste audit comprised six truck loads originating from a variety of sources in Chipata. Two loads were from the Shoprite supermarket, one load each from the Chipata police station, the Bombay (maize) farming area, a central low-income area, and the town markets. The following figures show the combined waste weights and volumes from all six sources. The dumpsite is badly managed and is situated close to agricultural areas and a stream.

Figure 25

Figure 26

41 Figure 27

Figure 28 Chipata dumpsite. Image source: Luke Muller, January 2017

7.4 Kitwe 7.4.1 Kitwe waste audit (numbering of figures) The waste audit comprised eight truck loads originating from a variety of sources in Kitwe. Two loads were from high-income residential areas and two were from supermarkets. The other four loads were from a station, hospital, market, and mixed business area. The following figures show the combined waste weights and volumes from all eight sources. The dumpsite is badly managed, with a high number of informal waste pickers.

Figure 29

Figure 30

43 Figure 31

Figure 32 Kitwe dumpsite. Image source: Jonathan Allaire, January 2017

44 7.5 Ndola 7.5.1 Ndola waste audit The waste audit comprised seven truck loads originating from a variety of sources in Ndola. Four trucks originated from a variety medium and low-income areas in town, one truck from a high-income area, one from the hospital and one from a clinic. The following figures show the combined waste weights and volumes from all seven sources.

Figure 33

Figure 34

Figure 35

Figure 36 Ndola dumpsite. Image source: Luke Muller, January 2017

7.6 Solwezi 7.6.1 Solwezi waste audit The waste audit comprised four truck loads originating from a business area, a compound area, middle-income households, and various small businesses. Two loads were from a private service provider and two were from the City Council. The following figures show the combined waste weights and volumes from all six sources. The dumpsite is relatively well managed and guarded by Wana Cleaning Services. Waste is kept away from the main road and organised into areas where it can be sorted. There are no informal waste pickers on site.

Figure 37

Figure 38

47 Figure 39

Figure 40 Solwezi disposal site. Image source: Jonathan Allaire, January 2017

8. Behaviour, attitudes and awareness around waste

This section is based on the data collected from the field survey team and interviews with stakeholders. Waste disposal behaviour, attitudes, and SWM awareness was analysed across cities and also at the city-specific level. Two trained surveyors conduct surveys and the data is collected via mobile devices. Data is then uploaded online, enabling qualitative and quantitative analysis of the responses. Data collection took place in low-income, high density and mid- to higher-income residential areas, as well as with a uniform sampling of commercial enterprises. Representatives from industries prevalent in the respective towns were surveyed and interviewed, as well as officials from the City or Municipal Councils.

While there are available studies assessing behaviour, attitudes and awareness around waste, the purpose of this study is to understand these issues in specific locations. Further, this section highlights efforts to date to improve public awareness of and participation in SWM in the cities of interest to this research. As major waste generators, and the first critical step in any cities’ waste management system, it is important that the public is not only aware of the links between waste, public health and environmental sustainability, but is also empowered and incentivised to act upon this knowledge. Namely, it discusses the real and perceived effectiveness of the Keep Zambia Clean Awareness Campaign (also called Make Zambia Clean and Healthy (MZCH)) in areas where an evaluation is publicly available. The MZCH campaign, a presidential initiative launched in 2007 in all districts, was developed to improve information dissemination and create awareness amongst the public about responsible waste handling and with the intention of limiting littering and illegal dumping.

A 2013 study evaluating the MZCH programme’s effectiveness in Livingstone found that, while between 72% and 87% of residents were aware of the campaign, it was overwhelmingly ineffective and unsuccessful (including by residents’ own accounts). Those that had heard about the campaign, heard about it in the local market or other meetings organised by the LA in high-density areas. The authors attributed the campaign’s lack of impact in part to the fact that “the local community members largely felt they did not participate in the decision making and implementation processes of the programme” (Chilinga, 2014). Further, the author noted that there is a need “to involve local community members in identifying future waste management solutions and to provide information to all concerned persons about practical aspects of waste management” (Chilinga, 2014). It is interesting to note that despite feeling un-empowered and excluded from the decision-making processes, residents surveyed felt that there was potential for the community to work together with the local government to positively influence waste collection and disposal. The findings from this evaluation mirror the challenges identified in other cities: that information about proper waste disposal is lacking, as are systems or processes to enable people to act upon this information (Chilinga, 2014).

A review of the campaign in the Mtendere neighbourhood of Lusaka had similar findings to Livingstone. Slightly over half of the respondents felt that there were no benefits to the campaign, while 46% (n=69) felt positive about its outcome. The author identified the main challenges or constraints to the success of the program as “lack of presence of the organisers in the Residential Area and…lack of dialogue with the residents concerning their real needs in connection with waste disposal”. As such, it was recommended that the Lusaka City Council – as the local government authority implementing the program – improve upon the awareness campaign by visiting households in the community door-to-door rather than relying on television advertisements on a few stations to get the message out. Like other behaviour change campaigns, the study also found that providing information in a vacuum was not sufficient. Therefore, it was suggested that future campaigns could improve their effectiveness by combining information dissemination with demonstration projects about how the public could dispose of waste, and by putting systems in place to facilitate the behaviour change (i.e. providing collection bins) (Banda, 2013). It is clear from the available evaluations of the MZCH campaigns and that of other public awareness campaigns focused around environmental issues, that improving public awareness and knowledge in a contextually appropriate way is critical, but that the education must also be supplemented by tangible steps that make it possible for people to implement behaviour change. The information on waste disposal behaviour, attitudes and waste management awareness in specific cities is central to informing any future interventions or awareness and behaviour change campaigns.

8.1 Waste disposal behaviour Surveys conducted in the study regions show that waste disposal behaviour differs between different income groups. The following data was collected in Livingstone, Chipata, Kitwe, Ndola and Solwezi, but excludes Lusaka. The majority of small businesses (64%) and high income respondents (57%) have their waste collected from their businesses or homes, whereas the percentage was much lower for low-income respondents (26%). Low income households are more likely to use dug out pits to dispose of waste. Low income areas are generally less accessible for collection services than high income areas. Residents also cannot afford to pay as much for waste collection. 71.3% of respondents believed there would be no consequences for littering, illegal dumping and burning waste. Use of dug out pits was the most favoured solution for management of waste by many low income residents interviewed. Low income frequently pointed out that waste collection services were concentrated in high income business and residential areas, leading many people to burn, dump or bury waste in low income areas.

Figure 41

Figure 42

8.2 Waste disposal attitudes Survey respondents most frequently cited having more bins or skips in public areas as the best way to improve waste management, above education, and the better implementation of laws. The largest proportion of people believed that the municipal council should be responsible for waste, followed by individuals. A lack of collection services in low income areas was frequently cited as a reason for the informal dumping of waste in streets, streams or the burying and burning of waste. The majority of residents live in low income areas and complaints about a lack of services were widespread during surveys.

Figure 43

Figure 44

8.3 Waste management awareness Many survey respondents (63%) have a poor understanding of good waste management practices, recycling and composting. However, 81% said that they are willing to separate waste into three categories for recycling, composting and the landfill. Waste management awareness campaigns had taken place in some cities. In Chipata, residents noted that there had been awareness programmes in the area run by the Ministry of Health. In Lusaka, Ndola and Livingstone, residents often associated waste management with a campaign called ‘Make Zambia Clean and Healthy Campaign’ launched by the then President of the Republic Levy Patrick Mwanawasa S.C in 2007, and later renamed to ‘Keep Zambia Clean Campaign’ in 2009.

Figure 45

Figure 46

Television viewership is widespread and could be a potential avenue for targeted awareness campaigns. The following chart shows the income differences in TV channel audiences. Low income respondents are the largest group of ZNBC viewers, mid income respondents are the largest group of GOTV viewers, and high income respondents are the largest group of DSTV viewers.

52 Figure 47

9. Waste markets

9.1 Buy back and transfer stations Based on research looking at SWM in developing cities, it is expected that transfer stations will be rare, with most solid waste being collected door to door (Guerrero et al., 2013).

9.2 Local waste markets 9.2.1 Recycling and composting in Lusaka The Lusaka City Council has a list of 14 recycling companies that were operating in the city, compiled in 2013. Seven (Zambezi Paper Mills, Asopalay, City Waste Solutions. Recycle It Zambia, Zalco Limited, Mr Egg Tray, and Zambia Haiyu Paper Company) recycled paper, four (Tidy Hire Limited, H.Y. Investments, Recyco Global Ltd, and Wonderful Ceiling) recycled plastic, two (W & V Net Choice and Harrison) recycled computer parts, and one (L & N Matrix Limited) recycled glass. There are likely to be other recycling companies in Lusaka. The Zambia Aluminium Copper Company is recycling paper, cans, car batteries, other non-ferrous devices. Good Time Steel recycles scrap metal. The informal recycling in Lusaka largely consists of dumpsite waste pickers reselling to scrap dealers or formal recycling firms.

9.2.2 Recycling and composting in Livingstone Cardboard boxes are collected informally for reuse, and for Zambezi Nkuku to make briquettes. Scrap metal is collected by informal pickers and sold to Kafue Steel. An informal market for PET bottles exists in the compounds. Informal pickers are paid K0.10 per bottle. Bottles are refilled with water for resale. LDPE plastics are also collected by informal pickers and used to make floor polish.

9.2.3 Recycling and composting in Chipata There are no formal recycling companies in Chipata. Informal recycling mainly consists of waste pickers collecting bottles for re-filling with water or local beverages. Scrap metal is also collected for reuse. A composting site is privately operated by Cargill in Chipata, making compost from the cotton seeds and organic by-products produced during cotton ginning. The compost is given away to local farmers as a community service.

9.2.4 Recycling and composting in Ndola There are three established recycling companies in Ndola. Zambezi paper mill recycles paper and plastic, but no longer recycles brown glass bottles. The Kafue Steel Plant buys scrap metal from waste pickers. Gourock recycles PET bottles.

9.2.5 Recycling and composting in Kitwe Northwood Environmental, a subsidiary of Acton, is an established recycling company in Kitwe. Acton started with plastics manufacturing was in 2003. Operations have expanded and Acton have entered joint ventures with other plastics manufacturers. Northwood Environmental is a member of the Acton group that focuses on finding new uses for plastic waste. Starting the recycling business has been a self-taught, step-by-step process.

Northwood operations include collection and weighing, sorting, grinding, extrusion, pellet production, and product manufacturing. Northwood was started using a mix of post-industrial waste from production and consumer waste and a small business model of 100kg per day. This has now grown to 5 and a half tonnes a day. The business model has been proven to be viable, but Northwood are still seeking assistance and support from the council. Waste is brought to the plant by pickers or trucked from businesses or other collection points in surrounding areas. Collection points are located in areas all over the Copper Belt. Northwood want to go to the next step and increase production capacity to 16 to 18 tonnes. This will require new investment in both labour, equipment, and new sources of material.

PET, LD and HD are the most common compounds that are available for recycling. PET plastics are the most difficult to recycle because most customers want virgin PET and there is little that can be produced, apart from bottles. A bottle-to-bottle PET recycling machine is extremely costly. Northwood would like to start recycling PET, but a sustainable business model is needed in order to replicate it in other cities in Zambia. Northwood has not had assistance from any subsidies or grants.

54 Acton and Northwood’s greatest restriction is land. The money for new warehousing investment is available and ready to be used, but the Council is taking a long time to allocate land. A second application has been made to the Kalulushi Council. Whichever is approved first will receive the investment. There is an expansion strategy once more land is secured. Another company is able to supply the technology and machinery required for the expansion. The expansion would also include a water treatment plant, renewable energy sources, and an efficient overall system.

Another restriction has been power. Getting a transformer in place is an extremely difficult process. The industrial plots where Acton is operating were sold with the promise of power, water, and sewerage connections. All of those had to be installed by Acton itself. When water was sourced from the main line, bills were incorrect because of faults in council metering system. Bore holes had to be drilled for an alternative water source.

100% of plastics are imported. Zambia can generate huge foreign revenue savings by recycling plastics. Used plastics should be seen as a resource. The Council’s waste is not currently separated, Acton could provide bins to assist this process. Some waste is generated during the recycling process. Highly contaminated plastics and labels are not recycled. PET bottles brought in by informal collectors are stockpiled for potential future use. Cleaned chemical containers are collected from farmers, but other hazardous waste is not currently handled by Northwood.

Other recycling companies may be incentivised by a proposal to have waste separated in the new landfill development in Kitwe. There are three recycling companies that have expressed an interest in working with the council. Composting is done on a small scale by the City Council, on a site using the parks and recreation organic matter. Space is limited on the current site. Scrap metal is in high demand. Good Time Steel, Escor, a Chinese foundry, and Yellow Stripes are recycling scrap metal in Kitwe. The are many informal pickers at the current dumpsite.

9.2.6 Recycling and composting in Solwezi There is no formal or informal recycling in Solwezi on a large scale. Some segregated waste has been supplied to recyclers in Ndola by Wana Cleaning Services. There is also a Chinese company that is interested in plastics and has supplied a bailer to the dumpsite. The informal recycling market is limited in Solwezi, but empty glass and plastic bottles are collected and reused on a small scale. The bulk of the waste is biodegradable, heavy, and the cost to move it is high. Dealing with the bulk of organic waste would drastically reduce waste quantities in Solwezi. Transporting heavy organic waste to the dumpsite is not cost effective.

Wana have started making fence posts, mattresses, weaved recycled plastic bags, and compost. Some types of plastics are in short supply. The majority of waste collected from markets is organic. A pilot farming project was developed to demonstrate that high yields can be obtained by using compost, and show that farmers do not have to be dependent on fertilisers. Farmers are weary of using compost rather than fertilisers because they often believe this will result in lower yields. The pilot orchard project aims to demonstrate that high yields can be obtained by using compost.

9.2.7 Recycling and composting markets, summary table

AREA LUSAKA LIVINGSTONE CHIPATA NDOLA KITWE SOLWEZI

MARKET Informal Formal Informal Formal Informal Formal Informal Formal Informal Formal Informal Formal

PET

HDPE

PVC

PLASTIC LDPE

Other

Cardboard

White Paper

PAPER Newspaper

Magazines

Composite cartons

Steel

Aluminium METAL Copper

Other non-ferrous

Returnable Bottles

GLASS Non-RBs

Cullet

Food

Garden ORGANIC Lignin (Woody)

Agricultural

E-WASTE Electronics

TEXTILES Old Clothing

RUBBER Tyres

Medical

HAZARDOUS Chemical

Human Waste

OTHER Solid waste

KEY: Market strength

loose

emerging

strong

Figure 48 Separation of waste at the Solwezi disposal site. Image source: Luke Muller, January 2017

9.3 International waste markets The major markets for exporting plastics, paper and metal materials from Zambia are China, India and South Africa. Transport is the number one problem faced by exporters from Zambia, since it is a land locked country. Potential export points are through Botswana and South Africa, through Tanzania to Dar es Salaam. In the near future, another export route will open up and from Chipata, through Malawi to the port of Ncala in Mozambique, where an upcoming railway project could improve logistics.

China is a volatile market with constant fluctuations in pricing and import regulation changes. The South African plastics market is also volatile and in early 2016 the plastics market crashed – partly due to influences from China’s market, but also due to local manufacturing shifts. As trade with America and Europe has reduced, new trade partners such as Vietnam and Cambodia are entering the market (UNDP, 2016).

9.4 Industry bodies No industry bodies for waste management or recycling were identified during the literature review or field research.

10. Summary of challenges

UN projections expect the population of Zambia to more than double by 2050, reaching 41 million people (PRB, 2016a). Rapid rates in urbanisation, combined with rising population levels are putting strain on urban waste management systems and town planning efforts.

Solid waste management is a complex and crosscutting issue. Compounding this is the lack of clarity around the policy, legislative, regulatory, and accountability frameworks that govern solid waste management within Zambia. The structures are complex, opaque, and also insufficient to catalyse investment and job creation within the waste management sector. Existing government incentives are not conducive to attracting significant private sector investment in the sector, and they do little to encourage or enable participation of small- and micro-enterprises in the area. Further, mechanisms for engagement at the national and sub-national level are unclear, resulting in the exclusion of smaller, local, or informal stakeholders that are critical to solid waste management in developing countries.

Major challenges to waste minimisation, management, recycling and reuse, that are applicable to the Zambian context, include: • Rapid population growth combined with limited and unequal development • High rates of urbanisation, with a majority of growth occurring in informal or unplanned settlements • Difficulty acquiring land tenure or leases • Unreliable supply of electricity • Underdeveloped and sub-par transportation infrastructure • An underdeveloped transportation infrastructure within and between cities • Low levels of education amongst the general population • Limited availability of a skilled labour force (lack of technical expertise at government/institutional level, and at the industrial level) • Lack of a clear policy, regulatory, governance, and accountability framework around waste recovery and processing activities • Sub-optimal oversight and enforcement of existing legislation • Remote locations, high logistics costs and low waste volumes that make rural waste management challenging and unprofitable • Limited public awareness around waste, including waste management and the linkages between human behaviour, waste handling, recycling, health and the environment • Lack of sanitary landfills, which poses a threat to groundwater and health of the surrounding community, and results in open dumping of collected municipal waste • Limited infrastructure and technical guidelines for hazardous and industrial waste disposal • No incentive to improve individual waste disposal practices and limited efficacy of behaviour change programs to date • Lack of formal systems in place to collect waste management fees from waste generators • Limited, unstable and unreliable local waste market • Minimal access to international waste markets

11. Opportunities

The under-utilisation of valuable waste streams and an under-developed market for recycled material were found in both the field research and reviewed literature. The public do not generally view waste as a resource. There is limited competition for new market entrants and room for private sector expansion. City Councils and businesses have an appetite for stronger stakeholder involvement and collaboration, including partnerships and co- operatives. Businesses can make use of a large and energetic workforce by using opportunities that reduce youth unemployment.

11.1 Organic waste The waste characterisation studies found a high percentage of organic waste in four of the six dumpsites included in the study. Organic waste made up 25.6% of the waste weight in Lusaka, 37.3% in Chipata, 29.9% in Kitwe, and 47.1% in Ndola. Livingstone has a small agricultural sector and relatively low levels of organic waste. Solwezi has a high percentage of organic waste, but it was often insuperable from other waste by the time it reached the dumpsite. An opportunity exists to separate organic waste at sources such as households or markets. Opportunities exists to repurpose all organic waste into a natural compost, fertiliser, animal feed or into a local affordable energy using the following methods:

1. Composting can be done on a small or larger scale depending on the investment from individuals, business partners or local government involvement. Small businesses could collect organic waste from markets and sell back their own compost at the same market, therefore closing the loop for this type of waste within a given place/city. 2. Black fly larvae faring is an efficient way to produce quality compost. The larvae can also serve as a good source of feed for chickens, fish, and other animals. 3. Sustainable biochar production creates a solid material obtained from the carbonisation of biomass. 4. Bio-gas technologies can be used on a small and large scale, providing locals with cooking gas or lighting. In Zambia, small scale bio-gas production is already operational through different community projects. 58 Figure 49 A basic compost heap. Image source: https://thewormtower.com, 2017 Figure 5051Forced aeration of compost mound using a piping Mechanical commercial aeration of a compost systemmound. Image source: O2Compost, 2017. Image source: Jonathan Allaire, 2016

11.1.1 Composting Two types of composting (traditional and vermicomposting) can be performed almost anywhere in the world. Vermicomposting is similar to traditional composting. Both use natural processes to stabilize organic matter. Traditional composting is sometimes called microbial composting because it relies on fungi and microorganisms to break down organic matter. Earthworms do most of the composting in vermicomposting. Vermicomposting is an aerobic processes requiring oxygen to function. One advantage of vermicomposting is you do not need to aerate or turn a vermicompost pile. The earthworms do the turning for you. Making compost from worms differs from microbial composting in that vermicomposting works best when initial carbon to nitrogen ratio is high, pile temperature is kept low and moisture content is high. Traditional composting involves the fermentation of organic matter through either an aerobic (with oxygen) or anaerobic (without oxygen) process.

These two types of composting are both possible in Zambia and they are, most likely, already happening throughout the country. Anaerobic compost is does not require turning the mound of organic waste.

Aerobic compost is requires turning or aerating the compost on a regular basis to provide the pile of organic waste with oxygen. The aerobic version will provide a faster composting process with less odour. This is due to the action of microorganisms metabolising and breaking down organic matter more efficiently in aerobic conditions.

The type of organic waste is a major determinant when considering the method of composting. The pH level, C:N ratio, moisture and chemical contents can change the composting process.

Composting can be done on a small scale with simple tools. Organic material, a shovel, and home-made box or contained area are the minimum requirements. On a larger scale, commercial aerator can be purchased or installed under each mound. This is all dependant on the volume wanted, the time frame given, and the capital to be invested.

59 Figure 53 Commercial vermicomposting in Zambia. Image source: Jonathan Allaire, 2016

Figure 52 Composting systems. Image source: Recycled Organics, 2017

Red tiger/wiggler worms, Eisenia Fetida, are the main type of worms used in vermicompost. They signal when the type of food provided is not what they want by escaping their environment or by grouping into a corner, away from undesirable organic matter.

Figure 54 Worm reproduction is sign of a good living habitat. Image source: Jonathan Allaire, 2016

Worms degrade the organic matter by eating it and excrete a pure worm casting rich in natural nutrients. This type of compost is already taking place within Zambia at a medium commercial scale. The vermicomposting company is using refused potatoes and tobacco leaves from other surrounding farms.

The decentralised composting of organic waste would significantly lower the weight of waste being transported to dumpsites, and provide local communities with a valuable farming input. In addition, the separation of organic waste at source would make it easier to separate recyclable waste at dumpsites and lower associated odours and health hazards. Composting will increase local farming yields, improve food security issues, and provide new employment opportunities.

60 Figure 55 Black soldier fly larvae. Image source: National Public Radio http://npr.org, 2017 Figure 56 Mass production of black soldier fly prepupae. Image source: Haocheng Mealworms, 2017 11.1.2 Black Soldier Fly Black Soldier Fly larvae farming is another efficient way to produce quality compost. This technique involves attracting black soldier flies to lay eggs in organic food left out in the open. One female black soldier fly can lay up

to 1000 eggs. The method can be used to decompose agriculture or slaughter house waste.

The BSF does not pose a health risk or danger to humans. The adult fly has no functioning mouth parts and spends its short lifecycle searching for mates and reproducing. The flys are not a disease vector insect. The larvae are completely developed within two to four weeks of their life cycle. The adult fly will survive only 5 to 8 days after emerging from pupation, as it cannot feed itself.

BSF prepupae larvae are an excellent source of protein, fat, calcium, and other nutrients, making them an excellent source of feed for: • Chickens can benefit from its high protein content, and calcium for strong egg shells. • Fish can be raised and fed with BSF have a high omega 3 content. • Other birds, reptiles and animals can also benefit from this quality food source.

61 Figure 59 Biochar. Figure 60 Bio-gas. Image source: Jonathan Allaire, 2016 Image source: Jonathan Allaire, 2016 Figure 57 Biochar production. Image source: Jonathan Allaire, 2016

11.1.3 Biochar According to the International Biochar Initiative, biochar production can benefit local communities by providing them with an energy source, increasing soil fertility, reducing dependence on fertilisers, enhancing soil microbial life, reducing N2O and CH4 emissions, and emissions otherwise generated by the natural decomposition or burning of waste. Organic waste with a high carbon content is best suited to make biochar. This is often wood offcuts that are not good enough for building purposes, branches, shrubs and general organic lignin waste.

Figure 58 Biochar production. Image source: Jonathan Allaire, 2016

11.1.4 Biogas Decentralised bio-gas production can take place in bioreactors. A bioreactor is a structure used to produce biogas through the decomposition of organic waste, such organic kitchen waste, farm crops, or animal excrement. Inside the bio reactor, organic waste is transformed through anaerobic microbiological activity into a natural soil fertiliser. The main gas produced is methane (approximately 60%) and the remainder is predominantly carbon dioxide.

62 Figure 62 Bioethanol production - Organic waste fermenting in containers prior to being put through the distillery system. Image source: Jonathan Allaire, 2016 Bioreactors require a consistent supply of raw feedstuffs to produce a constant supply of biogas. Warmer climates assist the fermentation of organic waste.Figure 61Any Right: temperatureA homemade distillery system with a capacity of ma fluctuations, especially low temperatureking s, should be avoided. When building the bioreactor,20L localof bioethanol per day. Image source: material can be used but highJonathan Allaire, quality material2016 must be used to build high pressure gas dome.

11.1.5 Bioethanol Bioethanol production is a way for Zambia to address both organic waste and energy issues. Bioethanol can convert waste to a useful fuel and prevent uncontrolled fermentation at the dumpsite.

The process is theoretically simple but requires the correct equipment and for rigorous safety protocol to be followed. In Lusaka, informal producers are making bioethanol at their own risk, but with assistance and expansion these producers could present a major opportunity for the city and country. Informal producers in Lusaka currently yield 20L of ethanol per day. Fermenting 5kg of organic waste for each 1L of bioethanol produced.

The method requires feedstocks that contains monosaccharides which are high in sugar content such as maize. The monosaccharides, extracted through microbial hydrolysis then goes through a fermentation stage that requires adding the brewer’s yeast - Sacchromyces ceverisiae. The fermentation stage lasts for 24 hours. Molasses can be added to the mixture to increase sugar levels.

Ethanol can be used as an alternative to gasoline which can be added to any types of vehicle on a 10% ratio. This ratio is dependable on the type of vehicle. Some engines are built ability to combust 100% ethanol or a higher mix of gasoline with ethanol.

63 Figure 64 Carbon black. Image source: Figure 63 A Tirec Group landfill project in the UK. Image source: Tirec Wikimedia commons, 2017 Group, 2017

11.2 Tyres

Used tyres are a waste-resource that is underutilised across Zambia. Used tyres are either stockpiled, dumped by mines or burned rather than being used as a viable business resource. An opportunity exists to extract valuable materials from the tyres, including carbon black. Carbon black produced from tyres can be used as a reinforcing material or pigment in rubber products, and has numerous other industrial applications.

Tyres shredded into small fragments can be sold to companies making tarmac which blend the rubber particles into their mix to reduce their costs. Used tyres are a resource that could be needed for many decades to come whilst Zambia is developing, expanding and fixing its road network. Some mining industries in Zambia already reuse old tyres to increase traction on mining roads with used tyres, or create barriers to block dynamite blasting fragments or noise. The construction sector can use old tyres to minimize road vibrations or to build noise reducing walls near populated areas. A European company called RUCONBAR are making recycled tyre walls that can reduce noise.

Tyre chips without steel belts can be used to create a leachate barrier on the bottom and edges of a landfill. This prevents the runoff of a dangerous chemical mix (leachate) into the environment. The lifetime compression rate is a critical component for this layer as it needs to stay at a certain thickness, over a long period of time, to assure impermeability.

Safe playgrounds can be created using whole tyres to construct play structures or by shredding tyres into small particles (called rubber mulch) to create a safe ground surface to play on.

11.3 Glass Glass waste, especially broken bottles, is mainly being disposed of in dumpsites. No large-scale solution to recycle glass bottles has been found throughout Zambia. Recycled crushed glass from used bottles is nontoxic, meaning that it can be recycled into other bottles, crockery or even used to filter water on a large scale. Crushed glass has a high silica content and can be used in industrial processes or for making a variety of construction materials:

1. Fired bricks made with crushed glass can tolerate high temperatures and stand up to strong forces. This makes the bricks durable, even under pressure. 2. Roofing tiles can be created with recycled glass to create a roof that is durable and energy absorbent for heating water. Water heating using glass tiles could be used by many people to saving on electricity or fossil fuel usage. 3. Concrete blocks can be made by using crushed glass as fine aggregate. 4. Copper smelters can make use of crushed glass bottles as an alternative to using mined silica. In Kitwe, the Mopani copper mine has already considered using broken glass as a source of silica for their copper but require a feasibility study to ensure that a sufficient supply can be found.

64 Figure 66 This paver contains 67% recycled glass. Image Figure 65 Crushing glass bottles to make concrete blocks. Image source: Kirby, 2006 source: Jonathan Allaire, 2016

Figure 68 Compressed pavers made from melted plastics Figure 67 Plastic Pellets. Image source: and crushed glass. Image source: Jonathan Allaire, 2016 http://www.plasgranltd.co.uk, 2017

11.4 Plastic recycling

The plastics recycling sector is underdeveloped and more waste could be viably recycled if the manufacturing sector was further developed to process waste materials into new products, especially in plastics recycling, which poses a lower barrier to entry than other recycling processes. This has large potential for green job creation along the value chain from collecting, separating and sorting and processing the wastes.

One product that can be manufactured locally in a decentralised fashion is a compressed paving block, where melted plastic is used as an alternative to cement, mixed with other plastics in specific ratios, further mixed with sand or crushed glass and compressed in a mould.

Further up the chain, plastics can be pelletized for sale to local manufacturers currently using virgin pellets. Potential manufacturers in Lusaka currently produce dustbins, plastic sheeting, piping and electrical fittings.

65 Figure 69 Examples of recycled plastic products: HDPE pipes, LDPE bags and PP sacks. Image source: www.indiamart.com, 2017

Figure 7170 Plastic roof tiles and roof sheets. Image source: Plastic post profiles that can be used in the construction industry, for fence posts, furniture or flooring. Image source: http://saahaszerowaste.com/, 2017 http://www.recycledplasticbuildingmaterials.co.uk/, 2017

Plastics can be extruded in different profiles shapes to create all types of building materials. Such products include: flooring, walls, posts and pillars, beams

A heat pressing process can be applied to plastics to produce roof tiles. The process involves extruding into a mould, which is then compressed to form the shape of a roof tile, as seen below:

66 11.5 Waste - Energy

Recycling is considered a priority solution due the environmental benefits of reduced carbon emission and raw material requirements, and the economic benefits, however not all waste can be viably recycled. Where materials cannot be viably recycled, they can often be used, as a last resort, to generate energy in a waste to energy (WTE) plant. On a small scale, some industries are converting both organic and inorganic waste to energy, but there is low competition and an opportunity for further growth.

Figure 72 The Waste-Energy Process. Image source: http://www.arc21.org.uk/opencontent/?itemid=27§ion=Residual+Waste+Project, 2017

Waste To Energy (WTE) is a method that uses mostly high calorific garbage along with all other garbage to generate energy. The WTE system burns at high temperatures (over 800 ∘C) waste such as wood products (General forestry products) garden waste, tyres, sewage sludge, plastics, glass (limited calorific value). The main output is heat energy, which can be transformed into electricity. The power outage, load shedding or blackouts that currently occurs in Zambia since 2015, could be partly addressed through such a WTE solution. The emissions are low as the combustion of the waste is done at a high enough temperature to vaporise and separate all solid particles from each other, with only solid sterile carbon ash remaining along with some heavy metal particulate and dioxin gas. With close regulation and monitoring of the WTE plant, this solution can help address two of the most the common issues: electricity and waste disposal.

12. Further work and Recommendations The following opportunities for further research were identified:

1. A detailed assessment of the current waste situation in Chilanga Town for Lafarge, with the aim of determining the feasibility of establishing a waste collection system to feed into the Lafarge furnaces.

2. A comparison of the waste characterisation and per capita volumes, in comparison to other developing and developed countries (South Africa, Mozambique, Angola, USA etc).

3. Detailed feasibility studies on the opportunities identified in the study that show potential for practical implementation in Zambia and are in line with ILO’s goals.

Further to these research opportunities, the following additional opportunities were identified:

1. Enable and encourage the separation and composting of organic waste in households, neighbourhoods and markets. Provide the necessary equipment, knowledge and skills to a network of local people who can implement and sustain composting processes in decentralised locations.

2. Separating organic waste at source is an initiative that could enable recycling companies to operate effectively and with lower costs. A large proportion of the waste reaching the dumpsite is mixed waste that is difficult or impossible to separate from organic matter.

3. Work together with the chamber of mines and mining houses to extract carbon black and other useful materials from pyrolysis of used tyres. Assist the mines to work together to consolidate waste volumes.

4. Set up glass collection, recycling and crushing depots within cities and coordinate the supply of glass powder with demand from the building and mining industry.

5. Separate materials where they are economically viable to recycle.

6. Implement waste to energy solutions for other materials that are not viable for recycling.

7. Work with City, district and Municipal Councils and businesses to improve the limited public awareness around waste management its linkages to community health and the environment. Incentives need to be created to prevent illegal dumping and littering. Sensitisation programmes need assistance to educate the public about waste management, recycling, waste separation, and waste hazards.

8. The six city councils do not receive centralised funding for SWM. Help to fund and equip dumpsites with weighbridges. This will enable better management, record keeping and provide a reliable way to weigh waste and charge fees.

9. Further explore opportunities for the synchronisation of industrial waste streams to reduce the dumping of by-products and waste.

10. Formalisation programmes for the informal waste management and materials recovery sector with an emphasis on Occupational Health and Safety training.

11. Improved revenue collection mechanisms for waste collectors. The bundling of waste service fees with municipal services, such as electricity was discussed as a model that works elsewhere, for people to be able to pay service fees at centrally located places such as supermarkets, and with further potential in mobile money integration.

12. Medical waste from hospitals fed into a waste-energy plant with the only extra requirement being suitably safe handling of the waste in transit.

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14. Appendix 14.1 Social climate and demographics in the focus areas

14.1.1 Lusaka social climate and demographics Lusaka District has an estimated urban population of over 2.3 million (CSO, 2013a; UN Habitat, 2007b). 86% of the population lives in urban areas and over 70% live in informal settlements (also called “Improvement Areas”) (CSO, 2016; UN Habitat, 2007b). Dense living conditions and inadequate planning are exacerbated by rapid population growth and urbanisation, making these informal, peri-urban areas extremely difficult to service properly. As the capital, Lusaka is the country’s economic, cultural and transportation centre. It is also easily accessed from all regions, as all major roads pass through the city (CSO, 2013a). Such dense unplanned settlements pose challenges for waste management as infrastructure development lags behind, resulting in an inability for traditional waste collection, which frequently involves trucks, to service such areas. Waste then ends up in the streets and impacts water and sanitation systems, and in turn the community’s health and surrounding environment.

14.1.2 Livingstone social climate and demographics Livingstone's geography makes it the country’s tourist capital and the main entry and cross-border trade point with neighbouring Zimbabwe and Botswana, as well as a thoroughfare for goods traveling by road into and out of Southern Africa (UN Habitat, 2009a). In mid-2016, Livingstone District had an estimated population of 169,237 people (CSO, 2016; UN Habitat, 2007b). Livingstone is also experiencing rural to urban migration, which is being absorbed primarily by the cities’ unplanned settlements, though to a lesser degree than most of the other cities profiled in this report (UN Habitat, 2009a).

14.1.3 Chipata social climate and demographics Chipata is the business and administrative hub that serves the Eastern Province. The quickly growing Chipata District has a population estimated at 519,511 (PRB, 2016a; CSO, 2013a). Given its vast tracts of arable land and suitable climate, farming is the predominant economic activity here. Located near the border with Malawi, Chipata is Zambia’s gateway to the Indian Ocean. It is also conveniently situated along Great East Road, which connects the capitals Lilongwe (130 km) and Lusaka (568 km).

14.1.4 Kitwe social climate and demographics Located in Copperbelt Province, Kitwe is Zambia’s second most populous district and second largest city, in terms of both size and population (UN Habitat, 2009b). The mid-2016 population is estimated at 668,668 persons (CSO, 2013a). Centrally located in the Copperbelt, the district is rich in natural resources. The mining sector is a major source of employment and economic activity and has contributed to Kitwe’s commercialization. However, these activities also contribute to significant environmental degradation in the area. Compounding this, Kitwe’s role as “hub of the Copperbelt” has resulted in rapid population growth and urbanisation, much of which is occurring in informal and illegal settlements (UN Habitat, 2009b).

14.1.5 Ndola social climate and demographics Ndola is the provincial capital of the Copperbelt and Zambia’s third largest city (mid-2016 population projection of 540,923) (CSO, 2013a). It is the province’s industrial and commercial center. Located just 10km from the border with the Democratic Republic of Congo, it is also situated along an important trade route (Ministry of Local Government and Housing, 2016a). Like Kitwe, Ndola has vast natural resources and is a hub for mining activities. Like the other large cities profiled in this report, Ndola is also experiencing challenges associated with population growth and in-migration from rural areas.

14.1.6 Solwezi social climate and demographics The capital of North-Western province, Solwezi has an estimated mid-2016 population of 299,725 persons (CSO, 2013a). North-Western province is the most sparsely populated in the country (Ministry of Local Government and Housing, 2016b). Solwezi is home to several copper and gold mining operations, but its growth and development are slowed by multiple factors, including road infrastructure. The government has invested in a range of initiatives to upgrade the road infrastructure around the country, including the road connecting Solwezi with the Copperbelt and with Kipushi, on the border with DRC (Ministry of Local Government and Housing, 2016b).

74 14.2 Stakeholder maps

75 76