Ageism and Future Cohorts of Elderly: Implications for Social Work Anna Azulai, MSW, PhD (C) University of Calgary Faculty of Social Work [email protected]

Journal of Social Work Values and Ethics, Volume 11, Number 2 (2014) Copyright 2014, Association of Social Work Boards (ASWB)

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Abstract Therefore, ageism is an important phenomenon to In the fieldof prejudice and discrimination studies, address in social work clinical, educational, and an emphasis has been on racism and sexism, with research settings. comparatively little attention to understanding While racism and sexism, in the areas of of ageism. This fact is alarming, particularly in prejudice and discrimination, have been extensive- the context of the growing population of older ly researched, comparatively little attention has adults around the globe. This article provides a been devoted to ageism (Nelson, 2011). That being review of evidence of ageism among members said, the growing population of older adults has of helping professions. The author expresses stimulated an increasing interest in ageism over concern and develops an argument that ageism will the last few decades (Wilkinson & Ferraro, 2002). increase as Baby Boomers reach retirement years. Although the exact extent of ageism remains un- Implications for social work are then discussed. known, there is evidence that it transcends cul- ture (Cuddy, Norton, & Fiske, 2005; Rust & See, Keywords: Ageism, aging, older adults, 2010; Thornstam, 2006). Moreover, a number of gerontological social work, baby boomers studies reported an alarming connection between ageism and other types of prejudicial attitudes 1. Introduction and discrimination, such as sexism (Anderson & Ageism is a difficult concept to identify Hun, 2008; Harbison, 2008; Hard Clarke & Grif- and study due to its multidimensionality. Ageism fin, 2008), as well as the connection between is usually associated with inferior treatment of ageism and various forms of abuse (Aosved & older adults, which will be the scope of this arti- Long, 2006; Baa et al., 2010). Furthermore, it is cle. However, it should be mentioned that ageism disconcerting that ageism exists among members can be directed against any group of people, when of helping professions (Acktoyd-Stolarz, 2008; age is taken as a major attitude-determining factor Bianchini, 2000; Klein, 2007; Ray, Raciti, & Ford, (Butler, 1969). Ageist attitudes and beliefs often 1985; Rosowsky, 2005), including social workers times may evolve into behavioural manifestations, (Allen, Cherry, & Palmore, 2009; Bianchini, 2000; resulting in discrimination and social exclusion Kane, 2007). These findings will be discussed later of a particular group of people based on their age, in greater detail. negatively impacting well-being and quality of The purpose of this paper is to provide an life of the stigmatized persons (Corrigan, 2004). overview of ageism across several helping profes- sions, and to invite the community of social work

Journal of Social Work Values & Ethics, Fall 2014, Vol. 11, No. 2 - page 2 Ageism and Future Cohorts of Elderly: Implications for Social Work professionals to join a debate on ageism in its vari- As Corrigan (2004) noted, stereotypes are ous forms as an important social justice issue. The normal features of the way humans perceive the author first defines the phenomenon of ageism, -re world. Additionally, stereotypes function as ef- views its origins and manifestations, and then pres- ficient means of categorizing information about ents evidence of ageism within the general popu- social groups (Corrigan, 2004). Not all stereotypes lation and members of helping professions. The of aging are negative in nature. This explains the author shares a concern in relation to the future of notion of ‘positive ageism’, which attributes posi- ageism in the context of the “baby boom” genera- tive qualities to people of a particular chronologi- tion and the anticipated ageist manifestations that cal age, for example, the belief that wisdom is the will occur as the Boomers continue to reach retire- province of the elderly. While some stereotypes ment age. may be based on realistic characteristics of an age group, the stereotypes might not apply indiscrimi- 2. Defining the Phenomenon of nately to members of the group. Nelson (2011) Ageism argued that all stereotypes about social groups are Wilkinson and Ferraro (2002) define age- incorrect by their very nature, because they erro- ism has widely accepted discrimination against neously assume a homogeny among humans that older people, based on the belief that aging makes simply does not exist (p. 37). people less attractive, intelligent, sexual, and pro- In contrast to stereotypes, which are be- ductive. Examining the construct of ageism and liefs, or unfavorable attitudes (Deacon, 2006), ableism, Angus and Reeves (2006) argued that old prejudice is fundamentally a cognitive and affec- age, like impairment, is not a biological given but tive response that often leads to discriminatory is socially constructed, both conceptually and ma- reactions (Corrigan, 2004). However, stigma and terially. They claimed that ageism and ableism are prejudice should not be defined in terms of dis- similar in that each one is a system of oppression. crimination (Deason, 2006). Deacon (2006) noted Defining ageism solely in terms of discrim- that discrimination is only one negative effect of ination and oppression is not quite accurate; how- stigma. Others include status loss, internalization, ever, neither term implies that ageism is only about and failure to take advantage of social, economi- old age. Defining ageism as a system of oppression cal and healthcare opportunities because of ex- against older adults does not leave much ground pected stigma. Therefore, negative stereotypes, for broad discussion. For example, ageism can prejudice, and discrimination may rob people of result in pro-social benefits for the elderly. Among important life opportunities that are essential for these are subsidized fares in public transportation achieving life goals (Corrigan, 2004). With these and housing, special membership discounts, and considerations in mind, ageism should be defined amenity provisions. A more inclusive definition of as a multi-dimensional concept, which incorpo- ageism, therefore, is necessary to account for mul- rates ageist stereotypes (both positive and negative tidimensionality of this social phenomenon. beliefs), prejudicial or stigmatizing attitudes, and According to Butler (1969) who coined the age-based discrimination (Marshall, 2007). term, ageism refers to stereotyping, bias, and/or In this paper, ageism is discussed in the discrimination of individuals based on their chron- context of older adults. The research on ageism ological age. Therefore, ageism can be relevant to has helped to uncover not only the blatant forms any age group, even though it is often used in rela- of this phenomenon, but the subtle, implicit social tion to older adults (Marshall, 2007). Moreover, manifestations of ageism (Wilkinson & Ferraro, it is important to differentiate between ageist ste- 2002). For instance, Rosowsky (2005) commented reotypes or beliefs, prejudicial attitudes about age, that both overt and subtle expressions of ageism and age-based discrimination. equally affect individuals and systems, both formal and informal. In this vein, Nelson (2011) argued

Journal of Social Work Values & Ethics, Fall 2014, Vol. 11, No. 2 - page 3 Ageism and Future Cohorts of Elderly: Implications for Social Work that in the United States ageism has become in- moved long distances from older family members stitutionalized, meaning that society allows, ac- and required less emotional support previously cepts, and even condones the stereotyping of older provided by elders in the family. The decreasing adults. As public policies reflect societal attitudes, mutual support eventually created the phenomenon pervasive age stigmatization results in structural that is known today as the generational gap. ageism. Longino (2005) asserts that limitations in Some scholars have emphasized cultural social, economic, and healthcare services gradual- origins of ageism. Since the beginning of 21st ly begin to reflect institutionalized stigmatization. century, the new mantra of the “successful”, “re- These and other manifestations of ageism will be sourceful”, “healthy”, “positive” aging has been presented in several empirical studies that appear reflecting anti-aging societal values and aspira- further in this paper. tions to reduce age-affective losses (Bayer, 2005; Longino, 2005; Rosowsky, 2005). Bayer (2005) 3. Research on Origins of Ageism argued that, although ‘positive’ aging could serve Scholars have reported findings, consis- to counter age-related prejudice and discrimina- tent with the notion that ageism, similarly to other tion, it is basically oriented towards youth reten- stereotyping thinking, is an automatic function tion, rather than aging well. Similarly, Rosowsky of human social perception (Duncan & Schaller, (2005) noted that “the whole concept of anti-aging 2009; Nosek, Banaji, & Greenwald, 2002; Perdue has little to do with achieving the best possible old & Gurtman, 1990). As an example, Duncan and age. Instead, the social messages call for an exten- Schaller (2009) conducted an experiment with a sion of youth until it meets death, thereby avoiding sample of 88 undergraduate students in a Canadian old age altogether.” (p. 55) university and concluded that the study provided Nelson (2011) illustrated how culturally bi- evidence indicating that implicit prejudices against ased, ageist messages are delivered through mov- older adults could partly result from the opera- ies, television, magazines and advertisers, using an tion of disease-avoidance mechanisms. However, example of birthday cards for mature people with Devine (1989, in Nelson, 2011) in her research pity, derogatory or grieving messages. Longino argued that, although activation of stereotypes is (2005) referred to this phenomenon as cultural automatic, the influence is environmental in that ageism and described it as an attitude embedded in the learning history, the value system, and the mo- a type of consumerism that celebrates a beautiful tivation to override the automatic activation impact body, thus berating the physical characteristics of the resultant attitude and behavior of the perceiver. the aging. Bayer (2005) referred to this as a cultur- Additionally, Nelson (2011) provided al battle against aging, stimulated by cultural inse- another explanation of the origins of ageism sug- curities and fears related to aging. Nelson (2011) gesting that ageism is an outcome of the recent added that a tremendous anxiety associated with historical developments. He noted that during the aging process is the result of stereotypical percep- era of communal life young people did not harbor tions of old age as a time of lost independency, prejudices against older people. In fact, older peo- freedom, health and attractiveness, respect and fi- ple enjoyed respect and privileged status of deci- nancial ability that all culminate in death. sion-makers, owing to societal perception of them Some empirical evidence (Martens et al., as sources of wisdom and important information. 2005; Greenberg, Schimel, & Landau, 2004) and Nelson mentioned two events that have changed theoretical conceptualization (Greenberg, Schimel, the personae of older people: 1) the advent of the & Mertens, 2002) support the utility of the terror printing press, which took away the unique status management theory (Greenberg, Pyszczynsky, & of older people as the sole repository of informa- Solomon, 1986) in understanding of the mean- tion; and 2) the industrial revolution and its re- ing and purpose of our existence, which serves quirement for a young, mobile workforce, one that as a buffer against anxiety of our own mortality.

Journal of Social Work Values & Ethics, Fall 2014, Vol. 11, No. 2 - page 4 Ageism and Future Cohorts of Elderly: Implications for Social Work According to terror management theory (TMT), among young nor older students (N = 87). Howev- older adults are a reminder of our own mortality, er, both studies used convenience samples, result- which can explain anxiety associated with them. ing in limited generalizability of the findings. By blaming those who are aging and treating Cuddy, Norton and Fiske (2005) conducted elders with pity, anger, irritation, or patronizing a large-scale, international study to learn about speech, young people are affirming their right to the prevalence of ageism and whether elderly ste- eternal youth, thus never growing old, which only reotyping is unique to the American culture. The happens to the elderly. researchers collected data from six international countries, and concluded that elderly stereotypes 4. Is There Such Thing as Ageism? are consistent across cultures. The authors referred Evidence of Pan-Cultural Ageism to that finding as a pan-cultural ageism, whereby With the concept of ageism defined and its society views old people as having low status and origins generally understood, the next important being non-competitive. issue relates to prevalence of ageism is in the con- Interestingly, findings from a recent Turk- temporary world. To date, however, large-scale ish study (Yilmaz, Kisa, & Zeyneloglu, 2011) dis- epidemiological studies on ageism are limited; covered different findings. The authors conducted therefore, only two studies (Cuddy, Norton, & a cross-sectional study of a random sample of Fiske, 2005; Thornstam, 2006) will be reviewed students in a Turkish university (N = 378) and con- in this section. Other qualitative and quantitative cluded that students’ views of older adults are gen- works were conducted with convenience samples erally positive. This study is rare in that indicators and provided mixed accounts on ageism in various of ageism are few. On the contrary, a vast majority countries. of the studies, particularly large-scale projects, do Palmore (2004) conducted a cross-sectional suggest that ageism exists in various countries. study, administrated through a specially devel- Thornstam (2006) conducted a large-scale oped instrument, Ageism Survey, with satisfac- study in Sweden based on the data from postal tory reliability and validity. The researcher used surveys sent randomly to 3,000 people between convenience samples of older people in the United the ages of 15 to 85 (response rate of 69 percent). States (N = 152) and in Canada (N = 375). The Using a dichotomous scale of correct/incorrect, re- researched noted gender and education as the spondents rated statements that measured positive common sample traits. Regarding age as a trait, and negative attitudes toward the elderly. Although the Canadians were younger than the Americans. ageism varies in its manifestations, Thornstam The results showed that ageism is perceived as concluded that ageism is prevalent in Sweden. widespread by most respondents in both countries, Resulting from his study, Thornstam created a though it is reported more often in Canada than typology consisting of four attitudinal variations in the United States (91 percent vs. 84 percent re- of responses to older adults (Type 1, Type 2, Type spectively). The most frequently reported incidents 3, and Type 4). Twelve percent of the respondents included hearing derogative joke about the aging; comprise the Consistently Negative group (Type 1) receiving greeting cards that demeaned the elderly; and reported negative attitudes regarding the role and observing incidents of age discrimination. of the elderly in society. Twenty two percent (22 In a quantitative study of 140 Canadian percent) belong to the Pity Positive group (Type 2) undergraduate students, Palmore, Rust, and See and expressed negative beliefs about the elderly. (2010) confirmed the generally negative beliefs An additional orientation of Type 2 places restric- about aging among Canadians. Contrary to these tions on the role of older people in society. The No findings, Linberts and June (2006), in a quantita- Fuzz group (Type 3), or 30 percent of the partici- tive, quasi-experimental study at an American pants generally held positive images of older peo- university, reported no evidence of ageism neither ple and reported no pro-old image of their role in

Journal of Social Work Values & Ethics, Fall 2014, Vol. 11, No. 2 - page 5 Ageism and Future Cohorts of Elderly: Implications for Social Work in society. The Consistently Positive group (Type In a Canadian study that examined ageism 4) accounts for 36 percent of the respondents and and sexism in the lives of older women experien- holds positive beliefs about older people and their cing spousal abuse, Harbison (2008) studied the collective role in society. women’s needs to persist in these relationships. She Despite the mixed data presented in this argued that failure to address differences between section, large-scale studies based on random older and younger women’s needs stems from the samples revealed existence of ageism in the gen- ignored effects of the ageism and age-based op- eral population around the globe. The next section pression embedded in age relations with old people. presents studies on intersectionality of ageism, In this vein, a quantitative study conducted in the or the co-existence of ageism with other forms of United States focused on 492 male and 506 female oppression. college students in Illinois and revealed the interre- latedness of rape myth acceptance, racism, sexism, 5. Correlates of Ageism, Sexism, and homophobia, classism, ageism, and religious intol- Other Prejudicial Attitudes and erance (Aosved & Long, 2006). Behaviors In their Canadian study, Baa et al. (2010) A number of scholars have reported corre- examined proclivity of elder abuse by young lates of ageism and other prejudicial attitudes and adults enrolled in a post-secondary institution, behaviors. For example, Rupp, Vodanovich and using a convenience sample of university students Credé (2005) as well as Thornstam (2006) reported (N = 206), who completed questionnaires on at- aged-gendered correlation of ageism, meaning that titudes towards older persons. Results indicated being younger, as well as being male seemed to in- that students’ attitudes were correlated with elder crease the probability of having prejudices toward abuse. When compared to middle-aged adults, older persons. young adults exhibited higher levels of ageist atti- Hard Clarke and Griffin (2008) referred to tudes toward older persons. When compared with the aged-gender correlation of ageist attitudes and physical abuse factors, psychological abuse ap- manifestations based on membership in different peared stronger. gender groups as gendered ageism. In their qualita- The review of the studies on intersection- tive study of 44 women in the United States, Hard ality of ageism in the general public suggests that Clarke and Griffin described beauty work as a ageism exists across the globe and relates to other response to ageism, and argued that acquisition of oppressions. One may wonder whether the picture visible signs of aging resulted in social invisibility, varies when it comes to helping professionals, causing women to mask their chronological age such as doctors, nurses, social workers, psychia- through the use of beauty work. The study theoriz- trists, and psychologists, the professionals who are es that women’s experiences of aging and ageism guided by the highest ideals and ethical standards. are deeply rooted in their appearances and in the The following section presents a body of ageist, sexist perceptions of older women’s bodies. evidence that relates to the prevalence of ageism Anderson and Hun (2008) reviewed Ohio in research, clinical practice, and education within newspaper obituaries (N = 400), which covered a these disciplines, including social work. thirty-year period and concluded that photographs provided for deceased women and for older adults 6. Ageism in Research, Clinical were more likely to be age-inaccurate than those Practice, and Education among of men and young people. Furthermore, the find- Helping Professions ings revealed that society’s bias toward youthful According to Nelson (2011), general appearance has increased over time, particularly in under-interest in aging issues could be interpreted the case of older women. as a manifestation of ageism. Limited interest in

Journal of Social Work Values & Ethics, Fall 2014, Vol. 11, No. 2 - page 6 Ageism and Future Cohorts of Elderly: Implications for Social Work aging is documented by Bayer and Tadd (2000) reinforced historical legacies of separation from the who investigated whether research protocols sub- community. In effect, built-in environments dually mitted to the local research ethics committee con- functioned as a cause and effect of ageism. tained unjustified upper age limits of participant’s Other scholars conducted studies of differ- age and how the committee dealt with that fact. ent groups health professionals, revealing ageist at- The authors reported that of 225 studies whose titudes and behaviors among these groups. For ex- protocols were reviewed, 65 examined topics or ample, Klein (2007) conducted a qualitative doc- conditions that automatically excluded elderly toral dissertation study describing the experiences people. In 85 studies the age restriction was in- of gerontology occupational therapists (N = 16) in appropriate and unnecessary without any justifica- Canada. Participants described working with older tion provided. Moreover, the ethics review com- adults as an enjoyable experience, which offered mittee failed to highlight what could be construed variety, intellectual challenge, and satisfaction. as ageism. Just the same, the work of these professionals was In clinical practice, one would assume that often assigned lower status. Ageism that appeared social workers are prepared and perhaps predis- to influence their abilities to be valued in the work posed to providing quality care absent of stereo- setting is a challenge that gerontology therapists typical beliefs toward those in need. Unfortunately, have often encountered. Klein reported that ageism a reality test reveals mixed evidence on existence appeared to be socially produced in response to the ageism in helping professions. For instance, Dobbs discourses related to rehabilitation and independ- et al. (2008) in ethnographic study of stigma ence in the profession, as well as in pubic and pro- and ageism in assisted living settings/residential fessional attitudes toward the elderly. care facility, analyzed qualitative interviews and Several studies have provided evidence of observational data from residents, families, and ageism in mental health services. For example, in staff (N = 309). The researchers suggested that a study by Ray, Raciti, and Ford (1985), psychia- prejudiced images of the old as frail, dependent, trists reported to demonstrate a variety of nega- and incapable of socialization could be enhanced tive attitudes toward older patients. The study or reduced within the residential care settings. In suggested that certain personal characteristics of short, the authors reported evidence of stigma and psychiatrists (female gender, psychoanalytic theor- ageism. etical orientation and certification by the American Similarly, Kane and Kane (2005) argued Board of Psychiatry and Neurology) were associat- that actions of ageism is highly possible in health ed with pronounced negative attitudes. Interesting- care settings, as well as in long- term care, or ly, Lynd-Stevenson and Pigram (1993) measured nursing homes. In their study, they revealed that four facets of ageism: 1) attitudes to the elderly, ageism is more pronounced in long-term facilities 2) attitudes to the ageing process, 3) stereotypes of than in hospitals. Quite often, however, subtle bias capability and 4) stereotypes of sociability in psy- is common in both settings. chology students (N = 95) and found that ageism From the perspectives of geography and was not rampant among the students. While the space, Petersen and Warburton (2012) compared majority viewed the capacity of old people some- residential care facilities and retirement villages in what negatively, they tended to have a positive Australia. The researchers collected interview data social outlook and to hold positive attitudes toward from stakeholders; however, the study omitted de- the elderly. However, it is important to note that tails regarding the sample and methodology. The the students expressed ambivalence about them- authors concluded that built-in environments in selves growing old. residential settings for older adults sustained stereo- In their literature review on ageism in types of older people as either ageless or depend- the mental health arena, Robb, Chem and Haley ent. Moreover, spaces designed for older people (2002) found a limited number of studies on age

Journal of Social Work Values & Ethics, Fall 2014, Vol. 11, No. 2 - page 7 Ageism and Future Cohorts of Elderly: Implications for Social Work bias among mental health providers. Interestingly, constructed socio-judicial narratives embellished they noted that in conversations about the aging by personal bias and prejudices against old age. and mental health, the two attributes were im- Bianchini (2000) explored elder-related portant factors for limiting access to services for knowledge and attitudes of social work and nurs- the elderly. Considerable evidence does suggest ing students (N = 159) at the University of Calgary differential medical treatment for older adults in and reported acceptable levels of age stereotyping; areas such as physician–patient interaction, use however, some of the responses are disconcerting. of screening procedures, and treatment of varied For example, a common agreement among the medical problems. It must be noted, however, that students is that teenage suicide is more tragic than clear evidence pointing to age bias, as a key factor, elder suicide, and that older people should not be is needed. Other studies have also suggested that allowed to renew their driver licenses. The author age discrimination has an adverse affect on general concluded that nursing students, as well as those in health and well being of seniors (Acktoyd-Stolarz, social work are in need of adequate preparation in 2008). Scharf, Phillipson, Kingston and Smith the field of gerontology. (2001) argued that one effect is social exclusion The question that begs exploration pertains and institutional disengagement of seniors. They to the under-interest in studies on age bias within concluded that systematic disengagement contrib- the various helping professions, especially when utes to the marginalization of seniors in terms of there is evidence of age-based differential treat- outsiders’ perceptions of them. ment and limitation access to services for older One may wonder what the evidence re- adults. Schoenberg and Lewis (2005) suggested veals about the prevalence of ageism among so- that using cultural lens on ageism might explain cial workers. Allen, Cherry, and Palmore (2009) ageism in health care settings in that ageist atti- focused on self-reported ageism in undergraduate tudes manifested by members of helping profes- and graduate social work students and among so- sions “emerge from generalized negative cultural cial service providers in managed care facilities. attitudes about aging. When placed within a suc- Findings indicated that people of varying edu- cess = cure, and fiscally concerned environment, cational and occupational backgrounds in social ageism is perpetual.” (p. 90) services admitted to positive ageism. In this study, Social workers and other helping profes- practitioners in nursing home settings reported sionals behave as humans do; they are not free higher positive and lower negative ageist behav- from prejudicial beliefs. Moreover, this beliefs iours when compared to practitioners in other set- could potentially seep into way social workers tings and the students. treat older clients, as well as how they approach Kane (2007) explored perceptions of elders gerontological practice and the extent to which among undergraduate criminal justice (N = 116) they value their clinical practice with older adults. and social work (N = 112) students in the United Another argument relates to a problem of States. The results of this cross-sectional study limited training of health and mental health profes- generally revealed moderate ageist attitudes among sionals in gerontology. Rosowsky (2005) summa- the participants. Of particular importance, the rized reasons for under-interest of clinical profes- study noted that criminal justice students are less sionals, including social workers, physicians, psy- likely than social work students to possess positive chologists, psychiatrists and nurse professionals. attitudes towards elderly. The findings concerning Stated bluntly, gerontology is not chic; old people criminal justice students are consistent with the are not an interesting and exciting population with results of the Israeli case study in the field of juris- which to work. Old people have poor prognoses prudential gerontology. Specifically, Doron (2012) and tend to respond unfavorably to treatment. It is reported that, contrary to the common perception painful to work with old people as this time is one of objectivity of legal decisions, judges often of deterioration and futile interventions. Consistent

Journal of Social Work Values & Ethics, Fall 2014, Vol. 11, No. 2 - page 8 Ageism and Future Cohorts of Elderly: Implications for Social Work with Nelson’s (2011) general comment on ste- ‘age storm’ that will “crash on the shoals of busi- reotypes, Rosowsky noted that given the under- ness” (Longino, 2005, p. 80) and shrink dramati- interest in gerontological specializations across cally social security assets of the nations. In other disciplines, the largest issue for the growing popu- words, Baby Boomers are perceived as a threat to lation of elderly could be the relative scarcity of society. providers of the treatment and services the elderly Longino (2005, p. 81) asked an impor- requires. tant question: “Is this scary story motivated by ageism?” His response is that the apocalyptic 7. Ageism and Future Cohorts of picture of the future is indeed ageist, “because it Elderly objectifies people who are aging and treats them Given the relative under-interest in ageism as though they are all alike.” As Nelson (2011) and limited understanding of this disturbing phe- pointed out, older adults comprise a highly het- nomenon in our society, as well as in the helping erogeneous group, which assumes that a group professions, there is a concern that negative mani- shares a common personality characteristic. Such festations of ageism will continue to dominate and assumptions represent stereotyping. that growing numbers of retiring Baby Boomers A positive view on aging Baby Boomers, will face age-related stigmatization, which has which is less popular than the ‘scary story’, high- begun. For instance, in a recent marketing book lights the high education and income levels among by Smith and Clurman (2007) titled Generation people of retirement age, speculating that these Ageless: How Baby Boomers are Changing the trends will partially offset the societal burden of Way We Live Today… and They’re Just Started, the the Boomers as they reach retirement (Longino, authors describe and endorse the following stereo- 2005). Similar to the negative perspective, this typic perception of the Boomers: positive view is impacted by stereotypes. Roso- wsky (2005) depicted this positive view in the fol- … Boomers don’t accept limits, so it’s no lowing words: surprise that they have long been confron- tational, polarizing, and uncompromising. Historically, many of this cohort have And they see no reason to start compromis- been heavy consumers of health and sup- ing now. Their take-no-prisoners style looks port services and have relied upon profes- to be working, albeit with the occasional set sional expertise and specialized services. back every now and then. (p. xxix) They have cut their milk teeth on tech- nological advances and are remarkable Phillipson, Leach, Money, and Biggs self-advocates and informed consumers. (2007) conducted a review of research and media (p. 57) to identify social and cultural constructions of the Baby Boomers. Boomers are depicted as bringing Higher education status and relatively good new lifestyles and attitudes to ageing and retire- health could possibly contribute to greater work re- ment; heralding economic disaster; or placing tention of many Baby Boomers, which could pos- fresh burdens on health and social care services. sibly support reduction of structural ageism in the The article provided a critical analysis of the society (Longino, 2005). According to Binstock Boomers as a ‘problem generation’. (2005), workplace ageism has been gradually erod- One can see the increasingly negative at- ing. However, he argued that negative portrayals titude toward Baby Boomers in media and public of older people in society remain stable, regardless research through assigning catastrophic character- of older people’s contributions to the society. In istics to aging of Boomers in such negative terms his empirical study, Thornstam (2006) suggested as ‘apocalyptic demography’, ‘demographic im- that some respondents believed that pro-seniors perative’, ‘impossible burden’, ‘age tsunami’, or workplace policies and public attitudes might be

Journal of Social Work Values & Ethics, Fall 2014, Vol. 11, No. 2 - page 9 Ageism and Future Cohorts of Elderly: Implications for Social Work unjustified: “Why coddle the well-to-do elderly?” are unhealthy and perhaps in need of financial, (p. 56) Thornstam interpreted this as a possible physical, social, emotional and medical support for rivalry or sense of competition that younger people their daily living? How will younger generations feel toward well-to-do older people, provoking portray this cohort? How will society treat those jealousy and negative attitudes. This is consistent who are labeled ‘non-successfully aged’? Will they with the study of Cuddly et al. (2005) who found remain undervalued? These questions raise the that older groups portrayed as competent, ambi- importance of extinguishing ageism in its various tious, and equally competitive with mainstream manifestations. A number of strategies to engage in society are regarded by the younger public as less anti-ageism action will be discussed in the follow- warm and likable. ing section. Others have suggested that the growing demographic pool of the Boomers and “success- 8. Acting to Reduce Ageism: ful aging” could contribute to a flourishing market Implications for Social Work once it is oriented to serve the Boomers (Smith & Scholars have suggested a number of initia- Clurman, 2007). Longino (2005) speculated that tives to reduce ageism in contemporary society. anti-aging goodies and services could increase Butler (2005) asserts, “It is time to rally for the the probability of improving Boomers’ image in inclusion of ageism among the issues promoted by the society, resulting in positive imagery of older those individuals and organizations devoted to the people as healthy, happy and younger looking. protection and extension of human rights.” (p. 86) However, the question remains as to the extinction Efforts to increase the status of older adults of ageism. Longino (2005) warns that: will help to reduce ageist attitudes prevalent in One would logically expect that with the society (Nelson, 2011). To do so, Petersen and retirement and continued aging of the Warburton (2012) recommended the development baby boom, our images of aging are likely of responsive urban residences to prevent the mar- to change for the better. Wrinkles will ginalization of elderly from the community. This certainly seem more “normal.” On the approach would connect the young with the old other hand, marketing trends are usually and begin to normalize what it means to grow old. directed to flatter the customer. When the Additionally, school programs should promote the customer is older, such flattery may arise message that old age is nothing to fear, or to be from cultural aging.…This cultural theme embarrassed about (Nelson, 2011). Aging is part of may persist as the median age of the na- tion climbs in the twenty first century. If life’s cycle. it does, then a pernicious cultural ageism Rosowsky (2005) advocates for improved will persist. (p. 83) education and training in the field of gerontology. In her opinion, good professional preparation can In this vein, Angus and Reeve (2006) counterbalance false beliefs. On the other hand, warned that aging-well initiatives, based on in- inadequate training allows ageist attitudes to flour- dividualism and self-responsibility and existing ish, thus increasing the tendency to neglect the power relations between those who age well and needs of the elderly. those who do not, will continue to inform ageist Further, it is crucial that social workers stereotypes. This would mean that advocacy for question their attitudes toward the aging. It is the poor and the frail may continue to be challeng- difficult to admit that helping professionals may ing (Longino, 2005), signifying a profound stig- engage in stereotyping, hold prejudicial beliefs, matization and neglect of those who fail to aging or practice age-related discrimination. However, successfully, healthy and well. if we, today’s social workers deny this reality, we How will society relate to older adults who run the risk of compromising our ethical standards

Journal of Social Work Values & Ethics, Fall 2014, Vol. 11, No. 2 - page 10 Ageism and Future Cohorts of Elderly: Implications for Social Work of practice; jeopardizing the integrity of the pro- Binstock, R. H. (2005). Old-Age policies, politics, fession, and potentially under-serving our clients. and ageism. Generations, 29(3), 71-78. Encouraging self-awareness will temper personal Butler, R. N. (1969). Age-ism: Another form of biases and improve ethical conduct. Without bigotry. Gerontologist, 9(4, Part 1), 243-246. question, thousands of social workers, over the Butler, R. N. (2005). Ageism: Looking back over next two decades, will serve older clients within my shoulder. Generations, 29(3), 84-86. their caseloads, regardless of their specialization Clarke, L. H., & Griffin, M. (2008). Visible and or professional interests. Are we prepared and invisible ageing: Beauty work as a response to self-aware? ageism. Ageing and Society, 28(5), 653-674. Unfortunately, the reality of ageist stereo- Corrigan, P. (2004). How stigma interferes with types cannot be entirely prevented. With this in mental health care. American Psychologist, mind, the profession of social work must promote 59(7), 614-625. the dignity of growing old. Practitioners must Cuddy, A. J., Norton, M. I., Fiske, S. T. (2005). combat discrimination wherever and whenever This old stereotype: The pervasiveness and it occurs. Most important, social workers must persistence of the elderly stereotype. Journal convey the message that sensitivity begins at the of Social Issues, 61(2), 265-283. personal level. We must lead by example. For this Harbison, J. (2008). Stoic heroines or collabora- reason, it is imperative that we understand the tors: Ageism, feminism, and the provision of complexities of ageism and endorse better educa- assistance to abused old women. Journal of tional programs in gerontological social work, as Social Work Practice, 22(2), 221-234. well as in clinical and research settings. Kane, M. N. (2007). Social work and criminal jus- tice students’ perceptions of elders. Journal of References Social Service Research, 34(1), 13-26. Acktoyd-Stolarz, S. A. (2008). Patient safety in an Klein, J. (2007). “Jack of all trades” – geronto- aging population: Challenges and strategies logical occupational therapists as specialized for change (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved generalists (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest. on ProQuest. Allen, P.D., Cherry, A. E., & Palmore, E. (2009). Longino, S. F., Jr. (2005). The future of ageism: Self-reported ageism in social work practition- Baby boomers at the doorstep. Generations, ers and students. Journal of Gerontological 29(3), 79-83. Social Work, 52(2), 124-134. Nelson, T. D. (2011). Ageism: The strange case of Anderson, K. A., & Hun, J. (2008). An exploration prejudice against the older you. In R.L. Wein- of ageism and sexism in obituary photographs: er and S.L. Willborn (Eds), Disability and 1967-1997. OMEGA, 58(4), 335-345. aging discrimination: Perspectives in law and Angus, J., & Reeve, P. (2006). Ageism: A threat to st psychology, 37- 47. New York, NY: Springer. aging well in the 21 century. Journal of Ap- Petersen, M., & Warburton, J. (2012). Residential plied Gerontology, 25(2), 137-152. complexes in Queensland, Australia: A space Aosved, A. C., & Long, P. J. (2006). Co-occur- of segregation and ageism? Ageing and Soci- rence of rape myth acceptance, sexism, ra- ety, 32(1), 60-84. cism, homophobia, ageism, classism, and Phillipson, C., Leach, R., Money, A., & Biggs, S. religious intolerance. Sex Roles, 55(7-8), (2007). Social and cultural constructions of 481-492. ageing: The case of the Baby Boomers. Socio- Bianchini, P. E. (2000). The attitudes and know- logical Research Online, 13(3)5, Retrieved ledge levels of social work and nursing stu- from: http://www.socresonline.org.uk/13/3/5. dents towards elderly (Master thesis). Avail- html able on ProQuest.

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