Deep-sea mining: fact sheet 9 Deep-sea mining: what are the alternatives?

Deep-sea mining is out of step with the direction the world is taking1 as leaders across both public and private sectors seek nature-based solutions to the climate and biodiversity crises. Set within a circular economic model, this approach is in line with the United Nations (UN) Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 12 – to ensure responsible consumption and production – and the UN’s designated decades of ocean science and habitat restoration.

goal to “stop mining the earth altogether” in 20174 battery technology has advanced rapidly. Investment in innovation means that the next generation of longer-lived batteries that reuse metals – or do not use deep-sea minerals at all – are already entering the market. A joint study by the International Energy Agency (IEA) and the European Patent Office underlines the key role that battery innovation is playing in the transition to clean energy technologies. It revealed that between 2005 and 2018, patenting activity in batteries and other electricity storage technologies grew at an average annual rate of 14% worldwide, four times faster than the 5

© OFOS-Launcher Team (AWI), RV SONNE 2016 (AWI), © OFOS-Launcher Team average of all technology fields. Experts anticipate that new technologies Above: goosefish Deep-sea mining prospectors claim we have will unlock additional applications sooner than (Lophiodes beroe), a type no choice but to open the ocean to mining in expected and create a “seismic shift” in how we of anglerfish 640 meters. order to power the green shift. This is because power our lives and organize energy systems as the minerals they are targeting – manganese, early as 2030. They warn investors that change cobalt and nickel – are used to build batteries for will be rapid, with timelines that “may not align renewable technologies. However, alternatives with traditional venture capital criteria.”6 to deep-sea mining are within reach providing “As early as 2025, and no later than 2030, we continue to invest in three RMI expects non-Li-ion battery technologies “It is true that there are main areas: innovation in battery to have made significant commercialization enough metal-bearing deposits technology; increased reuse and steps… Regulators and policymakers must look recycling capacities; and the ahead to understand just how quickly lower- on land to meet the needs of continued extraction of metals cost batteries will accelerate the transition to 3 the clean energy transition.” from terrestrial sources under zero-carbon grids and open new pathways for DeepGreen subsidiary, Tonga greatly improved environmental mobility electrification.” RMI, 2020. Offshore Minerals Ltd and social governance (ESG) Some foresee companies moving away from frameworks.23 the use of nickel altogether, due to its cost.7 Solid-state batteries, that require no nickel or Innovation in battery technology cobalt, can be lighter and provide more range Ensuring clean and green battery supply at a lower cost than today’s electric vehicles chains has been identified as a requirement for (EVs) that use lithium-ion batteries. They also business and government energy strategies have faster charging times and do not contain in order to shape an energy transition that flammable electrolytes.8 This may explain why does not repeat the mistakes of the fossil fuel- solid-state battery technology is predicted to based economy. Since Apple announced its massively disrupt the battery industry in the near

Fact sheet 9 | Deep-sea mining: what are the alternatives? | JULY 2021 1 whatDeep-sea mining: are fact sheet 9 the alternatives?

future, and why Ford and BMW q In May 2021, the world’s biggest truck “Lithium-iron phosphate and are leading a $130 million makers – Volvo and Daimler – bought into its upgraded versions will have funding round in a solid-state a joint hydrogen venture for large vehicles, a major role in the future of battery start-up, Solid Power, predicting that hydrogen will “take off” as the with hopes of integrating next- future of long-distance transport between EVs and fundamentally change generation batteries into its 2027 and 2030 before going “steeply up”.19 large-scale energy storage.” electric vehicles by the end of q In April 2021, IBM Research reported Professor Shirley Meng, materials this decade.9 progress in testing a new battery chemistry scientist at the University of In addition, lithium-iron that is free from any heavy metals, such as California San Diego13 phosphate (LFP) batteries, also nickel and cobalt.20 cheaper than nickel and cobalt q In February 2021, UK government-funded batteries, have seen huge tests successfully developed a cobalt and success over the past year. Although they tend nickel-free solid-state battery system which, to hold less power and have a shorter range they say, costs half that of lithium-ion.21 than ‘conventional’ lithium ion batteries,10 their q In January 2021, Guoxuan High-tech overall share of the global battery market rose launched its new generation LFP cell.22 to 18.5% in January 2021, compared to just 1% q In September 2020, SAIC Motors produced in January 2020. In March 2021, Volkswagen the first high end hydrogen cell vehicles.23 announced its intention to employ LFP batteries It aims to roll out at least 10 models and in its own models.11 This upward trend is produce 10,000 hydrogen vehicles by 2025. forecast to increase to 25% during 2021.12 13 q In May 2020, Chinese automotive battery cell In April 2021, China’s BYD announced14 that manufacturer, SVOLT, launched a cobalt-free it is going all-in on LFP and removing cobalt, battery.24 nickel and manganese from its vehicle batteries q In April 2020, Honda announced it will use solid entirely, enabling it to produce vehicles at a state battery technology by the late 2020s.25 lower cost to consumers and with a lower fire q Mercedes is exploring advances in battery risk. Overall, the installation of LFP batteries in technology from lithium-sulphur to solid state, EVs in China is reported to have increased by and even lithium-air or organic batteries, around 21% in 2020 and Tesla’s move to LFP describing solid state battery technology as a batteries in its Model 3 cars15 has proved to be a “step change” for battery technology.26 runaway success.16 17 Recycling and re-use Other recent innovations include: The International Resource Panel Global q In June 2021, a Bioleaching Research Group Resources Outlook has emphasized that at Coventry University reported that all metals rapid growth and inefficient use of natural present in EV batteries can be recovered resources will continue to create unsustainable using bioleaching, allowing them to be pressures on the environment. It stresses that “recycled indefinitely into multiple supply the decoupling of natural resource use and chains.”18 environmental impacts from economic activity and human well-being is an essential element in the transition to a sustainable future.27 “LFP battery capacity deployed onto roads increased six-fold Now is the time to invest in recycling and we continue to see cathode manufacturers ramping up plants for rare earth elements and other non- output and a growing list of the automakers in China announcing renewable natural resources used in renewable upcoming model-versions that will incorporate LFP cells. Among energy systems, in tandem with these market shifts. Research into ‘urban mining’ – making the more prominent are Xpeng, Seres and VW.” better and smarter use of the metals we have Alla Kolesnikova, Head of Data and Analytics at Adamas17 already taken – is already underway. As one of the fastest global waste streams – one that threatens to grow into a global problem of unmanageable proportions – the recovery of

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the total supply if effective recycling policies are adopted more widely across the globe, with larger benefits particularly for the regions with higher EV deployment”.35 Recycling processes that recover all metals are also needed.36 Currently, when Li-ion batteries are recycled, processes usually prioritize certain high value metals but do not recover significant quantities

© NOAA OKEANOS Explorer Program , 2013 ROV Shakedown and Field Trials © NOAA OKEANOS Explorer Program , 2013 ROV of lithium. Clarios, which produces a third of the world’s Above: methane bubbles electronic waste can play a significant role in EV batteries, has stated that battery recycling rising above a cold reducing the need for virgin-mined metals to should be baked into battery designs rather than seep site. Quill worms, meet future demand. It also has the potential to thought of at the end of the life cycle.37 anemones, patches of be more cost-effective.28 Research has shown Manufacturers should also provide detailed bacterial mat, pandalid that it is technologically possible to recover and information to facilitate battery recycling.Many shrimp, and a large recycle upwards of 95% of lithium, nickel, cobalt governments have, or are developing, policy red crab (Chaceon and copper in batteries,29 and that significant or regulatory instruments to encourage the quinquedens) along reductions in demand for virgin mining are recycling, reuse or refurbishment of consumer the periphery of the feasible in the nearer term. Moreover, large electronics and industrial batteries. The ReCell seepage area. amounts of nickel, copper and cobalt that have Center, the US Department of Energy’s Li-ion been used in other manufacturing processes, battery recycling Research and Development products and applications besides batteries are center, has been running since December already being recycled and are available on the 2017 with the goal of making recycling market. For example, around 50% of the nickel,30 competitive and profitable.38 More recently, 38% of the copper31 and 29% of the cobalt32 on the US Battery Supply Chain Review called the US market in 2020 consisted of recycled for more research into “alternates to critical metal, or metal recovered from scrap. minerals” and measures to enable “end-of- In 2021, Earthworks analyzed and quantified life reuse and critical materials recycling at the recycled content from general end-markets scale”.39 Meanwhile, the proposed EU Batteries and the recycling of end-of-life EV lithium-ion Regulation aims to ensure that batteries placed batteries, as well as demand reduction driven in the EU market are sustainable and safe by improved recovery rates. On comparing the throughout their entire life cycle. It requires results with total metal demand, it found that: manufacturers to use a minimum amount of “Effective recycling of end of life batteries has recycled cobalt, lithium, nickel and lead from the potential to reduce global demand by 2040 2030 and to provide information that facilitates by 55% for copper, 25% for lithium and 35% for recycling at end-of-life. This would also affect cobalt and nickel – creating an opportunity to manufacturers outside the EU if they intend to significantly reduce the demand for new mining.”33 sell their products within the bloc.40 “If the market steers away from cathodes containing cobalt to an LFP-dominated market, cobalt, manganese, and nickel become less “The sustainability of batteries has to 34 relevant and reach circularity before 2040.” grow hand in hand with their The IEA has also confirmed that recycling end increasing numbers on the EU market.” of life Li-ion batteries could “relieve a proportion of the burden from mining them from virgin ores”, Virginijus Sinkevicˇius, EU commissioner 40 highlighting that “contributions from recycled for environment, oceans and fisheries minerals could be even more prominent in

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Endnotes

1 DSCC (2020) Deep-sea mining and the transition economy. https://bit.ly/3645zWQ 2 Amnesty International (2021) Powering Change: Principles for Businesses and Governments in the Battery Value Chain https://bit.ly/2U9y6HE 3 Matangi Tonga Online (2021) How to transition to clean energy future with the lightest possible impact. https://bit.ly/3h5hN7z 4 Apple (2017) Environmental Responsibility Report https://apple.co/3qCCaMz 5 IEA (2020) Innovation in batteries and electricity storage https://bit.ly/3h6W0wi 6 RMI (2020) Breakthrough Batteries: Powering the Era of Clean Electrificationhttps://bit.ly/3dxhbWf 7 Clean Technica (2020) Why Lithium Iron Phosphate Batteries May Be The Key To The EV Revolution https://bit.ly/3qzX8Mi 8 Autoweek (2021) What You Need to Know About Solid-State Batteries https://bit.ly/3hoeU0G 9 CNBC (2021) Ford and BMW lead $130 million round in EV battery start-up Solid Power https://cnb.cx/3xes2MQ 10 Mining.com (2021) Cobalt, nickel free electric car batteries are a runaway success https://bit.ly/2U9yFkK © NOAA Okeanos Explorer Program. 11 S&P Global (2021) Volkswagen's plan on LFP use shifts hydroxide dominance narrative in EV sector https://bit.ly/3AhfeqT Above: goiter sponge Conclusion 12 Roskill (2021) Lithium-ion batteries: LFP cathode materials market share forecast to increase in 2021 https://bit.ly/3dsRJkG (Heterochone calyx). Assessments of deep-sea mining should not 13 Clean Technica (2020)Why Lithium Iron Phosphate Batteries May Be only consider the significant risks it poses to The Key To The EV Revolution/ https://bit.ly/3jv6BCU biodiversity and humanity but also the risks for 14 Mining.com (2021) World’s no. 2 electric carmaker goes nickel, cobalt free https://bit.ly/3jpEfKq investors; minerals from the deep may come 15 Business Insider, 2020. https://bit.ly/3dwCZRP too late to compete with rapid advances in 16 Mining.com (2021) Cobalt, nickel free electric car batteries are a runaway success https://bit.ly/2Tmb8Nq alternatives that underpin a circular economy 17 Ibid. and a genuinely green transition.41 18 The Conversation (2021) Bacteria can recover precious metals from electric vehicle batteries – here’s how. https://bit.ly/3yeouK 19 Financial Times (2021) Volvo and Daimler bet on hydrogen truck boom this decade https://on.ft.com/3h54OCT “The economic viability of exploration and extraction in 20 IBM (2021) IBM Research is reshaping the scene of sustainable the deep sea as of 2030 must be carefully evaluated in batteries https://ibm.co/3h54TGH 21 SP Global (2021) UK cobalt-free solid-state battery technology claims light of advances in battery and other technology as well major cost efficiencies https://bit.ly/3hk6S93 as circular economy benefits. More research is required to 22 Roskill (2021) Lithium-ion batteries: LFP cathode materials market share forecast to increase in 2021 https://bit.ly/2SBa8EI thoroughly consider the environmental implications before 23 Fuel Cell Works (2020) SAIC Motors reveals the world's first high end increasing the exploitation of these resources” hydrogen fuel cell MPV SAIC Maxus Euniq 7 https://bit.ly/3x3627n 24 Businesswire.com (2020) SVOLT Officially Launches Two Cobalt-Free 41 The World Economic Forum Batteries via Livestream https://bwnews.pr/3dvfzMB 25 Auto Express (2021) Honda to be electric only by 2040 with solid state battery tech coming late 2020s https://bit.ly/3hlFt6J 26 Elecktrek, (2021) Mercedes-Benz invests in next-gen li-ion battery, promises faster charging and longer range https://bit.ly/3qCWcGW 27 IInternational Resource Panel (2019) Global Resources Outlook: Natural Resources for the Future We Want https://bit.ly/3x7QO0N About the DSCC 28 Zeng et al., (2018) Urban Mining of E-Waste is Becoming More Cost- Effective Than Virgin Mining. Environmental Science & Technology, 52, 8, 4835–4841 The Deep Sea Conservation Coalition (DSCC) was founded 29 Earthworks, 2021 https://bit.ly/3whxfCh in 2004 to address the need to prevent damage to deep-sea 30 U.S. Geological Survey, 2021a https://on.doi.gov/2UbWWGP ecosystems and the depletion of deep-sea species on the 31 U.S. Geological Survey, 2021b https://on.doi.gov/3w2TKdL 32 U.S. Geological Survey, 2021c https://on.doi.gov/2UTbvzw high seas from bottom trawling and other forms of deep-sea 33 Earthworks, 2021 https://bit.ly/3whxfCh fishing. The DSCC is made up of over 90 non-governmental 34 Dunn et al., (2021) Circularity of Lithium-Ion Battery Materials in Electric Vehicles. Environmental Science & Technology, 55(8) organizations (NGOs), fishers organizations and law and policy 35 Argus (2021) Battery recycling could cut raw material use by 12pc institutes, all committed to protecting the deep sea. https://bit.ly/3yb4456 36 Duesenfeld (2021) https://bit.ly/3Af8EBe 37 Auto News (2021) Recycling could help fill battery demand For further information: https://bit.ly/360PbGm [email protected] 38 C & En (2019) It’s time to get serious about recycling lithium-ion batteries https://bit.ly/3hodW4y www.savethehighseas.org 39 National Blueprint for Lithium Batteries (2021) https://bit.ly/3Af4pFH @DeepSeaConserve 40 European Commission (2020) Green Deal: Sustainable batteries for a circular and climate neutral economy https://bit.ly/3w7fV2K 41 World Economic Forum (2019) A Vision for a Sustainable Battery Value Chain in 2030 https://bit.ly/3ju40Jv

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