Women in Nonprofit Leadership: Strategies for Work-Life Balance

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Theses and Dissertations

2015

Women in nonprofit leadership: strategies for work-life balance

Amanda Colleen Green

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Recommended Citation Green, Amanda Colleen, "Women in nonprofit leadership: strategies for work-life balance" (2015). Theses and Dissertations. 614. https://digitalcommons.pepperdine.edu/etd/614

This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by Pepperdine Digital Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Pepperdine Digital Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected] , [email protected]. Running head: WOMEN IN NONPROFIT LEADERSHIP

Pepperdine University

Graduate School of Education and Psychology

WOMEN IN NONPROFIT LEADERSHIP:

STRATEGIES FOR WORK-LIFE BALANCE

A dissertation proposal presented in partial satisfaction

of the requirements for the degree of

Doctor of Education in Organizational Leadership

Amanda Colleen Green

September, 2015

Margaret Weber, Ph.D. — Dissertation Chairperson

This dissertation, written by

Amanda Colleen Green under the guidance of a Faculty Committee and approved by its members, has been submitted to and accepted by the Graduate Faculty in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

Doctoral Committee:

Margaret Weber, Ph.D., Chairperson

Lisa Bortman, Ed.D.

James DellaNeve, Ed.D.

TABLE OF CONTENTS Page

LIST OF TABLES ...... vi

LIST OF FIGURES ...... vi

DEDICATION ...... viii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... ix

VITA ...... x

ABSTRACT ...... xiv

Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study ...... 1

Historical Background ...... 1 Purpose of the Study ...... 4 Significance of the Study ...... 4 Role of the Researcher ...... 6 Key Terms ...... 7 Operational Definition ...... 8 Theoretical Framework ...... 8 Research Questions...... 9 Data Collection Plan ...... 10 Analytic Techniques ...... 10 Assumptions ...... 11 Limitations ...... 11 Summary ...... 12

Chapter 2: Review of the Literature ...... 13

Historical Background ...... 13 Present...... 18 Work-life Balance ...... 27 Theoretical Framework ...... 46

Chapter 3: Methodology ...... 53

Research Questions...... 54 Research Methodology ...... 54 Process for Selection of Data Sources ...... 55 Validity and Reliability of Data Gathering Instruments ...... 60 Population and Sample ...... 64 Data Management ...... 68

Description of the Proposed Data Analysis Process ...... 68 Institutional Review Board ...... 69 Summary ...... 70

Chapter 4: Results ...... 71

Data Collection Procedures ...... 71 Themes ...... 77 Findings ...... 78 Summary of Key Findings ...... 106

Chapter 5: Discussion ...... 108

Summary of Key Findings ...... 111 Implications for Policy and Practice ...... 122 Recommendations for Future Research ...... 124 Summary ...... 125

REFERENCES ...... 127

APPENDIX A: Informed Consent for Interview ...... 155

APPENDIX B: Consent Form for Web-based Survey ...... 158

APPENDIX C: EDOL Course Integration ...... 161

APPENDIX D: IRB Approval ...... 162

LIST OF TABLES Page

Table 1. Four Factors That Shape the Life Course ...... 9

Table 2. Five Pathway Types and Their Characteristics ...... 39

Table 3. Steps for Data Analysis ...... 69

Table 4. Socio-Demographic Data by Participant ...... 74

Table 5. Educational Attainment of Participants, Parental Education &

Occupation ...... 87

LIST OF FIGURES

Page

Figure 1. Women’s contribution to the GDP in the United States...... 16

Figure 2. Employment by occupation in the United States ...... 20

Figure 3. Lost wages in predominantly female jobs...... 21

Figure 4. Growth of the nonprofit sector and the female labor force...... 23

Figure 5. Workforce sectors in the United States...... 24

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DEDICATION

This is dedicated to three women leaders in my family, my mother and my grandmothers.

To my mother, Anna Maria, for teaching me to read, for encouraging me to believe in myself and to be myself, for exemplifying perseverance and optimism, for instilling in me a sense of adventure, and for giving me unconditional love and support.

To my Mimi, Mary Ann, who demonstrated acceptance of all people, maintained a sense of humor throughout her life, and who let me stay up past my bedtime, thus teaching me the life lesson about the importance of sleep.

To my Obachan, Kiyoko Fujinaka, for displaying endless generosity, for exhibiting grace, strength, and courage, and for continually sharing her guidance, “Always use common sense and good manners and never get tattoos.”

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank my chair and mentor, Dr. Margaret Weber, for guiding me through this journey with the ideal amount of encouragement and direction, which allowed me to find my own way and direct me back on course when needed.

I would also like to acknowledge my committee members, Dr. Lisa

Bortman and Dr. James DellaNeve, for supporting me by providing valuable feedback to improve my study.

During my doctoral studies, I had the privilege of working with a talented leadership coach, Aman Gohal, who helped me find renewed motivation to persevere with my studies through a difficult time in my life. Further, her guidance challenged and inspired me to change in immeasurable ways. I will remain forever grateful.

I appreciate the love and support of my family and friends who gave me space, reassurance, sustenance, and comic relief when needed.

I am thankful to have had the opportunity to meet and learn alongside the incredibly intelligent, funny, and caring group of peers in my cohort.

Finally, I am indebted to the women leaders who participated in this study. Thank you for making this work possible by generously sharing your life stories with me.

VITA

AMANDA C. GREEN

EDUCATION Ed.D, Organizational Leadership, Doctoral Candidate, Present Graduate School of Education and Psychology, Pepperdine University

Master of Science in Management: Leadership and Organizational Effectiveness, 2011 College of Business Administration, University of South Florida

Bachelor of Arts, English Literature and Mass Communications, magna cum laude, 2000 College of Arts and Sciences and College of Communications, Florida State University

PUBLICATIONS Proceedings Green, A. (2013). Action learning through employee volunteer programs. Proceedings from the 23rd Annual Society for the Advancement of Management (SAM) Conference: Making a Difference: Shaping the Future. Cincinnati, OH: Society for the Advancement of Management.

Other Publications Green, A. (2014, March 17). Why a healthier future for our next generation matters. Accessible at http://blog.americorpsalums.org/2014/03/17/why-a-healthier-future- for-our-next-generation-matters/

AWARDS Graduate School of Education and Psychology Travel Award , 2013 Martin Luther King, Jr. Drum Major for Service Award, 2011 President’s Volunteer Service Award, Lifetime Award, 2009 Unsung Hero Award, Corporation for National and Community Service, 2007

PROFESSIONAL POSITIONS Alliance for a Healthier Generation Associate Director, Healthy Schools Program, Nationwide, 2009 – present Lead nine staff members in implementing the Healthy Schools Program in ten states Coach and mentor staff members in achieving performance goals Oversee the recruitment of schools into the Healthy Schools Program Cultivate and manage key stakeholder relationships Develop national training materials and resources Manage personnel functions, including selection and hiring, budgeting, performance appraisals, and professional development

American Cancer Society Associate Director, Pinellas County, Florida, 2007 - 2009 Led nine staff members in achieving an annual goal of $2 million Recruited community leaders to serve on volunteer committees for special events Facilitated weekly meetings to analyze progress on weekly, monthly, and yearly goals Built relationships with key stakeholders to mobilize support and resources

AmeriCorps*National Civilian Community Corps (NCCC) Assistant Program Director, Charleston, South Carolina, 2002 - 2007 Directed national disaster recovery efforts after Hurricanes Katrina and Rita Built partnerships with organizations providing disaster relief operations Developed community service projects in the Southeastern United States Served as a member of the National Diversity Council

AmeriCorps*National Civilian Community Corps (NCCC) Service Learning Coordinator, Charleston, South Carolina, 2002 - 2005 Facilitated annual trainings at regional campus for 300 volunteers Coordinated yearly events: career fair and Human Rights Day Counseled AmeriCorps members in educational and career planning

AmeriCorps*National Civilian Community Corps (NCCC) Team Leader, Sacramento, California, 2001 - 2002 Led team of 11 diverse young adults ages 18-24 in residential service program Facilitated team building and effectiveness

HRC International Program Manager, Atlanta, Georgia, 2000 - 2001 Developed international training programs in the United Kingdom and the Netherlands Managed career building programs for international trainees in the United States Wrote sponsorship proposals for J-1 visa training programs Designed marketing materials, including recruiting brochures and website materials Created training manuals for employees and international trainees

TECHNICAL SKILLS

Analytical and statistical programs: NVivo and SPSS Platforms: Microsoft Windows, Mac OS, and IOS Word processing and publication: Microsoft Word and Pages Spreadsheets and databases: Microsoft Excel, Microsoft Dynamics CRM, and Siebel Presentation: Microsoft PowerPoint and Prezzie Email: Microsoft Outlook, Lotus Notes, Google Mail

PRESENTATIONS AND WORKSHOPS

Green, A., Doel-Hammond, D., Metz, J. & Wood, T. (2013). Assumptions about women in leadership roles in the entertainment industry. Paper presented at the 1st Annual Women in Leadership: Work-life Balance Conference: Celebrate Women’s Wisdom: Life Journeys. Los Angeles, California.

Green, A. (2013). Maintaining motivation. Workshop at the 1st Annual Healthy Schools Program Professional Development Institute: Lead Well. Little Rock, Arkansas.

Green, A. (2011). Promoting healthy eating through the Healthy Schools Program. Workshop at the 61st Annual Florida School Nutrition Association Conference. Orlando, Florida

Green, A. & Crawford, D. (2011). Tell your story and make it stick. Workshop at the 4th Annual National Healthy Schools Program Forum. New York, New York.

Green, A. (2007). Reflection: The key to service-learning. Workshop at the 4th Annual Gulf-South Summit on Service-Learning and Community Engagement through Higher Education. New Orleans, Louisiana.

Green, A. (2007). Activities to promote reflection in community-based service learning programs. Workshop at the 18th Annual National Service Learning Conference: Beyond Borders, Beyond Boundaries. Albuquerque, New Mexico.

Green, A. (2005). Promoting civic engagement with national service volunteers. Presentation at 1st Annual White House Conference for Faith-based and Community Initiatives. Miami, Florida.

Green, A., Burns, J., & Anderson, E. (2005). Community-based service learning. Workshop at the 16th Annual National Service Learning Conference: Educating for Change. Long Beach, California.

Green, A. (2004). Engaging national service volunteers. The Region IV Head Start Association’s Annual Training Conference. Atlanta, Georgia.

Green, A., Burns, J., & Anderson, A. (2005). Preparation, action, reflection, and celebration: The four components of service learning. Keynote at the Annual PEAK: Preparing Educators for Advenures with Kids Conference. Cedar Mountain, North Carolina.

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REVIEWING ACTIVITIES Reviewer of paper submissions for the 3rd Annual Women in Leadership: Work-life Balance Conference Mentoring and Sponsorship. Los Angeles, California. (2014)

LEADERSHIP AND SERVICE AmeriCorps*National Civilian Community Corps Alumni Leadership Council, 2013 AmeriCorps Alums of Tampa Bay, Chair, 2008 - 2011 Volunteer Florida Statewide Leadership Council, 2007 - 2009

MEMBERSHIPS International Positive Psychology Association, 2013 - present Beta Gamma Sigma, Lifetime member Net Impact, Charter member, University of South Florida

ADDITIONAL QUALIFICATIONS AND TRAINING Cultural Competency Situational Supervision Coaching for Performance Facilitator Workshop, USDA Graduate School How to Become a Better Communicator American Red Cross Disaster Relief Instructor

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ABSTRACT

The nonprofit sector is the third largest employing industry in the United

States and impacts almost 10% of the economy (Roeger, Blackwood, &

Pettijohn, 2012; Salamon, Sokolowski, & Geller, 2012). Women comprise over

75% of the nonprofit workforce, yet men hold over 80% of leadership positions

(Bronznick & Goldenhar, 2009; McInnes, 2008). The purpose of this qualitative, phenomenological study was to examine the work-life balance practices of women leaders in nonprofit organizations and determine experiences impacting their life course. The ultimate goal was to gain insight from women leaders in nonprofit organizations to identify strategies for more women to advance into leadership roles. The researcher utilized a qualitative methodology with the life course theory developed by Giele (2008).

The research questions were:

1. What demographic factors, if any, are related to work-life balance issues

for women leaders in nonprofit organizations?

2. How is the life course for women leaders in nonprofit organizations

impacted, if at all, by experiences, identity, motivation, adaptive and

relational style?

3. What strategies, if any, are women leaders in nonprofit organizations

utilizing for work-life balance?

20 women leaders in nonprofit organizations served as the study population. The women held positions of vice president or above or positions

xiv

equivalent to vice president if the organization did not use such titles.

Participants provided socio-demographic data and responses to 5 sets of questions regarding early adulthood, childhood and early adolescence, current adulthood, future adulthood and coping strategies.

The key findings and conclusions revealed challenges with work-life balance associated with diverse demographic factors. Experiences related to identity, relational style, drive and motivation and adaptive style influenced life courses and are anticipated to influence the future life courses of participants, specifically regarding decisions on educational attainment, partnerships, family, careers, and social involvement. Work-life balance strategies were discovered in 4 areas: self-care, partners, professional skills, and social support.

Overall, the research provided a composite of the participants as women leaders in nonprofit organizations, including their backgrounds and life stories.

The research demonstrated that work-life balance continues to be an issue and an interest for women leaders in nonprofit organizations.

Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study

In the nonprofit sector of the United States’ workforce, the issue of work- life balance merits particular importance. From 1991 to 2010, the nonprofit sector of the United States’ workforce grew from 500,000 to over 1.3 million nonprofit organizations and private foundations (Roeger et al., 2012). Women comprise more than 75% of the nonprofit workforce (Bronznick & Goldenhar,

2009; McInnes, 2008). However, men hold over 80% of the leadership positions (Bronznick & Goldenhar, 2009). Promoting work-life balance has reduced barriers for women in leadership in the law profession, academic environments and other corporate settings, which indicates the same may be true for nonprofit organizations (Bronznick & Goldenhar, 2009). This phenomenological study used a narrative style to determine strategies for work-life balance and other factors that may have impacted the life course of

20 women leaders in nonprofit organizations.

Historical Background

While some nonprofit, philanthropic, educational, and religious organizations in the United States, like Harvard College, were founded in the colonial era, the nonprofit sector has only officially existed since the 1970s

(Hall, 2010). Hall states:

In fact, over 90 percent of nonprofit organizations currently in existence were created since 1950. Worldwide, most nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) have come into being in the past thirty years. Nonprofits and NGOs are the most rapidly growing types of organizations in the world. (Hall, 2010)

The formation of the nonprofit sector in the 1970s coincides with the

exponential growth in the number of women entering the workforce after 1960

(Barsh & Yee, 2011; Collins, 2009). The increase in the number of women balancing work and home strengthened the issue of work-life balance.

The issue of work-life balance for women surfaced during World War II as women were needed in the workforce while men were serving in the United

States Armed Forces overseas (Hattery, 2001). Women filled roles traditionally held by men as a matter of necessity and patriotism. As men began to return from war, employment opportunities for women decreased. Men were viewed as the main economic providers for families and were given preference for jobs

(Hattery, 2001). In 1944, President Franklin D. Roosevelt terminated publicly funded child care programs, deeming them only a wartime necessity (Stebbins,

2001). However, publicly funded childcare was more than a wartime necessity since women’s roles had begun to change. More women were acquiring higher education and demonstrating success in the workforce (Friedan, 1963).

The increase in women’s educational attainment has expanded opportunities for women in the workplace. The United States Department of

Education ("The Condition," 2012) reports that women earn nearly 60% of associate and bachelor degrees and comprise the majority of the student body in institutions for higher learning. As a result, the dual earner family is now the norm (Gornick & Meyers, 2003). Despite both parents working full-time and contributing to the family economy, many studies have shown that women continue to bear the responsibility for childcare and household duties (Aleman

& Renn, 2002; Ezzedeen & Ritchey, 2009b). Hochschild and Machung (2003)

coined the term, second shift, as a way to explain the additional duties women

are expected to perform at home after work hours. David Bradley, owner of

The Atlantic, interviewed PepsiCo Chief Executive Officer Indra K. Nooyi, and she shared an experience that characterizes the second shift. She described

going home to tell her family she had been selected as president and a member

of the board of directors for PepsiCo. Her announcement was curtailed by her

mother’s request to go to the store to purchase milk. Even though other able

adults were home, she was expected to perform this household duty. She

shared her mother’s comments to her that evening:

You might be president of PepsiCo. You might be on the board of directors. But when you enter this house, you're the wife, you're the daughter, you're the daughter-in-law, you're the mother. You're all of that. Nobody else can take that place. (Friedersdorf, 2014)

The second shift is a challenge for many working women who are still

responsible for the majority of caregiving. Mothers are responsible for staying

home with sick children, leaving work to care for sick children, taking children

to doctor’s appointments during work hours, and performing household duties

after returning home from working a full-time job (Eagly & Carli, 2007;

Greenberg & Landry, 2011; Hill, Hawkins, Ferris, & Weitzman, 2001). These

additional responsibilities create barriers for women’s advancement in the

workforce.

Statement of the Problem

Most leadership positions in nonprofit organizations are held by males

even though female employees comprise approximately 73% of the workforce in

the nonprofit sector (Lapovsky & Larkin, 2009). Women earn less compensation 3

and are consistently underrepresented in the formal leadership roles of nonprofit organizations (Gibelman, 2000; McLean, 2014). Since nonprofit organizations are growing at a high rate and women play such a significant role in the nonprofit workforce, it is important to understand barriers to women’s leadership in nonprofit organizations. There is a gap in scholarly literature which considers work-life balance and the impact on women’s leadership in nonprofit organizations.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of the study was to examine the practices of women leaders in nonprofit organizations to determine strategies they utilize for work-life balance. The secondary purpose was to explore the lives of women leaders in the nonprofit sector to determine experiences that may have impacted their life course.

Significance of the Study

Some studies suggest women have greater access to leadership opportunities in nonprofit organizations since almost 19% of the 400 largest philanthropic organizations have women leaders, while Fortune 500 companies have only 3% female leadership (Joslyn, 2009). However, women comprise less than 40% of the workforce in private industry. In the nonprofit sector, women comprise the majority of the workforce in the nonprofit sector, yet do not hold a representative number of leadership positions. The nonprofit sector is growing and will need more leaders. Retail trade and manufacturing are the top two

employing industries in the United States, followed by the nonprofit sector

(Salamon et al., 2012).

Research predicts a leadership deficit in the nonprofit sector in the next decade due to the anticipated attrition of executives for factors such as retirement or turnover (Bell, Moyers, & Wolfred, 2006; "Supporting" 2008;

Tierney, 2006). Bell et al. (2006) surveyed 1,900 nonprofit executives and found that 75% of the study participants reported an intention to leave within five years. Tierney (2006) forecasted 640,000 vacant positions at the senior level of leadership within ten years. Finding qualified leaders to fill the expected vacancies will be a challenge. Women working in the nonprofit sector should be considered as a qualified pool of applicants for these leadership positions, since they are the majority of the workforce and already work in the sector.

However, determining the barriers to women’s leadership in nonprofit organizations is key. Improving work-life balance has improved the path to women’s leadership in other workforce sectors, which provides a reasonable sign to consider strategies for improving work-life balance in nonprofit organizations

Work-life balance is an important strategy for improving overall organizational effectiveness (Hewlett, Sherbin, & Sumberg, 2009). All employees, regardless of gender, have an increased interest in work-life balance

(Galinksy & Backon, 2009). Work-life balance is particularly important for women, since women carry the onus for caregiving and household obligations

(Bronznick & Goldenhar, 2009).

This study provided an opportunity to determine successful work-life balance strategies for women leaders in nonprofit organizations. These findings could be shared with leaders of nonprofit organizations in order to improve organizational effectiveness, since nonprofit organizations impact almost 10% of the United States’ economy (Roeger et al., 2012). The findings could also be shared with leaders other segments of the workforce with an interest in work-life balance.

Role of the Researcher

The role of the researcher is included in this study to disclose the researcher’s background in order to identify values, assumptions, and biases at the onset of the study. The researcher has worked in the public service and nonprofit sector for fifteen years. During this time, the researcher has been supervised by women leaders who have demonstrated varying approaches to work-life balance. The researcher has also personally experienced challenges with finding work-life balance, particularly while working full-time and pursing a Master of Science in Leadership and Organizational Effectiveness, then a doctoral degree in Organizational Leadership. These experiences, however, improved the researcher’s appreciation, knowledge, and understanding of the focus of this study. The researcher made every attempt to minimize personal bias and strived for objectivity in the understanding, analysis, and interpretation of the data. The researcher acknowledged the importance of setting aside personal experiences and knowledge in order to understand the data shared by participants in the study.

Key Terms

 Adaptive style – the extent to which an individual identifies with being

innovative or traditional in choices impacting life course, including an

individual’s comfort level with ambiguity and change (Giele, 2008).

 Emotional Intelligence – the ability to recognize our own feelings and how

they impact others; possessing empathy and self-motivation and

appropriately managing our emotions (Goleman, 1998).

 Identity – an individual’s self-perception as being conventional or

different than family or others (Giele, 2008).

 Motivation – the extent to which an individual’s need for achievement,

affiliation, nurturance, and power may impact goals and decision-making

(Giele, 2008).

 Nonprofit organizations – classified by the IRS as 501(c)(3) or 501(c)(4)

independently governed organizations that do not give revenue to the

individuals who control the organization and are exempt from federal

income taxes since they are formed for public service (Boris & Steuerle,

2006).

 Relational style – the egalitarian or deferent approach an individual uses

to relates to others, also considers the impact of networks and loyalties

(Giele, 2008).

 Work-life balance – the extent to which an individual experiences a

harmonious and mutually beneficial relationship between career and

family roles (Kossek, Lautsch, & Eaton, 2006).

Operational Definition

For the purpose of this study, women leaders in nonprofit organizations were defined as women who hold positions of vice president or above or the equivalent. Equivalent positions to vice president are individuals who typically report to the Chief Executive Officer and serve as the second in command of the overall organization or as the leader functions such as marketing, communications, development or programming (Heathfield, 2014). Nonprofit organizations do not use uniform titles, so equivalent titles were defined for the purpose of this study ("2014 Nonprofit," 2014).

Theoretical Framework

Life course theory was the theoretical framework for this study. The four themes of life course theory were used to examine the data, including identity, relational style, drive and motivation, and adaptive style (Giele, 2008). Utilizing the life course theoretical framework enabled the researcher to analyze the factors influencing the life course for women leaders in nonprofit organizations.

The life course approach uses a narrative style through qualitative interviews to gather data. The life course framework enabled the researcher to explore the complexity and interrelationship of culture, time, and place on individual’s lives. The framework, developed by Giele (2008) incorporates elements of previous theories on life course (Elder, 1994, 1998; Giele, 2002; Parsons, 1955,

1966) and expands on them as shown in Table 1.

Table 1.

Four Factors That Shape the Life Course

Note. Four Factors That Shape the Life Course. From “Homemaker or career

woman: Life course factors and racial influences among middle class

Reprinted with permission.

Research Questions

1. What demographic factors, if any, are related to work-life balance issues

for women leaders in nonprofit organizations?

2. How is the life course for women leaders in nonprofit organizations

impacted, if at all, by experiences, identity, motivation, adaptive and

relational style?

3. What strategies, if any, are women leaders in nonprofit organizations

utilizing for work-life balance?

Data Collection Plan

Approximately 20 women leaders in nonprofit organizations served as the population for this study. The women leaders hold the role of vice president or above or an equivalent position in a nonprofit organization. Equivalent positions to vice president are individuals who typically report to the Chief

Executive Officer and serve as the second in command of the overall organization or as the leader functions such as marketing, communications, development or programming (Heathfield, 2014). A formal invitation to voluntarily join in the study was shared with potential participants who met the study criteria. Participants were given an option to contribute to the study through a semi-structured interview or a web-based survey. Both the semi- structured interview and the web-based survey utilized the same data collection instrument, which was a set of questions designed to gather data on the experiences influencing the participants’ life courses and strategies for work-life balance (Giele, 2008; Weber, 2011).

Analytic Techniques

The researcher used the five steps of data analysis (Giorgi, 1997), as well as NVivo software to analyze the data. Step one, gathering the data, included conducting interviews and written, descriptive data through the web-based survey. The interviews were recorded then transcribed, and the data from the web-based survey was exported into an Excel file. The researcher then performed step two and reviewed the data. The researcher reviewed the data as the interviews were occurring, during the transcription

process, as the web-surveys were submitted, and after the data collection was completed. Continually reviewing and reflecting on the data prepared the researcher for step three, dividing the data into themes. The data were initially divided into themes according to the research questions. The researcher then organized the data into sub-themes during analysis, the fourth step. Details on the first four steps are presented in Chapter 4 of this study. The researcher completed the fifth step and summarized the findings from the data, which are presented in Chapter 5.

Assumptions

It was assumed that participants responded honestly to the interview questions. It was also assumed that the study participants met the criteria for the study. The researcher shared the criteria for the study with all potential participants prior to the data collection.

Limitations

The population for this study was limited to 20 women leaders in nonprofit organizations who were willing to volunteer as participants in the study, which may not be representative of all women leaders in nonprofit organizations and may not be generalized to the larger population. Opening the study to more women leaders in nonprofit organizations would increase the study population and provide additional data.

The population was also limited to women leaders in nonprofit organizations, which, for the purposes of this study, was defined as women serving in a position of vice president or above (or the equivalent) in a nonprofit

organization. The researcher was interested in women leaders in nonprofit organizations since women are the majority of the workforce in nonprofit organizations, yet few women hold leadership positions. The study could be expanded to include all women working in nonprofit organizations regardless of position.

Summary

Women comprise the majority of workforce in the nonprofit sector, yet men hold the majority of the leadership roles. Understanding the lived experiences of women leaders in nonprofit organizations may help to determine a pathway to promote more women into leadership positions.

Chapter 2 reviews the literature regarding women in the workforce, the nonprofit sector, women’s leadership, and work-life balance. The theoretical framework was also discussed in the literature review. Chapter 3 describes the planned methodology for the study, and Chapter 4 provides the results of the study. Chapter 5 summarizes the findings, provides implications for policy and practice, and offers recommendations for future research.

Chapter 2: Review of the Literature

Historical Background

Women have always played a significant role in the American economy.

Currently, women in the workforce contribute about 25% to the Growth

Domestic Product (Barsh & Yee, 2011). However, for most of the modern era, women’s work has been limited to unpaid roles. Typically, these roles consisted of managing domestic responsibilities such as running the household: caring for children, gardening, sewing, cooking, cleaning, and producing household goods (Collins, 2009; Lerner, Meacham, & Burns, 1988).

These unpaid roles were important in ensuring the family’s financial viability and enabled men to serve as the sole economic provider. Working outside of the home was in contradiction with the social norms accepted for women, which were focused on femininity and the home life (Roland & Harris, 1979).

Working outside of the home was also an issue of class. Based on necessity for income, some women worked in small businesses, schools and stores

(Behrman, 1982). Families where women did not work outside of the home developed into the modern white middle class (Romer, 1981). Thus, while women and men both contributed to the economic viability of the family, women were discouraged from working outside of the home. Women held less than 25% of the jobs in America before 1910 (Hoffman & Nye, 1974).

Women’s suffrage. The nineteenth amendment of the United States

Constitution was passed on August 26, 1920 and granted women the right to vote. This passage of the law marked a turning point for women’s rights and

demonstrated the capacity for women to organize and lead change on a national scale. During the period of women’s suffrage, women exhibited acts of civil disobedience by picketing and chaining themselves to the White House gates (Faludi, 2006). Perhaps these actions influenced the early description of a feminist, which was coined in 1895 in the book Athenaeum and depicted a feminist as a woman with the ability to battle to achieve independence (Faludi,

2006, p. 13). The modern definition of feminism recognizes equal rights regardless of gender. Hewlett (2002) suggested feminism’s greatest impact was not only in providing women the opportunity to advocate for others, but the confidence to advocate for themselves.

Women’s suffrage marked a shift in the entrenched gender roles preceding this era. While women volunteered for social causes previously, women’s suffrage afforded women an opportunity to promote societal change and realize a sense of power (Berg, 1978; Flexner, 1959; Garland, 1988).

Volunteering with philanthropic and nonprofit organizations to promote women’s suffrage and other social causes provided women opportunities to gain leadership skills outside of the home.

Industrialization. The industrial era provided an opportunity for some women to enter the workforce, though men still held most paid positions

(Hoffman & Nye, 1974). Job opportunities for women improved during World

War II as women were needed to support the economy and provide labor while men were serving in the military (Hattery, 2001; Marshall, 1984a). During this time, women’s roles began to change. Women began to achieve success in the

workplace, attain high education, and gain financial status, while also managing the domestic responsibilities (Friedan, 1963). However, when men returned from the armed services, women’s job opportunities diminished. In addition to receiving preferential selection for paid positions, men received higher pay for the same work since they were viewed as the economic providers for families (Hattery, 2001). The wage gap between men and women doing the same work has continued into the present day (Alkadry & Tower, 2006; Barsh

& Yee, 2011; Gibelman, 2000; McLean, 2014; Outon, 2011).

By the 1960s, opportunities for women to enter the workforce were plentiful. There was a 1.7% increase in the nation’s collective labor force, and two-thirds of those jobs went to women (Barsh & Yee, 2011; Collins, 2009). In the 1970s, women’s opportunities to gain employment continued to rise. There was a 2.6% increase in the overall American workforce with 41% of women working full or part-time, accounting for 38% of the total workforce (Barsh &

Yee, 2011). Growth slowed from the 1980s to the 2000s, which reduced women’s access to jobs (Outon, 2011). However, 38 million more women entered the workforce overall from 1970 – 2009. Presently, women comprise

47% of the workforce in the United States, and 76% of American women ages

25-53 are employed or seeking employment (Barsh & Yee, 2011).

Women’s contribution to the American economy has been significant.

The current Gross Domestic Product (GDP) would be reduced by 25% if no

women had entered the labor force after 1970. Figure 1 illustrates women’s

contribution to the GDP.

Figure 1. Women’s contribution to the GDP in the United States. From “Women

in the economy: Selected exhibits,” by S. Arora, A. Ayanova, J. Barsh, S. Lund,

V. Malhotra, J. Manyika, H. Sumner and L. Yee, 2011, McKinsey & Company,

Inc., p. 2. Copyright [2011] McKinsey & Company, Inc. Reprinted with

permission.

Policies. Wage discrimination began to receive some public disclosure in the 1940s and was discouraged, but was still a significant issue since no legislation supported the practice (Collins, 2009). However, the Equal Pay

Act of 1963 was a defining moment in wage discrimination, since it required the same pay for men and women working in the same roles. Women received

further support in the workplace in Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which prohibited sex-based employment discrimination (Alkadry & Tower,

2006; Carlson, 2006). Specifically, the law made it illegal to use race, religious affiliation, gender, or nationality as a factor for determining compensation or employment terms ("United," 1968). These laws are enforced by the Equal

Employment Opportunity Commission, though the number of lawsuits filed by the Equal Opportunity Commission is decreasing while private lawsuits are increasing (Blau, Ferber, & Winkler, 2002). In 1979, the United Nations identified gender discrimination as an issue of concern and approved the

Convention of the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, promoting policies for maternity leave and childcare to support women in the workplace (Gray, Kittilson, & Sandholtz, 2006).

While the laws promoting equal opportunity provide some support for addressing discrimination, the burden of proof is on the victim. Employees are required to report the alleged discrimination to the Equal Opportunity

Commission within 180 days. Identifying discrimination within this timeframe can be difficult (O'Brien, 2008). In regards to wage discrimination, pay secrecy contributes to this challenge, specifically in the private sector where sharing wage and salary information is either discouraged or prohibited (Hegewisch,

Williams, & Drago, 2011). Hartmann, Hayes, and Clark (2014) reported the issues with pay secrecy:

About half of all workers (51 percent of women and 47 percent of men) report that the discussion of wage and salary information is either discouraged or prohibited and/or could lead to punishment. Most government agencies have formal grade and step systems that make 17

general wage and salary information public (only 18 percent of women and 11 percent of men in the public sector report discouragement or prohibition of wage and salary discussions). According to the survey respondents, private sector employers are more likely to try to control access to this information: 62 percent of women and 60 percent of men working for private employers report that wage and salary information is secret. Pay secrecy is even more common among single mothers: nearly two of three (63 percent) say they work for employers who discourage or prohibit discussion of wage and salary information. While there may be no direct link between pay secrecy and pay inequality, pay secrecy appears to contribute to the gender gap in earnings. (p. 1)

The 2007 case of Lilly Ledbetter v. Goodyear Tire Company demonstrated

the problem with the 180-day timeframe in Title VII. Ledbetter sued for wage

discrimination, but the United States Supreme Court dismissed the case

maintaining that too much time had passed (O'Brien, 2008). In 2009, the Lily

Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009 changed the timeframe for which discrimination

must be reported, “The Act restores the pre-Ledbetter position of the EEOC

that each paycheck that delivers discriminatory compensation is a wrong

actionable under the EEOC statues, regardless of when the discrimination

began ("Lilly," 2009). Lilly Ledbetter v. Goodyear Tire Company revealed the continued challenges with wage discrimination and signaled a shift in public policy to promote increased fairness and equality for American workers

(Sullivan, 2009).

Present

Over the past century, the percentage of women in the workforce has grown exponentially. In 1910, there were approximately 21% of women in the workforce (Hoffman & Nye, 1974). According to a 2012 report by the United

States Department of Labor Statistics, women represent 46% of the present workforce.

The number of women working in management has risen due to the increase in women earning college degrees ("Women in the" 2014). In 2010, women in the United States were conferred 58% of all undergraduate degrees

(Barsh & Yee, 2011; McInnes, 2013). However, women study traditionally female fields, such as humanities, education and health as opposed to science and technology ("Women in America" 2011). The trend of women graduating with fewer technical degrees than men relates to the gender wage gap since careers in typically male fields, like science and technology, pay more than careers in typically female fields. However, Moss-Racusin, Dovidio, Brescoll,

Graham, and Handelsman (2012) found that even when women with the same qualifications as males apply for scientific research positions, their applications are assessed differently by both male and female faculty. In addition, when the women were offered positions, their starting salaries were lower than their male counterparts, and they received fewer opportunities for mentorship (Moss-

Racusin et al., 2012).

Women are more likely to be employed in administrative support, nursing, education and service occupations ("Women in the labor force: A databook," 2014). These roles are traditionally undervalued, which contributes to the gender wage gap. Figure 2 shows employment by occupation.

Figure 2. Employment by occupation in the United States (“Women in the,” 2014, p. 33)

The disparity between men and women’s earnings continues, though there are improvements being made. From 1979 to 2012, women’s earnings compared to men’s earnings rose from 62% to 81% ("Women in the,” 2014).

Still, men are much more likely to hold the highest leadership positions. Less than 7% of the heads of state are female and approximately 15% of senior managers are female in corporate America (Sandberg, 2013). Studies also suggest disparities among women. Women without children earn more than married women and single mothers, while minority women earn even less

(Hoobler, Lemmon, & Wayne, 2014).

Research suggests women are steered toward professions associated with female roles, such as education, healthcare and social work, and these jobs

pay less regardless of the employee’s gender (Mason, 2009). Figure 3 shows the wages lost by women and men in jobs typically held by females. Because men generally earn more than women in all professions, the wages lost by men working in jobs traditionally held by females is significantly higher. Overall, approximately $114 billion is lost by both men and women working in jobs primarily held by females (Hartmann, Allen, & Owens, 1999).

Figure 3. Lost wages in predominantly female jobs. From “Seventy-four percent:

Exploring the lives of women in nonprofit organizations,” by P. M. Outon,

2013b, Bayer Center for Nonprofit Management at Robert Morris University,

Morris University. Reprinted with permission.

Despite objective data to the contrary, Kehn and Ruthig (2013) suggested gender discrimination in the United States is considered an issue of the past by

many people in the workforce. Jones (2005) reported on a 2005 Gallup poll which found that 53% of citizens in the United States perceived that women have equal opportunities and believed women were not being discriminated against at work. In contrast to these perceptions, (Kehn & Ruthig, 2013) found that men have a zero-sum view of gender equality. The zero-sum view assumes that as women gain more equality, men lose equality and power. This zero- sum perspective may lead to continued discrimination against women as men may experience fear in losing their status in the workforce and in society (Kehn

& Ruthig, 2013). Further discrimination against women occurs in performance appraisals when women work in fields that are traditionally male dominated or when women are in positions typically filled by men, such as high-ranking military positions (Lyness & Heilman, 2006; Pazy & Oron, 2001). Women working in traditionally female professions, like the nonprofit sector, often find more gender-balanced groups.

Opportunities for women have grown in the nonprofit sector, which is a traditionally female profession. In the nonprofit sector, women comprise two- thirds of the workforce (Gibelman, 2000; Johnston & Rudney, 1987; Joslyn,

2003; McGinnis, 2011; Pynes, 2000; Shaiko, 1996). However as of 2009, of the

400 largest nonprofit organizations in the country, only 76 women hold the position of chief executive officer (Bronznick & Goldenhar, 2009; Lansford,

Clements, Falzon, Aish, & Rogers, 2010). “The majority of research conducted in the last ten years supports the position that the glass ceiling continues to be a barrier for women in nonprofit” (Gibelman, 2000; Gose, 2004; Joslyn, 2003;

O'Brien, 2008; Preston, 1990). The term the glass ceiling refers to the invisible obstacles that prevent women from achieving higher levels of leadership in the workforce. The term was coined in 1984 by Gay Bryant, editor of Working

Woman magazine, who explained that women were getting stuck in middle management (Boyd, 2008).

The growth of nonprofit organizations and women’s participation in the nonprofit sector’s workforce indicates a need to determine the barriers and opportunities for women’s advancement. Figure 4 shows the growth of the nonprofit field and the female workforce.

Figure 4. Growth of the nonprofit sector and the female labor force. From

“Seventy-four percent: Exploring the lives of women in nonprofit organizations,” by P. M. Outon, 2013b, Bayer Center for Nonprofit Management at Robert

Morris University, Copyright [2013] by the Bayer Center for Nonprofit

Management at Robert Morris University. Reprinted with permission.

The disproportionate number of women in nonprofit may be attributed to wages, since men experience a more substantial loss in salary by working in the nonprofit sector as opposed to the for-profit sector, while the variance for women is not as severe (Gibelman, 2000). Figure 5 shows the workforce sectors in the United States and represents men and women in the sectors.

Figure 5. Workforce sectors in the United States. From “Seventy-four percent:

Exploring the lives of women in nonprofit organizations,” by P.M. Outon,

2011b, Bayer Center for Nonprofit Management at Robert Morris University.

Morris University. Reprinted with permission.

Finally, lack of advocacy contributes to the reduced number of women in leadership positions and the gender wage gap. Research showed that women are less likely than men to negotiate salaries (Joslyn, 2003). Women are also less likely to advocate for leadership positions. Women in nonprofit

organizations have historically had to leave for other organizations in order to achieve career advancement (Outon, 2011a).

Women’s Leadership

Female workers comprise 75-80% of the nonprofit workforce but hold few leadership positions. The disproportionately high number of females in working the nonprofit sector as compared to the corporate sector suggests a relationship between nonprofit orientation and female characteristics such as compassion, consideration and responsiveness (Eagly & Johnson, 1990; Hale,

2000; Young & David, 2007). In addition, leadership styles typically employed by women are well suited for the nonprofit sector. The Lennon, Spotts, and

Mitchell (2013) reported, “Research has shown that nonprofits with women in leadership are more successful in realizing their mission and reaching their goals, and their employees are more satisfied with the organization’s overall performance” (pp. 120-121). Employees prefer the egalitarian and participative style of leadership typically employed by women (Eagly & Carli, 2007).

In Fortune 500 companies, women hold only 3% of the leadership positions (Barsh & Yee, 2011; Joslyn, 2003). However, research has shown that there may be a positive relationship between women on boards of directors and corporate performance as many women utilize a collaborative approach to leadership that is appropriate for current organizational challenges (Perrault,

2014). Women’s collaborative approach to leadership is especially key in nonprofit organizations. Compared to for profit organizations, nonprofit leaders have to manage more complexity, which is why nonprofit organizations

have historically placed more importance on leadership skills versus managerial skills (Drucker, 1990; Santora, 2005). Despite the underrepresentation of women in leadership positions, research shows that women are more likely to demonstrate the leadership styles and behaviors related to promoting higher levels of success in the workplace (Eagly &

Johannesen-Schmidt, 2001). These leadership traits include intellectual stimulation, motivation, shared decision-making and establishing expectations

(Barsh & Yee, 2011). Emotional intelligence may also be attributed to women’s success as leaders. Emotional intelligence includes self-awareness, managing emotions, empathy, and social skill (Goleman, 1998). Women have demonstrated higher skill in emotional intelligence in most research, and emotional intelligence helps to promote a positive and successful life (Goleman,

1998). Goleman (1998) suggests companies are beginning to appreciate the benefits of emotional intelligence in leaders, since emotional intelligent leaders contribute to a positive organizational climate and improved organizational performance (Goleman, 1998). “Leaders who used styles that positively affected a climate had decidedly better financial results than those who did not” (Goleman, 1998, p .81).

Eagly and Carly (2007) found that men reported being satisfied or more satisfied with a female supervisor. Despite these findings, women are still underrepresented in the top leadership roles. Research shows two main reasons women are held back: entrenched beliefs about women’s roles and women are more likely to remain in jobs that are personally satisfying.

Entrenched beliefs are related to stereotypes of women’s leadership styles and motivation. Despite evidence to the contrary, women’s leadership styles may be considered incompatible for leadership positions. Stereotypes about women’s leadership styles are perceived to be incongruent with the traits such as independence, single-mindedness and decisiveness, generally believed as required to achieve executive advancement (Ezzedeen & Ritchey, 2009a).

Additionally, women’s career motivations may be questioned, assuming that women will be more motivated by maternal instincts than career achievement

(Hoobler, Lemmon, & Wayne, 2014). Women may choose to stay in positions that are personally rewarding as a strategy for work-life balance, perceiving that taking on a leadership role with more responsibility will cause stress and provide fewer opportunities to connect to the direct service of the organization.

Work-life Balance

Work-life balance refers to the extent to which an individual experiences steadiness or positive relationships between career and family roles and the roles are perceived as harmonious and mutually beneficial (Kossek et al.,

2006). Historically, work and family were viewed as conflicting entities, especially concerning women. In the 1960s, the term work-life balance began to appear in scholarly literature as researchers studied the relationship between women’s roles with work and family (Gregory & Milner, 2009). Work- family conflict, work-family balance, work-family interference, work-family segmentation, work-family expansion, and more recently, work-life satisfaction are other terms used in the work-life field of study (Burke, 2004).

The field of work-life balance evolved as a response to more women entering the workforce (Han & Moen, 1999). Working mothers with children below six years of age at home has consistently grown since the 1950s (Collins, 2009;

Denmark, Novick, & Pinto, 1996; Han & Moen, 1999). From 1950 to 1995, the number of working mothers with pre-school aged children at home increased from 12% to 64% (Collins, 2009; Han & Moen, 1999). Collins (2009) suggested that the 1970s signaled a shift in which the notion of a working mother was accepted as a norm. Traditional couples, defined as a man working and a woman staying home, currently account for less than 10% of workers.

Presently, almost half of workers represent dual-earner couples (Han & Moen,

1999). The increase in families with dual earners signals a need to change the terminology of a traditional couple to reflect contemporary trends. Reasons for the increase in working mothers include greater educational attainment by women, improved opportunities for women to enter the workforce, and higher housing costs (Collins, 2009).

Research has traditionally focused on the conflict between work and family, assuming that these roles are competing for time and resources (Beatty,

1996; Cooper & Davidson, 1982; Ezzedeen & Ritchey, 2009a; Greenhaus &

Beutell, 1985; Hewlett, 2002; Kossek et al., 2006). Conflict between work and family roles is more prevalent for women than men, and the degree to which the conflict can be minimized or mitigated leads to greater satisfaction with both work and family (Kossek & Ozeki, 1998). The conflict women experience in career and family roles is related to mindsets established through early

paradigms of family, socialization and values (Heraty, Morley, & Cleveland,

2008). For example, even in dual-career families, women continue to be responsible for two-thirds of the domestic responsibilities, including household duties such as cooking and cleaning, as well as caregiving for children and elderly relatives (Bartley, Blanton, & Gilliard, 2005; Beatty, 1996; Bronznick &

Goldenhar, 2009; Rowney & Cahoon, 1990; Tichenor, 2005). This phenomenon relates to the past when a woman’s place was in the home. Because women are more likely to be responsible for caregiving, lack of flexibility in the workplace and lack of childcare are additional sources of role conflict (Lerner,

2010). There is a higher standard for women as they are expected to perform traditional caregiving duties and perform well at work. The increase in expectations of women increases role conflict, as well as depression and stress

(Dickerson, 2004). These challenges are particularly relevant for single-parent families where support from a partner is not available (Sayer, 2005). Thus, work-family conflict is still a relevant issue in achieving work-life balance. The demands associated with balancing work and family are related to the lack of women in leadership positions (Eagly & Carli, 2007).

Rosabeth Moss Kanter’s Work and Family in the United States: A Critical

Review and Agenda for Research and Policy (1977) served as a groundbreaking study in the field of work-life balance, suggesting roles with work and family can be mutually beneficial, rather than in conflict. Kanter’s ideas, as well as suggestions for strategies on balancing career and family roles, presaged recent themes for research in the study of work-life balance. Research has shown

that women may experience greater well-being by having a career and a family.

Ezzedeen & Ritchey (2009b) said, “Engaging in multiple domains of life such as work, family, and community is healthier for people. Working outside the home is especially good for women as it boosts their self-esteem and enhances their parenting” (p. 270).

Currently, the topic of work-life balance has gained significance in both practitioner and academic literature as a universal business concern in organizations. “Work-life balance isn’t limited to gender - 89% of younger workers and 87% of baby boomers rater work-life balance ad a key attribute of desirable employers (Bronznick & Goldenhar, 2009, p. 2). Work-life balance is one of the barriers for women’s opportunities to achieve higher levels of leadership (Ezzedeen & Ritchey, 2009a; O'Neill & Boyle, 2011). A survey of over

1,800 human resources leaders, talent management and diversity leaders from diverse industries reported work-life balance as the leading factor precluding women from career advancement, while lack of a mentor was reported as the second highest factor (O'Neill & Boyle, 2011). Work-life balance is an impeding factor since women are still traditionally responsible for duties at home and would benefit from policies and practices that would facilitate advancement

(Bartley et al., 2005; Beatty, 1996; Ezzedeen & Ritchey, 2009a; O'Neill & Boyle,

2011).

The perception of women’s work-life balance also affects women’s paths to leadership. Supervisors views on subordinates’ work-life balance impacts performance reviews and opportunities for advancement (Carlson, Witt,

Zivnuska, Kacmar, & Grzywacz, 2008; Lyness & Judiesch, 2008).

Unfortunately for women, both male and female supervisors are more likely to

assume men have more work-life balance even when women report satisfactory

levels of work-life balance (Lyness & Judiesch, 2014). Hoobler, Wayne, and

Lemmon (2009) found that supervisors assumed female subordinates had more

work-family conflict and less work-life balance than men.

Work-life balance strategies. In order to be successful in both work and life, women must utilize adaptive strategies or “actively construct and modify their roles, resources, and relationships” (Becker & Moen, 1999, p.

995). Adaptive strategies are the methods people use to handle ordinary difficulties, manage challenging situations, and generally reflect on their lives

(Becker & Moen, 1999; Jennings & McDougald, 2007; Moen & Yu, 2000;

Monnier, Stone, Hobfoll, & Johnson, 1998). Voydanoff (2005) said that adaptive strategies “consist of thinking about and redesigning one’s roles and relationships, manipulating resources and demands to do so” (p. 399). Using these definitions, it is clear that adaptive strategies may enable women to experience the advantages of undertaking multiple roles while minimizing potential conflicts. Women face unique challenges in the work environment, and determining strategies for women to find work-life balance is important

(Clark, 2000; Kirchmeyer, 2000). More working women in the workforce, and specifically, women with children, signals a need to manage the structural lag,

a term coined by Riley, Kahn, Foner, and Mack (1994) meaning the official and

informal guidelines that do not match the workplace’s continuous fluctuation,

specifically in regards to work and family life. Research has suggested strategies for women and work-life balance, and these can be placed into the categories suggested by Ezzedeen and Ritchey (2009a): value systems, support systems, and life course strategies.

Value systems. Ezzedeen and Ritchey (2009a) related a value system to work-ethic and included diligence, integrity and persistence. The researchers found that these values can promote support in the workplace. Smallen-Grob

(2003) suggested that integrity is especially important for women to exhibit since they face particular scrutiny in the workplace.

Foley (2004) said building a professional reputation is a strategy for achieving work-life balance since it enables women to take advantage of more opportunities. Eagly and Carli (2007) supported this strategy and also suggested women need to demonstrate outstanding proficiency in their roles.

However, the pressure to work harder in order to achieve recognition is a challenge for work-life balance known as the superwoman syndrome (Ezzedeen

& Ritchey, 2009b). The superwoman syndrome refers to the idea that women have to work more and work harder to fulfill responsibilities in a perfect manner (Turetskaia, 2003). Giscombe (2007) suggested that the superwoman syndrome developed out of the need to be “mother, nurturer, and breadwinner” due to financial and societal responsibilities (p. 669). She specifically noted this as a challenge for African-American women who may be trying to compensate or offset negative stereotypes reinforced through discrimination

(Giscombe, 2007). Marshall (1984) proposed that some women may feel they

have to be superwoman as a means for survival. However, the stress resulting from trying to be perfect at everything has negative effects on women’s lives, both personally and professionally.

By maintaining integrity, a strong work ethic, and perseverance, women may gain credibility that will support efforts towards maintaining a work-life balance.

Support systems. Support systems include both personal and professional support systems. Personal support systems include parents, other family members, friends, and the community, while professional support systems consist of supervisors, mentors, and colleagues (Ezzedeen & Ritchey,

2009a). Hattery (2001) found that support systems, both personal and professional, contributed to women’s success in the workplace and at home.

Ezzedeen and Ritchey (2009b) suggested women who develop extensive support systems across personal and professional realms, including work, family, and community, have more success in reaching senior leadership positions and concurrently enjoying family. It is critical for women to understand the importance of networking to create support systems. Many women managers thought they could advance in their careers through hard work alone and they perceived networking or making friends as a less important career strategy, however, support systems offer the opportunity for women to reach career success and wellbeing by providing a means to manage the tension between multiple role demands (Ezzedeen & Ritchey, 2009b). Diverse support systems may provide strategies for work-life balance, assistance with managing

responsibilities, and relief from unrealistic expectations, which could alleviate

the guilt of choosing between work and home and promote wellbeing (Sachs,

2006). Thus, building support systems is an important work-life strategy for

women.

Personal support systems. Personal support systems are a key strategy

for achieving work-life balance. Women’s personal support system needs

depend on individual circumstances, such as having children, being involved in

a domestic partnership and employment. Parents may offer encouragement

women throughout their lives, either by serving as role models or by

encouraging women to accomplish educational and personal goals (Ezzedeen &

Ritchey, 2009a). Parents and relatives may also provide support for work-life

balance by aiding in domestic responsibilities, including childcare.

Partners. Giele (2008) explains the dual-career family, in which both partners are working, is becoming the norm in society. Choosing a compatible life partner can contribute to work-life balance since partners may provide financial, professional and emotional support (Hewlett, 2002; Molloy, 2005;

Wills, 1990). Reliable partners can facilitate work-life balance by offering inspiration and approval or by limiting unrealistic expectations (Brett & Stroh,

2003; Ezzedeen & Ritchey, 2009a, 2009b). Ezzedeen and Ritchey’s (2009b) research involving women executives suggested that partners can provide a variety of support including “emotional (providing advice, encouragement, and emotional regulation) and instrumental (technical support and professional assistance)” (p. 276). A partner’s character, career, background, and culture

influence the support provided to women, effecting attitudes towards women’s success and sharing domestic responsibilities (Ezzedeen & Ritchey, 2009b).

While support from partners is an important factor in considering work-life balance, Pittman and Blanchard (1996) and Wierda, Hilde, Gerris, and

Vermulst (2008) found that individual adaptive strategies are also needed since couple-level strategies do not necessarily promote work-life balance.

A partner helping with domestic responsibilities alleviates some of the burden on women and enables time to develop social support systems. Kurdek

(2007) found that lesbian partners reported more equality in terms of sharing domestic responsibilities than heterosexual couples. Lesbian couples with children may have more shared responsibilities because there is less conflict between gender roles and domestic responsibilities (Dunne, 2000). Dunne

(2000) found lesbian females living together with children had a greater balance in division of labor regarding family roles and were able to intermingle paid work and home life more easily as compared to women living with men.

Single mothers have more challenges with achieving work-life balance since they do not have support from a partner. Additionally, more women live in poverty compared to men, which exacerbates the challenges in managing a household (Hartmann et al., 2014). Having a supportive life partner may enable women to pursue individual activities by offering financial security to facilitate personal interests or by providing support for caregiving to enable women to take time away from the home.

Support networks. Developing support networks apart from the work

environment is another strategy for achieving work-life balance (Carlson, 2006;

Carlson & Perrewé, 1999; Eagly & Carli, 2007; Ellison, 2006; Foley, 2004;

Molloy, 2005; Wirth, 2001). These support networks may come from family,

friends, community members, or faith communities. Hartmann et al. (2014)

found that support networks may be of even greater importance for some

women. In general, having others to rely upon outside of colleagues can

provide an outlet and balance in a woman’s life.

Professional support systems. Professional support systems are another key strategy for achieving work-life balance. Women should choose work environments that offer professional support systems, such as developing and implementing policies or practices to improve work-life balance, promoting diversity in the workplace, offering flexible work schedules, recommending mentors and providing other networking opportunities (Ezzedeen & Ritchey,

2009b). Professional support systems can contribute to rewarding work experiences and increase the likelihood that women will be retained as employees (Mason & Ekman, 2007). Colleagues can offer support and feedback unique to the work environment that other personal support systems may not be able to provide (Ezzedeen & Ritchey, 2009a). Fostering professional support systems is particularly important as women advance in an organization since women are less likely to be in top leadership positions, which may cause isolation, especially in male-dominated environments (Ezzedeen & Ritchey,

2009a).

Mentors. Many researchers have supported the notion that mentors are particularly important for women to achieve success in the workplace (Chen et al., 2005; Eagly & Carli, 2007; Ezzedeen & Ritchey, 2009a; Giele, 2008;

Smallen-Grob, 2003). Women can utilize the wisdom and experiences of mentors to learn strategies for career advancement and work-life balance

(Bronznick & Goldenhar, 2009; McInnes, 2013; Sabattini, 2008).

Professional networks. Professional networks support work-life balance since peers, mentors colleagues can offer encouragement, technical assistance, and guidance (Eagly & Carli, 2007; Ellison, 2006; Foley, 2004; Molloy, 2005;

Smallen-Grob, 2003; Wellington & Spence, 2001). Women who delay parenthood or avoid having children altogether typically have larger professional networks, since they are able to focus more time and energy on developing these relationships. Professional networks can help women succeed in their careers. Challenges with work-life balance have also been shown to reduce the opportunities for women to invest time in networking, which is also related to career advancement (Eagly & Carli, 2007).

Life Course Strategies. Life course strategies are the decisions regarding career and family that evolve over a lifetime (Han & Moen, 1999;

Moen & Yu, 2000). Prioritizing career and family or bypassing marriage and children altogether are some decisions involved in determining a life course strategy (Blair-Loy, 2001; Nelson & Burke, 2000; Olson, Frieze, & Detlefsen,

1990). In the past, it was generally accepted the women would have children.

However, more recently this trend has changed with women having children

later or choosing not to have children at all. Kreider (2009) reported that women earning over $100,000 annually are less likely to have children.

Cheung and Halpern (2010) reported that almost half of women executives choose not to have children.

Women who do have children may prioritize family over their career and leave the workforce, at least for certain periods. Other women may choose to opt out of leadership positions in favor of positions with less responsibility in order to spend more time with children at home (Ezzedeen & Ritchey, 2009a;

Ezzedeen & Ritchey, 2009b). Ezzedeen and Ritchey (2009b) interviewed women in regards to career and family choices and reported that women “Postponed marriage, delayed childbearing, or decided not to have children to advance their career. They recognized the potentially drastic effects of childbearing on the division of career and family roles” (p. 277). Working from home, working part-time are other strategies women employ in order to attain work-life balance (Eagly & Carli, 2007; Warner, 2006; Wirth, 2001). Han and Moen

(1999) described related findings in study of work and family involving male and female couples. They found five unique types of paths to careers, “the delayed-entry career, the orderly career, the fast-track career, the steady part- time career, and the intermittent career” (p. 103). The sample of respondents in the delayed-entry career and in the intermittent career types consisted exclusively of women, while men represented two-thirds of the respondents in the orderly career, which is also considered to be the most ideal and traditional career path (Han & Moen, 1999). The fewest number of respondents, just 10 of

391, were in the steady part-time career type, though women represented 70% of this pathway type. The fast-track career type respondents were mostly men and represented extremely well-educated and upwardly mobile individuals

(Han & Moen, 1999). Table 2 demonstrates Han and Moen’s (1999) findings, representing the different career pathway types for men and women.

Table 2.

Five Pathway Types and Their Characteristics

Note. Five pathway types and their characteristics. From “Work and family over time: A life course approach,” by S. Han and P. Moen, 1999, The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 562(1), 98-110. Copyright

[1999] by SAGE Publications. Reprinted with permission. 39

Han & Moen’s (1999) research also found different life courses in terms of marriage. In their sample of 391 men and women, they found that the males were 50% more likely to be presently married than the females. The working women were seven times more likely to have never married, and those who had married were 34% more likely to have been divorced or separated. They also found impact of marriage on men’s careers was minimal since men experienced consistency and stability in both employment and marriage. However, Han and Moen (1999) found a relationship between women’s careers and marital stability. Women who followed the orderly career pathway and the fast-track pathway were much less likely to have experienced marital stability, and all of the women who reported never having married were in these respondent groups. The opposite was also true for women’s marriages: women in the respondent groups for delayed-entry career pathways and steady part-time career pathways reported higher levels of marital stability. The research underlines the tension unique to women in balancing work and home. Life course strategies for resolving the conflict between work and home roles could include prioritizing either career or personal life, negotiating support with partners to provide a greater chance of realizing work-life balance and/or choosing a career within a field or organization that promotes formal and informal policies and procedures for work-life balance. Finally, choosing a career revolving around interests and passions is an approach for work-life balance (Smallen-Grob, 2003; Ezzedeen & Ritchey, 2009a).

Additional strategies. In addition to the strategies for work-life balance in value systems, support systems, and life course strategies, other factors and practices may promote work-life balance. Research shared below provides some of these strategies.

Pursuing personal interests. Research supports pursuing personal interests as an important strategy for women to achieve work-life balance

(Wirth, 2001). Meditation, physical activity and social activities are some of the personal interests women pursue to order to achieve work-life balance (Bourne,

2006). Pursuing personal interests may provide an opportunity for women to develop support networks outside of work, alleviate stress and anxiety, and restore energy through enjoying rewarding personal experiences.

Policies. Research has suggested flexible work arrangements are one of the most important and popular forms of professional support (Hewlett, 2002).

Flexibility at work enables the integration of work and family duties and mitigates some of the conflict associated with trying to keep these domains separate, offering a positive spillover effect and promoting work-life balance

(Bond, Galinsky, & Swanberg, 1997; Galinsky et al., 1993; Hill, Hawkins,

Ferris, & Weitzman, 2001). Flexibility at work encompasses both flexible schedules and flexible workspaces. Hyland (1999) defined flexible work arrangements as an employee’s spatial and temporal boundaries of a workday.

Flexible schedules enable employees to design work hours according to guidelines given by the company (Hill et al., 2001). Flexible work schedules allow parents to coordinate plan their work around the schedules of their

school-aged children, which reduces the need for childcare. Flexible work spaces refers to the control employees having over where work is done (Hill et al., 2001). Flexible work space reduces time for commuting to and from work, which provides more time for both work and family. Additionally, a flexible work space may enable parents of young children to live closer to support networks, which serves as both a personal and professional support strategy.

Both flexible schedules and flexible work spaces have shown to contribute to work-life balance (Hill et al., 2001). Interestingly, differences in occupational level impact the access to flexible work arrangements. Hourly, nonexempt employees have the least access to flexible work arrangements, though they may be the working group that could benefit the most (Hill et al., 2001).

Research suggests that work-life policies are often a key factor in determining access to leadership positions (Hewlett, 2002; Joslyn, 2009).

“Formal policies for flexibility – including job shares, telecommuting and compressed work weeks – dramatically lower the barriers to advancement and change perception of women as potential leaders” (Bronznick & Goldenhar,

2009, p. 1). Women may leave a job for a company that offers more work-life balance (Eagly & Carli, 2007; McInnes, 2013). In order to promote more women in leadership positions, it is important to promote the formal and informal policies that enable work-life balance. As a proactive strategy for work-life balance, women should research the policies and culture of an organization to determine the support for work-life balance before accepting a position.

Exploring the policies and support for work-life balance in an organization is important to verify how the culture supports and implements the policies. Broadbridge (2008) found that women aspiring leadership positions fear utilizing organizational support for family problems due to concerns about strengthening stereotypes of women prioritizing domestic responsibilities over work duties. Ezzedeen and Ritchey (2009b) said, “The stereotype of women as caring and communal clashes with the characterization of leaders as strong and independent, impeding women’s progress” (p. 270).

Additionally, Ezzedeen and Ritchey (2009b) warned:

Ambitious women must remember that despite the wide availability of family policies, organizations vary in their assumptions about commitment and performance and the extent to which they acknowledge the pull of family on people. These cultural tendencies are manifested in the distribution of opportunities, the provision of support networks, and the existence of mentoring relations, all of which influence women’s advancement and their ability to combine career and family. (p. 276)

Professional skills. Honing negotiation skills is another strategy for achieving work-life balance. Negotiating salary can help women build financial security, which enables women to have greater independence, as well as the opportunity to outsource some domestic responsibilities that can cause conflict in work-family roles (Eagly & Carli, 2007; Wellington & Spence, 2001). Seeking promotions is also related to financial security and associates with work-life balance (Ezzedeen & Ritchey, 2009a).

Establishing and sustaining healthy boundaries between work and life contributes to work-life balance (Foley, 2004; Molloy, 2005). Technology enables workers to be constantly connected, and the extent to which women

can create and maintain boundaries can improve the possibility of achieving work-life balance. Time management is related to creating boundaries and can achieving success at work and home and is another key skill for women to develop in order to experience balance at work and home (Ellison, 2006;

Molloy, 2005).

Professional skills such as planning, organization and time management are other strategies that have shown to be effective tools for work-life balance

(Molloy, 2005). Ambition and passion for one’s work were also found to be central to achieving balance (Ezzedeen & Ritchey, 2009a). Utilizing effective communication skills can also be a useful strategy. Ezzedeen and Ritchey’s research (2009a) suggested women develop and demonstrate an androgynous communication style. Eagly and Carli (2007) supported this notion and proposed that women should blend masculine and feminine communication styles in order to achieve success in the workplace. Taking risks was one quality typically associated with men, though researchers suggested women should be open to taking risks in order to be successful (Smallen-Grob, 2003;

White, 2008). Regardless of the style, communication was a skill important in achieving work-life balance (Mendell, 1996; Wirth, 2001). Finally, psychological capital, or “an individual’s optimistic appraisal of circumstances driven by competence, confidence, and perseverance” (Ezzedeen & Ritchey, 2009b, p.

275) contributes to a woman’s success in achieving work-life balance.

Childcare. Childcare is one issue women may face in achieving work- life balance. For working women with children, access to consistent and

quality childcare is one avenue for achieving work-life balance (Eagly & Carli,

2007; Hochschild & Machung, 2003; Molloy, 2005; Sachs, 2006). Women in the United States do not have access to some of the advantages women in other countries have, such as government-subsidized child care, and women who work in service jobs have more challenges with achieving work-life balance

(Denmark et al., 1996; Faludi, 2006). In the United States, many studies have shown that women shoulder more of the childcare burden and household chores (Aleman & Renn, 2002; Ezzedeen & Ritchey, 2009b). Hochschild and

Machung (2003) dubbed this phenomenon “the second shift,” since women often have domestic responsibilities waiting to be performed by them at home after returning from work. Family members helping with children promotes work-life balance (Ezzedeen & Ritchey, 2009a). While having children may serve as a challenge to achieving work-life balance, children may also be a source of support when they show pride in a mother’s accomplishments

(Ezzedeen & Ritchey, 2009a). Negotiating household help with partners or outsourcing domestic responsibilities, such as childcare, cleaning, cooking and pet care contributes to reduced work-family conflict and promotes work-life balance (Eagly & Carli, 2007; Ezzedeen & Ritchey, 2009a; Hochschild &

Machung, 2003; Molloy, 2005; Wirth, 2001).

Summary of work-life balance. In summary, Ezzedeen & Ritchey

(2009b) suggest “work-life balance is not a daily state of affairs but a personal and continuously reexamined goal that unfolds over a lifetime” (p. 277).

Research also indicates the term work-life balance is flawed, especially

considering there is not an established definition (Ezzedeen & Ritchey, 2009b).

Han and Moen (1999) said:

Americans have yet to achieve consensus as to what the nature of work, careers, or the work-family interface should be. This absence of consensus means that working couples will continue to confront structural lags in the policies and practices that shape and structure their life course. (p. 109)

The idea of balance suggests equality and a distinction of roles instead of incorporation of roles (Ezzedeen & Ritchey, 2009b). Prior to the industrial revolution, which took people away from home to work, primarily in factories, there was little separation between work and family (Padavic & Reskin, 2002).

While this may have reduced the conflict between work and family, gendered roles still existed. There is a need to overcome the myth of separate worlds of work life and family life. The myth suggests there are detached and non- transecting realms of life with distinct roles, spaces, and social norms. In reality, work and life are intertwined, which builds the case for the need to find strategies for work-life balance.

Theoretical Framework

This study utilized life course theory as the theoretical framework to examine work-life balance. Prior to the development of life course theory, issues related to work-life balance, such as the effects of marriage and family, were analyzed using a social relations approach and a temporal approach

(Giele & Elder, 1998). However, these approaches did not consider the complexity and the interrelationship between social constructions and the effects of time, place, and history on individual’s lives (Giele & Elder, 1998).

Life course theory was developed using the research from social relations and

temporal approaches and considers time and place, life span development,

timing, agency, and linked lives (Black, Diane, & Miles, 2009). Glen Elder and

Monica Johnson (2003) suggested that lives are carried out in a relatively

systematic way according to precedents influenced by history, societal norms,

and one’s stage in life.

Giele (2008) combined the elements of systems theory with the life course

approach to distinguish four factors she identified as crucial in influencing

adult gender roles: identity, relational style, motivation, and adaptive style. In

analyzing women and work-life balance, Giele’s (2008) adapted model of life

course theory provides a comprehensive and complex means to examine all

facets of the phenomenon. The factors of life course theory are identity,

relational style, drive and motivation, and adaptive style.

Identity. In the development of life course theory, Giele (2008) drew upon the concepts of latent pattern maintenance (Parsons, 1955, 1966) and historical and cultural location (Elder, 1994, 1998) to describe identity.

Parsons (1955) used latent pattern maintenance in relationship to systems theory and described it as the importance of sustaining values and beliefs of an established culture. Elder (1994, 1998) considered historical and cultural location as an important factor in determining one’s life course.

Giele (2008) suggested identity was related to whether or not women saw themselves and their gender roles as being conventional or different than family or others. The factor of identity may impact a woman’s choices and

perceptions in regards to work-life balance depending on how they see themselves. Women seeing themselves as conventional may make career and family decisions based on life choices that are similar to their family and social circle, while women who see themselves as different than family or others may not use their backgrounds or social relationships as a basis for decision- making about their careers or families.

Berzonsky (1992) studied the relationship of identity and coping strategies and described identity as the means by which people develop or modify their sense of identity within three styles: informational, normative and diffuse/avoidant. According to Berzonsky (1992), “An informative style involves actively seeking out, evaluating, and utilizing self-relevant information. A normative style highlights the expectations and standards of significant others.

A diffuse/avoidant style is characterized by procrastination and situation- specific relations” (p.771). Individuals who reported using an information style utilized problem solving and social support as coping strategies, while individuals using a normative style or a diffuse/avoidant style coped by using avoidance strategies like distancing and wishful thinking (Berzonsky, 1992).

Berzonsky (1992) found that females were significantly more likely to use an informational style of coping, which is demonstrated by a propensity to be self- reflective and open to personal feelings. Male participants in the study were more likely to utilize a diffuse/avoidant style.

Relational style. Giele (2008) drew upon the previous concepts of integration (Parsons, 1955) and linked lives (Elder, 1994) to develop the

concept of relational style. Integration is characterized by Parsons (1955) as modifying relationships between members of society. Linked lives is the principle of life course theory which refers to interdependence and sociohistorical stimuli impacting one’s life course (Marshall & Mueller, 2003).

The concept of linked lives represents the integration of social relationships beyond family, such as “friends, neighbors, and work colleagues who provide a

‘distinct orienting context’” (Marshall & Mueller, 2003, p. 11). Relationships, traditions, and social norms impact how life events are interpreted, though the degree to which these elements are integrated into decision making varies among individuals.

Life span development is the interpretation of human development which considers the biological, social, and psychological ways people evolve from childhood to adulthood (Elder & Johnson, 2003). Experiences from childhood and the associated meaning affect situations faced in adulthood when similar meaning is attributed to those experiences (Marshall & Mueller, 2003). For example, women whose mothers work outside of the home may be more likely to follow similar trajectories and work outside of the home as well (Olivetti,

Patacchini, & Zenou, 2013).

While analyzing the influence of relationships, interdependence and relational style, Giele (2008) considered whether women’s relational styles were egalitarian or deferent, which impacts decision making and the ways women relate to others, including colleagues, family, and friends. Giele (2008) studied relational style by determining how women related to others in regards to

leadership, negotiation, followership, independence, sphere of influence, and relationships with loved ones. This is important in regards to work-life balance, since an egalitarian relational style, for example, may enable a woman to negotiate shared responsibilities in the home, which would promote work-life balance.

Drive and motivation. Goal attainment (Parsons, 1955) and agency

(Elder, 1994) served as the background for Giele’s concept of motivation (Giele,

2008). Goal attainment refers to coordinating resources to achieve societal goals (Parsons, 1985). The concept of agency assumes that individual’s decisions form the course of their lives. One’s life course is not predestined.

Decisions are influenced by particular situations, past experiences, and future goals (Hitlin & Elder, 2007). In the case of making a decision regarding a preterm birth, for example, mothers must make decisions in the moment with limited knowledge of the future consequences (Black et al., 2009). These decisions can impact the life course for a woman. Giele (2008) connected agency and motivation in regards to a tendency towards achievement or nurturance. Like agency, motivation considers the extent to which past experiences and future goals influence decision-making. For example, women motivated by career ambition may choose to delay marriage or having children, while women motivated by nurturance may decide to focus on family and decline career advancement. Both achievement and nurturance could have an impact on the choices made regarding work-life balance.

Adaptive style. Giele (2008) used the theories of adaptation (Parsons,

1955) and timing (Elder, 1994) to develop the adaptive style facet of life course theory. Parsons (1955) suggested adaptation involves developing the ability to locate resources needed to achieve goals, including preparing for situations that may change in the future.

Timing refers to the chronological order of life events (Black et al., 2009).

Marriage and family are aspects of timing and can impact the life course for a woman. Neither marriage nor family are fixed in regards to timing. However, due to biological factors, childbearing years are limited. The order in which women choose or opt out of marriage and family may have social and/or physical impacts. Black et al. (2009) said, “Life course theory suggests that a woman’s own development and pre-existing behavioral patterns will shape how she and those within her social sphere contend with out-of-sequence events”

(p. 3). Timing also relates to decisions regarding roles and scheduling (Elder,

1994). Couples may negotiate roles schedules to balance responsibilities for work and home.

Giele (2008) defined adaptive style as the extent to which a woman identifies with being innovative or traditional. A woman identifying with an innovative adaptive style may choose to delay marriage or family or may be more open to negotiating roles at home in order to achieve work-life balance. A woman identifying with a more traditional adaptive style may choose to place more emphasis on family than career advancement by either opting out of the workforce or deciding not to apply for positions with more responsibility.

In summary, life course theory was the theoretical framework used for this study. Specifically, the adapted model by Giele (2008) was used, which considers identity, relational style, motivation, and adaptive style. By using this theoretical framework, data was analyzed using a framework enabling complex factors to be considered, which provided a comprehensive and thorough investigation of the phenomenological data.

Chapter 3: Methodology

This chapter describes the steps and processes that were used in this study. A review of the research questions, research methodology description, data source selection, data analysis – with an explanation the coding process using NVivo software, instrumentation, techniques for gathering data, and IRB submission is included.

This study of work-life balance for women leaders in nonprofit organizations utilized a phenomenological, qualitative methodology with life course as the theoretical framework. Phenomenology examines lived experiences of individuals.

In life course theory, Giele (2008) focuses on four themes: identity, relational style, drive and motivation, and adaptive style. These themes are analyzed throughout early adulthood, childhood, adolescence, and the present, and future plans in order to explore the lived experiences of individuals.

Utilizing this framework enabled the researcher to gather data which explored the influences on a participant’s life course. The goal of this study was to explore the strategies participants used in order to achieve work-life balance.

This section includes details of the methodology that was used in this study. Research questions used to guide the study will be described first.

Following the research questions, the description of the research methodology is included. Next, the process for the selection of data sources is explained.

Information on the data-gathering instrument is provided, including the definition of the data gathering instrument, validity of the data gathering

instrument, and reliability of the data gathering instrument. The data gathering procedure and a description of the data analysis processes are outlined. Finally, the plan for Institutional Review Board approval to ensure protection of research subjects is described.

Research Questions

The following research questions served as the guiding principles for this study:

1. What demographic factors, if any, are related to work-life balance issues

for women leaders in nonprofit organizations?

2. How is the life course for women leaders in nonprofit organizations

impacted, if at all, by experiences, identity, motivation, adaptive and

relational style?

3. What strategies, if any, are women leaders in nonprofit organizations

utilizing for work-life balance?

Research Methodology

A qualitative, phenomenological approach was used in the research in order to gain insight into participants’ lived experiences regarding work-life balance as women leaders in nonprofit organizations. Richards and Morse

(2013) suggested utilizing qualitative research is a choice of the researcher wanting to explore multifaceted, unstructured data to learn about individuals’ lived experiences. A qualitative approach provided an opportunity for comprehensive data collection on the complex variables impacting an individual’s life course in different stages, including childhood and adolescence

to early adulthood, present life and future ambitions (Giele, 2008). Since extensive research on work-life balance for women leaders in nonprofit organizations has not been conducted, the researcher selected a qualitative methodology, which provided comprehensive data as opposed to a quantitative methodology which would provide measurement of the variables. “Qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or to interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them”

(Denzin & Lincoln, 2005, p. 3). The researcher selected a phenomenological method since phenomenology “focuses on individual experiences, beliefs, and perceptions” (Guest, Namey, & Mitchell, 2012, p. 8).

Process for Selection of Data Sources

The researcher has worked in the public service and nonprofit sector for fifteen years and has relationships with employees in several nonprofit organizations. These relationships were utilized to identify volunteers for the study who met the study criteria. Volunteers for the study were also identified through the snowballing sampling method. Snowballing, or nominated sampling, asks participants to recommend other individuals to be asked to join in the study (Richards & Morse, 2013). Finally, if additional study participants were needed, the researcher planned to draw upon existing interviews from The

Digital Women’s Project (Weber, 2011) to add to the sample. The Digital

Women’s Project includes a population of over 300 women leaders who have participated in a study on work-life balance. The population included women

leaders from various sectors of the workforce, including nonprofit organizations.

Definition of the Data Gathering Instrument

The data gathering instrument was five sets of questions. Giele (2008) utilized the first four sets, and an additional set was added for The Digital

Women’s Project (Weber, 2011) to solicit data on work-life balance. The data gathering instrument was used to collect data in two ways – semi-structured interviews that took place by telephone and a web-based survey. The web- based survey utilized the same data collection instrument as the interviews but enabled participants to respond through an electronic survey tool.

Additionally, a socio-demographic form collected basic information about the individuals. By utilizing two different ways to collect the data and the same data collection instrument, the researcher was able to provide accessibility and accommodation to study participants.

The semi-structured interview and web-based survey asked participants the following five sets of questions:

Set One: Early Adulthood

 What is the level of your education?

 Did it include college education or graduate education?

 What did you think you would like to become in terms of

occupation and type of lifestyle or family life?

 What were you thinking then and how did things actually turn

out?

Set Two: Childhood and Early Adolescence

 What was your family’s attitude toward women’s education?

 What did they think about you going to college?

 What did they think about what you would become?

 What was the effect of your parents’ education on your attitudes?

 What about brothers and sisters? Did they influence you?

 What about family finances?

 How about you or your family’s’ involvement in a faith community?

 What about your families’ expectations?

 How was your education different from or similar to that of your

parents and brothers and sisters?

Set Three: Current Adulthood

 Since college, what kinds of achievement and frustration have you

experienced?

 What type of mentors have you had?

 What has happened that you didn’t expect in employment?

 What about with family?

 What about your faith?

 How about furthering your education?

 Has there been job discrimination?

 Have you had children? 57

 Has there been a change in marital status, like separation or

divorce?

 What about health problems of yourself or a family member?

 What about moves, how have these influenced you?

 What about your memberships in the community?

 How has your involvement or lack of involvement in faith

community impacted your life?

 What types of housing issues might you have encountered and

how did they impact you?

 Have racial and gender integration or non-integration influenced

you?

 What about a job search or loss and its impact on your life?

 And feelings about yourself? Have there been good things such as

particular rewards, satisfaction, or recognition?

Set Four: Future of Adulthood

 Looking back at your life from this vantage point, and ahead to the

future, what are your main concerns at the moment?

 Looking further out, what are your goals, hopes, and dreams for

the next few years?

 What problems do you hope to solve?

 Where do you hope to be a few years from now with respect to

work or finishing school?

 What are your hopes in regard to family?

 What are your expectations for your community or faith

community?

 What are your concerns around mentors?

 What about health?

 What type of concerns do you have around finances?

Set Five: Coping Strategies

 What coping strategies do you use to respond to concerns related

to the plurality of roles?

 Have you ever felt pressured to choose between work and home?

 What made you think that you could do both successfully?

 Do you feel that your family life or work life have suffered because

of your involvement in work or family?

 Have you felt any guilt related to either family or work?

 Are there times that you felt particularly successful at juggling the

demands of both work and home? Why?

 Were you prepared for the demands of work and life balance? Why

or why not?

 What strategies do you implement in your own life in order to

remain balanced?

Validity and Reliability of Data Gathering Instruments

Quantitative and qualitative research are different approaches in research, thus quantitative and qualitative researchers have different styles for understanding validity and reliability. The required evidence to demonstrate validity and reliability depends on the design of the research, e.g. qualitative or quantitative and may include construct validity, content validity, face validity, stability reliability, internal consistency reliability and equivalence reliability

(Krathwohl & Smith, 2005). Golafshani (2003) suggested reliability in qualitative research refers to eliciting quality verbal or written data, as opposed to the numerical data gathered in quantitative research. Qualitative researchers seek to understanding phenomena in context using a natural approach (Patton, 2002). Qualitative researchers pursue insight and understanding of similar settings as a means to generalize phenomena, while measurement and causal relationships are goals of quantitative researchers

(Hoepfl, 1997). The objective of this qualitative study was to examine the practices of women leaders in nonprofit organizations to determine strategies they use for work-life balance and to determine experiences that may have impacted their careers. The process was exploratory where the researcher progressively analyzed the phenomena by differentiating, associating, logging, and organizing in order to make sense of the data shared by the participants in the study. Creswell and Miller (2000) suggested validity in qualitative study refers to the interpretations derived from the data as opposed to the data itself.

The role of the researcher was shared at the beginning of the research in order to communicate the potential biases of the researcher. Creswell and

Miller (2000) describe this as a validity technique known as researcher reflexivity which utilizes “the lens of the researcher but is clearly positioned within the critical paradigm where individuals reflect on the social, cultural, and historical forces that shape their interpretation” (p.127). The researcher may develop further validity by documenting the data collection and data analysis. The lead researcher of this study reviewed the documentation to ensure the findings were supported by data and confirmed the interpretations were logical.

Reliability generally considers whether the results are replicable, and validity deliberates the accuracy of measurement (Golafshani, 2003). Validity in quantitative research studies the instrumentation used; the researcher is the instrument in qualitative research (Patton, 2002). So, the validity of qualitative research is determined by the credibility of the researchers.

In this study, the researcher contributed in The Digital Women’s Project

(Weber, 2011) as a study participant and presented at The Digital Women’s

Project Conference in 2013, which provided insight into the existing research, as well as the research questions used in the study. By participating as a study participant, the researcher had the opportunity to become aware of biases related to the research questions. In addition, the researcher was trained and has professional experience in interview techniques and in utilizing electronic surveys to collect data. The researcher worked with the lead

researcher to practice interviewing techniques using the research questions, as well as reviewing the informed consent form and answering questions about the research, in order to maintain validity for the study. The research questions modeled the questions used in the initial pilot by Giele (2008) and have been used extensively since then. Researchers for The Digital Women’s

Project (Weber, 2011) have utilized the five sets of questions as the data gathering instrument and have verified content validity (Cizzna-Heath & Weber,

2014; Krymis, 2011).

One final consideration for reliability and validity in qualitative research is constructivism. Constructivism regards knowledge as socially created and variable according to the situation (Golafshani, 2003). Crotty (1998) explained constructivism as “the view that all knowledge, and therefore all meaningful reality as such, is contingent upon human practices, being constructed in and out of interaction between human beings and their world, and developed and transmitted within an essentially social context" (p. 42). The goal of qualitative research is to gain greater insight into phenomena, and constructivism may enable the researcher to achieve this objective (Johnson, 1995). Golafshani

(2003) suggested, “Engaging multiple methods, such as, observation, interviews and recordings will lead to more valid, reliable and diverse construction of realities” (p. 604). Interviews, recordings and a web-based survey were used in this study, which provided multiple methods and promoted validity and reliability.

Finally, Golafshani (2003) described the relationship between validity and reliability in qualitative research as trust in the study. This study built on the existing research of The Digital Women’s Project (Weber, 2011), which follows the life course framework outlined in the literature review (Giele, 2008) and has resulted in several published dissertations through Pepperdine

University’s Graduate School of Education and Psychology. Work-life balance has many dimensions that have been studied over the past decade. The Digital

Women's Project (Weber, 2011) has several students pursuing their dissertation research. The variety of topics displays the breadth of the qualitative methodology and was based on Giele (2008). Krymis (2011) was concerned with understanding women of faith and its impact on balance issues. Barge (2011) was particularly interested in the competing priorities of

African American women and the particular issues that they faced as they sought to achieve work-life balance. Heath (2012) categorized the various strategies that women employed in achieving work-life balance for women with children. Almestica (2012) explored the impact of work-life balance issues for women employed in a male dominated career. Jenson (2013) studied the role of technology for Native American women on their ability to balance work and family. Capron (2014) explored the role of mentoring on organizational retention. Campbell (2015) examined work-life balance and organizational commitment for women leaders in theological institutions. Other studies are currently in progress from the project.

Richards and Morse (2013) identified consistent coding as an integral

factor in the reliability of qualitative research. Coding for this study was

completed by the researcher, which promoted consistency and reduced

concerns regarding inter-rater reliability. Additional steps to ensure reliability

are described below.

The researcher utilized NVivo, a computer-assisted qualitative data

analysis software product of QSR International, to facilitate the research

process. Computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software like NVivo

promotes trustworthiness of qualitative research by documenting the research

process (Constas, 1992, Anfara et al. 2002 and Sinkovics et al. 2008).

Sinkovics and Alfoldi (2012) suggested trustworthiness is promoted through

“assisting the interaction of theoretical and empirical inputs into the research”

(p. 838) and also by creating a trail of evidence.

The Qualtrics survey tool has been tested for reliability by researchers for

The Digital Women’s Project (Capron, 2014).

This study provides substantial detail of the qualitative research.

Creswell and Miller (2000) submitted that credibility may be established if the researcher describes the background, participants, and themes in full detail.

These descriptions are detailed in Chapter 4.

Population and Sample

Participants in the study were women leaders in the nonprofit sector.

The women are employed by a nonprofit organization and have served in the capacity of vice president or above (or the equivalent). Individuals who served

in an equivalent role to vice president would report to the Chief Executive

Officer and have served as the second in command of the overall organization

or as a leader in marketing, communications, development or programming

(Heathfield, 2014). Volunteers for the study were identified using the

snowballing sampling method or nominated sampling. Snowballing asks

volunteers to recommend other individuals who may be interested in

participating in the study (Richards & Morse, 2013). The researcher has

worked in the nonprofit sector for fifteen years and has relationships with

employees in several nonprofit organizations across the United States. These

relationships were utilized to identify volunteers for the study who met the

study criteria. If additional study participants would have been needed, the

researcher would have drawn upon existing interviews from The Digital

Women’s Project (Weber, 2011) to add to the sample. The Digital Women’s

Project includes a population of over 300 women leaders who have participated

in a study on work-life balance. The population includes women leaders from

various sectors of the workforce, including nonprofit organizations. However,

drawing upon existing interviews was not necessary since the researcher

recruited the appropriate number of participants for the study.

Data Gathering Procedure

The data gathering procedure provided safeguards for the confidentiality of responses. The following procedure was used by the researcher to collect data for the study: subjects were identified through nominated sampling, as described in the process for selection of data sources. Subjects were emailed a

description of the study and asked to participate. The email included an option to participate in a semi-structured interview or the web-based survey. The email included a link to the data site. The subjects were asked to review the consent form before proceeding with the web-based survey or scheduling an interview. Once consent was received, study participants received a copy of the research questions and were asked to review them.

Participants who elected to be interviewed for the study were informed that the interviews were recorded and transcribed. Recordings were saved on the researcher’s personal computer, which is password protected.

Transcriptions were done by the researcher. Once the interviews were transcribed, the digital recordings were destroyed. Data collected from study participants was only accessible to the researcher to preserve the confidentiality of the participants. The goal of the data collection process was to establish trust and credibility so participants would feel comfortable sharing personal details on the experiences which impacted their life courses.

All participants were asked if their responses may be included in publications. If quotes are used from any study participant, a pseudonym was applied. Participants were asked if they would be willing to provide additional information for future study. All participants were thanked via email for their contributions to the study.

Data collection outline:

1. Submission to the Graduate and Professional Schools Institutional

Review Board (IRB):

 A formal application was submitted for review in order to ensure

the rights and welfare of human subject participants.

2. Study population

 Individuals meeting the criteria for the study were invited to

participate voluntarily. Criteria included:

o Women

o Working in the United States

o Serving in a position of vice president or higher, or the

equivalent, in a nonprofit organization.

3. Preparing the study participants:

 Study participants were sent information explaining the study

and the protocol, as well as the option for participating in the

study via web-based survey or a semi-structured interview.

Information sent via email included:

o Dissertation proposal

o Human subject approval form

o Interview questions

o A link to the web-based survey

 For participants who selected to be interviewed: a telephone call

with the researcher and the study participant was conducted in

order to schedule the interview and answer any question

regarding the dissertation proposal, interview protocol, and

human subject approval form. The secondary purpose of the

telephone conversation was to develop a rapport to ensure the

protection of the participant.

4. Interview

 Interviews were conducted by telephone.

5. Once 20 participants responded, the data was recorded and data

analysis began.

Data Management

The researcher adhered to a strict process to ensure the safety of study participants. All data was stored electronically, including interview recordings, interview transcripts, and informed consent forms. All electronic data was stored on the researcher’s computer, which was password protected. In addition, all electronic forms received were stored in a password protected file.

Description of the Proposed Data Analysis Process

The researcher used NVivo software to analyze data and followed the five steps of data analysis outlined by Giorgi (1997). The first step was gathering qualitative data, which was done through interviews to collect verbal data and through surveys to collect written, descriptive data. The second step was reviewing the data and exploring it to prepare for the third step of dividing the data into themes. The fourth step was to organize the data according to those themes, which allowed for coding and data analysis. The fifth and last step was to summarize the findings from the data for the purpose of sharing with the academic community. The steps and application to data analysis are delineated in Table 3.

Table 3.

Steps for Data Analysis

Data Analysis Steps Application to this Study

1. Collection of data Interviews and electronic surveys gathered self-reported data on participants’ life course using open- ended questions to gain insight on lived experiences. 2. Reading of the data Researcher read through all data collected through interviews and surveys in order to gain an overall perspective on the data prior to beginning data analysis. 3. Breaking down the data into parts Data was analyzed using the research questions and the themes of the life course theoretical framework (Giele, 2008) 4. Organization and expression of the Data was analyzed to determine relevant data and was then data connected to the themes. 5. Synthesis or summary of the data Findings are communicated in Chapter 4 and a summary is included in Chapter 5.

Institutional Review Board

The process for Institutional Review Board approval was followed according to the policies and procedures of Pepperdine University’s Graduate

School of Education and Psychology. The researcher received approval from

the Institutional Review Board prior to beginning any research. All participants were informed about the purpose of the study and submitted consent to participate. The researcher modelled the consent form after the existing consent form used by researchers in The Digital Women’s Project (Weber,

2011). Participants were informed about the option to cease involvement in the study at any time, in order to ensure minimal risk to the participants and acknowledge human subject concerns. All data collection was done electronically and stored in a password protected computer in a password protected file.

Summary

The data analysis process was done according to best practices in qualitative research, including the use of a method established by (Giorgi,

1997) and computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software, NVivo. The researcher followed all guidelines and policies to ensure the protection of human subjects, as outlined by Pepperdine University’s Graduate School of

Education and Psychology. Chapter four provides details on the findings of the research and chapter five includes a discussion of the findings, conclusions, and recommendations for further study.

Chapter 4: Results

The purpose of the study was to examine the practices of women leaders in nonprofit organizations to determine strategies for work-life balance. The secondary purpose was to explore the lives of women leaders in the nonprofit sector to determine experiences that may have impacted their life course. A qualitative, phenomenological, narrative approach was used in the research in order to gain insight into participants’ lived experiences and strategies for work-life balance as women leaders in nonprofit organizations. This study utilized the life course theoretical framework. The life course approach uses a narrative style to gather qualitative data. The research questions that guided this study were:

1. What demographic factors, if any, are related to work-life balance issues

for women leaders in nonprofit organizations?

2. How is the life course for women leaders in nonprofit organizations

impacted, if at all, by experiences, identity, motivation, adaptive and

relational style?

3. What strategies, if any, are women leaders in nonprofit organizations

utilizing for work-life balance?

Data Collection Procedures

The researcher utilized personal relationships built from working in the public service and nonprofit sector for fifteen years to identify potential participants. Initially, 46 emails were sent to the researcher’s personal contacts. The emails included information about the study, including the

purpose of the study. Thirteen contacts responded to the original email and of those, ten met the criteria for the study agreed to participate. Contacts were also asked to recommend other potential participants who met the criteria for the study. The additional study participants were identified through this snowballing method for a total of 20 participants.

Participants were women leaders from nonprofit organizations in the capacity of vice president or above or an equivalent position. Women who serve in an equivalent role to vice president report to the Chief Executive Officer, serve as the second in command of the overall organization or as a leader of a key function, e.g. development, marketing, communications or programs.

Overall, twenty women leaders meeting the criteria participated in the study.

Guest, Bunce, and Johnson (2006) suggested twelve participants from a sample selected according to determined criteria should be sufficient to reach saturation in a phenomenological, qualitative study. Therefore, this study of

20 women achieved an appropriate number of participants to meet the criteria for a purposive phenomenological study.

The data gathering instrument was five sets of questions. Giele (2008) utilized the first four sets, and Weber (2011) added the fifth set of questions on work-life balance. The data gathering instrument was used to collect data in two ways – semi-structured interviews that took place by telephone and a web- based survey. Five participants chose to take part in the semi-structured interview, and fifteen participants responded to the web-based survey.

Participants spent an average of 50 minutes each on the semi-structured

interview, for a total of 250 minutes of semi-structured interviews conducted by the researcher. Participants spent an average of 65.53 minutes responding to the web-based survey, for a total of 933 minutes in response time for the web-based survey.

Population description. The 20 participants represent a diverse sample in terms of age, marital status, number of children, place of birth, percentage of household income earned, number of siblings, religious background, foreign languages spoken and travel outside of the United States.

Participants ranged in age from 36 – 64 years old. The average age was

47.5. The median age was 43 years old.

The most common marital status was married. Fourteen participants reported being currently married. Two participants reported being currently divorced; one participant reported being widowed and currently engaged and two participants reported being single. One participant reported being legally single and partnered.

Of the 20 participants, 12 responded that they have children and eight do not have children. The total number of children between all participants was 27. The most common number of children for the participants was two; eight participants said they have two children each. One participant answered that she has one child, and one participant said she has had four children.

Two of the participants have had twins.

With three participants born in each state, New York and Pennsylvania were the most common states in which participants were born. Two

participants were born in each of the following locations: Georgia, South

Carolina, Florida, and South Korea. One participant was born in each of the following states: Kentucky, Maryland, Michigan, Oregon, Texas, and Utah.

The highest percentage of household income earned by participants was reported at 100%, and the lowest percentage reported was 29%. Table 4 shows the participants’ demographics: age, marital status, children, and income.

Table 4.

Socio-Demographic Data by Participant

% of Household Participant Age Marital Status Children Income Earned by Participant 1 61 Divorced Yes 100 Widowed, now 2 43 Yes 81 engaged 3 43 Married Yes 50 4 56 Divorced Yes 100 5 64 Married No 35 6 48 Married Yes 48 7 38 Married Yes 40 8 41 Married No 71 9 61 Married Yes 29 10 37 Married Yes 73 11 38 Married Yes 82 12 39 Single No 53 13 46 Married No 60 14 41 Single No 60 15 36 Married No 100 Legally single, 16 53 No 50 partnered 17 53 Married Yes 40 18 36 Married No 75 19 53 Married Yes 85 20 63 Married Yes 55

Four participants reported speaking a language other than English. Nine participants have lived outside of the United States. Participant 1 lived in

France and Italy, Participant 5 lived in Ecuador, Participant 8 lived in Sweden,

Participants 10 and 16 lived in Korea, Participant 12 lived in Guatemala,

Participant 14 lived in Brazil, Italy, and Germany, and Participant 20 lived in

Italy. Every participant reported traveling outside of the United States, though some participants simply responded, “Yes,” or “Europe,” to the question asking where they have traveled. Participant 6 responded, “I have travelled extensively in Europe, Asia, South America and Africa.” Participant 11 said, “My husband is from England. We travel there, and I've travelled Eastern and Western

Europe and South America.” Overall, the 20 participants traveled to countries that are extensive in number and diverse in location:

 Argentina  Chile  France

 Australia  China  Germany

 Austria  Costa Rica  Greece

 Bahamas  Curacao  Haiti

 Belgium  Dominican  Honduras

 Bermuda Republic  Ireland

 Botswana  Ecuador  Israel

 British Virgin  Egypt  Italy

Islands  England  Jamaica

 Cambodia  Federated States  Jordan

 Canada of Micronesia  Korea

 Laos  Peru  Sweden

 Martinique  Poland  Switzerland

 Mexico  Portugal  Thailand

 Monaco  Puerto Rico  Turkey

 Morocco  Republic of Palau  Venezuela

 Netherlands  South Africa  Vietnam

 Nicaragua  Spain

Data analysis. Giorgi (1997) proposed five steps of data analysis, which were followed by the researcher. The first step included gathering the data. The researcher conducted the semi-structured interviews, transcribed them, and reviewed the web-based surveys as they were completed. As the data was being collected, the researcher made notes regarding connections to the research questions and the data presented in the literature review. Once all data were collected, the researcher aggregated the responses by interview questions and reviewed the data it its entirety. Then, the researcher imported the data into NVivo and reviewed it again in order to begin the coding process. This extensive review of the data prior to coding prepared the researcher to establish logical themes. Patton (1980) suggested that revisiting the data repeatedly supports the qualitative analysis process by determining if the researcher’s interpretations make sense. The fifth step, summarizing the findings, will be presented in Chapter 5. This chapter includes details of the findings according to the themes that were revealed through the data analysis process.

Themes

The researcher began the coding process by using the research questions and theoretical framework. The researcher created the themes according to the theoretical framework and the dimensions of life course theory (Giele, 2008): identity, relational style, motivation, and adaptive style. A theme for work-life balance was also created, since research question 3 refers to work-life balance strategies. The themes and sub-themes are presented according to the research questions.

 Research question 1: What demographic factors, if any, are related to

work-life balance issues for women leaders in nonprofit organizations?

 Age

o Age of mentors

 Race

 Gender

 Research question 2: How is the life course for women leaders in

nonprofit organizations impacted, if at all, by experiences, identity,

motivation, adaptive and relational style?

 Identity

o Influence of family

 Relational style

o Parents and siblings

o Partners and children

o Mentors

o Community

o Work relationships

 Drive and motivation

o Achievement

o Making a difference

o Focusing on family

 Adaptive style

o Energy

o Attitude

o Self-confidence

o Innovator

 What strategies, if any, are women leaders in nonprofit organizations

utilizing for work-life balance?

 Self-care

 Partners

 Professional skills

 Social networks

 Location of housing

Findings

Research question 1. What demographic factors, if any, are related to work-life balance issues for women leaders in nonprofit organizations?

The researcher examined the data presented by the participants to for any evidence of a relationship between demographics and work-life balance. Three main themes emerged from the data: age, race, and gender.

Age. In reviewing the data related to demographics, age emerged as a theme. Participant 4 started her career later in life after staying home to raise her children, demonstrating her choices for family and work-life balance:

[I] was as a stay at home mom, went to college, [then] graduate school while [my] children were in elementary school. After 11 years at home, [I] started my career as a counselor. [I] moved up through the organization to an executive position which I now hold. I didn't aspire to executive management.

Then sharing her career progression, Participant 4 said, “[I was] gradually promoted into leadership and executive positions, board appointments and community leadership. I have controlled the timing and it has worked well for me and my family.” In contrast, Participants 12, 13 and 19 delayed marriage and having children. Participant 12, “I haven't married or had children, and I am 43. I didn't expect that to happen. It wasn't planned or not planned. She then described her concerns about this decision, “I still hope to have a child with my boyfriend/partner, but at 43 and 48 I worry about money and our health and ability to raise a child.” Participant 12 continued:

I worry about the sustainability of [my organization], and my own retirement as I enter my mid-40's. I would like to help [my organization] grow to the next level and then transition to a new role. I hope to have a baby in the next year.

Participant 12 continued sharing her concerns with her age and the impact on her career, “I love my job but would like to transition from a small organization to a larger, more stable one as I enter my prime last 20 work years. It is harder 79

to work with uncertainty as I get older.” Participant 13 also delayed marriage and having children. She responded:

All of a sudden I'm married (January 2015). For the longest time, I didn't think it was in the cards for me to find someone, get married, and start a family. Now that I'm there, I don't know why it seemed so hard before.

Sharing concerns about having children while balancing her career, Participant

13 said:

I don't know how people do it, but I guess you make it work. I think about my schedule and how hard it is to get up some mornings. It's a little scary to think about being up at night with a baby and having to work the next day.

Participant 14 spoke about age and its impact on work-life balance.

It is clear that with the complete lack of personal/professional divide with Millennials, there is an expectation to pick work. Always. So, our younger staff is in a position to just work all the time. If I want to keep up with them, there is the pressure to choose to diminish a home life.

Participant 14 also reported challenges with work-life balance in regards to finding time for exercise, since her work load has increased as she has gotten older. “I'm trying to help our organization prioritize fitness so that we can have the stamina to do the extensive travel and training that we do. That's a personal priority that has slipped as I've gotten older and busier.”

Continuing to share thoughts about her age and the impact on her relationships at work, Participant 14 said:

I didn't expect my social sphere to be so dominated by my job. This has been good for the most part, but more recently as I move into being 10- 15 years older than our employees, I am experiencing a bit more of generational dissonance.

Participant 19 spoke about her experience with age and gender:

When I entered the nonprofit field it was still mostly men, and now it is 75% women. That is a very high number. I was often the youngest in what I was doing, and I was often one of the few women. Sometimes you can use that as an asset, sometimes it is a liability.

Participant 17 also spoke about achieving success at an early age.

I graduated in three years instead of four from my undergraduate program and developed a professional relationship with my finance professor who happened to be the chairman of the board of a small computer retailer. He asked me to be their first controller. So, my first job was in a senior leadership role. That kind of set up my career.

Attributing her career success to supervisors who served as mentors,

Participant 17 said:

They did a wonderful job of reinforcing my success and giving me credit to the most senior people in the organization. That builds your confidence and your comfort in dealing in those environments and with that level of individual. I often talk to people who are intimidated by people in a senior level, and I think, “They’re just people.” I think some of that comes from my exposure at a young age and not getting hung up in the hierarchy of organizations.

Other participants shared experience with mentors related to age.

Participant 2 described her preference for a mentor who is older than she is to minimize interpersonal conflicts, “Now, I tend to have mentors who are 10-15 years older than I am. I feel that they open up to me [and] are not competitive.”

Participant 6 indicated a preference for a mentor older than her to help with work-life balance, “I would love to have a relationship with a woman leader ten years ahead of me who can give me strong guidance, feedback, and empathy when it comes to balancing work and family life.” Participant 14 reported a desire to have more mentors and to build more mutually beneficial relationships with the mentors she currently has:

I'd like a few more [mentors], but it seems like as you age, you become the mentor. So, I'd like to have them and I'd also like to be a bit more reciprocal with the ones in my life - giving back at least friendship and not just unrestrained admiration.

Race. Race was a theme related to demographics. Participants 7, 10,

12, 14, and 16 reported on race and the impact on their lives. When asked if she had ever faced job discrimination, Participant 7 responded, “Probably, as I am usually the only woman of color in leadership.” She also shared, ““I feel as a black/AA woman I have a responsibility to mentor other minorities and respectfully represent my race.”

Participant 12 described her experience with race as a manager:

It has been a strange dynamic to be a white person in a managerial role in small, grassroots organizations where the front line staff were people of color. It was based on my experience and skills but has felt to me to be a continuation of the white/leader - color/labor dynamic.

Participant 16 felt racial and gender integration or non-integration had influenced her.

When you are raised as a woman in society or when you are a person of color as I am, then what you see is different than people who belong to a group that is more dominant in society. I think that having that point of view has influenced my own political outlook and actually has impacted the jobs that I’ve taken and the kinds of organizations I work for.

Gender. Gender emerged as a theme related to demographics, particularly related to gender discrimination. Participants 2, 8, 18, and 19 reported pay discrimination. Participant 8 said, “Being a woman remains a handicap, especially financially.” Participant 2 expressed concerns about pay discrimination as a woman and being a single mother. She shared, “There might be lower pay than some of the men.” And, “When my husband passed

away five years ago, it was a very trying time to say the least. My husband was the primary breadwinner and my best friend…my kids were two and five when he passed.” Participant 18 reported, “I think there’s been pay discrimination along the way. I know when I was a director at a nonprofit, my male counterpart made more money than I did for doing the exact same job.”

Participant 19 also experienced pay discrimination and shared:

I know when I left…jobs, the men that they hired after me [were] paid more money. I don’t think I have not been hired because of my gender, but I just think I haven’t been allowed to advance. I think I have been impacted by a preconceived notion that men were more qualified and more experienced and worth more.

Participant 4 related her experiences with gender discrimination, “I encountered people who held certain stereotypes of women and couldn't imagine why I wanted to pursue some objectives. She further described the discrimination:

There was a time when an executive couldn't imagine why I would want to "leave" nursing and become a hospital administrator. He had a stereotype of nurses and didn't realize the value that an individual with that background could bring to the role.”

Participant 6 described her experiences with discrimination related to being a mother and a woman:

I think once you have kids there is a lot of back and forth about what it means to promote the "new mom." I also feel like I have been questioned or not valued or not taken as seriously because I am a woman... [Getting] older…has helped. But, yes, I have felt discriminated against because of my gender, how I look, how I talk, how I dress and because I am a mom.

Participant 9 reported, “I have been the recipient of job discrimination - particularly because I was a young woman in my 20's (ageism and gender were

at play). I ended up leaving this job due to this,” and “I grieved, learned and moved on. It only made me stronger.” Participant 14 said, “Despite working in the nonprofit world, this is where I have learned about sexism - unconscious individual and institutional practices.” Participant 15 shared, “I do think in my current role there is discrimination against women in sort of who can fulfill different roles and specific to gender discrimination.” Participant 19 described her experiences with gender discrimination.

I worked in real estate consulting for about two years, and that was frustrating because it was still male dominated. They had one woman in a management position. One of the things I remember most about that time is that I had just bought a Donna Karan suit. The suit had a wool blazer, pants and a skirt…I wore the pants to work and my manager said, “You know, the secretaries can wear pants, but the professional women can’t wear pants.”

Research question 2. How is the life course for women leaders in nonprofit organizations impacted, if at all, by experiences, identity, motivation, adaptive and relational style?

Giele (2008) developed the life course theoretical framework with using four dimensions to examine a woman’s life course: identity, relationship style, motivation, and adaptive style. The second research question examined the lives of women leaders in nonprofit organizations according to these themes.

Each of these dimensions was a theme in the findings.

Identity. The first dimension of life course theory is identity and was the first theme. In her research on women and work-life balance, Giele characterized identity.

Identity: How does A see herself? Who does she identify with as being like herself? Does she mention her race, ethnicity, social class, religion, 84

or how she is different or similar to her family? What qualities does she mention that distinguish her – intelligence, being quiet, likeable, innovative, outstanding, a good mother, lawyer, wife, etc.? (Giele, 2008, pp. 401-402).

By using the examples of mother, lawyer, wife, Giele includes how women see themselves in relationships to their accomplishments, such as their level of education or professional success. All participants in the study had a minimum of a bachelor’s degree, and two women were working towards their doctoral degrees. Predominantly, the women said that their parents were supportive of women’s education and encouraged them to pursue college education. Some indicated their families did not give them an option of whether or not to attend college. Participant 18 described her mother’s influence on her college education.

I tried not to go to college and my mom was like, “That’s not an option.” So, once I got to college and realized how fortunate I was to be there. It was great and my mom, of course, was really proud of me. She valued education greatly and wanted me to get the best education that I could. She was the first person in her family to achieve a college degree.

Participant 7 said, “I was always going to go to college. There were not any alternatives. Both of my parents went to college. When I brought home a good grade, instead of celebrating it, the response was ‘Of course you made that grade.’"

Several women came from families where neither parent had gone to college. Participant 3 said, “My parents wanted me to be the first in our family to go to college.” Participant 11 said, “My parents were immigrants. They sacrificed everything to have their children educated - it was the ‘American

Dream.’” Participant 12 said, “I am one of three girls. Neither of my parents 85

have a college education, and it was expected that all three of us would go to college.” Participant 1 shared her parent’s attitudes toward women’s education.

My family always thought I would go to college. My father had and my mother hadn't because in her family the sons went to college but not the daughters. My mother thought that women should have an education and somewhat resented that she hadn't been able to.

Participant 5 said, “Mother had to drop out of high school in 10th grade to care for the six boys born after her. Needless to say, women's education was a major priority in our home.” Participant 10 said her parents were indifferent about her pursuing higher education since that was not their experience.

Participant 20 recalled her parent’s views on her education, “They assumed I would finish school, get married, have kids, be a stay at home mom. The education would be used in case of an emergency, e.g. Death of husband.” In contrast, participant 17 said, “I never actually thought education ended at high school. The way my parents talked about college was that you finish high school, then you go to college.” Participant 2 described her experience in a single parent household:

My mother wanted me to go to college and didn't know exactly how to help with that. My father passed away when I was teenager so only my mother was involved in the decisions and preparation. For graduate school at that time, my mother didn't understand why anyone would have an MFA but she did trust me to make my own decisions.

Table 5 represents the participants’ educational attainment, as well as the educational level and occupations of their mothers and fathers, when the data were provided.

Table 5.

Educational Attainment of Participants, Parental Education & Occupation

Mother's Education & Father's Education & Participant Education Occupation Occupation MFA, High school, 1 Doctoral DVM, veterinarian homemaker student 2 MBA Bachelors, teacher J.D., lawyer Master’s High school, High school, small 3 Degree homemaker business owner Doctoral, 4 Masters, librarian Associates degree, sales ABD 10th grade, 12th grade, self- 5 M.Ed. homemaker employed Bachelors, 6 Masters MD, doctor homemaker Bachelors, HR 7 Masters Masters, retired compliance officer High school, 8 Masters Bachelors, contractor homemaker Masters, school 9 Masters Masters, teacher principal 10 MSW N/A High school 11 Bachelors 3rd grade, homemaker 5th grade, construction High school, bank Some college, small 12 Masters teller business owner 2-year degree, 2-year degree, 13 Masters executive accountant, broker Bachelors, social 14 Bachelors Bachelors, teacher worker Bachelors, real estate Bachelors, real estate 15 M.P.A. appraiser (sole appraiser (sole proprietor) proprietor) 16 BA, C.P.A. 1 year of college Bachelors, retired Bachelors, registered Bachelors, contract 17 MBA nurse administrator 18 BA M.B.A. n/a Bachelors, teacher 19 MBA J.D., lawyer and homemaker Associates degree, High school, industrial 20 Bachelors librarian sales

While education was overwhelmingly supported by the families of the participants, few expressed familial expectations regarding their careers.

Participant 1 said, “They only said, ‘Don't be a teacher,’ because my mother didn't like her mother-in-law, who was a teacher. And I did end up in education and teaching.” Participant 11 shared, “When I stumbled academically, my mom would express disappointment. She hoped I would become a doctor or lawyer, like my sister and brother.”

Participant 12 stated, “My family joked about me becoming a lawyer because I was argumentative. My mother definitely thought women should stay home and have kids, but I was more influenced by my father who encouraged us to become whatever we wanted.” Participant 19’s family also thought she would become a lawyer, “I think they thought I would become a lawyer because I talked a lot and argued a lot.” Participant 17’s father was a lawyer, and he told her, “I don’t think you will make a good lawyer; you are too emotional.” Participant 20 said of her family, “Not sure they had any major expectations. I continue to surprise them with my jobs, honors, etc. Seems to make them a little uncomfortable.” Otherwise, most participants said they did not recall expectations from their parents in regards to careers, or they said their parents only wanted them to live happy and fulfilling lives.

When asked about what they thought they would like to become in terms of lifestyle and occupation in their early adulthood, ten participants responded that they wanted to have a career and a family, six spoke only about their careers and one participant said she originally wanted to be a stay at home

mom. Participant 6 summed up the experience of trying to justify an identity as a mother and a professional.

I have felt a great deal of satisfaction and gotten recognition for my hard work that makes me feel good. I do not know if this is specific to women leaders but, a lot of my professional achievement has been completely separate from my personal/home life to the point that many folks in my personal life do not know what I do or the extent of my professional achievements. I am comfortable with this and I think it enables me to be viewed as a better mother not as a hard charging female executive who only cares for her career but, I do many times feel as if I lead a double life. Relational style. The second theme present in the data was relational style. Giele (2008) described relational style:

Relational style: What is A’s typical way of relating to others? As a leader, follower, negotiator, equal colleague? Taking change: Is she independent, very reliant on others for company and support, has a lot of friends, is lonely? Nature of the relationship with her husband or significant other and her children? (p. 401). Relational style considers the ways in which people interact with others in society through various roles, including work, family, friends, and community. Giele (2008) suggested relational style was also related to identity, specifically egalitarian and willing to negotiate household responsibilities or deferent, taking on the role as the traditional homemaker.

Parents and siblings. Participants spoke about their relationships with their family, including parents and siblings. Participant 2’s described her relationship with her parents, “They taught me that I could become anything I wanted to become, but that I may have to make some tough decisions along the way if I wanted to have a family,” and the influence of her relationship with her siblings “They were both super motivated and smart...led me to believe that failure was not an option” These relationships impacted her view of herself as a

leader, “I’ve always tried to always be a leader in any organization that I am in, to stand out from the crowd...also to make a difference and make an impact on people and the greater community.”

Participant 4 described her relationship with her family.

My family was very supportive of education and they had always told me that I could be whatever I wanted to be. They were very proud of me and the grades that I made and the honors I received in high school. I have one older brother who has always been a little jealous of me. While he did well at school, he did not achieve the same level of success.

This support influenced her identity and her relational style, since she demonstrated leadership and independence in her future career when a supervisor questioned her desire to pursue other career goals.

There was a time when an executive couldn't imagine why I would want to "leave" teaching and become a principal. He had a stereotype of teachers and didn't realize the value that an individual with my background could bring to the role. I perceived it as categorical not personal. Mostly, I felt that any avenue I wanted to pursue was open to me.

Two participants discussed decisions to move closer to family to receive support for raising children. Participant 11 shared the decision to move, “I moved to a rural area. It was a setback professionally. I took an $80,000 pay cut to be closer to a support system (family) that could help me raise my kids.”

Participant 17 also described a move, “I had my first child before I was married.

I moved to be closer to family.” She then related the impact of her housing location on her work-life balance.

The most successful I felt [at juggling the demands of both work and home] was when I had only one child and very reliable daycare right next door. I was doing fine. I felt really good. The job wasn’t terribly demanding. It was probably 45 plus hours, but it wasn’t 60 or more. I 90

felt like I was juggling that pretty well. That was when I was going to graduate school as well.

Participant 5 described the relationship with her identity and career in the community and with family, “I am a fundraiser everywhere...and all the time.

My dad owned his business. He was also a preacher. We were defined in so many ways in our small community.” She continued by describing her current relationship with her family.

My family is not deeply interested in my work, except for my husband. The numbers are too large, the "asks" too complicated, and the process too unfamiliar. However, they love to hear about the outcome: What we did with the funds raised and how people's lives were impacted. Partners and children. Relationships with partners and children

emerged as a strong theme in the data.

Participant 4 shared an experience that influenced her career as a working mother.

I have two children – both of whom are wonderful, brilliant, and amazing. When they were young, I was doing a lot of special projects that required travel and when my daughter was two years old, someone asked her where I was. She answered “at the airport,” since that was her frame of reference. That was enough to make me re-evaluate and choose to take a different role.

She then described an experience with a change in relationships.

For 25 years, I enjoyed tremendous support from my spouse and children to do the work I wanted to do. Somewhere along the way after I started doctoral work, my husband turned left while I turned right and we grew apart. I have a lot of regrets about not seeing that sooner and being able to make different choices.

Participant 5 described her relationship with her husband.

When my husband proposed, he made it clear that all of these fundraising events I attend cannot be on his calendar…Also, I sometimes cut vacations short or take my computer or work from my phone…I feel 91

obligated to meet the goals we’ve set at work. Therefore, I always defer to work and my now husband understands that completely. We eat out a lot, and we have rotisserie chicken or beans from the slow cooker.

Participant 6 related the feelings regarding her relationship with her family.

I get the most joy from being with my family. I want to stay married. I want my two children to be thriving and know that they are my first priority. I have a good marriage and strong relationships with my children and want this to stay the same.

However, as a working mother, she also described the guilt she has felt.

I have felt immense guilt as it relates to my children. It happens when you see other moms who do not work and their perceptions of “judging you” or your choices. Travel away from home is especially guilt ridden. I feel guilty about my children and for inconveniencing my husband.

She further shared her challenges with negotiating a career and a family.

I have done very well professionally and have been lucky to find professional opportunities that, while extremely demanding, gave me latitude to also have a family. That being said, I have experienced a lot of challenges. My husband is also in a very demanding, challenging career. My career has had to bend to his...making both careers work for two motivated people and balancing that with kids has been a huge challenge. There are different societal expectations placed on us because of our genders.

Finally, Participant 6 anticipates her role as a mother impacting her career.

I really see my career path as being more horizontal/less vertical. This means that I may make some more lateral moves to accommodate my family life, but always to maintain the level of professional challenge/intellectual engagement with my work. I do not have aspirations to be c-suite level at the moment because I cannot do that and be the mom I would like to be. I do though want to be at the top level in an organization as I think that is where the real challenge/excitement comes in a position.

Participant 8 described the support from her husband, “I did not expect the unwavering and selfless sacrifices that my husband has made so that I could have the time and space in my career. He believes in my cause and will do

anything to support me.” Participant 9 said, “The support and love I have from my family, especially my husband from work,” has helped her to feel successful at work and home. Participant 17 shared her appreciation for the relationship she has with her spouse.

I feel immense gratitude for the support I’ve had from my husband, both when I decided that it was too much to be a mom of three small kids and work full time and when I was ready to go back to the workforce. When I was struggling at [one company], he was a tremendous amount of emotional and professional support. It was a huge blessing and a huge help in navigating some of those tougher waters.

Participant 18 said, “I can say with 100% certainty that if I didn’t have the husband I have, I wouldn’t be who I am and where I am in my career today.”

She explained, “If I was married to somebody who expected me to be home every day and cook dinner and keep a clean house, I wouldn’t be married right now because I can’t do that and my husband does those things.” She went on to say, “If I didn’t have him, my health would be a disaster and I would eat out every meal.”

Participant 10 expressed concerns with having to travel as a working mother and the challenge of not being able to express the concerns at work, “I have expectations to travel excessively, and that is hard with kids. It feels like you can’t comfortably admit to this without being judged.”

Mentors. Relationships with mentors emerged as another theme in the data. Sixteen participants reported having mentors in various capacities, including parents, professors and supervisors. Two participants said they have not had a female mentor. Eight participants expressed interest in mentoring

others. Participant 1 said, “I always wanted a family and had lots of role models that had worked and had families,” and “I had many women mentors who helped and encouraged me.” Participant 2 shared the impact of her former mentor as well as current mentors.

My first mentor was straight out of college…she was working full time and married with kids…I liked to talk to her about how she managed it all. Now, I tend to have mentors who are 10-15 years older than me…I feel they open up to me and are not competitive.

She also shared concerns around finding mentors, “You can’t plan them…they can be hard to develop…but they are critical when you have them. I wish women were better about helping other women…we can sometimes be catty.”

Participant 6 also expressed concerns with finding mentors, “Finding other women who have effectively balanced work and family life and do not begrudge you the decisions you have made or the success that you have had has been a challenge.”

Participant 9 related the impact of her relationships with mentors.

I have been privileged to have incredible mentors over the years - both men and women from varying backgrounds and experiences. All of whom have taught and continue to teach me about my career and life in general. I value these mentor relationships immensely.

Participant 12 described her mentors and their influences.

I have been lucky to have wonderful mentors in my life and work. When I had just finished college…I developed a life-long friendship with my female boss. I learned a lot from her about being a leader. She, like all of the women I have admired, never made me feel young or inexperienced. They treated me like an equal and a professional. I worked for a retired Foreign Service officer in Guatemala who was another kind of mentor. She was so experienced but was also much more difficult to work for and that became another life lesson. I have developed relationships with professors, other supervisors, as well as

women in my field who are more experienced than myself. I know that these relationships have shaped my work and my own attitude about it.

Participant 15 reported on a mentor who helped her professionally.

I’ve had a couple of different mentors in a previous role. One was a CEO, executive director of my previous organization who helped develop primarily my soft skills in my professional role, and then I have had a mentor in more of a peer from a different organization who helped me think through networking and becoming more an active and engaged member of the community and how that would advance me professionally.

Participant 17 said about her mentors, “They were fabulous mentors in showing me what it meant to be a good leader and a good boss.” Participant 18 described her mentors as being instrumental to her success.

There are three women in my life who I can just point back to leading me at just the right time, in just the right way that put me to the next level…I think just hearing from somebody, when somebody believes in you and you don’t necessarily believe yourself, is epic…When I think about turning points in my life and people who were there to be there during those turning points, those are the people I think about all the time.

Community. Relationships in the community emerged as a sub-theme, including professional associations, faith community, volunteer associations, and other formal and informal groups. Participants shared involvement in nonprofit boards, women’s networking groups, Toastmasters, Bible study, youth groups, chambers of commerce, homeowner’s associations, coaching youth sports, Association of Fundraising Professionals, Rotary Clubs, church,

Parent Teacher Associations, fitness facilities, book clubs, and town council.

Participant 8 said, “I expect mutual support from my community. Helping each other is so important!” Participant 5 said, “I am part of the downtown

Rotary, which is important to my work.” She also shared, “Each Monday night, 95

my husband and I host a Bible study. The accountability and the encouragement of Christ’s teachings have impacted me more as a manager than as fundraiser.” Participant 3 said, “Faith has given me guidance, direction, and strength.” Participant 7 also related her relationship with her faith community, “My involvement has kept me sane. It’s been my foundation of what’s right and wrong and gives me a sense of family and peace.”

Participant 6 expressed a desire to build more relationships in the community,

“I would like to be more focused on my community involvement so that I can really build better relationships and deepen my impact.” Participant 12 also reported an interest in building relationships in the community.

I have friends but am not a member of a service organization or any other group in the community. I think that I would function better if I was part of a community that shared my views and engaged in more fellowship.” Participant 14 described finding community through her involvement with church.

My faith life and community has remained steady. I am grateful for the opportunity I have to do direct service and build strong intergenerational relationships through church. It’s been grounding and helped ensure the work I do during the week finds practical application in my broad spiritual life…It has kept me consistently connected to a body of people besides my co-workers. It has engaged my mind in a constant refining of values and practices. It has given me friendships with a very diverse group of people (age, gender, political background, race, SES).

Participant 17 shared how her community involvement has changed since her children have left home.

It’s interesting now that my kids are gone, I’m less connected. It’s a source of frustration for me. When my kids were around, I was a Girl

Scout leader, a soccer coach, I was on the P.T.A... I was very active in the community when my kids were young but less so now. Participant 15 described her community involvement and its impact on her relationships.

I place a lot of value on memberships in the community because I do think they have influence in opening up and creating and developing a network. I am currently an active Rotarian and that has been beneficial especially being a new member of the community to meet business owners and different members of the community that I wouldn’t necessarily have an opportunity to come in contact with.

Participation 1 felt her time was too limited to be involved in the community.

She responded, “I have two sons who are grown. Having a family is harder than expected, but I think most parents think that.” And, “My work and family life is very consuming and so I don’t have much time for community involvement outside of work.”

Work relationships. Relationships at work also emerged as a sub-theme.

Participant 10 said, “I didn’t expect to form some of the best friendships through work. Some of the people here have attended my intimate 30 person wedding, my father’s funeral and soon…my son’s first birthday party. They are that special.” Participant 14 shared, “Some of my closest friendships have been with co-workers and board members.” In contrast, some participants expressed concern about the challenging relationships with colleagues.

Participant 4 said, “I didn’t expect people to be suspect about my motivations or to overlay their motivations into how they interpreted my behavior.

Communication is the single most important element to connect humans, and this is especially true in the workplace.” Participant 8 said, “At times I was

frustrated by others who were more cutthroat than I being promoted over me...People driven by their own ego and not to do good in the world, frankly shock me in the NGO space.” Participant 15 said, “I didn’t expect some of the politics that I’ve been exposed to both in advancing or role sharing. The politics within the organizations and the group dynamics were not something I was prepared for entering in the work force.” Participant 17 expressed challenges with work relationships, “I didn’t realize how some people could behave in terms of being really cut throat and not necessarily transparent and sometimes outright disingenuous and deceptive, and “It’s been almost ten years, and I still think about it. It was pretty traumatic.”

Drive and motivation. In research question two, the third theme was drive and motivation. Giele (2008) explained drive and motivation.

Drive and motivation: Need for achievement, affiliation, power. Is A ambitious and driven or relaxed and easy going? Is she concerned to make a name for herself? Focused more on helping her husband and children than on her own needs (nurturance vs. personal achievement)? Mentions enjoying life and wanting to have time for other things beside work. Enjoys being with children, doing volunteer work, seeing friends. A desired to be in control of her own schedule, to be in charge rather than to take orders. (p. 401).

An analysis of the data revealed the most responses in motivation for achievement, making a difference, and focusing on family.

Participant 2 said, “I always try to be a leader in any organization that I am in, to stand out from the crowd…also to make a difference and make an impact on people and the greater community. She also shared, “I want to be a role model

to my children and to show them how much I love my work,” and described her drive, “I am my toughest critic…always push myself to do more, to be better.”

Participant 4’s motivation is making a name for herself, as well as affiliation, “I am concerned that I have left something undone in terms of the legacy I want to leave,” and “I am not trying to solve world hunger. I am just trying to chip away at small things that make a difference in my community.” Participant 6 shared motivation for achievement and nurturance, “I want to be able to balance my professional obligations with being a good wife and mother. I want to be able to have challenging, intellectually engaging work, but also be involved in my family life.”

Participant 8’s drive is focused on a mission, “I hope to be part of the team that solves climate change and the issue of the oceans dying.” She said, “I’m all about service and will continue in that vein until the end…I hope to continue to make a difference in the world.”

Participant 10 is motivated by nurturance, “I feel good about myself because I know I am a good mother and will give my son everything he needs to be a successful human being. Nothing else matters, including this job.”

Participant 16 shared the change in her motivation from achievement to nurturance and enjoying life.

I’ve always been driven and goal oriented…I’ve had partners say in the past, “You know, one of the things that led to the demise of our relationship was because you work a lot…Then I would leave a job that would be higher pressure and I would get a job at a lower level in terms of hierarchy…But even though I started that way, I quickly [advanced] and was back to working all the time…Again, impacting my relationships…It certainly has impacted two major relationships where my focus was work and I didn’t tend to the relationship enough…Now I 99

have a different attitude that work isn’t everything. I have a robust life outside of work. I have a lot of different interests. I do different things…And I maintain an outlook that allows my personal relationships to flourish.

Participant 17 shared the conflict of being motivated by nurturance but having her intentions misunderstood.

I was literally there through the night sometimes…I was looking at having three kids in college and really needed the income. It was also my first job back in the workforce, and I didn’t feel like I had the flexibility to say it wasn’t working out. My girls still talk about the year I wasn’t there. I was feeling like I had to make it work to put enough money away to help them go to college. In my own mind, it was for them, but they didn’t see it. They just saw that I was AWOL.

Participant 19 shared her career ambition.

I don’t work 40 hours a week. I work more than that, and I like to be able to devote myself to my work…There was one time in my life when I worked a nine to five job. I was consulting, and the [business] didn’t open until nine and it closed at five and you had to leave the building. Every other time, I have worked early, late, weekends – whatever. I have to say that I did a lot of other things during that time, but it wasn’t as rewarding as work. I take a lot of ownership in my work and pride and so I enjoy doing it well…Now that I am married and I see what it is like with kids, I don’t know how people do it. To raise children and have a job…we have our kids one week on and one week off…My husband does most of the caregiving…Raising kids takes a lot. In many ways, I chose work over raising kids.

Participant 18 described her experience as an overachiever and its impact.

There are many positive things about being an overachiever, but I think that comes with a lot of drawbacks. That means I make a lot of sacrifices in my personal life…I think the frustrations that come with it are lots of sacrifices to be made especially as a woman for your career.

She also shared her motivation, “I’m contributing to a cause that means a lot to me and can hopefully help in the community.”

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Participant 15 expressed concerns about the future of career and family, “My main concerns at this time are how to start a family and continue on the trajectory of my career path.” She continued:

I hope to be able to have enough time to devote time to dedicate to my family and their needs…the uncertainty of what the next few years will bring in terms of career and family, trying to make everything work out and to not have to make too many sacrifices. Adaptive style. The fourth theme of research question two was adaptive style. Giele (2008) described adaptive style:

Adaptive style? What is her energy level? Is R an innovator and a risk taker or conventional and uncomfortable with change and new experience? Does R like to manage change, think of new ways of doing things? Is she self- confident or cautious? Used to a slow or fast pace, to routine and having plenty of time, or to doing several things at once. (p. 402).

Five participants referred to their energy levels and health in their responses. Participant 2 expressed the impact of working long hours on her energy level and reported she is focused on “making sure I can support my family and making sure my kids have my unconditional love and support…I can get tired as I work long hours which means I can sometimes get short with them, which I immediately regret.” Participant 6 said, “When I have reached career milestones ‘despite having a family’ or when other parents remark they never even knew I worked because I am so involved…it has meant I worked myself tooth and nail.” She also said, “My health has suffered in the past because of balancing too much and stress.” Participant 9 reported on her energy and health, “I didn’t expect how little time I would have to myself and for myself and my husband and how my planning is needed to take care of family relationships with everything else happening at work.” She later shared,

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“My concern is the fast pace of my days and the feeling of being overworked.

Balancing time and energy between family and work allows little time given to myself which can have a significant impact on my health.” Participant 16 shared, “I don’t have quite the energy that I used to have.”

Three participants spoke about the influence of their attitudes on their abilities to adapt to change. Participant 4 said, “I have the highest recorded scores possible on optimism.” She explained the influence of her outlook after a job loss.

I have lost a couple of jobs due to reorganization, all of which turned into terrific opportunities. When you are first going through that, you can’t see it, but you are propelled to try something new that you might otherwise never have considered.

Participant 8 also spoke about job loss and her approach to the change in her life, “This has had a big impact on my life at times. In retrospect, these are all things that, with a positive attitude, you can overcome.” Participant 9 explained her attitude toward change, “I’ve learned the most from change and believe it’s what’s propelled me forward in my career and how it’s allowed me to be resilient in all aspects of my life.” Participant 12 described change in terms of moves and her ability to adapt, “I have moved many times and they have made me much stronger. I can depend on myself, I can be alone, make new friends, and adapt to new environments.”

Two participants spoke about self-doubt and confidence issues and the impact on their lives. Participant 12 shared her feelings of inadequacy despite being recognized positively in her career:

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I have spent time worrying about not being good enough at my work, fearing what others think of me and my work…I received [an award in my community] several years ago. These accolades have been great and felt good, but I have always had doubts and self-criticism. My biggest concern is that I am not working hard enough…and that I am a fraud and don’t know much about anything.

Participant 13 explained the difference in her self-confidence in her career verses her personal life:

I have put a lot of time and energy into my career. I'm not a workaholic, but I know I didn't put the same level of effort into my personal life. I went for the things I wanted in my career, but waited on things to come to me in my personal life. I am also very confident in my work, but don't think I brought that same level of confidence to my personal life.

Participant 15 described her adaptive style in terms of multi-tasking and

how multi-tasking helps her to feel more successful with balancing work

and home:

I am fortunate enough to live close enough to my work that I can come home for lunch. The days that I am able to do so, if I don’t have a lunch meeting or have the time to be able to do that, it seems a little bit more productive in that sense at juggling the demands from both ends. I can usually do one or two things while I am at the house grabbing lunch and don’t feel so disconnected having been away from the house for a significant part of the day.

Participant 19 was the only participant who spoke about her adaptive style as an innovator, “I like initiating things and growing them and transforming them. I’m not a ‘manage it as it is’ kind of person.”

Research question 3. Research question 3 asked what strategies, if any, are women leaders in nonprofit organizations utilizing for work-life balance. The researcher reviewed the data and created sub-themes according to participants’ responses.

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Self-care. The most common response regarding work-life balance strategies was under the theme of self-care. Seventeen of the twenty participants suggested at least one form of self-care as a work-life balance strategy. The most common response was exercise, including Crossfit, walking the dog and yoga. Participant 13 shared how she uses exercise to cope.

I exercise regularly. I have a friend that I go with to the gym three days a week. If I can help it, I don't let anything interfere with that schedule. It really does help me deal with anxiety and stress.

Participant 17 described exercise and its relationship to work.

I exercise every day. I didn’t always do that, and I find that it really helps me. It clears my head. I can almost count it as work time because I’m usually thinking about work and problem solving and I find myself more productive when I get to the office.

Participant 18 said, “I go to a Crossfit gym and I love it. It totally translates into my work in terms of building confidence.”

Other self-care strategies included drinking red wine, staying healthy, getting enough sleep, making time for yourself, using breathing exercises, maintaining a positive attitude, reflecting, taking hot showers, trying not to feel guilty, getting massages, taking vacations and pursuing personal interests.

Two participants mentioned seeing a therapist. Participant 12 explained her focus on self-care:

I also do things to take care of myself. I particularly like massages. I have also seen a therapist for the past 3 years and that has helped tremendously. I feel like my identity used to be tied to my work and that has changed. My personal life has more focus now.

Partners. Positive relationships with partners was the second most common strategy for work-life balance with nine of 20 participants reporting

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this as a strategy. Participant 3 responded to the question regarding being successful at balancing work and home by saying, “I have a very supportive husband.” Similarly, Participant 8 attributed support from her husband(s) to her ability to feel successful at balancing work and home, “It was always a

'team' effort with myself and my husband(s).” Participant 4 shared how the relationship with her partner impacted her life, as well as her children’s lives.

Having a good partner who can support and sub in at home is really vital and I had that when it mattered. My children are much stronger and more independent because of how we structured things and they both have a view that anything is possible if you want it enough. Neither of them has a stereotype of what is "women's work."

Participant 13 shared how she prioritizes her time, “I make sure my husband and I have time together to do the things we enjoy.” Participant 17 described a strategy for work-life balance relating to her husband.

My husband and I have a date night every Friday night. It’s the way we plan our weekend. We close our work week and plan what we’re going to do together over the weekend. That’s a really positive tradition in my life. Professional skills. The researcher analyzed the data and found that using professional skills, such as multi-tasking, time management, organization, delegation, communication, planning, and prioritizing was the third most common category of strategies for work-life balance. Other professional strategies included turning off email on evenings and weekends and setting clear boundaries between work and home.

Participant 17 shared a new strategy she has employed for work-life balance.

Since November, I don’t do work email on my phone over the weekend. If there’s something I know I need to look at, I sit down at my computer and take the time to look at it. I’ve found that it’s hugely benefitting me. I work really hard during the week. But, when I leave my work on

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Friday, unless I set aside a couple of hours, I do not let work interfere with my weekend. That has really helped me a lot. My husband has noticed it.

Social networks. Relying on social networks for work-life balance was a theme and included spending time with friends, calling friends on the telephone to vent or ask for support, volunteering in the community and planning girls’ nights or weekends. Participant 14 said, “I keep in good touch with my best friends. I am friends with my co-workers. I have a strong community of faith and spiritual life.” Participant 19 said, “My husband and I love to entertain. He loves to cook. We love to have parties.”

Location of housing. Five participants shared how their housing choices impact their work-life balance. Participant 6 said, “Our latest move was to a community that helped us lead a more family-focused lifestyle, but that does mean I have to travel on business.” Participant 10 reported, “I was able to move my office less than 10 minutes from home.” She described the impact of this move on her work-life balance, “I find time to leave work to attend my son’s music classes, appointments, etc.”

Summary of Key Findings

This chapter revealed the findings from a qualitative, phenomenological research study of 20 women leaders in nonprofit organizations. Findings revealed the relationship of demographic factors and work-life balance, such as children, partners, faith, and age. Experiences related to identity, relational style, drive and motivation and adaptive style were also findings. Finally,

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strategies participants utilize for work-life balance were revealed through the research.

Chapter 5 provides a summary of the key findings and implications.

Connections to the review of literature, further analysis, recommendations for future research, and a final summary are also included. These findings contribute to the academic research on women leaders in nonprofit organizations and address the gap of research on women leaders in nonprofit organizations and work-life balance.

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Chapter 5: Discussion

The study was conducted to address the gap in the literature regarding women leaders in nonprofit organizations and work-life balance. Men hold the greatest number of leadership positions in nonprofit organizations despite women comprising the majority of the workforce – approximately 73%

(Lapovsky & Larkin, 2009). The nonprofit sector continues to grow, and a leadership deficit is predicted to be a problem in the nonprofit sector in the next decade due to the anticipated retirement or turnover of executives (Bell et al., 2006; "Supporting next generation leadership," 2008; Tierney, 2006). As the majority of the workforce in the nonprofit sector, women serve as the obvious pool of candidates to fill the leadership positions. Therefore, discovering the barriers to women’s leadership in nonprofit organizations is imperative.

Improving work-life balance has improved the pathway for women to assume leadership roles in other workforce sectors (Galinksy & Backon, 2009), which provides a basis for considering work-life balance in nonprofit organizations as a significant research topic.

The study found that work-life balance continues to be a significant challenge for women leaders in nonprofit organizations. Difficulty in achieving work-life balance has affected the life course for women in the study in various ways depending on relational style and drive and motivation. Women with supportive partners were more likely to feel successful at balancing work and home and reported feeling encouraged to pursue career goals as well.

Relationships with mentors were significant in helping women advance in their

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careers, though women did not report mentors helping with work-life balance.

Women motivated by a desire to nurture families were more likely to report feelings of guilt from spending time and energy on work, as well as health concerns due to the stress of balancing work and home. Career trajectories were impacted, as well, with women declining promotions and accepting lower paying jobs in order to move closer to family for childcare. Women motivated by achievement in their careers were more likely to have delayed or bypassed marriage and children. The women who had delayed marriage and children expressed concerns with finding suitable partners, being able to conceive due to age, and maintaining momentum in their careers while balancing a family.

Overall, the purpose of this qualitative, phenomenological, narrative study was to examine the practices of women leaders in nonprofit organizations to determine strategies they use for work-life balance. The secondary purpose was to explore the lives of women leaders in the nonprofit sector to determine experiences that may have impacted their life course. The following research questions served as the guiding principles for this study:

1. What demographic factors, if any, are related to work-life balance issues

for women leaders in nonprofit organizations?

2. How is the life course for women leaders in nonprofit organizations

impacted, if at all, by experiences, identity, motivation, adaptive and

relational style?

3. What strategies, if any, are women leaders in nonprofit organizations

utilizing for work-life balance?

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This study contributed to the body of research on work-life balance through The Digital Women’s Project at Pepperdine University’s Graduate

School of Education and Psychology (Weber, 2011). Researchers in The Digital

Women's Project (Weber, 2011) have published dissertations on a variety of dimensions of work-life balance. The variety of topics displays the breadth of the qualitative methodology and was based on Giele’s (2008) life course theory.

Krymis (2011) studied the impact on faith on work-life balance. Barge (2011) focused her research on priorities of African American women and work-life balance. Heath (2012) categorized the work-life balance strategies for women with children. Almestica (2012) explored the work-life balance issues for women in a male dominated career. Jenson (2013) studied technology for

Native American women and work-life balance. Capron (2014) explored mentoring and organizational commitment. Campbell (2015) examined work- life balance for women leaders in theological institutions. Common findings from The Digital Women’s Project studies are shared in order to offer additional validity.

This chapter provides a summary of the key findings, which includes the relationship to the literature and previous studies from The Digital Women’s

Project. Implications for policy and practice offer recommendations for leaders of nonprofit organizations, as well as other leaders interested in women and work-life balance. Next, recommendations for further research propose suggestions for expanding on this study. Finally, the conclusion delineates the

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contribution to the body of literature on women leaders in nonprofit organizations and work-life balance.

Summary of Key Findings

The key findings are presented in the order of the research questions.

Research question 1 examined the relationship of demographics and work-life balance. Age, race, and gender were themes from the data related to demographics. One participant delayed starting her career in order to focus on raising her children, indicating a choice to focus on family before her career.

Three participants delayed marriage and having children and focused on their careers. These three examples of age in relationship to career, family, and work-life balance choices are supported by the literature which associates career pathways and gender. Han and Moen (1999) described five career pathways, including the delayed-entry career, the orderly career, the fast track career, the steady part-time career, and the intermittent career. The researchers found that the delayed-entry career pathway was comprised exclusively of women who delayed entering the workforce to focus on childbearing, while women in the orderly career pathway or the fast-track career pathway were more likely to have never married or had children (Han &

Moen, 1999). The findings were also supported by the literature describing career paths for women in nonprofits, which placed having children (if any) during the age range of 35-60, which is also identified as career peak for women in nonprofit organizations (2013).

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Participant 14 reported concerns about working with Millennials and the lack of boundaries between personal and professional lives, which is supported by the literature. Kim and Kunruether (2012) interviewed young leaders in nonprofit organizations and found that the young leaders reported challenges with work-life balance related to not creating boundaries. The literature suggests mentors may help with providing guidance on how to create boundaries to support work-life balance (Kim & Kunruether, 2012).

Age of mentors was another theme in demographics. Participants reported wanting relationships with mentors older than them to provide coaching on work-life balance and help them succeed in their careers. This finding is supported by the literature on the importance of mentors as a support network (Ezzedeen & Ritchey, 2009b).

Race was another key finding for research question 1. Participant 7 reported, “I am usually the only woman of color in leadership,” and “I feel as a black/AA woman I have a responsibility to mentor other minorities and respectfully represent my race.” Kim and Kunruether (2012) found that people of color may be asked to take on additional responsibilities for mentoring other minorities. These additional assignments cause challenges for work-life balance. In addition, feeling the responsibility to counteract negative stereotypes related to race causes added stress, which is a challenge to finding work-life balance (Woods-Giscombé, 2010). Similarly, Barge (2011) studied competing priorities for African-American women and work-life balance as a researcher for The Digital Women’s Project and found that racial discrimination

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created pressures to over perform. Participant 12 also described a concern with race:

White (1999) suggested that managing diversity is a challenge for leaders, particularly when there may be a perceived imbalance of power, as described by Participant 12. If leaders are not successful in managing diversity, the result is diminished productivity, employee retention, and attendance (Adler &

Gundersen, 2007). Participant 12 also shared, “I always worry that I am not working hard enough, long enough, doing enough,” which could have an impact on her work-life balance. There are many advantages to having a diverse workforce, especially in nonprofit organizations. Joslyn (2009) reported that it is important for nonprofit organizations to have a workforce that represents the diversity of the communities they serve.

Discrimination was a key finding related to demographics. Several participants reported being paid less than males doing the same role, which supports the data on the gender wage gap (Gibelman, 2000; Joslyn, 2003;

McLean, 2014). Interestingly, two participants responded that they had not experienced job discrimination but had been paid less than men in the same roles. In addition to pay discrimination, participants reported gender discrimination in terms of receiving promotions in general, receiving promotions as a new mother, and gender discrimination in regards to the roles

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women are perceived to be able to fill in the organization. Participant 1 said she had not experienced job discrimination but had fewer women colleagues when working in male dominated industries. Participant 7 assumed racial discrimination was a problem in nonprofit organizations since she is often one of the only minorities in senior leadership. These findings were supported by the literature, which found that nonprofits still have a glass ceiling, which is more pronounced for minorities (Gibelman, 2000; Joslyn, 2003). Denying women promotions due to gender is illegal and also poses a challenge to work- life balance, as women often feel the need to work harder and demonstrate superior performance in the workplace (Ezzedeen & Ritchey, 2009a; Woods-

Giscombé, 2010).

Researchers in The Digital Women’s project reported similar findings for racial and gender discrimination. Barge (2011), Krymis (2011), Almestica

(2012), and Campbell (2015) in The Digital Women’s Project also reported findings related to discrimination. Specifically, the researchers reported findings in pay discrimination, gender discrimination in regards to women holding leadership positions, especially mothers, and racial discrimination.

Research question 2 examined experiences related to identity, relational style, drive and motivation, and adaptive style as they relate to life course. The most common finding in identity was related to education. All 20 participants reported having a minimum of a bachelor’s degree. Sixteen participants achieved graduate degrees. Familial influence and support for education was a key finding, supporting the research that parents may serve as role models or

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as a source of encouragement for women to achieve educational and personal goals (Ezzedeen & Ritchey, 2009b). Barge (2011), Krymis (2011), Almestica

(2012), and Campbell (2015) reported similar findings related to familial support for education through their research with The Digital Women’s Project.

Giele (2008) described identity as being conventional or being different.

Several participants spoke about how their educational attainment was different than others in their family, including some women who were the first in the family to receive a college degree. The experience of achieving higher education shaped the life course for these women leaders by expanding the career opportunities available to them. Collins (2009) reported that greater educational attainment by women led to improved opportunities for women in the workforce. The number of women working in management has risen due to the increase in women earning college degrees ("Women in the," 2014).

Giele (2008) included how women see themselves as an aspect of identity. Eccles (1994) found that parents shape their daughters’ self- perceptions, values, and future educational and career choices. While the data overwhelming demonstrated parental support for higher education, there was no data that showed the participants’ parents directing them towards specific fields of study or career paths. Most participants did not recall expectations or guidance from their parents related to future careers, only that they hoped they would have happy and fulfilling lives. Participant 20’s father, who was a lawyer, said, “I don’t think you will make a good lawyer. You are too emotional.” Campbell (2015) reported a similar finding through her research

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with The Digital Women’s Project. One of the participants in Campbell’s study expressed interest in becoming a lawyer like her father and shared:

I received mixed messages about my role as a woman in society. There was one evening when we were having dinner as a family and I said that I wanted to be a lawyer, and my father said he didn’t think women made good lawyers. That was in, I don’t know, probably in ’65 or ’70 or something like that. And that was very devastating. My mother actually even remembers that, how upset I was about that, so that sort of summarized the mixed message. (p. 95)

Eccles (1994) suggested parents influence the educational and occupational choices for their daughters by providing different experiences and messaging for sons and daughters, e.g. boys have more opportunities to work with technology and compete in sports while girls are provided more time to read and socialize with friends. These experiences influence how women see themselves and shape their educational and career choices, which ultimately shape their life course.

Relational style was the next set of findings. As previously shared in the key findings in identity, relationships with parents were influential in encouraging the participants to achieve higher education, which impacted participants’ life course. Parents were also influential in shaping participants’ ideas on gender roles. Participant 2 said of her parents, “They taught me that I could become anything I wanted to become...but that I may have to make some tough decisions along the way if I wanted to have a family.” Participant 6 shared, “My mother who never worked outside the home was less supportive about professional success only wanting me to do whatever made me happy.”

Participant 12 said, “My mother definitely thought women should stay home

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and have kids, but I was more influenced by my father who encouraged us to become whatever we wanted.” Perceptions of gender roles established early in life influence the life course for women, as they are more likely to want a career that enables them to focus on family and contribute to society by helping others (Eccles, 1994). Perspectives on gender roles may also cause women to experience conflict between work and family.

Participants shared challenges in negotiating their careers and their roles as mothers, which supports the research that the role of a working mother causes competition for time and resources (Beatty, 1996; Cooper & Davidson,

1982; Ezzedeen & Ritchey, 2009a; Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985; Hewlett, 2002;

Kossek, Lautsch, & Eaton, 2006). Heraty et al. (2008) suggested the conflict women experience in balancing their careers and family roles may stem from mindsets established through family, socialization, and values. Participants 4 and 6 shared responses which correspond with this research. Participant 4 described the impact of her mother as a role model.

I had an excellent role model in my mother who was one of the original working mothers. She is currently 89 years old and went to work when I was 4 years old. She is the original wonder woman and I never doubted I could be the same.

Participant 4’s mother serving as a role model influenced her life course by providing her confidence that she could succeed in both work and family.

Participant 6’s recalled a different type of childhood experience, which is related to the next set of findings.

My mom did not work. My view of what it meant to be a mom was not going to work every day. I have had to battle a lot of guilt both from

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comments made by others and for the time I have been away as well as just the "demons in my head."

Health concerns were another finding, and Participant 6 was one of the women who shared the impact of stress on her health and attributed it to the pressure of trying to balance multiple roles at work and home. Dickerson

(2004) suggested there is a higher standard for women as they are expected to perform traditional caregiving duties and perform well at work, which increases role conflict, as well as depression and stress. The superwoman syndrome is another theory associated with the data which refers to the notion that women have to work harder and work more in order to meet the high standards set by themselves and society (Turetskaia, 2003). Ezzedeen & Ritchey (2009b) proposed the superwoman syndrome as a challenge to achieving work-life balance. Challenges with work-life balance influence life course by causing health problems, which reduce productivity at work and at home and may have longer term impacts.

Relationships with partners and children was a key finding and influenced the life course for participants. The data confirmed the literature regarding the importance of positive relationships with children and partners for reducing work-family conflict (Ezzedeen & Ritchey, 2009a). The literature also found that a compatible life partner may promote work-life balance by providing financial, professional, and emotional support, as well as by limiting unrealistic expectations (Ezzedeen & Ritchey, 2009a; Hewlett, 2002; Molloy,

2005; Wills, 1991).

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Relationships with family members was another finding. Ezzedeen &

Ritchey (2009a) found that family members helping with childcare can promote work-life balance for women, since lack of childcare can be a stressor and a negative impact on a woman’s career. Reliable childcare may influence life course by either enabling a woman to succeed in her career, while lack of childcare may cause a woman to have to leave the workforce or decline a promotion. Mentors also surfaced as a key finding and influenced participants’ life courses. Several participants referred to their relationships with mentors as being instrumental to their careers, which supports the research on mentors as an important resource for women to learn strategies on career success, career advancement and work-life balance (Bronznick & Goldenhar, 2009;

Chen et al., 2005; Eagly & Carli, 2007; Ezzedeen & Ritchey, 2009a; Giele,

2008; McInnes, 2013; Sabattini, 2008; Smallen-Grob, 2003). Finally, relationships in the community and at work were key findings that influence life course. Ezzedeen & Ritchey (2009b) suggested women who develop relationships across various realms, including family, work, and community, achieve more success in reaching senior leadership positions while also enjoying family.

Researchers in the Digital Women’s Project reported similar findings in relational style. Barge (2011), Krymis (2011), Heath (2012), and Almestica

(2012) found relationships with partners and children to be important in helping women to feel successful with work-life balance. Barge (2011), Krymis

(2011), Heath (2012), and Jenson (2013) reported key findings in relational

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style and the impact on work-life balance through social networks, including relationships in the community and at work.

Drive and motivation were linked to the next set of key findings. The participants were all leaders in nonprofit organizations and demonstrated motivation for achievement, as well as altruism. Giele (2008) described drive and motivation as an affiliation for achievement verses nurturance. Motivation for achievement impacted the life course for some participants. Eight of the 20 participants reported having no children. Participant 19 said, “In many ways I chose work over raising kids.” Other participants shared a desire to have children, though they were concerned about the feasibility due to age or lack of a partner. This data confirms the literature describing the choices some women leaders make to delay marriage and childbearing or opt out altogether in order to advance their careers (Ezzedeen & Ritchey, 2009b). Participants motivated by nurturance changed their life courses by declining promotions in order to focus on children and partners or taking time off from work to focus on raising children, which is supported by the research. Ezzedeen and Ritchey

(2009a) found that some women choose to opt out of leadership positions or take positions with less responsibility in order to have more time and energy to spend with children and partners.

Adaptive style connected to the next set of key findings. All participants shared experiences of personal challenges, including trying to achieve work-life balance, experiencing job loss, and feeling inadequate. Working harder, maintaining a positive attitude, and innovating were used as adaptive

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strategies to respond to challenges and change. Becker and Moen (1999) said adaptive strategies must be utilized in order to be successful in managing competing roles and limited resources. The adaptive strategies used by participants impacted their life courses by influencing their successes or setbacks in regards to work-life balance, self-confidence, and managing change.

The third research question collected strategies for work-life balance.

The findings found strategies in four categories: self-care, partners, professional skills, and social networks. These strategies were consistent with the literature, which focused on time management, planning, organization, establishing healthy boundaries and support networks (Molloy, 2005). Sachs

(2006) found that diverse support systems provide strategies for work-life balance, assistance with managing responsibilities, and relief from unrealistic expectations, which could alleviate the guilt of choosing between work and home and promote wellbeing.

Barge (2011), Heath (2011), Almestica (2012), Capron (2014), and

Campbell (2015) reported similar findings related to work-life balance through their research in The Digital Women’s Project. Participant’s in Barge’s (2011) study reported using professional skills and social networks for work-life balance strategies. Health (2012) focused specifically on work-life balance strategies and found the same findings as this study: self-care, support from partners, professional skills, such as setting boundaries, social networks, and location of housing. Almestica’s (2013) reported work-life balance strategies

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focused on self-care, support from partners, and professional skills. Jenson

(2013) focused on technology and work-life balance and found social networks to be a key strategy for work-life balance. Campbell (2015) reported self-care, support from partners, and professional skills as findings related to work-life balance. Capron (2014) examined the role of mentors and found that mentors could promote work-life balance. Similarly, Heath (2012), Almestica (2013),

Jenson (2013), and Campbell (2015) reported mentors as a strategy for work- life balance.

While mentorship as a strategy for work-life balance was not a key finding in this study, research suggests mentors may be instrumental in helping women to advance in their careers, including learning strategies for work-life balance (Bronznick & Goldenhar, 2009; Chen et al., 2005; Eagly &

Carli, 2007; Ezzedeen & Ritchey, 2009a; Giele, 2008; McInnes, 2013; Sabattini,

2008; Smallen-Grob, 2003).

Implications for Policy and Practice

The nonprofit sector continues to grow and will need more qualified, committed leaders. The majority of the nonprofit workforce is comprised of women, yet men still hold the greatest number of leadership positions. Women currently working in nonprofit organizations serve as the greatest source for qualified applicants, and they have already demonstrated a commitment to the mission.

Leaders of nonprofit organizations should first ensure policies are in place to prevent discrimination of any kind. The Equal Pay Act of 1963

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required the same pay for men and women working in the same roles, Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibited gender based discrimination in the workplace, and The Lily Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009 further protected women from wage discrimination. Yet, discrimination against women continues to be a problem in nonprofit organizations, as demonstrated by the life stories of the participants in this research paper. Organizational policies should protect all employees and ensure the organizational sustainability by enforcing the law, at a minimum. Policies, including equal opportunity and anti-harassment, as well as the procedures for addressing grievances, should be written in formal employee manuals. All employees should be required to sign an annual acknowledgement that they have received and read the policies.

Ritzer and Trice (1969) reported that salary is a factor that increases organizational commitment. When women perceive that they are receiving fair compensation, organizational commitment is strengthened and voluntary turnover reduces (Cetin, 2006). Ensuring equal pay not only improves organizational commitment; it promotes sustainability by preserving institutional knowledge and reducing turnover that can be costly to organizations. One recommendation is to promote some level of transparency in wage and salaries by sharing general information like governmental agencies regarding grade and step systems for each position.

O’Neill & Boyle (2011) surveyed over 1,800 human resources leaders, talent management and diversity leaders from diverse industries, and the found work-life balance as the leading factor precluding women from career

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advancement, while lack of a mentor was reported as the second highest factor.

Leaders of nonprofit organizations can improve the path to women’s leadership by improving work-life balance policies and practices, which could include mentorship. Training on work-life balance could improve the perception of work-life balance in the organization by promoting current policies and practices that may not be widely known or utilized. Offering the opportunity to share strategies for work-life balance in a peer to peer environment could also benefit employees.

Recommendations for Future Research

This study was limited to 20 women leaders in nonprofit organizations who were willing to volunteer to participate in the study, which may not be representative of all women leaders in nonprofit organizations and may not be generalized to the larger population. Opening the study to more women leaders in nonprofit organizations would increase the study population and provide additional data.

The population was limited to women leaders serving in a position of vice president or above or the equivalent in a nonprofit organization. The researcher is interested in women leaders in nonprofit organizations since women are the majority of the workforce in nonprofit organizations, yet few women hold leadership positions. The study could be expanded to include all women working in nonprofit organizations regardless of position.

The findings related to career selection were inconclusive. Further research could be conducted to determine why women are steered toward

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female oriented professionals. A comparative topic could study women in traditionally female oriented professions and women in traditionally male professions and focus on determining the influences leading to their career choices.

Discrimination was a key finding, specifically gender discrimination in regards to pay and opportunities for promotions. Further research could be conducted to determine the prevalence of discrimination in the nonprofit sector and the sources of the discrimination.

Findings for work-life balance revealed some strategies, and the data also indicated continued challenges with work-life balance. Further research on work-life balance could focus on successful strategies for discovering and implementing work-life balance policies in organizations. Individual level strategies for work-life balance could also be studied. For example, the literature suggested letting go of guilt as a strategy for work-life balance.

Participants reported experiencing guilt regarding making choices between work and home. Research could be conducted on interventions for relieving guilt and the success or failure of the interventions.

Summary

The purpose of this qualitative, phenomenological, narrative study was to examine the practices of women leaders in nonprofit organizations to determine strategies for work-life balance and explore the lives of women leaders in the nonprofit sector to determine experiences that impacted their life course. Key findings demonstrate that work-life balance is a continued challenge for women

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leaders in nonprofit organizations. Until policies and practices are changed to support women’s leadership and prevent discrimination, women will continue to face barriers to leadership. As demonstrated by the key findings and the conclusions, the purpose of the study was achieved. The research findings will be beneficial to academics and practitioners with an interest in women leaders of nonprofit organizations and work-life balance.

The nonprofit sector is the third largest employing industry in the United

States and impacts almost 10% of the economy (Roeger et al., 2012; Salamon et al., 2012). Women comprise more than 75% of the nonprofit workforce, yet men hold over 80% of the leadership positions (Bronznick & Goldenhar, 2009;

McInnes, 2008). Hopefully, this study provides support for improving policies and practices to promote work-life balance. Investing in women leaders in nonprofit organizations is judicious based on economics alone. The findings of this study also demonstrated the deep commitment women leaders have for their careers, the profound responsibility they feel for nurturing relationships, including with children and partners, and the genuine passion they have for making a difference in their communities. Thus, the findings of this study reinforce the logicality investing in women leaders based on ethics and common sense. Sandberg (2013) said, “The discussions may be difficult, but the positives are many. We cannot change what we are not aware of, and once we are aware, we cannot help but change” (p. 156). This study contributes to the body of literature by offering awareness of the continuing challenges for women leaders in achieving work-life balance. Now it is time for change.

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APPENDIX A

Informed Consent for Interview

This research project is being conducted for a dissertation in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Education in Organizational Leadership. This project will consist of a semi-structured interview that will take about an hour. The purpose of this research study is to examine practices of women leaders in nonprofit organizations for work-life balance. A secondary purpose is to explore the lives of women leaders in the nonprofit sector to determine experiences that may have impacted their careers. The ultimate goal is to gain insight from women leaders in nonprofit organizations to identify potential strategies for more women to advance into leadership roles in the nonprofit sector.

Risks and Benefits of Participating in the Study

Your participation in this study is completely voluntary.

There are five categories of questions that are designed to help you recall several different periods of your life. I would like for you to tell me what stands out as being significant about them. Most people find this an interesting and enjoyable conversation. There is no major risk to you in answering any of the questions. If, however, you are uncomfortable with any question, you may decline to answer it, and you may terminate the interview at any time for any reason.

You are free to decide not to participate, not complete all the research procedures, or answer questions, or to withdraw at any time without it affecting your relationship with any other entity. Further, your class standing, grades, or job status will not be affected by refusal to participate or by withdrawal from the study at any time. All information collected will remain anonymous and confidential, except to the researcher, and all relevant data collected will remain private.

You should be aware that the foreseeable risks or potential discomfort to you as a result of participating in this study are minimal. The interview questions do not ask for information that can directly identify participants nor will identifiers be used that link a participant’s identity to her data; the study neither presents more than a minimal risk to the participants nor would disclosure of the data outside of the study place the participants at risk of criminal/civil liability or damage to their financial standing, employability, or reputation; and no deception is used. Participants may stop at any time with no negative consequences are also free to decline to answer any question. The questions

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concern early adulthood, childhood, adolescence, the present, and future plans in order to explore the lived experiences of individuals and should not prompt extreme anxiety or emotional harm. If it does trigger anxiety or emotional harm, I will discontinue the interview, if a participant becomes overwhelmed.

Although participants may not directly benefit from the study, the study may provide valuable information for women, the nonprofit workforce, a community, or the general population. The results could provide women strategies for work-life balance, and they could aid organizations with policy development supporting work-life balance. Such an archive has great value as a historical, cultural, and educational record. We want to make it possible for women to contribute their experiences and include them as part of this record.

In order to use the data from the study, I would like to ask your permission and if you would agree with the following arrangements. Please initial the appropriate line:

I agree to participate in this research and would allow appropriate quotes to be used in publications. These individual responses would not be associated with my name or workplace, and would be referred to only by a pseudonym.

I agree to participate in this research but do not wish for any of my quotes to be used in publications.

In either case, you should be aware that the foreseeable risks or potential discomfort to you as a result of participating in this study are minimal. Your participation in this study is voluntary. You are free to decide not to participate or to withdraw at any time without it affecting your relationship with any other entity. Upon your request, I will provide a copy of any published papers that take place as a result of this study.

The researcher plans to use the data collected in this project for subsequent analyses and would like to share the raw data with other researchers. Before doing so, all personally identifying information will be removed from your interview transcript.

Please initial if you consent to these plans. If not, please leave the line blank.

With your permission, interviews will be recorded electronically, and then stored electronically. The interview content will then be transcribed. All data collected will remain anonymous and confidential. We are asking you for your mother’s maiden name and will code each interview with that name. All relevant data collected within the jurisdiction of the investigator, including

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interview notes, recordings, and transcriptions will be placed in a locked cabinet and destroyed after all interviews are transcribed.

Please feel free to ask us to stop or resume taping this discussion at any point in our conversation. Please initial below if you are comfortable with the format of the interview session.

May I record this interview? If no, please rest-assured that no one will be recording any portion of the interview.

May I take notes during the interview?

Please feel free to ask any questions about this study before we begin or during the course of the study by contacting the Graduate Research Assistant that is/did conduct the interview or by contacting Margaret Weber, Principal Investigator, at 310.568.5615 or by email at [email protected]. For any general information regarding your rights pertaining to this study, please contact Dr. Thelma Bryant-Davis, IRB Chairperson at Pepperdine University’s Graduate School of Education and Psychology at 310.568.5600 or by email at [email protected].

At this point, I want to inquire if you fully understand these statements. If so, by signing this form, you agree to participate.

Signature Date

Printed Name

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APPENDIX B

Consent Form for Web-based Survey

Project Title: Women Leaders in Nonprofit Organizations: Strategies for Work-life Balance

Project Researcher: Amanda Colleen Green Graduate School of Education and Psychology Pepperdine University

Project Director: Dr. Margaret J. Weber Graduate School of Education and Psychology Pepperdine University 6100 Center Dr. Los Angeles, CA 90045

This is a consent form for contributing to the Women leaders in nonprofit organizations: Strategies for work-life balance study. It contains important information about this study and what to expect if you decide to contribute. All contributions are voluntary. Please consider the information carefully. Feel free to email the Project Researcher before making your decision on whether or not to contribute. If you decide to contribute to the study after reading this document, we assume you have agreed to the terms of this consent form. This research project is being conducted by the project researcher in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a dissertation. Thank you for considering your participation in the study. Purpose Women are making important strides in education, careers, and influencing the global economy, while at the same time nurturing families. The purpose of this research study is to examine practices of women leaders in nonprofit organizations for work-life balance. A secondary purpose is to explore the lives of women leaders in the nonprofit sector to determine experiences that may have impacted their careers. The ultimate goal is to gain insight from women

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leaders in nonprofit organizations to identify potential strategies for more women to advance into leadership roles in the nonprofit sector. The results of this research study have significance for women and men, as well as for organizations, as we seek to understand more about the work-family life balance issues facing individuals and families today. The results could help in providing women with better understanding of coping strategies both for work and family life; aid organizations with family-friendly policy development; as well as contributing to the body of knowledge that supports women pursuing their dreams. Such an archive has great value as a historical, cultural, and educational record. We want to make it possible for women to contribute their experiences and have them recorded as part of this record. Duration We estimate that responding to the questions will take approximately 20 minutes depending on how much time you choose to take. Please complete the survey alone in a single setting. Risks and Benefits The potential risk in completing this information is recalling a prior situation that could be perceived as sensitive or provoke an emotional response. You can stop responding to the survey at any time. You can also choose not to complete any question by leaving it blank. Your information will be kept confidential. Any quote used in published research will be attributed through the use of a pseudonym. After you complete this survey, only the Project Director and Project Researcher will have access to your name and e-mail address. This information will be used only to contact you about your submission and is stored separately from the survey responses. The data will be stored in a secure manner for at least three years at which time the data will be destroyed. After two weeks, a reminder e-mail will be sent. Since the e-mail reminder will go out to everyone, I apologize ahead of time for sending you the reminder if you have already completed the survey. Contributors’ Rights You are free to decide not to participate or to withdraw at any time without it 159

affecting your relationship with any entity. Participants do not receive any direct benefit from their participation in the study. An Institutional Review Board responsible for human subjects at the Pepperdine University reviewed this project and found it to be acceptable, according to applicable state and federal regulations and University policies designed to protect the rights and welfare of contributors. Contacts and Questions For questions, concerns, or complaints about the project, you may contact Dr. Margaret J. Weber, Graduate School of Education and Psychology, Pepperdine University, 6100 Center Dr., Los Angeles, CA 90045, 310.568.5600 or [email protected]. For questions about your rights as a contributor to this project or to discuss other study-related concerns or complaints with someone who is not part of the research team, you may contact Dr. Thema Bryant-Davis, IRB Chairperson at the Graduate School of Education and Psychology at thema.bryant- [email protected] or call at 310.568.5600. Contributing to the Study I affirm that I have read (or someone has read to me) this form, and I am aware that I am being asked to contribute to an archival project. I have had the opportunity to ask questions and have had them answered to my satisfaction. I voluntarily agree to contribute to this project.

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APPENDIX C

EDOL Course Integration

Fall 2011 EDOL 714 Organizational Behavior, Theory, and Design Dr. June Schmieder-Ramirez

EDOL 724 Ethics and Personal Leadership Dr. Farzin Madjidi

EDOL 755 E-Learning: Theory and Practice Dr. Elio Spinello

Spring 2012 EDOL 700 Leadership Theory and Practice Dr. Farzin Madjidi

EDOL 763 Learning Design and Evaluation Dr. Michael Patterson

EDOL 766 Research Design and Analysis Dr. Doug Leigh

Summer 2012 EDOL 754A Economic and Political Systems Dr. Farzin Madjidi

EDOL 754B International Policy Experience Dr. Farzin Madjidi

EDOL 758A Consultancy Project Dr. Andrew Harvey

Fall 2012 EDOL 734 Advanced Data Analysis and Interpretation Dr. Thomas Granoff

EDOL 764 Consultancy Project Dr. Andrew Harvey

EDOL 767 Qualitative Research Design and Analysis Dr. Kay Davis

Spring 2013 EDOL 765 Strategic Leadership & Management of Global Change Dr. June Schmieder-Ramirez

EDOL 759 Law and Dispute Resolution The Honorable John Tobin

EDOL 785 Contemporary Topics Dr. Andrew Harvey

Summer 2013 EDOL 753 Leadership, Advocacy, and Policy Development Dr. Jack McManus

EDOL 757 Entrepreneurship Dr. Vance Caesar

Fall 2013 EDOL 787 Comprehensive Exam Seminar Dr. Jack McManus

Spring, Summer and Fall 2014 EDOL 791 Dissertation Research Dr. Margaret Weber

Spring 2015 EDOL 791 Dissertation Research Dr. Margaret Weber

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APPENDIX D

IRB Approval

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