The Impact of Training and a Mindfulness Phone App Among Academic Advisors

THE IMPACT OF TRAINING AND A MINDFULNESS PHONE APP AMONG ACADEMIC ADVISORS

Deborah Sue Hendricks

A Dissertation

Submitted to the Graduate College of Bowling Green State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

May 2019

Committee:

Paul Johnson, Advisor

Cynthia Bertelsen, Graduate Faculty Representative

Robert Gotfried

Kristina LaVenia

Matthew Lavery

Deborah Sue Hendricks

Paul Johnson, Advisor

This study examined the effectiveness of a mindfulness professional training session

(MindfulnessPD) on usage of the 10% Happier phone app among academic advisors and the app's influence on levels of mindfulness and perceived stress. To date, there is a lack of research regarding the effectiveness of in-person mindfulness training on increasing usage of a mindfulness app for improving mindfulness and lowering perceived stress among academic advisors. A quantitative design was used to sample academic advisors (n = 33) at a large, state university in the Midwest. Paired samples t-tests indicated increased levels of mindfulness on the

Mindfulness Attention and Awareness Scale (MAAS) and decreased levels of perceived stress on the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) among app users. The in-person MindfulnessPD training appeared to increase app usage and as a result, the 10% Happier app users reported increased mindfulness and decrease perceived stress. Finally, 85% of participants agreed that practicing mindfulness was beneficial to their self-care and wellbeing. iv

This dissertation is dedicated to any reader who desires to learn more about the practice of

mindfulness as a tool for their self-care toolbox. v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I want to thank the Universe for the strength and wisdom to journey this path called life.

Thanks to my wife, who has encouraged, loved, and supported me through every step and made my travels enjoyable. I still am head over heels in love with you and adore the human that you are. I would like to thank my three beautiful adult children who always believed in me and love me unconditionally. Going back to school later in life can be difficult, but the rewards are worth all the work. Never stop learning. I pray my appreciation for learning and growing will spread on to the generations to come. To my mom, you are probably the only other person on this planet that will read this dissertation more than once. You have been my biggest fan and for that, I am forever grateful. Thank you for your words of encouragement throughout this long journey. There were so many times I just needed to hear my mom’s voice and then I knew everything would be okay. Thank you, mom.

To my dear friend Julie George, who gave me detailed feedback and help from the start of my academic journey. I am so appreciative for you and your never-ending support. You were my editor and chief for all articles, presentation, proposals, and this dissertation. Thank you.

I want to send a shoutout to my close friends Christy, Amy, Clare, Liza, and Stacey, who believed I could do this even when I doubted. I love and admire you all and am so thankful to journey alongside you in this life. It’s never too late to learn and make a difference. My office co- workers deserve a special shout-out as they are offered constant support over the years and were there for me when I was at my lowest point. Thank you Marcy and Michelle for being there and cheering for me in my corner.

Finally, I want to say a special thank you to all the faculty in the Leadership program including the chair of this project, Dr. Johnson, and the rest of the committee members, thank you. I am forever grateful for the time and energy you all invested in my life. I would not have vi been able to submit articles for publication or made the progress as gracefully if it were not for

Dr. Lavery, who took the time to mentor me and show me what transformational leadership looked like. The faculty of the Leadership program gave me the tools and empowered me to chase my dreams. Having people in my corner who believed in me and showed me that I mattered was food for my soul. I made it this far because of a wonderful support system.

THANK YOU ALL!

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ...... 1

Statement of the Problem ...... 4

Background of the Problem ...... 6

Research Questions ...... 8

Significance of the Study ...... 8

CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 10

Academic Advising ...... 12

Attention ...... 15

Attention and Relationship Building ...... 17

Stress ...... 18

Stress in the Workplace ...... 18

Mindfulness...... 19

Mindfulness, Attention, and Relationship Building ...... 22

Mindfulness and Managing Stress ...... 23

Mindfulness in the Workplace ...... 25

Mindfulness and Technology ...... 31

Employee Participation and Leadership ...... 36

Summary ...... 38

CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY ...... 42

Research Design...... 42

Population and Sample ...... 42 vii

Context and Setting ...... 43

Research Questions ...... 43

Threats to Validity ...... 44

Procedure ...... 44

Treatments ...... 45

Variables ...... 46

Instrumentation ...... 46

Ethical Concerns ...... 47

Analysis ...... 48

First Research Question ...... 49

Second Research Question ...... 49

Third Research Question...... 49

Fourth Research Question ...... 49

Summary ...... 49

CHAPTER IV: RESULTS ...... 51

Analyses ...... 51

First Research Question ...... 52

Second Research Question ...... 53

Third Research Question...... 53

Fourth Research Question ...... 54

Additional Questions ...... 55

Conclusion ...... 56 viii

CHAPTER V: DISCUSSION ...... 57

First Research Question ...... 57

Second Research Question ...... 59

Third Research Question...... 60

Fourth Research Question ...... 60

Additional Questions ...... 61

Limitations and Implications for Future Research...... 65

Recommendations for Leadership ...... 67

Conclusion ...... 69

REFERENCES ...... 73

APPENDIX A. MINDFULNESS ATTENTION AWARENESS SCALE ...... 92

APPENDIX B. PERCEIVED STRESS SCALES...... 94

APPENDIX C. CONSENT LETTER ...... 96

APPENDIX D. QUALITATIVE QUESTIONS ...... 99

APPENDIX E. TABLES ...... 100

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION

Many higher education institutions now employ academic advisors as a helpful resource for students learning to navigate college. Advising college students can be a satisfying and rewarding job (Donnelly, 2009). It is possible for advisors and students to build strong professional relationships with each other during their numerous interactions, which can encourage both the advisor and the student. However, many academic advisors deal with workplace issues that can cause high amounts of stress (McClellan, 2012). Stress is the physiological response our body experiences due to stressors (Selye, 1956). In addition, long periods of high stress can impede the ability to problem solve, focus, and effectively respond

(Khoshaba & Maddi, 2005), which for advisors, can negatively affect job performance.

The transactional model of stress describes stress as a process where an individual appraises an experience and their belief in their abilities to cope with the internally and externally demands (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Therefore, stress can impair one’s ability to react both behaviorally and emotionally (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). Academic advisors engage with students during times of the semester when students are looking for help from professionals who listen to them and respond appropriately. For employees working in a helping field, such as academia, healthcare, and human services, properly managing stress can positively influence one’s psychological health and the quality of care they provide to others (Burton, Brugess, Dean,

Koutsopoulou, & Hugh-Jones, 2017; Jennings, Frank, Snowberg, Coccia, & Greenberg,, 2013;

McClellan, 2012; Shapiro, Astin, Bishop, & Cordova, 2005). If advisors do not manage their own stress properly, it can negatively affect not only themselves but those they are trying to help.

According to Rogers (1958/1989), characteristics of a helping relationship include intentionally promoting growth and development, maturity, and the ability to cope with life in

another person or group. Helpers can include parents, teachers, employers, doctors, administrators, advisors, and many others who purposely promote growth and development in the lives of others. A study involving social workers, which could be considered a helping field, found that employee attitude affects both performance and their ability to connect (Crowder &

Sears, 2017). Rogers (1958/1989) stressed the importance of helpers being aware of their own feelings in order to be dependable to those they are serving, he explained his idea by stating:

Whatever feeling or attitude I am experiencing would be matched by my awareness of the

attitude. When this is true, then I am a unified or integrated person in that moment, and

hence I can be whatever I deeply am. (p. 119)

Academic advisors build relationships with students and provide guidance and care on a daily basis (Crookston, 1972; Huebner, 2011; O’Banion, 1972). Advisors could benefit from programs and resources that increase awareness of their feelings in the present moment, and aid in managing stress. Today, it is common to hear the word mindfulness as a resource for managing stress, improving professional relationships, increasing resiliency, improving job performance, and boosting attention in the workplace in companies like Google, Aetna, and

General Mills (Gelles, 2015; Glomb, Duffy, Bono, & Yang, 2011; Hyland, Lee, & Mills, 2015;

Tan, 2012). Over 13% of workers in the United States engage in the practice of mindfulness

(Olano, Kachan, Tannenbaum, Mehta, Annane, & Lee, 2015). The growing body of research indicates positive outcomes from mindfulness practice, including lowered stress, heightened awareness, increased focus, and physical and emotional benefits (Baer, 2003; Brown, Creswell,

& Ryan, 2015; Jennings, et al., 2013; Kang, Choi, & Ryu, 2009; Good Lyddy, Glomb, Bono,

Brown, Duffy, & Lazar, 2016; Kersemaekers, Rupprecht, Wittmann, Tamdjidi, Falke, Donders,

& Kohls, 2018; Levy, Wobbrock, Kaszniak, & Ostergren, 2012; Shapiro, Astin, Bishop, &

Cordova, 2005).

Mindfulness, which is a form of meditation, can be defined as “paying attention in a particular way: on purpose, in the present moment, and non-judgmentally” (Kabat-Zinn, 2013, p. xxvii). With practice, mindfulness meditation strengthens the ability to be mindful, which is the state of awareness and consciousness of the present moment experience (Brown & Ryan, 2003;

Kabat-Zinn, 1990). Lazar (2014) noticed a remarkable change in the brain with the practice of mindfulness that led to improved ability to focus. In her study, she found increased gray matter in the brain, the area responsible for learning, memory, concentration, and attentiveness (Lazar,

2014). One’s level of attention and perception play a role in our ability to respond to stressors

(Kabat-Zinn, 2013). Another important benefit of mindfulness is the enhancement of specific aspects of attention, such as alerting, orienting, and conflict monitoring (Jha, Krompinger, &

Baime, 2007). Practicing mindfulness can increase one’s ability to be present or be aware during meetings or performing daily job duties (Levy et al., 2012). Goleman and Davidson (2017) analyzed over 6000 mindfulness research studies that suggested positive outcomes such as reduced stress, decreased anxiety, and diminished depression. However, with the rapid growth and modernization of mindfulness programs, they cautioned individuals not overlook the traditional components, which include extended time and deep transformational exploration of one’s self. Over time, continued mindfulness practice allows for states of mindfulness to develop lasting changes in the brain, or traits (Goleman and Davidson, 2017). These authors stressed that mindfulness programs should not exclude the foundational steps or the importance of ongoing practice.

Statement of the Problem

As stress in the workplace increases, is important for those working in the student affair’s

field to be intentional about their own care (Guthrie, Woods, Cusker, & Gregory, 2005). If

mindfulness is going to play a role in self-care for academic advisors, finding a workplace

mindfulness resource that is affordable, effective, consistent, and accessible is vital. In addition,

it is important to know if employees will engage or participate in wellness training, as a program

can only be effective if utilized.

An advisor’s day is often filled assisting students with course selection, goal setting,

career planning, and reviewing transfer credits (Tyton Partners, 2015), which leaves little time to

attend ongoing, in-person mindfulness training to increase awareness and manage stress.

Students want to be heard and feel as if they matter. Paying attention and listening during one on

one advising appointments is important for advisors interacting with students and colleagues

(Walker, Zelin, Behrman, & Strnad, 2017). Janice Marturano (2014), who started the

mindfulness program at General Mills stated, “the connections formed when one is fully

present—fully listening—make a difference in someone you are talking with leaving feeling heard or leaving feeling disrespected” (p. 36). She found in her experience working with employees at General Mills, that one’s level of stress and ability to focus can influence behavior and the ability to build quality relationships (Marturano, 2014). Building rapport with students is a very important component of the job, as the advisor/advisee relationship influences the student’s attitude toward higher education and the likelihood of staying in college (Noel, Levitz,

& Saluri, 2009). Most students want a quality relationship with an advisor who develops rapport

and offers care and support (Walker, Zelin, Behrman, & Strnad, 2017). In addition, students want

advisors to be accessible and take time during appointments to listen (Noel-Levitz, 2009; Walker

et al, 2017). The data overwhelming suggests how important the relationship aspect of academic advising is for student success. However, at times during appointments advisors respond on autopilot without actively listening to the student (Walker et al, 2017). Students can tell when their advisor is not really listening and reacts quickly with a pessimistic or negative attitude.

Knowing that advisors need to manage their stress and increase their awareness is not enough to address the situation. Offering employee wellness resources, that provide mindfulness education, training, and activities to promote self-care are needed. However, with packed agendas and back to back advising appointments, finding a mindfulness program for adisors that is affordable, effective, consistent, and accessible can be difficult?

There are gaps in research regarding the implementation of mindfulness programming, such as recommended time needed for practice, components of the course, and repeatability

(Crane, 2017). For example, one study indicated mindfulness meditation, when practiced for at least 20 minutes a day, five days a week, reduced stress, improved overall wellbeing, decreased anxiety and increased the body’s ability to heal (Kang, Choi, & Ryu, 2009). However, another study suggested positive outcomes are possible in shorter periods of practice (Ramler, Tennison,

Lynch, & Murphy, 2016). Feagans, Dariotis, Greenberg, and Mendelson (2016) conducted a systematic review to assess program fidelity of mindfulness and yoga programs to learn about the foundational components, efficacy, consistency, and effectiveness. Only 10% of the studies examined outlined details of foundational steps or referred to formal theory. Even though there are thousands of studies that suggest positive benefits from the practice of mindfulness, the types of programs, lengths of practice, and the credentials of the mindfulness’ instructors varies greatly. In addition, research suggests that overall employee participation in workplace wellness programs is low (Clark, Warren, Hagen, Johnson, Jenkins, Werneburg, & Olsen, 2011; Mattke,

Schnyer, & Van Busum, 2013). Understanding the determinants of employee participation in workplace wellness programs is important when implementing new initiatives (Linnan,

Sorensen, Colditz, Klar, & Emmons, 2001). Could offering a brief introductory training and using a mindfulness phone app as a workplace wellness program, which offers reliable exercises and consistent information for all users increase the fidelity of implementation issue? Would the feasibility and versatility of a mindfulness mobile phone app allow for increased employee participation?

Background of the Problem

The methods to implement the practice of mindfulness at work continues to expand because of the increased demand for feasible and easily accessible methods (Hafenbrack, 2017).

As mindfulness-training options expand, it is important to implement a program that is supported by science, affordable, easy to access, and designed for novice users. Thanks to advancements in technology, guided mindfulness exercises can be delivered to employees with the aid of a mobile phone application (Bostock, Crosswell, Prather, & Steptoe, 2018; Economides, Martman, Bell, &

Sanderson, 2018). Many employees are resistance to try new programs that do not provide proper education, instructions, and proven success. Since many programs lack implementation fidelity or have been tested only once as a pilot study (Feagans et al., 2016), offering a mindfulness phone app could provide a repeatable and systematic guide for self-directed practice for employees.

Various mindfulness apps are associated with reducing stress and worry, increasing well- being, quality of life and improving the feasibility and efficacy of training (Chittaro & Vianello,

2016a; Chittaro & Vianello, 2016b; Howells, Ivtzan, & Eiroa-Orosa, 2016; Moltner, Leve, &

Esch, 2018; Rosen, Paniagua, Kazanis, Jones, & Potter, 2018; Wen, Sweeney, Welton, Trockel,

& Katznelson, 2017). Dr. Rebedew (2018) recommends mindfulness mobile apps to patients so that they can practice mindfulness wherever they wish. He reviewed apps and suggested five

(10% Happier was one of his five choices) to assist individuals to learn how to practice mindfulness minus the expense and travel (Rebedew, 2018). The need to find easily accessible resources is apparent with the two and a half million people who have downloaded the

Headspace smartphone meditation app, which can be used anytime and anywhere (Wang, 2015).

The burden of finding quality resources that can assist academic advisors in managing high amounts of stress and increasing attention is upon leaders in higher education. A recent survey indicated stress is high in the United States, with a third of workers reporting being chronically stressed on the job and less than half identified their work supporting employee well- being (American Psychological Association, 2016). Employers are now implementing mindfulness programs for their employees in an attempt to decrease stress and aid with self-care

(Gelles, 2015). Mindfulness researchers have evaluated the effectiveness of the practice of mindfulness among schoolteachers and healthcare professionals and found success in improving overall well-being, efficacy, and lowering stress and burnout (Jennings, et al., 2013; Shapiro,

Astin, Bishop, & Cordova, 2005). The cost of developing and implementing an effective training program can range from hundreds to thousands of dollars (Doyle, Brown, Rasheed, Jones, &

Jennings, 2018; Tan, 2012). Even though researchers have examined the influence mobile phone apps have on people’s health and behavior (van Emmerik, Arnold, Berings, & Lancee, 2018;

Zhao, Freeman, & Li, 2016), evidence of an effective workplace mindfulness option that utilizes a mindfulness app as the primary component is limited.

How can leaders in higher education implement effective and consistent change that incorporates the practice of mindfulness into the culture of the advisor’s workplace? This

longitudinal study will examine the effectiveness of a mindfulness one-time professional training session (PD) on participants usage of a mindfulness phone app. In addition, this year-long study will explore the association of advisor’s use of the 10% Happier mobile phone app (Change

Collective, 2017) with levels of mindfulness and stress. Currently, there is little research that examines the level of employee participation in mindfulness training programs that utilize a mindfulness phone app as its main training resource.

Research Questions

1. After one year, is there a difference in use (frequency and duration) of the 10%

Happier app between those who attended the training and those who did not?

2. After one year, is there a difference in reported levels of stress and mindfulness

among those who used the 10% Happier app and those who did not?

3. After one year, is there a difference in reported levels of stress and mindfulness

between those who used the 10% Happier app and those who did not?

4. After one year, is there a difference in the reported frequency of overall mindfulness

practice between those who used the 10% Happier app and those who did not?

This quantitative, quasi-experimental design drew participants from pre-existing groups and sampled academic advisors at a large, state institution. This study is a continuation of a pilot study which involved a pretest in September of 2017, a three-hour in-person training, delivery of the 10% Happier mobile phone app (Change Collective, 2017), and a 60-day mid-test in

November of 2017. The final one-year posttest was a continuation of the pilot study.

Significance of the Study

This study examined whether a brief mindfulness training was associated with the level of use of the 10% Happier app. In addition, the study examined the association of app usage and

levels of mindfulness (attention and awareness) and stress among academic advisors. Finally, the study explored changes in levels of mindfulness practice of the participants. Implementing a mindfulness-training program that utilizes a mobile phone app could assist advisors with managing stress and increasing awareness.

CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW

Working as an academic advisor has become a full-time career for over 14,000 individuals across the United States (NACADA, 2018), and can be a very rewarding job

(Donnelly, 2009). However, high amounts of stress can impede one’s ability to focus and connect with students during advising appointments (McClellan, 2012). Finding ways to increase attention and manage workplace stress has become a priority for many people in today’s society

(Good et al., 2016; Hyland, Lee, & Mills, 2015). Most higher education institutions offer some type of wellness program to their employees, which has become a common workplace benefit across the country. The majority of employers in the United States, with at least 200 employees, offer some type of wellness program to their workers to promote wellbeing (Mattke, Schnyer, &

Van Busum, 2013). Implementing a workplace program that employees will access is vital, as low participation in workplace wellness programs can limit the impact of well-designed programs (Linnan, Sorenses, Colditz, Klar, & Emmons, 2001). In addition, research suggests that overall employee participation in workplace wellness programs is low (Clark, Warren, Hagen,

Johnson, Jenkins, Werneburg, & Olsen, 2011; Mattke, Schnyer, & Van Busum, 2013). Many employees are resistance to try new programs that do not provide proper education, instructions, and proven success. However, research indicates that employees participate at a higher level with the support of management (DeJoy, Bowen, Baker, Bynum, Wilson, Goetzel, & Dishman, 2009).

It is common to find free workplace resources to manage weight and fitness levels in many employee benefit packages. In addition, many employers are now incorporating mindfulness training into wellness programs as a tool to increase attention and manage stress

(Hyland, Lee, & Mills, 2015). The term mindfulness has been defined as the awareness that one notices when paying attention to the present moment, with an accepting and open attitude

(Kabat-Zinn, 2013). Mindfulness meditation is an intentional practice that can increase one’s ability to be aware and increase overall wellbeing. It was reported that over 13% of workers in the United States engage in the practice of mindfulness (Olano et al., 2015).

Many research studies suggest that mindfulness programs are an effective way to reduce stress, nurture social connections and improve interpersonal relations, as well as increase attention and wellness (Baer, 2003; Brown, Creswell, & Ryan, 2015; Jennings, et al., 2013;

Kang, Choi, & Ryu, 2009; Good et al., 2016; Kersemaekers et al., 2018; Levy, Wobbrock,

Kaszniak, & Ostergren, 2012; Meiklejohn, Phillips, Freedman, Griffin, Biegel, Roach, & Isberg,

2012; Shapiro, Astin, Bishop, & Cordova, 2005). Mindfulness phone apps could be one viable resource for employers to offer on-going self-help training and support to employees. Studies on various mindfulness apps found an association with reduced stress and worry, increased attention and well-being, and improved the feasibility and efficacy of training (Carissoli, Villani, & Riva,

2015; Chittaro & Vianello, 2016a; Fish, Brimson, & Lynch, 2016; Howells, Ivtzan, & Eiroa-

Orosa, 2016; Wen, Sweeney, Welton, Trockel, & Katznelson, 2017). Could employees, such as academic advisors benefit from a mindfulness phone app that assist with managing stress and increasing attention? The review of literature will explore the role of academic advisors and the need for additional workplace resources increase attention and manage stress. This review of literature will also examine mindfulness programs, including the use of mindfulness phone apps to teach and support the practice. Especially relevant to this research are the recent studies that examined factors, which influence employee participation in workplace wellness programs.

Academic Advising

The role of an academic advisor has changed over the years as higher education expanded curriculum and programming (Folsom, Yoder, & Joslin, 2015). While a junior in

Kenyon College, Rutherford B. Hayes wrote a letter to his mother, which said:

A new rule has been established that each student shall choose from among the faculty

someone who is to be his adviser and friend in all matters in which assistance is desired

and is to be the medium of communication between the student and faculty. This I like

very much. (Hayes, 1841, p. 54)

Rutherford B. Hayes went on to become the 19th President of the United States. Many changes

have transpired since 1841, but the importance of relationship building between advisors and

students is still strong. According to Noel, Levitz, & Saluri (1985), “it is the people who come

face-to-face with students on a regular basis who provide the positive growth experiences for

students that enable them to identify their goals and talents and learn how to put them to use” (p.

17). For academic advisors, a common job duty is serving students in one-on-one advising

appointments, usually during stressful times of the semester. An appointment could include

course scheduling, course registration, helping students with a plan of study, advising students

with orientations, serving on committees, and assisting students with selecting a major (Huber &

Miller, 2013). However, during appointments students desire their advisor’s personal attention

and for them to demonstrate care (Walker, Zelin, Behrman, & Strnad, 2017). Positive advisor-

student relationships supports the goals of the university and the student’s growth and

development (Walker, et al., 2017). Research by Astin (1993) indicated that student retention

rates, a goal of the institution, are positively impacted by quality relationships and interactions,

not only with classmates but also with staff and faculty.

Academic advisors have experienced considerable change over the past decade with the addition of innovative technology and new software (Tyton Partner, 2015). However, when institutions pilot numerous programs to increase retention many advisors feel the brunt of this.

Advisors can suffer from initiative fatigue and feel that unreasonable expectations are placed upon them (Tyton Partner, 2015). Advisors are bombarded with new programs, constant email alerts, phone calls, text messages, and their ability to pay attention and focus during an appointment is compromised. These types of constant, daily stressors can decrease one’s ability to pay attention and increase the level of workplace stress.

While training is offered to utilize new software and technology, little if any training is provided to advisors on how to manage stress or tangible steps to increase interpersonal relationship skills such as paying attention and mindful listening. NACADA: The Global

Community for Academic Advising developed a core competencies model for development and support of academic advisors (NACADA, 2017). NACADA (2017) suggested the model serve as a foundation for professional training to improve advising skills, understanding, and knowledge.

The three competency categories are conceptual (e.g., ideas and theories), informational (e.g., knowledge), and relational (e.g., skills to effectively communicate the information from the first two areas). The resources provided by NACADA for these three areas serve as a starting point for training and development. The competency model is provided by NACADA but lacks any type of actual guidance or training program to increase one’s ability to manage stress and increase attention.

NACADA recognizes the need for relationship building, as it is important for students to feel a sense of belonging and feel as if they matter when they attend college. In 2019, NACADA offered drop in mindfulness sessions to advisors during their regional conferences to promote

self-care. Managing stress and increasing attention can positively impact the relational

competency component for advisors, as the connection between advisee and advisor promotes

student success (Noel, Levitz, & Saluri, 1985; Walker et al., 2017). Having increased attention

and focus during advising appointments can lead to deeper connections with students. Building

intentional interpersonal relationships with students can increase the connection students feel

towards their university, which can lead to higher retention (Ackerman & Schibrowsky, 2007;

Noel-Levitz, 2009). The way an advisor interacts with students makes a positive or negative

impact on their perception of the institution (Walker et al., 2017). Staying focused during

repetitive appointments can be challenging for advisors.

According to research, people drift off in thought 46.9% of the time, either to thoughts about the future or ruminating about the past (Killingsworth & Gilbert, 2010). The percent of mind wandering is higher when engaged in activities that are redundant such as taking a shower or commuting to work. Many appointments for advisors consist of repeating the same information about policies or enrollment, which can become monotonous. This means if advisors are not intentionally staying focused and paying attention, they might drift off to thoughts about the future or think about something from the past 46.9% of the time. This is problematic when each appointment is with a student who needs to feel as if they matter and know that they were heard. When advisors are aware, and actively listening during advising sessions, they provide opportunities for some of the best teaching and learning in higher education to occur (Hunter,

McCalla-Wriggins, & White, 2007). Many institutions look at graduation as the ultimate definition of student success, as that is where the money flows. State funding is contingent on graduation rates and the focus on retention at many institutions has caused many advisors to

focus more on transitional activities (Tyton Partners, 2015), leaving less time to focus on their own needs, including managing stress.

In 2017, four heavily attended concurrent sessions at the NACADA Region 8 Conference were on the topic of mindfulness (Hendricks, 2017). The NACADA community includes 10 regions across the United States and Canada. Each region conducts annual conferences and one concurrent session was chosen by popular vote to win the “best of region” award. Two of the ten winning sessions for 2017-2018 included the topic of stress management and mindfulness. The need for stress management resources is gaining interest at conferences and as a result, the 2018

National NACADA Conference included “health and well-being” as a topic track (NACADA,

2018). This increase in conference popularity is evidence that advisors are looking for ways to manage stress and increase their effectiveness on the job. The most successful advisors are able to adjust their strategies during the middle of conversations and assist students in their ability to solve problems and make choices to reach their academic goals (Folsom, Yoder, & Joslin, 2015).

Managing stress and increasing the skill of paying attention during conversations can be beneficial for the institution, the advisor, and the student.

Attention

Paying attention is a skill that can be cultivated and is needed in most areas of life. In the

United States, millions of prescriptions are handed out for attention deficit issues. However, studies show that many of the drugs are ineffective (Swanson, Arnold, Molina, Sibley,

Hechtman, Hinshaw, & Nichols, 2017). There is scientific evidence that suggests improving the ability to pay attention can significantly impact the way one responds to emotions and feelings

(Tan, 2012). Matthew Killingsworth, a psychologist from Harvard University explored the level of attention and its association with happiness. Killingsworth and Gilbert (2010) used a web

application for a smartphone to collect real-time data from individuals during their daily activities. Their database contained 250,000 samples from 5000 participants from 83 countries.

The ages ranged from 88 to 18 years and included 86 career categories. The researchers used samples from 2250 adults who were randomly assigned to a question about their activity, whether they were thinking about that activity at the present moment and would rate their level of happiness at that moment. The researchers found through multilevel regression that people were happier when they were being mindful and thinking about the activity they were participating in. When people reported thinking about other things, their level of happiness was lower than when they were actually thinking about the present moment, even when completing tasks that are usually not enjoyable, such as commuting to work. The findings also revealed that individuals reported their mind wandering 46.9% of the time. A time-lag analysis suggested that the cause of unhappiness was due to mind wandering. This study was the first of its kind to use a smartphone app to collect data about an individual’s level of attention and mind wandering. The findings indicate that much of the time humans are not paying attention to the present moment.

Thanks to advancements in science and technology, it is now documented that the ability to pay attention can be cultivated and strengthened (Kabat-Zinn, 2013; Davidson, Kabat-Zinn,

Schumacher, Rosenkranz, Muller, Santorelli, Urbanowski, Harrington, Bonus, & Sheridan,

2003). Jha, Kromplinger, and Baime (2007) examined the effects of both short-term and long- term attentional training measured by the Attentional Network Test (ANT), which accesses three areas of attention. The attention test measures orienting, alerting, and conflict monitoring.

Orienting is the ability to intentionally bring attention to an object or focal point. Alerting is the skill of noticing salient targets that are not in the area of focus. Finally, conflict monitoring refers to placing priority on other stimuli that are battling for one’s attention, such as focusing on one

voice when several people are talking at the same time. The researchers found higher levels of

conflict monitoring in those who were experienced in the meditation training. They also

discovered an increase in orienting with those novice meditators after they completed an 8-week

Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) course. In addition, the experienced meditators

were able to increase their alerting ability after the completion of an intense weekend training

(Jha, Kromplinger, and Baime, 2007). With training, the ability to pay attention can be

strengthened.

Attention and Relationship Building

For advisors, strengthening their ability to pay attention can influence interpersonal

relationship skills, which can allow for a positive advisor-student relationship. The ability to pay

attention is needed in most areas of life, especially in relationship building (McKinney &

Berube, 2018). In academia, McKinney and Berube (2018) suggested that building relationships

with students are as important as classroom structure and teaching methods. They suggested

giving students full attention and actively listening, as this leads to deeper understanding and

establishes rapport. In other areas of business, Flamberg (2001) emphasized that paying attention

is vital when building and managing relationships with customers. Paying attention during

meetings can be demonstrated with intentional focus, active listening, and eye contact. In

healthcare, Montague & Asan (2014) discovered a relationship between the amount of eye

contact a doctor has with their patient and the level of patient satisfaction. In summary, when

doctors paid more attention to their patients and made more eye contact, patients reported feeling

higher levels of empathy from their doctor, were more satisfied, and felt more connected. For

advisors, increasing their focus during advising appointments could strengthening interpersonal

relationship skills and allow for strong connections with students. Having resources to increase the skill of paying attention and manage stress could be beneficial for advisors.

Stress

Stress is an experience all people deal with that can cause strain on one’s emotional and physical condition. Stress is the physiological response our body experiences due to stressors

(Selye, 1956). Not all stress comes from external circumstances; many stressors can arise due to one’s thoughts and feelings (Kabat-Zinn, 2013). In addition, not all stress is negative, and properly dealing with stressful situations allows humans to survive (Selye, 1956). The inability to deal or adapt to stressful conditions though can cause one’s immune system to be compromised and encourages the spread of disease (Selye, 1956). Selye (1956) suggested that people can ineffectively adapt to stress and actually become more stressed, which can increase their chances of disease. Becoming aware of effective ways to deal with stress allows individuals to strengthen coping skills and increase resiliency (Kabat-Zinn, 2013). Seligman (2006) suggested that it is not an event in and of itself that causes stress but the way the event is perceived and how individuals deal with it that determines if it is stressful.

Stress in the Workplace

The perception of workplace stress is high in the United States with 65% of workers attributing their job as a major source of stress, with only 37% of employees handling their stress properly (American Psychological Association, 2012). Reported stress levels are high with 1 in 3 workers in 2016 reported being chronically stressed on the job and less than half identified their work climate supportive of employee well-being (APA, 2016). High amounts of long-term workplace stress can lead to burnout. Burnout consists of three components: emotional exhaustion, cynicism, and reduced professional efficacy (Taylor & Millear, 2016). Some

employers have started including the practice of mindfulness into wellness programs for their

employees as it can increase employee productivity, enhance employer/employee and client

relationships, improve focus, and improve job satisfaction (Schaufenbuel, 2014). Companies

such as Google, General Mills, Intel, and the United States Military have started mindfulness

training for their employees (Tan, 2012; Marturano, 2014).

Mindfulness

Mindfulness, which can be cultivated through meditation, has been defined as “the awareness that emerges through paying attention on purpose, in the present moment, and nonjudgmentally to the unfolding of experience moment by moment” (Kabat-Zinn, 2013, p.

145). The state of consciousness that can be cultivated through meditation has been known for years as mindfulness (Conze, 1956). Meditation has become very popular, with a reported 18 million people practicing some form of meditation in the United States (Clarke, Black, Stussman,

Barnes, & Nahin, 2015). Individuals may learn to practice being mindful by various meditation exercises such as following their breathing, listening to a single sound, coloring on a page, listening to the ticking of a clock, facilitating movement, looking at an object intently, gazing at an image, or contemplating a word while intentionally focusing their attention on the present moment (Hendricks, 2017; Repetti, 2010). Being mindful is the choice to return one’s focus to the moment and is an actionable practice that increases one’s ability to be fully engaged

(Zivnuska, Kacmar, Ferguson, & Carlson, 2016). Committing to being mindful for a certain amount of time is a form of mental training that increases one’s ability to cultivate awareness of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors with acceptance or kindness (Bishop, Lau, Shapiro, Carlson,

Anderson, Carmody, & Devins, 2004). It widens the space between stimulus or perception and one’s response, which allows one to be responsive to stressful situations instead of reacting on

impulse (Kabat-Zinn, 1990; Brown & Ryan, 2003). Mindfulness exercises can be relaxing; however, it is not considered a technique that is self-relaxing (Baer, 2003).

One of the most popular forms of mindfulness meditation in the United States is

Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR). MBSR was developed in 1979 to bring the practice of mindfulness to a clinical setting to help patients who suffered from chronic pain and stress (Kabat-Zinn, 2013). Jon Kabat-Zinn worked with psoriasis patients at the University of

Massachusetts Medical Center. His pilot study offered standard UV light therapy to the control group while the treatment group used the same UV light therapy but also listened to guided mindfulness meditation during treatment. The positive results led Dr. Kabat-Zinn to conduct more empirical studies and to measure the effectiveness of mindfulness training programs. The practice involves seated meditation, body scan exercises, and hatha yoga (Kabat-Zinn, 2011).

The MBSR format is taught in small group settings where students meet 2.5 hours a week for eight weeks, participate in full-day class, and complete hours of practice at home. Individuals are taught to increase their moment-to-moment awareness and level of acceptance with mindfulness meditation exercises (Kabat-Zinn, 2011). For years, Kabat-Zinn and the people whom he trained led many of the programs around the world and followed the traditional MBSR format, including times and techniques (Crane, Kuyken, Hastings, Rothwell, & Williams, 2010). Over the years, the demand for mindfulness training has increased as the practice has become more popular. This has also led to an expansion in the delivery of mindfulness training programs. The MBSR program has been trademarked by Kabat-Zinn and in order to teach and use his curriculum, one must go through training he designed. This training requires years of practice in mindfulness meditation as well as structured training through the University of Massachusetts Medical Center

costing over $10,000. Due to the high cost and time commitment, many individuals have adapted

and created their own style of mindfulness programs.

Mindfulness has evolved greatly since 1979 and now individuals can choose from

programs such as Cultivating Awareness and Resilience in Education (CARE), Mindfulness-

Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT), and many other new practices starting up each year. MBCT

is similar to MBSR but adds the principles of cognitive therapy for individuals who suffer from

depression. Participants are instructed to intentionally separate from their thoughts and view

them in a rational and detached way (Crane, Winder, Hargues, Amarasinghe, & Barnhofer,

2012). The majority of the research has focused on MBSR and MBCT over the past decade.

These programs require participants to complete approximately 2.5 hours of training once a week

for eight weeks as well as an additional full day session and cost hundreds of dollars (Herman,

Anderson, Sherman, Balderson, Turner, & Cherkin, 2017). Training can be time-consuming and

costly, which can be a barrier for many (de Zoysa, Ruths, Walsh, & Hutton, 2014). To lower cost, new adapted training programs have been created, including web application and smartphone apps (Fortney, Luchterhand, Zakletskaia, Zgierska, & Rakel, 2013). Carmody and

Baer (2009) suggested decreased in-class hours could still result in similar outcomes than the usual 26 hours of session time in the MBSR program.

In addition to various ways to practice, there are also different types of mindfulness one can measure. It is important to distinguish differences between state mindfulness (Kabat-Zinn,

2011), and dispositional mindfulness (also known as trait mindfulness) where individuals experience changes in personality traits over time (Tang, Holzel, & Posner, 2015). State mindfulness can be defined as one’s current ability to be aware of the present moment and is often measured by “attributes such as acceptance, trust, empathy or gratitude” (Brown & Ryan,

2003, p. 824). Trait or dispositional mindfulness is associated with increased self-knowledge and openly experiencing what is. The more one practices states of mindfulness, the more one’s disposition may also contribute to the amount of time one is operating with heightened clarity, which enhances both attention and awareness (Brown & Ryan, 2003). The on-going practice of mindfulness actually changes the structure and chemistry of the brain, known as neuroplasticity

(Davidson et al., 2003). Just as the muscles change in their size and strength from working out at the gym each day, the brain also can grow and change based on brain exercises (Tan, 2012).

Mindfulness, Attention, and Relationship Building

Many mindfulness programs include exercises that cultivate increased attention to and awareness of present moment events (Creswell, 2017). Cultivating mindfulness involves regulating attention, emotions, and body awareness, which strengthens compassion, empathy, and positive interpersonal qualities (Walsh & Shapiro, 2006). Many recent studies suggest that mindfulness can cultivate one’s level of empathy (Brown, Creswell, & Ryan, 2015). Levels of empathy have also been associated with positive relationships (Meeks, Hendrick, & Hendrick,

1998). Holzel, Lazar, Gard, Schuman-Olivier, Vago, & Ott (2011) explained when an individual’s emotions are triggered by a thought, their awareness of the body increases by noticing changes such as heart rate and breathing. Next, regulating emotions increases and instead of the person responding on autopilot, they notice the emotion as just a feeling and can be nonreactive to the situation. Over time, the moment-to-moment experiences can increase self- regulation by allowing for greater understanding of their emotions and thoughts (Holzel et al.,

2011). The practice improves attention and self-regulation through interaction between the central and the autonomic nervous systems (Tang, 2011). Regulating emotions and managing stress is vital when interacting and communicating with others. Kabat-Zinn (1990) found that the

practice of mindfulness increased one’s sense of closeness with others and the ability to accept interpersonal situations as challenging instead of threatening. Mindfulness cultivates the capacity to notice thoughts and feelings nonjudgmentally and impede autopilot responses or thoughtless actions (Kabat-Zinn, 2013). Kemeny, Foltz, Cavanagh, Cullen, Giese-Davis, Jennings, &

Ekman, (2012) conducted a randomized trial offering mindfulness training to schoolteachers.

Teachers reported an increase in trait positive affect and displayed increased compassion and reduced negative behavior at home with their spouse.

When communicating with others, it is the heightened sense of attention and focus that allows one to be fully engaged. (Macey & Schneider, 2008). Practicing mindfulness can increase one’s ability to be present or be aware during meetings or performing daily job duties (Levy,

Wobbrock, Kaszniak, & Ostergren, 2012). In a study of married couples, those who practiced mindfulness reported increased levels of relationship satisfaction, closeness, and acceptance

(Carson, Carson, Gil, & Baucom, 2004). When a person directs their attention to the present moment, it is possible to participate in a richer and more aware experience (Brown, Creswell, &

Ryan, 2015). Mindfulness allows individuals to increase their ability to self-regulate which positively impacts behavior regulation. In a relationship, regulating attention, emotions, and behavior, which strengthens compassion, empathy, and positive interpersonal qualities are priceless. However, improving self-care should not end with just increasing attention. The ability to manage stress is a factor that contributes to attention and wellness.

Mindfulness and Managing Stress

The effects of mindfulness on stress has been studied intensively over the past decade

(Brown, Creswell, and Ryan, 2015). In a seminal mindfulness study by Brown, and Ryan (2003), the role of mindfulness in relationship to stress and well-being was examined. The researchers

developed, tested, and retested the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS) to measure dispositional (trait) mindfulness, which is the result of intentional mindful states that change the chemistry of the brain over time. The initial part of their study provided results of reliability and validity of the instrument when used with college student and individuals from the adult population. The study was a correlational, quasi-experimental study and explored links between mindfulness and well-being. Their sample included college students and adults from the general populations who practiced mindfulness and controls who did not. They also conducted an intervention with patients with breast and prostate cancer to measure their level of stress after participating in a mindfulness program.

The study revealed the MAAS measured consciousness and its relationship to well-being and self-awareness that was different from individuals who do not practice mindfulness. The patients with cancer who participated in an adapted MBSR program reported a decrease in stress and mood disturbance. Brown and Ryan (2003) reported that dispositional and state mindfulness predict behavior and states of positive emotions. They also suggested that mindfulness provides a crucial self-regulatory function. One of the limitations to this study involved the instrument, as it was new and measured mindfulness in a different way and no other data to compare it to.

However, the results from this study suggested that both dispositional mindfulness and state mindfulness attribute to increased positive affect and decreased negative affect.

There has been an increase in randomized controlled trials of mindfulness programs over the past 20 years (Creswell, 2017) which support Brown & Ryan’s (2003) findings that suggested an association with mindfulness and increased well-being. In addition, studies on stress and mindfulness have increased in the workplace over the past 15 years.

Mindfulness in the Workplace

One of the first studies on workplace stress and mindfulness was conducted over a decade ago. Davison et al., (2003) conducted a seminal randomized, controlled study that explored the effects of an eight-week MBSR course on the brain and immune functions among biotechnology employees. Earlier research conducted by Davidson (1992) indicated the left side of the prefrontal cortex was highly active during activities that produced positive emotions and in people who have a positive disposition. The prefrontal cortex plays a significant role in directing attention, planning and working towards goals, and memory. His earlier study led to the development of the hypothesis for his 2003 study. In that study, Davidson, et al. (2003) believed the subjects who meditated would have increased activity on the left side of their prefrontal cortex compared to the control group. He also believed that this higher activity would be associated with positive emotions and increased immune function. His study included 41 biotechnology employees, 25 were in the MBSR group and 16 were in a waitlist control group.

Electroencephalograph (EEG) measurements were taken of brain activity before the mindfulness intervention was introduced, immediately after, and then again four months after the completion of the MBSR training course. All subjects were tested at the same time intervals and with the same instruments. To study the association with MBSR and the immune system, at the end of the

8 weeks, all 41 subjects were given the influenza vaccination. The findings revealed increased activity in the left side of the prefrontal cortex of the employees who meditated compared to the control group. The researchers also found increased antibodies to the vaccine among the meditators. The level of activity on the left side of the prefrontal cortex predicted the level of increased antibody production. Davidson’s (2003) study provided evidence that suggested an association with mindfulness and increased levels of activity in the left side of the prefrontal

cortex that is associated with increased awareness, reduced anxiety, and increased positive affect.

Although this study had positive findings, limitations included a small sample size and the

intervention was administered during busy working hours. Nevertheless, Davidson (2003) found

that the more people were aware of the present moment, the higher the level of activity in their

prefrontal cortex.

Zimmaro, Salmon, Naidu, Rowe, Phillips, Rebholz, & Bayley-Veloso (2016) conducted a

study that examined dispositional mindfulness and its impact on perceived stress, physiological

stress, and psychological well-being. In their study, undergraduate students completed initial

questionnaires and collected salivary cortisol samples at home with a kit that was provided to

them. They completed a second assessment one month into the study and provided data about

work hours. Salivary cortisol samples were measured to assess the participant’s level of stress.

Other measures included the MAAS to assess their dispositional mindfulness level, the Perceived

Stress Scale (PSS) to measure perceived stress, and well-being was measured using the scale of psychological well-being. Students who measured higher levels of mindfulness also demonstrated lower perceived stress, which was directly related to lowered cortisol levels. The results also indicated that perceived stress might influence other measures of subjective well- being. The researchers distinguished the difference between subjective well-being, which involved positive affect (the ability to experience positive emotions and respond in a positive way) and satisfaction with life versus psychological well-being that involved reaching one’s potential and growing psychologically. Zimmaro et al., (2016) suggested that dispositional mindfulness could be associated with lower cortisol levels but so could perceived stress. The study did not offer any type of mindfulness intervention and only one participant listed prior experience in mindfulness. Not offering an intervention was a limitation of the study as it was

unknown what factors could have impacted the level of mindfulness with participants. However, the study reveals that individuals with increased dispositional mindfulness reported much lower observed stress and linked the practice to greater psychological well-being.

Looking at mindfulness and high stress resulting in job burnout, Taylor & Millear (2016) conducted a study that examined whether mindfulness could predict burnout compared to other employee resources. High amounts of long-term stress and low job satisfaction seem to be a catalyst for burnout. The ramifications of burnout impact not only the employee, but also the customer, employer, and the economy with increased days off work, decreased efficiency, and increased monetary claims. Mindfulness was measured for five qualities; observation, articulations of the environment, response according to the environment, non-judgment, and intentional actions using the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ). Online surveys were sent out to 381 adult participants who were employed at least one day a week. The researchers used a cross-section study with quantitative surveys to measure outcomes. The surveys measured mindfulness, workplace resources, workplace demands, and burnout. The findings suggested that the components of mindfulness were associated with decreased burnout and could be added to the employee’s toolbox of resources to help reduce stress. Their study was one of the first studies that focused on the five component of mindfulness and the potential to buffer against stress and burnout. The five components of mindfulness were analyzed in regard to their impact on the faucets that lead to burnout in the workplace. This study had a small sample size and limitations due to online recruitment of participant. The subjects had to have access to a computer, which left many participants out of the initial invitation to join the study.

In addition, this was the first study that measured the five facets of mindfulness against the three components of workplace burnout and therefore could not be compared or supported by other

findings. The study did not offer an intervention but simply measured one’s level of mindfulness-based on self-evaluations. Interest is growing in developing effective workplace resources that can provide on-the-job help for employees in need.

Hafencrack (2017) explored the impact of mindfulness on stress in the workplace and created a mindfulness intervention model. It was created as an on-the-spot resource for reducing the negative effect of employees. Similar to the study by Davidson et al., (2003) which suggested employees who practice mindfulness can experience an increase in positive emotions,

Hafencrack (2017) attempted to add to the literature and suggested inducing short on-the-spot state mindfulness exercises throughout the workday. Hafencrack suggested using brief exercises when facing counterproductive workplace behavior. He noted, three conditions necessary to successfully practice mindfulness on the job: awareness of the problem, understanding the on- the-spot mindfulness exercise, and intentional participation in the practice. In addition,

Hafencrack cautioned employees about the possibility that mindfulness may induce negative outcomes in individuals with diagnosed mental disorders or when dealing with traumatic events.

Taking time to focus on the breath can bring calming experiences for many people, but it is recommended that mindfulness be learned and practiced in less stressful situations. Kabat-Zinn

(2013) stressed the importance of regularly practicing mindfulness during less stressful times to increase one’s ability to handle stress during stressful events. Hafencrack (2017), suggested employees set reminders on a calendar or smartphone prompting individuals to pause and evaluate one’s stress level throughout the day. In addition to this suggestion, it is helpful to post signs or posters with messages around the office to prompt employees to evaluate their current level of stress. There can be resistance to try a new self-help technique in the workplace. To address this, employees need to understand the benefits mindfulness can provide with

professional training and education. In addition, Hafencrack (2017) stressed the importance of ongoing state mindfulness practice to help with present stressful circumstances, but also the impact long-term practice can have on one’s level of dispositional (trait) mindfulness. While there is substantial evidence indicating that mindfulness programming is effective in lowering stress and increasing awareness, many of these programs involve weeks of training in a classroom, which can be problematic for busy employees (Carmody & Baer, 2009). In the workplace, the deliverability of mindfulness training has been adapted to meet the increasing demand for more feasible and easily accessible methods (Hafenbrack, 2017).

Employers such as Aetna, General Mills, and Google have introduced mindfulness programs to their employees to increase job satisfaction, productivity, and decrease stress and absenteeism (Hyland et al., 2015; Schaufenbuel, 2014). For these companies and many others, the practice of mindfulness represents just one component of a multifaceted wellness program. A number of employees who practiced mindfulness, while working in business, healthcare, technology, transportation, and management, experienced decreased stress and depression, increased productivity and public speaking abilities, improved professional work relationships, enhanced emotional well-being, and increased levels of job satisfaction and attention

(Schaufenbuel, 2014; Orellana-Rios, Radbruch, Kern, Regel, Anton, Sinclair, & Schmidt, 2018;

Taylor & Millear, 2016; Zivnuska et al., 2016). The inability to focus can impact the ability to work effectively and can negatively impact wellness, relationships, behavior and attitude

(Crowder & Sears, 2017; Taylor & Millear, 2016). In addition to these benefits, a study by

Seligman, (2006) found that employees who practiced mindfulness were less pessimistic and performed better. According to the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (1999), the majority of employees who experienced stress at work desired training to help manage stress.

Workplace stress leads to increased turnover, with 51% of workers reporting that they left their jobs or refused a promotion because of it (American Psychological Association, 2009). However, there are programs that can help; the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recently promoted the practice of mindfulness by encouraging workplace mindfulness interventions among its employees (Kachan, Olano, Tannenbaum, Annane, Mehta, Arheart, ... & Lee, 2017).

The methods for delivering mindfulness training have expanded and adapted programs are showing promising outcomes, including increased self-care and self-esteem, (Hugh-Jones, Rose,

Koutsopoulou, & Simms-Ellis, 2017; Randal, Pratt, & Bucci, 2015).

Researchers have found the practice of mindfulness is a useful tool for employees working in the helping field to promote self-care, and manage workplace stress (Gockel, Burton,

James, & Bryer, 2012: Wise, Hersh, & Gibson, 2012). The mixed-methods study by Gockel,

Burton, James, and Bryer (2012) examined mindfulness training for those preparing for the field of social work. Participants engaged in short, 10-minute mindfulness exercises. They reported viewing the training as valuable, saw it useful for their future careers, and planned to draw from the experience once they began their jobs. The open-ended questions in the study revealed that participants increased their ability to pay attention and be responsive and boosted their level of emotional intelligence when engaging with their patients during meetings. In addition, they also recognized their mindfulness training as a vital component to their clinical education process.

Effective education and training play an important role in employee understanding and participation in a workplace mindfulness program.

Hwang, Bartlett, Greben, and Hand (2017) conducted a systematic review of mindfulness interventions for employees in academia. Their review found that mindfulness training could be used as a tool to enhance wellbeing and performance. However, in many of the studies listed in

this review, the details of the exact mindfulness were not well described, and intervention

replicability and fidelity were absent. This lack of consistency impedes the ability of employers

from choosing an effective program. However, there are newer programs that have been

replicated and offer consistent outcomes, such as the technological platform used with

computerized cognitive behavioral therapy (cCBT) to treat depression and manage stress (Fish,

Brimson, & Lynch, 2016). The cCBT program is widely used but does not offer to follow up

support. Without follow up support attrition rates can be high, and outcomes not always

sustained (So, Yamaguchi, Hashimoto, Sado, Furukawa, & McCrone, 2013).

Mindfulness and Technology

An area that has experienced substantial growth recently is the technological

advancements of mindfulness mobile phone apps. Mindfulness apps provide customers with

guided meditations, education, timers, reminders, and information on various aspects of

mindfulness (Mani, Kavanagh, Hides, & Stoyanov, 2015). These phone apps have risen in

popularity and can be accessed by subscribers at their convenience. The Apple Store saw an

increase from 1.4 million apps downloaded in 2015 to 2.2 million as of January 2017, which

included over 66,000 health-related apps (Mani, Kavanagh, Hides, & Stoyanov, 2015; Statista,

2018). Various mindfulness apps have been studied and are associated with reducing stress and

worry, increasing well-being, and improving the feasibility and efficacy of training (Carissoli,

Villani, & Riva, 2015; Chittaro & Vianello, 2016a; Fish, Brimson, & Lynch, 2016; Howells,

Ivtzan, & Eiroa-Orosa, 2016; Wen, Sweeney, Welton, Trockel, & Katznelson, 2017). However, with so many new mindfulness apps showing up in the app store, more research is needed to

examine the effectiveness and credibility of these new technology platforms (Plaza, Demarzo,

Herrera-Mercadal, & García-Campayo, 2013).

A systematic review of stress management mobile smartphone apps reviewed 902 apps for evidence-based content, transparency, and functionality. In the end, only 60 met the criteria for the study and 32 of the 60 apps were found to be user-friendly, evidence-based, transparent, and functional (Coulon, Monroe, & West, 2016). In addition, Mani et al. (2015) conducted a review and evaluation of mindfulness iPhone apps. They evaluated the quality of the apps using the Mobile Application Rating Scale (MARS), which consists of engagement, visual aesthetics, functionality, information quality, and subjective quality subscales. In addition, they defined various functions of top mindfulness apps. They examined apps that offered mindfulness education and training, but excluded apps that only offered only timers, reminders, or guided sessions. Only 23 apps out of 560 met their inclusion criteria and were analyzed. They found the apps scored a median score of 3.2 out of 5; the lowest acceptable score was 3.0. While the review was helpful to understand how an app is easy to use, visually pleasing to the user, supports engagement and functionality, and grounded in quality scientific information, the review did not study efficacy. Further research is warranted to understand the potential impact these types of apps could have on customers. It is important to point out that the 10% Happier

(Change Collective, 2017) app used in this current study was not on the market at the time of the review by Mani et al. (2015), and has not been analyzed for efficacy or for quality via the MARS scale. Mindfulness apps are still new in society and randomized control trials are scarce.

Two randomized controlled trials examined the efficacy of mindfulness training apps without face-to-face training and reported promising results (Howells, Ivtzan, & Eiroa-Orosa,

2016; van Emmerick, Bering, & Lance, 2018). The first study by Howells and colleagues (2016) explored user’s experience associated with increases in overall wellbeing. They randomly assigned 57 participants to the intervention and 64 to the control group for 10 days. The

participants were recruited to join a study to enhance wellbeing via e-newsletters and advertisements on LinkedIn and Facebook. It is important to point out that the subjects joined the study to enhance wellbeing; this means they were probably intrinsically motivated to participate.

The study did not offer a face-to-face meeting. Instead, a website was provided to participants with instructions to download the app and the questionnaire. The study utilized the free version of the Headspace On-The-Go app, which teaches beginning meditators practice steps and the science that supports the practice. The intervention instructed participants to practice 10 minutes a day for 10 days. The control group participated in a neutral task for 10 days, which involved list making and a free app that could be downloaded. The study found significant improvement in positive affect among the treatment group while no improvements were noticed in the control.

However, the study did not conduct a follow-up assessment and there is no way of knowing how long the effects lasted and if subjects continued to use the app after the study. However, the findings proposed the plausibility of using apps to assist those who are seeking ways to increase happiness and wellbeing.

A second randomized controlled trial which examined the efficacy of a mindfulness training apps was conducted by van Emmerick, Bering, and Lance (2018). In their study, they offered the VGZ Mindfulness Coach app to 191 individuals in the treatment group after completing the pretest, which provided self-help directives without any face-to-face guidance. A control group (n = 186) received the app immediately after the posttest was completed. Subjects were encouraged to use the 5-week program and automated emails were sent out each week to encourage use. The study did not involve face-to-face training and no contact was made with subjects outside of the planned procedures. The study was completed completely online without any feedback or guidance from a therapist. However, it was noted that most subjects in the

treatment group stopped using or hardly used the app at follow-up, which was 20-weeks after the

pretest. The findings suggested the mobile app was associated with improved levels of

mindfulness, as well as increased wellbeing and quality of life. These studies supported the

existing research that backs the plausibility of phone apps being used as a resource to teach and

encourage the practice of mindfulness (Carissoli, Villani, & Riva, 2015; Chittaro & Vianello,

2016a; Fish, Brimson, & Lynch, 2016; Wen, Sweeney, Welton, Trockel, & Katznelson, 2017).

Accessing new mindfulness phone apps, attending a one-time mindfulness session, or

participating in the online mindfulness programs are all platforms one can utilize to learn about

and find the support of the practice of mindfulness (Bennike, Wieghorst, & Kirk, 2017). Some

programs are more structured with specific times and exercise guidelines, but others are more

laid back and offer little if any structure. Even though the MBSR structured program has

gathered the most empirical support for efficacy, the unstructured practice can also result in

positive outcomes such as reducing job burnout (Luken & Sammons, 2016). Fish, Brimson, and

Lynch (2016) conducted a systematic review to explore cost-effective forms of mindfulness

training using only technology platforms, without ongoing facilitator involvement. They

examined ten studies and found eight of the ten resulted in some significant effects. There were

differences in design, length of delivery, and sample size, which made drawing a conclusion

difficult about which model was the most effective. They recommended standardizing future

interventions and combining technology with experienced mindfulness teachers.

Feagans, et al., (2016), examined programing fidelity to understand foundational components, efficacy, consistency, and effectiveness of a mindfulness and yoga program for teachers. Even though there are over 6000 studies that have examined the practice of mindfulness, the types and length of programs and the credentials of the instructors leading the

training varies greatly (Goleman & Davidson, 2017). Koncz, Wolfenden, Hassed, Chambers,

Cohen, & Glozier (2016) conducted a six-week mindfulness program for university employees then replicated the study to examine reproducibility. They found improvement in distress and wellbeing in both studies suggesting mindfulness may be an effective resource for reducing stress, increasing wellbeing, and improving engagement. However, finding replicated studies are rare when looking at mindfulness app research, like many programs in this literature review lack replicability or were pilot programs.

The need to find easily accessible resources is apparent with the two and a half million people who have downloaded the Headspace smartphone meditation app, which can be used anytime and anywhere (Wang, 2015). Regardless of the platform, mindfulness training is not meant to be a stand-alone or one-time experience but a tool to help one grow in their understanding and supports a daily practice. Offering mindfulness training without face-to-face instruction can reduce costs, increase accessibility, and be more flexible for the participants

(Fish, Brimson, & Lynch, 2016). Unfortunately, studies show that most employees do not take advantage of wellness programs provided by their institutions (American Psychological

Association, 2016; Winefield, Gillespie, Stough, Dau, & Hapuararchchi, 2002). In addition, many studies do not conduct follow-up and it is difficult to gain understanding of long-term outcomes. Even though the body of research in mindfulness is growing, there is still little research on using a mindfulness app as part of employee wellness programming. According to

Hill (2015), all scientific studies are incomplete in some way and have the potential to be modified by new findings. In addition, he suggested we not disregard the findings we have and encouraged researchers to continue moving forward to explore more. Therefore, researchers should continue to examine mindfulness resources and advance the body of evidence.

Employee Participation and Leadership

As research on mindfulness is continuing to grow, employers are taking notice and are

making an intentional effort by implementing mindfulness training into their programs.

However, employee resistance can impede active participation and make the best intentions

completely worthless. Even though it is now common to find workplace wellness programs

offered to employees as a benefit, studies reveal that overall participation is low (Clark et al.,

2011; Linnan et al., 2001; Mattke, Schnyer, & Van Busum, 2013). In addition, the employees

who are the healthiest and less stressed are more likely to participate in wellness programs

(Dailey & Zhu, 2017). How can employers increase the likelihood that employees will

participate in mindfulness training and self-help activities?

According to a 2010 survey, even with cash incentives and adjustments in costs of health

care plans to encourage participation, only 20% of employees tend to participate in workplace

wellness programs (Mattke, Schnyer, & Van Busum, 2013). However, several studies found that

employee’s perception of leadership support is associated with employee participation in

wellness programs (DeJoy et al., 2009; Golaszewski, Allen, & Edington, 2008; Hoert, Herd, &

Hambrick, 2018). These studies suggest that support from leadership is an important factor

determining effectiveness and participation. According to Fullan (2011), changing a policy or

implementing change requires leaders to design a strategy. Successful leaders should develop a

strategy that involves inspiring others, setting specific goals, and communicate the process of change, which allows others to internalize and act on the shared vision (Fullan, 2011). If those in leadership embrace and participate in the wellness programs they offer to their employees, the chances of employee engagement increases. This type of leadership is called transformational, which allows for both the employer and employees to support and encourage each other (Bass,

1985). Those in leadership are most successful when they “guide others through adversity, uncertainty, hardship, disruption, transformation, transition, recovery, new beginnings, and other significant challenges” (p. 160). As workplace stress increases, it is vital that those in leadership understand the importance their role plays in the wellness of their followers.

Hoert, Herd, and Hambrick (2018) found the perception employees have about the support from leadership towards health promotion is associated with participation. In addition, employees who reported higher levels of care from leadership had lower levels of stress and increased positive health activities. When employees see their bosses engaging in wellness programs, they are more likely to engage. With this in mind, the burden of finding and offering quality resources to assist academic advisors in managing high amounts of stress and increasing attention is upon leaders in higher education. Managers who promote and model mindfulness with their employees cultivate a culture of engagement (Schaufenbuel, 2014). Whiteman,

Snyder, and Ragland (2001) found greater levels of implementation and success when leaders were involved in health promotion programs. In addition, reduced rates of smoking and abuse of alcohol were maintained at follow up. Their study suggested when leaders participated and stayed active in wellness programming, follower support and involvement increased.

Leaders who intentionally offer support to employees can make a difference in the level of wellness program participation (Golaszewski, Allen, & Edington, 2008). When leaders are available to communicate, listen, and respond to feedback from workers, the culture and climate of an institution can change. Successful program implementation and participation hinge on active leadership support (DeJoy, et al, 2009). Kotter (1996) stressed the importance of leaders’ willingness to be self-reflective, open to ideas, and careful to listen.

As stress levels increase and attention levels plummet, leaders who are successful at implementing mindfulness programs may be able to motivate employees by providing an environment in which “appropriate goals are available to satisfy needs” (Hersey, Blanchard, &

Johnson, 2007, p.18). Offering resources to deal with stress is crucial as “the prevalence of chronic stress in our culture makes it a serious public health issue” (Hyland, Lee, & Mills, 2015, p. 589). Kanungo (1992) discussed the responsibility of the organization to “promote productive behavior, higher levels of job satisfaction, and overall improved quality of work life consistent with the dignity of the employee as a human being” (p. 413). Individuals who do not feel valued or their well-being is important can experience “low productivity, low morale, high absenteeism and turnover, and various forms of social maladies such as increased crime rates, sabotage attempts, increased health care costs, depressed economy, etc.” (Kanungo, 1992, p. 414). Hiring a professional mindfulness trainer can cost thousands of dollars and it can cost more to develop an in-house mindfulness program (Hyland et al., 2015). However, low-cost options are available through smartphone apps, online mindfulness consultants, and even free guided mindfulness exercises on various websites. If a current employee who practices mindfulness is willing to lead group-training sessions, the cost could be minimal. Employers should promote strategies that empower employees, decrease alienation, and increase the human condition (Kanungo, 1992).

Offering benefits that promote wellness encourages the heart and speaks to employees that they matter (Kouzes & Posner, 2012; Schlossberg, 1989).

Summary

Dealing with high stress is an experience most people must deal with. Many studies about mindfulness have explored the association of reduced stress and the practice of mindfulness.

Taylor & Millear (2016) investigated dispositional mindfulness and the potential higher levels

can have on reducing job stress. However, Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) program has been studied most often for efficacy (Carmody & Baer, 2009). Khoury, Sharma,

Rush, & Rournier, (2015) conducted a meta-analysis on 29 research studies that used MBSR intervention and the results indicated positive effects on life quality, stress, and emotional distress. The seminal work of Davidson et al., (2003) led the way for researchers to explore the possibilities of the effects of mindfulness on stress, and emotional and physical well-being.

Davidson et al., (2003) suggested humans have a mind that can be altered, and the actual structure of the brain can be changed. Killingsworth and Gilbert (2010) provided evidence that suggested humans tend to mind wander 47% of the time. In addition, when individuals are intentionally aware of their present activity, they reported higher levels of happiness, regardless of the activity.

Brown & Ryan (2003) created an instrument to measure dispositional mindfulness and also distinguished differences in dispositional and state mindfulness. Their study revealed an association with state mindfulness, which led to increased dispositional mindfulness and decreased stress in cancer patients. Their study was the first to examine both state and dispositional mindfulness and opened the door for many more studies. Zimmaro et al. (2016) used the instrument created by Brown & Ryan (2003) as well as other surveys and cortisol samples to measure stress and well-being in college students. Although they did not offer and intervention to measure dispositional mindfulness, their study still indicated positive results from individuals who reported higher levels.

Many in society are looking for ways to increase their wellness, which can include reducing stress, increasing positive emotions, and strengthening their ability to pay attention.

Individuals have more opportunities to learn about the various mindfulness practices including

classes such as MBSR, MBCT, and even online training to learn about the practice of

mindfulness. However, even though the MBSR program is successful, it requires individuals to

attend classes 2.5 hours a week and they must have the ability to travel. Thanks to technology, there are now mindfulness mobile phone apps for easy and feasible access. The apps offer numerous methods, techniques and information, and flexibility in timed practices. According to

Luken and Sammons (2016), “mindfulness can be learned and practiced in a structured or

unstructured manner” (p. 2).

Hafencrack (2017) offered a mindfulness training model that suggested on-the-spot

mindfulness exercises that can be executed at most businesses and institutions. He suggested

using the current technology such as online resources and mobile phone mindfulness app to

encourage employees to stop throughout the day and practice. A professional mindfulness trainer

could offer initial training, but free resources could also be used if needed. Research supports the

possibility that mindfulness practice could be useful for academic advisors. However, many

questions remain in regard to outcomes based on content, time, and deliverability of mindfulness

training including web developed and smartphone apps.

When reviewing the numerous apps created for health and wellness, it is apparent that

more research is needed to evaluate the efficacy, fidelity of implementation, and affordability.

Two randomized control trials support the use of mindfulness apps as a resource for wellness

without face-to-face training (Howells, Ivtzan, & Eiroa-Orosa, 2016; van Emmerick, Bering, &

Lance, 2018). However, in the first study, app use declined greatly after the training ended. It is

unknown as to the long-term effects of the second study as follow-up data were not collected.

Understanding the impact mindfulness has after initial training concludes is important when

implementing a new wellness initiative, especially for those working in the helping field.

Academic advisors, like most in higher education, have a rewarding, but very demanding job. Working in higher education requires one to plan their calendar around the semester and student enrollment appointments. As a result, this means that the work demands can fluctuate from low to high depending on the timing of the semester. Advisors look forward to the completion of a semester so they can rest and take vacation time before the next semester starts again. However, the downtime between semesters, to catch one’s breath, does not offer an applicable solution or strategy to strengthen the skills needed to manage self-care (Huebner,

2011). Advisors spend much of their time caring for others and in the process, often neglect their own self-care. This study is promising for advisors looking for a new resource that is feasible to implement, requires the commitment of minimal time, and assists with establishing a mindfulness practice. In addition, the findings support the advice Grimes and Renfro's (2011) gave to the advising community about introducing mindfulness in their lives to improve performance.

Offering a mindfulness professional development training program and access to a mindfulness app to advisors could be an effective way to introduce the practice. The role of the advisor has changed over the years, requiring more training, skills, and experience to be successful. The ability to pay attention during advising appointments and connect with students is critical. Student appointments are not just another added responsibility to the job; they are the reason for the job. To be the best advisor possible, managing stress and increasing the ability to pay attention is essential. As with most wellness programs, exercise routines, or healthy lifestyle changes, consistency and increased practice are suggested for increased benefits.

CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY

This study examined whether a three-hour in-person mindfulness training session

increased the participant’s usage of the 10% Happier mobile phone app (Change Collective,

2017). The study examined the usage of the mobile phone app by evaluating data provided by

Change Collective (2015). The study also examined the association of the app usage and levels

of stress, mindfulness, and overall practice among academic advisors. In addition, the levels of

mindfulness practice after the study were compared to levels prior to the study. This study is a

continuation of a pilot study, which involved a pretest in September of 2017 and a 60-day mid-

test in November of 2017. The final one-year posttest in September of 2018 builds upon the pilot

study with additional yearlong data, app usage between groups, and self-reported mindfulness

daily practice. Only the pretest and final yearlong data was analyzed in this portion of the study.

Research Design

This study examined whether a brief mindfulness training is associated with the level of

use of the 10% Happier (Change Collective, 2017) phone app. In addition, the study explored the

association of the app on levels of stress, mindfulness (attention and awareness), and overall

practice among academic advisors. The researcher used a convenience sample and drew

participants from pre-existing groups to create the sample for this quantitative, quasi-

experimental, pre-post design.

Population and Sample

The sample characteristics of participants attempted to reflect typical advisors at large four-year institutions. The general adult population working in academic advising was targeted for this study. Initially, 35 participants started the study but two dropped out and never completed the final post assessment, for an overall study attrition rate of 5.7%. Participants

recruited (n = 33) worked at a large Midwestern four-year university in the United States, with a student population of approximately 20,000. Recruitment of participants involved a campus email invitation to academic advisors employed at the institution. Subjects were employed either full-time, or part-time at the institution when the initial invitation was sent out. The majority of the participants identified as female (n = 26; 79%), Caucasian (n = 31; 94%), had at least a master’s degree (n = 26; 79%), and were between the ages of 25-44 years of age (n = 27; 82%)

(see Tables 1 and 2).

Context and Setting

The study involved a three-hour training that took place on campus where the participants worked. The location was predetermined before recruitment emails were sent so participants knew the training date, time, and address of the mindfulness professional development (PD).

Research Questions

1. After one year, is there a difference in use (frequency and duration) of the 10%

Happier app between those who attended the professional development training (PD)

and those who did not?

2. After one year, is there a difference in reported levels of stress and mindfulness

among those who used the 10% Happier app and those who did not?

3. After one year, is there a difference in reported levels of stress and mindfulness

between those who used the 10% Happier app and those who did not?

4. After one year, is there a difference in the reported overall mindfulness practice

between those who used the 10% Happier app and those who did not?

Threats to Validity

Possible threats to validity were considered including the process of downloading the app onto their smartphone. To use the app, participants needed to use an access code to receive the full version of the app. If participants logged in and used the free version this would impede the ability to track usage. In response to this threat, a question was added to the survey to gauge what helped or hindered their use of the app. Another possible threat could be the level of mindfulness prior to the intervention. Participants were not provided a framework or training prior to the study to measure mindfulness, to control for this retrospective pretests and post-tests were given

inquiring about various practices used by participants to help with self-care. The size of the

sample could also impact validity. However, when considering sample size, Pett (1997) and

Salkind (2004) stated that most researchers desire a sample size of 30 or more. In addition,

Warner (2008) suggested sample sizes of 20, and even 10 participants per group should not be

dismissed. Finally, participants were not assigned to groups, but self-selected by choosing

whether to attend the in-person training or not. This could impact the results as it is possible that

those who did not attend were less interested in learning about and practicing mindfulness. To

control for this an open-ended question was asked as to why they chose to attend or not attend

the training.

Procedure

An initial mindfulness training was offered as a free, three-hour, one-time professional

development (PD) opportunity to academic advisors during their normal work hours. Participants

could be included in the study regardless of attending the PD, but all participants completed the

pre-training questionnaire prior to the scheduled training. In addition to the training, all

participants were given a code to access the full version, at no charge of the 10% Happier phone app. (Change Collective, 2017)

Treatments

The primary investigator designed and facilitated the training session specifically for academic advisors with mindfulness exercises that could be incorporated into their advising sessions. Topics covered in the training consisted of basic definitions, a basic overview of the

Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) program and other abbreviated programs, information on mindfulness programs in the workplace, findings from scientific studies on mindfulness, history information of mindfulness, and instructions and experiential learning opportunities on mindful breathing, listening, body scanning, walking, and loving kindness exercises (McCown, Reibel, & Micozzi, 2010). All advisors were sent emails inviting them to participate in the professional training session as well as this study. In addition, they were sent emails letting them know they could attend the training and not participate in this study. Those who attended the PD training are identified as Group PD and had the opportunity to practice mindfulness exercises, journal, and discuss their experience with other advisors in small groups.

Those who did not attend the training are identified as Group NOPD and did not receive any additional information about mindfulness. All participants were given full access to the 10%

Happier app (Change Collective, 2017), regardless of participation in PD, and were instructed to use the app as little or as much as they wanted as they established their personal mindfulness practice. The 10% Happier app was chosen for the study because it is grounded in evidence- based content (Change Collective, 2017) and had been used by the primary investigator. In addition, the 10% Happier app was chosen by the researcher, who met one of the creators of the app at a mindfulness retreat in New York and learned that the app had not yet been examined by

research. There was not a randomized control group selected for this study as the participants self-selected into Group PD or Group NOPD depending on attendance to the PD training. To control for this, an open-ended question was asked at the end of the study to determine why advisors chose to attend or not attend the training. Several studies have found that mindfulness apps are successful in teaching individuals about mindfulness and also associated with increased attention and reduced stress. Therefore, the first purpose of this study was to examine the effectiveness of the one-time training session of the level of app usage. Since all advisors received access to the app, Group NOPD served as the control group by not participating in the

PD. In addition, participants were also labled into groups based on their use of the 10% Happier app (Change Collective, 2017), as Group APP or Group NOAPP based on their usage.

Variables

The 10% Happier app (Change Collective, 2017) usage was a dependent variable measured by the collection of usage data provided to the primary investigator from the app developer. In addition, the dependent variables of levels of perceived stress and mindfulness, examined in this study were measured with instruments described below (Brown & Ryan, 2003;

Cohen, Kamarck, & Mermelstein, 1983). Finally, the last dependent variable was the advisor’s reported mindfulness practice, measured with a single open-ended question on the survey. The independent variables were the PD training and the use of the 10% Happier mindfulness phone app.

Instrumentation

All participants completed both the Mindfulness Attention and Awareness Scale (MAAS;

Brown & Ryan, 2003) and the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS-4; Cohen, Kamarck, & Mermelstein,

1983) questionnaires. The MAAS (Brown & Ryan, 2003) contained fifteen questions using a 6-

point Likert scale (1 = almost always to 6 = almost never). The MAAS was studied and validated

for use with college students and adults. Internal consistency levels were good, with Cronbach’s

alpha values ranging from .80 to .90 (Carlson & Brown, 2005). The questionnaire contained

items about one’s perception of being present and focused on current activities, as well as

perception and regulation of emotions. The instrument was designed to be easily understandable

and was written at a 5th-grade reading level (Brown & Ryan, 2003). Participants’ mindfulness

scores were calculated as the mean of their responses across all 15 items per the guidance of the

instrument developers (Brown & Ryan, 2003); see Appendix A.

The present study used the shorter, 4-item version of the PSS (Cohen, Kamarck, &

Mermelstein, 1983) in the pre-test, which measure one’s perceived level of stress by asking

participants to rate the level of stress they are experiencing in their current life events on a 5-

point Likert-scale with two reverse-coded items. The instrument was designed to be easily

understandable and was written at a junior high reading level (Cohen et al., 1983). Perceived

stress scores were calculated as the mean of participants’ responses to all four items. (Cohen et al., 1983); see Appendix B. The 4-item instrument was found to have marginal satisfactory values (Cronbach’s alpha = .69), therefore the 10-item instrument (Cronbach’s alpha = .82) was used on the final post-test due to higher internal consistency (Andreou, Alexopoulos, Lionis,

Varvogli, Gnardellis, Chrousos, & Darviri, 2011); see Appendix B. The scores from both pre and post-scores were averaged instead of summed.

Ethical Concerns

Prior to the study, all research procedures were approved by the Institutional

Review Board. The researcher followed all IRB standards and guidelines. It was assumed that all

participants read the consent form and answered all survey questions honestly. A letter of

informed consent was included at the beginning of the Qualtrics survey (see Appendix C). In

addition, approval was also granted from the Assistant Vice Provost and Director of Advising of

the institution to offer a free mindfulness professional training session to all campus advisors.

Attendance was voluntary, but advisors were permitted to count the training as part of their

normal working hours. Advisors were also able to participate in the research study regardless of

attending the training session.

Analysis

All participants completed an online survey containing the MAAS and PSS-4 instruments

prior to the PD intervention. After the PD was delivered, participants were emailed a code to

download and access the full version of the 10% Happier (Change Collective, 2017) app at no

cost. Approximately one year later, participants completed the MAAS and PSS-10 instruments.

Participants who attended PD and had access to the app (n = 18) were analyzed as Group 1. The

participants who did not attend PD but had access to the app (n = 15) were analyzed as Group 2.

Paired and independent-samples t-tests were used to test for changes in reported mindfulness and

perceived stress among and between groups with an alpha level of .05. Because of extreme non- normality, the Mann-Whitney test was conducted to determine differences of frequency and duration of use between groups. Finally, to measure the difference in reported mindfulness practice between groups, retrospective pre- and post-questions were asked.

The pre-, post- responses from all participants were analyzed using the Statistical

Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) software. The results from the MAAS and PSS were calculated in accordance with the creator’s instruction. The duration and frequency of app usage, level of perceived stress and mindfulness were the dependent variables examined. The independent variables were the mindfulness-training session, and the use of the smartphone app.

The initial data were screened for missing data and outliers. Missing values were replaced with the mean scores of the other participants (Mertler & Vannatta, 2017). Data were examined for homogeneity of variance-covariance using Wilk’s Lambda.

First Research Question

Because of extreme non-normality, the Mann-Whitney test was conducted instead of an independent samples t-test to determine differences of frequency and duration of use between groups.

Second Research Question

The pre- and post-measures of the MAAS and PSS were analyzed using paired samples t- test to determine differences of dependent variables among each group.

Third Research Question

The pre- and post-measures of the MAAS and PSS were analyzed using independent samples t-test to determine differences of dependent variables between groups.

Fourth Research Question

The retrospective pre- and post-questions were examined to determine the difference between groups.

Summary

This quantitative, quasi-experimental design study drew participants from pre-existing groups and sampled academic advisors at a large, state institution. This study is a continuation of a pilot study which involved a pretest in September of 2017, a three-hour in-person training, delivery of the 10% Happier mobile phone app (Change Collective, 2017), and a 60-day mid-test in November of 2017. The final one-year posttest took place mid-September 2018 and built upon

the pilot study with additional yearlong data, app usage between groups, and self-reported mindfulness daily practice.

CHAPTER IV: RESULTS

The sample included 33 participants who were all given access to the 10% Happier mobile mindfulness app (Change Collective, 2017). Only 18 participants attended the mindfulness professional development (PD) session at the beginning of the study, while 15 advisors did not. In addition, only 20 participants used the app and 13 did not. As a pilot study, the 33 participants resulted in an adequate sample size for the intentions of the study, however, the small sample size can have an impact of the statistical power and is noted as a limitation of this study. In the post-test, participants were asked why they choose to participate or not participate in the PD at the beginning of the study. Out of the 15 advisors who did not attend the

PD, seven reported it was due to time conflicts, three reported not remembering or being aware, and five did not list a reason.

Participants who attended PD and had access to the phone app (n = 18) were analyzed as

Group PD. Those participants who did not attend PD (n = 15) were analyzed as Group NOPD.

To measure the difference in app usage the data were analyzed using the Mann-Whitney test to determine differences of frequency and duration of use between groups. Participants who used the 10% Happier app (n = 20) were analyzed as Group APP. Those who did not use the app

(n = 13) were analyzed as Group NOAPP. Independent and paired-samples t-tests were used to test for changes in reported mindfulness and perceived stress with an alpha level of .05. Finally, to understand patterns in overall mindfulness practice qualitative an open-ended question was asked which found only four advisors engaged in mindfulness before the study.

Analyses

With the sample studied, the MAAS demonstrated excellent internal consistency with

Cronbach’s alpha = .91. Analyses indicate that removal of any one item from the scale would not

have improved the alpha value, leading researchers to conclude that each item contributes appropriately to the measure of mindfulness. In addition, the PSS-4 performed acceptably well, with Cronbach’s alpha = .77 with all four items contributing well to the measure of perceived stress.

First Research Question

When analyzing app usage, both frequency (number of times the participant opened the app) and minutes used were examined. Those who attended training and used the app were analyzed as Group PD (n =11) and accessed the app 652 times (M = 59.3, SD = 53.1), totaling

5839 minutes (M = 530.8, SD = 684.2). Those who did not attended training but used the app were analyzed as Group NOPD (n = 9) and accessed the app 48 total times (M = 5.3, SD =

5.9), totaling 292 minutes (M = 32.4, SD = 48.2; see Table 3). Because of extreme non- normality, the Mann-Whitney test was conducted instead of an independent samples t-test.

The test indicated that the frequency of use of the app was greater for the advisors who attended the training (Mdn = 11) than for advisors who did not attend the training (Mdn = 3),

U = 6, z = 3.3, p = .001, which is a large effect (r = 0.74; Fields, 2013). In addition, the amount of time on the app was greater for the advisors who attended the training (Mdn = 344) than for advisors who did not attend the training (Mdn = 11), U = 10, z = 3.0, p = .003, which is a large effect (r = 0.67; Fields, 2013); see Table 3. Overall, 20 out of 33 (61%) participants in the study used the app for a total of 700 times for 6131 minutes. Eleven advisors of the 18

(61%) who attended training accessed and used the app. In comparison, nine of the 15 (60%) who did not attend the PD accessed and used the app.

Second Research Question

The second research question asked if there was a difference in reported levels of

stress and mindfulness among academic advisors in Group APP (n = 20) and Group

NOAPP (n = 13) after one year? Paired-samples t-tests were conducted to examine

differences among groups. On average, participants in Group APP increased their level of

mindfulness from pre-test levels (M = 3.09, SD = 0.73) to post-test levels (M = 3.63,

SD = 1.01), t(19) = 3.11, p = .006, The observed mean difference was 0.53, 95% CI [0.18,

0.90], which is a medium to large effect (d = 0.61; Cohen, 1992). In addition, Group APP

decreased their stress from pre-test levels (M = 2.20, SD = 0.77) to post-test levels (M =

1.80, SD = 0.95), t(19) = -2.61, p = .017. The observed mean difference was 0.15, 95% CI

[-0.72, -0.07], which is a small to medium effect (d = 0.46; Cohen, 1992).

There was no difference in the pre-test level of mindfulness of Group NOAPP (M =

3.89, SD = 0.64) when compared to post-test (M = 3.98, SD = 0.66), t(12) = 0.64, p = .534.

The observed mean difference was 0.09, 95% CI [-0.23, 0.43], which is a small effect (d =

0.14; Cohen, 1992). In addition, there was no difference found in the pre-test level of stress

for Group NOAPP (M = 1.62, SD = 0.55) when compared to post-test levels (M = 1.64, SD

= 0.56), t(12) = 0.10, p = .919. The observed mean difference was 0.22, 95% CI [-0.46,

0.51], which is a small effect (d = 0.04; Cohen, 1992); see Table 4.

Third Research Question

The third research question examined whether there was a difference in reported levels of

stress and mindfulness between Group APP (n = 20) and Group NOAPP (n = 13)? Independent-

samples t-tests were conducted to compare pre-test and post-test differences between groups. On

average, Group APP had lower pre-test levels of mindfulness (M = 3.09, SD = 0.73) than Group

NOAPP (M = 3.88, SD = 0.64), t(31) = 3.21, p = 0.003. The observed mean difference was 0.79,

95% CI [0.29, 1.30], which is a large effect (d = 1.13; Cohen, 1992). However, there was no difference in the post-test level of mindfulness between Group APP (M = 3.63, SD = 1.01) and

Group NOAPP (M = 3.98, SD = 0.66), t(31) = 1.11, p = 0.277. The observed mean difference was 0.35, 95% CI [-0.30, 0.99], which is a small to medium effect (d = 0.39; Cohen, 1992); see

Table 5.

On average, Group APP had higher pre-test levels of stress (M = 2.20, SD = 0.77) than

Group NOAPP (M = 1.62, SD = 0.55), t(31) = -2.37, p = 0.024. The observed mean difference was -0.58, 95% CI [-1.09, -0.83], which is a large effect (d = 0.84; Cohen, 1992). However, there was no difference in the post-test levels of stress between Group APP (M = 2.00,

SD = 0.79) and Group NOAPP (M = 1.64, SD = 0.56), t(31) = -1.44, p = 0.161. The observed mean difference was -0.36, 95% CI [-0.88, 0.15], which is a medium effect (d = 0.51; Cohen,

1992); see Table 5.

Fourth Research Question

The final question asked if there was a difference in reported overall mindfulness practice between Group APP (n = 20) and Group NOAPP (n = 13)? To explore this question, participants were asked the following questions: “What types of stress management strategies did you use prior to the start of this study?” and “What types of stress management strategies do you currently use (instead of or in addition to mindfulness practice)?”

The open-ended question indicated that three out of 20 participants (15%) from Group

APP (n = 20) used mindfulness/meditation/breathing techniques prior to the study. After the study, nine participants (45%) reported using mindfulness as a type of stress management

strategy. In comparison, only one participant (7%) in Group NOAPP (n = 13) reported using

mindfulness/breathing techniques prior to the study. However, after the study four out of 13

(30%) reported adding mindfulness to their self-care activities.

Additional Questions

In addition to the four research questions, this study examined whether advisors felt mindfulness was beneficial. All advisors were asked, “do you feel the practice of mindfulness is beneficial to your own self-care?” The survey options ranged from 1 = strongly agree to 5 =

strongly disagree. At the end of the year, 85% of advisors agreed or strongly agreed that

practicing mindfulness was beneficial to their self-care and wellbeing. In addition, participants reported being hindered by changes at work, lack of commitment and remembering to practice, family demands, unexpected events, busy schedule, did not feel like that anything they did matter, time management, and level of energy. Advisors reported situations that helped their practice included gaining understanding in what mindfulness was and how to practice, being part of this research study, receiving daily phone reminders, and the encouragement from others to practice.

Advisors were asked why they chose to attend or not attend the professional training

session last year. Out of the 15 advisors who did not attend the PD, seven reported it was due to

time conflicts, three reported not remembering or being aware, and five did not list a reason. In

addition, participants were asked what helped or hindered their use of the 10% Happier app over

the course of the past year. Participants reported being hindered by technical issues, time

management, no interest in using an app, no space to practice without interruptions, family

demands, changed phones, level of energy, distractions, feelings of helplessness, too busy, forgot

to use the app, unable to access topics of interest, some of the programs were cheesy, and

ignoring the reminders. Things that helped participants use the app included seeing the benefits,

attending the training, free access to the app, convenience and very helpful, made a habit out of

using it, loved the one-minute meditations, and their level of interest in mindfulness and talking

about the benefits.

Conclusion

The findings of this study revealed that participants in Group PD used the app more often

and for longer amounts of time than those in Group NOPD. In addition, the results of the

independent t-test revealed a statistically significant increase in levels of mindfulness and a

decrease in stress among participants in Group APP at the conclusion of the study. In

comparison, there was no difference found in levels of mindfulness or stress with Group

NOAPP. The paired samples t-tests revealed a statistically significant difference in pre-test

scores between Group APP and NOAPP in both stress and mindfulness. However, there was no

difference between groups in levels of mindfulness and stress in post-test data. In addition, the

study found Group APP reported a higher increase in mindfulness practice after one year

compared to Group NOAPP. Finally, 85% of all advisors agreed or strongly agreed that

mindfulness was beneficial to their self-care and wellbeing. The participants self-selected into groups, but post-test findings revealed many of the advisors in Group NOAPP were not able to attend due to time conflicts. These results will be discussed and interpreted in the following chapter.

CHAPTER V: DISCUSSION

This chapter offers an overview of the study and examines the results of the data analysis in the context of the workplace. Limitation and implication for future research are discussed and suggestions are made to employers regarding resources that could be provided to employees.

Recommendations for future research are offered, followed by a conclusion. This research contributes to the limited examination of mindfulness training offered to employees to increase their usage of mobile phone applications.

First Research Question

The primary purpose of this study was to determine if a three-hours, face-to-face professional development (PD) session would influence app usage among academic advisors at a state university. Final analysis of the data revealed 20 of the 33 advisors in the study accessed and used the app. Specifically, only 11 participants (61%) of Group PD (n =18) accessed and used the app, which was comparable to nine participants (60%) of Group NOPD (n =15).

However, Group PD accessed the app more often and increased amounts of time than Group

NOPD. In addition, the 20 participants who used the app (Group APP), reported decreased stress and increased mindfulness after one year. My study is unique, as I intentionally did not offer specific directions or suggestions to the amount of time or frequency one should practice. The one-time PD allowed participants in Group PD (n = 18) to learn about the purpose, objectives, and the possible outcomes plausible with the practice of mindfulness. The training allowed participants to actively participate in several mindfulness exercises as a group and on their own.

Group NOPD (n = 15) did not receive any type of additional instruction. After the PD, both groups were given full access to the 10% Happier app and told to use the app as much or as little as they would like. However, only 60% of each group used the 10% Happier app. Once the data

dump was received from Change Collective, participants were coded as Group APP (n = 20) or

NOAPP (n = 13) based on whether they accessed and used the app.

The app offered guided meditations, scientific explanations of experiences, cognitive strategies such as passive observation, introspection, and noting, and allowed users to keep track of their usage (Dauden Roquet & Sas, 2018). The findings in my study suggest an association with participating in a one-time training and increase use of the mindfulness app. In addition, those who used the app also experienced increased mindfulness and decreased stress levels. To my knowledge, there is little to no research on using a one-time training session to promote usage of a mindfulness app. However, two recent studies (Howells, Ivtzan, & Eiroa-Orosa, 2016; van Emmerick, Bering, & Lance, 2018) examined the effectiveness of mindfulness phone apps.

These studies involved a 10-day and 5-week intervention with no face-to-face training.

Participants in each study were given directions on the suggested frequency and length of practice during the study. The findings of both studies suggested mobile apps were associated with improved levels of mindfulness, positive affect, as well as increased wellbeing and quality of life. However, no follow-up surveys were conducted, and it is unknown how their levels of mindfulness and stress were a year after the start of their studies.

As more mobile apps show up on the market to promote personal and workplace wellness, it is essential to find methods that can promote employee’s participation and use of resources to promote self-care and wellness. My study contributes to the evidence suggested by other studies that examined mindfulness apps and found them to be effective for increasing attention and wellness (Howells, Ivtzan, & Eiroa-Orosa, 2016 & Wen, Sweeney, Welton,

Trockel, & Katznelson, 2017). When using a mindfulness app as the main component of a

workplace wellness program, this study suggests that face-to-face training is an important element for increased participation and app usage.

Second Research Question

In addition to examining the effectiveness of the PD on app usage, this study also examined levels of stress and mindfulness among academic advisors. After one year, Group APP experienced an increase in the level of mindfulness and reduced levels of stress. However,

Group NOAPP did not experience a change in levels of mindfulness and stress. Since

Group APP used the app significantly more, it was not surprising to find that they reported higher levels of mindfulness and lower levels of stress. These finding adds to the evidence that support mindfulness apps as an effective devivery medium for mindfulness training (Bostock,

Crosswell, Prather, & Steptoe, 2018; Economides, Martman, Bell, & Sanderson, 2018; Wylde,

Mahrer, Meyer, & Gold, 2017). An example of a study that examined the effectiveness of app use on stress levels was a study using the Headspace app, where participants completed ten introductory sessions and experienced reduce stress and positive affect (Economides, Martman,

Bell, & Sanderson, 2018). Some studies suggest improvement can be experienced with short mindfulness sessions (Creswell e al., 2014), others support the idea that longer training is needed

(Baer et al., 2012).

In another recent study, Wylde et al. (2017) examined the difference between a face-to- face tradition mindfulness training and phone app training among nurses. Nurses in the traditional group where led through mindfulness exercises once a week for four weeks and encouraged to practice on their own. The app group was given free access to Headspace for three months and participated once a week in self-guided exercises in a classroom. They were also encouraged to continue practicing on their own, but it was not mandatory. The researchers found

those who used the mobile app Headspace reported significantly higher awareness and non- reactivity than the nurses in the traditional classroom setting. In addition, the nurses who used the app had increased compassion satisfaction, fewer signs of burnout, and reduced risk of compassion fatigue. Their study also found a strong correlation with levels of awareness and increased compassion satisfaction and reduced compassion fatigue and burnout. It is possible that those with the app had more accessibility to training via the app than the traditional group.

Third Research Question

In my study, I also examined levels of stress and mindfulness between groups and found differences in pre-test levels of mindfulness and stress. This was unexpected as key demographic variables including age, ethnicity, and education was similar. The baseline level of mindfulness was higher, and stress was lower among Group NOAPP than Group APP. It is unknown why this phenomenon occurred with this group, but Brickman, Coates, and Janoff-Bulman (1978) suggested people are born with varying levels of happiness, known as a happiness set point. This idea is supported when examining levels of mindfulness and stress as well. According to

Davidson (2003), a set point is “a predisposition to feel a certain way and a baseline to which we quickly return” (p. 16). However, thanks to scientific evidence, we now understand the brain’s ability to change (neuroplasticity), be strengthened, and trained. On average, after one year, the participants in Group NOAPP did not change their levels of mindfulness and stress but remained the same one. In contrast, the advisors in Group APP significantly increased their levels of mindfulness and decreased their level of stress.

Fourth Research Question

The final research question were noticed that three out of 20 participants (15%) from

Group APP (n = 20) used mindfulness/meditation/breathing techniques prior to the study. After

the study, nine participants (45%) reported using mindfulness as a type of stress management

strategy. In comparison, only one participant (7%) in Group NOAPP (n = 13) reported using

mindfulness/breathing techniques prior to the study. However, after the study four out of 13

(31%) reported adding mindfulness to their self-care activities. Even though Group NOAPP did

not experience a statistically significant change in their levels of mindfulness and stress, they did

increase their level of practice by 24% at the end of the study.

In addition to the four research questions, this study examined whether advisors felt

mindfulness was beneficial. All advisors were asked, “do you feel the practice of mindfulness is

beneficial to your own self-care?” The survey options ranged from 1 = strongly agree to 5 =

strongly disagree. At the end of the year, 28 advisors (85%) agreed or strongly agreed that

practicing mindfulness was beneficial to their self-care and wellbeing. This self-reported finding reveals the belief that self-care and wellbeing can be impacted by the practice of mindfulness.

Even though the practice might not be embraced by everyone, 85% of the people in this study believe it is beneficial, which is an important finding for those looking for self-care resources. To

fully understand the quantitative findings of this study, open-ended questions were added to the

final questionnaire in an attempt to capture the participant's voice.

Additional Questions

Participants were asked the following qualitative question: “what circumstances hindered

or helped your practice of mindfulness” in order to gain more understanding. Participants

reported being hindered by “changes at work, lack of commitment and remembering to practice,

family demands, unexpected events, busy schedule, did not feel like that anything they did

mattered, time management, and level of energy. In contrast. advisors reported being helped in

their practice by gaining understanding in what mindfulness was and how to practice, being part

of this research study, receiving daily phone reminders from the app, and the encouragement

from others to practice”. These findings suggest external factors can both hinder and help those

in their practice of mindfulness.

A second qualitative question asked “what helped or hindered their use of the 10%

Happier app over the course of the year” to allow each participant’s voice to be heard.

Participants reported being hindered by “technical issues, time management, no interest in using an app, no space to practice without interruptions, family demands, changed phones, level of energy, distractions, feelings of helplessness, too busy, forgot to use the app, unable to access topics of interest, some of the programs were cheesy, and ignoring the reminders. Things that helped participants use the app included seeing the benefits, attending the training, free access to the app, convenience and very helpful, made a habit out of using it, loved the one-minute meditations, and their level of interest in mindfulness and talking about the benefits”. These findings shed light on the various intrinsic and extrinsic factors that motivated or hindered app usage. Addressing the factors that hindered and promoting factors that helped could be beneficial when implementing a wellness program using a mindfulness app.

Finding resources that can help employees stay focused during work and increase their ability to manage stress are growing concerns for employers. The findings in this study support the belief that the ability to pay attention impacts one’s level of happiness and well-being as

noted in the study on attention and happiness. (Killingsworth & Gilbert, 2010).

Many employees are reluctant to engage in wellness programs when they do not fully

understand the purpose, objectives, or outcomes plausible. However, companies such as Google,

Aetna, the U.S. Army, and Nike incorporated mindfulness training into their workplace wellness

programs (Jha et al., 2007; Tan, 2012). This study found that advisors who attended the PD,

which addressed the purpose, objectives, and possible outcomes of mindfulness reported lower levels of stress, higher levels of mindfulness, and used the app more often and for longer amounts of time than advisors who did not attend the PD. These findings are supported by other research that indicated ongoing mindfulness practice and engagement are associated with increased mindfulness (Goleman & Davidson, 2017; Kiken, Garland, Bluth, Palsson, & Gaylord,

2015). In addition, the findings also support prior research that suggested the use of phone apps are associated with positive outcomes (Howells, Ivtzan, & Eiroa-Orosa, 2016).

The ability to access the app anytime allowed advisors to engage in mindfulness activities at their convenience. This study supports other abbreviated mindfulness interventions that used a mobile phone app and found increased levels of mindfulness at the end of their study (Carissoli,

Villani, & Riva, 2015). In Carissoli, Villanie, and Riva (2015) study, they explored the effectiveness of a brief mindfulness training using a smartphone app. Their study divided participants into three groups; mindfulness, relaxation, and control groups. They instructed the mindfulness group to practice twice a day for 15 minutes. The participants were able to choose any mediation on the app while the relaxation group was told to listen to relaxing music for 15 minutes from a list of supplied tunes. The control group did not experience any type of intervention. Their findings did not reveal significant differences between groups. However, the relaxation and mindfulness groups reported increased coping skills when dealing with stress compared to the control group. The researchers suggested longer practice time could result in greater effectiveness as well as a larger sample size.

My longitudinal study started with a pilot component that collected data 60-days after the initial PD. However, at that point, the major question shifted from whether mindfulness apps were effective at increasing awareness and lowing stress to examining the effectiveness of a

short face-to-face PD session on increasing participant app usage. Therefore, this yearlong study examined the PD’s effectiveness with the assumption that mindfulness app usage can promote ongoing mindfulness practice and positive outcomes.

Research suggests that mindfulness apps are helping customers increase their awareness with guided meditations, education, timers, reminders, and information on various aspects of mindfulness (Mani, Kavanagh, Hides, & Stoyanov, 2015). These phone apps have risen in popularity and can be accessed by subscribers at their convenience. However, according to a chief mindfulness officer, some employers, such as Aetna, are finding resistance from employees in engaging in online mindfulness wellness activities without initial training and education (A.

Lee, personal communication, August 18, 2018). The findings of this study support the idea that brief training sessions, designed to educate individuals on the purpose, objectives, and possible outcomes can debunk the myths and preconceived ideas about mindfulness. This type of training can be impactful to support employee participation in wellness programming that utilizes mindfulness phones apps.

This study adds to the research that suggested positive outcomes, improved feasibility, and efficacy of training (Carissoli, Villani, & Riva, 2015; Chittaro & Vianello, 2016a; Fish,

Brimson, & Lynch, 2016; Howells, Ivtzan, & Eiroa-Orosa, 2016; Wen, Sweeney, Welton,

Trockel, & Katznelson, 2017) are possible with mindfulness phone apps. Mindfulness apps offer similar resources and can allow for program fidelity among participant’s usage and program implementation. Providing training prior to starting a mindfulness program on a mobile app can increase participants usage. As a result, individuals can experience positive outcomes from ongoing mindfulness practice.

Limitations and Implications for Future Research

The study sample included 33 participants who were all given access to a mobile mindfulness app. Only 18 participants attended a professional development (PD) session at the beginning of the study, while 15 advisors did not. As a pilot study, the 33 participants resulted in an adequate sample size for the intentions of the study, however, the small sample size can have an impact of the statistical power and is noted as a limitation of this study. When considering sample size, Pett (1997) and Salkind (2004) stated that most researchers desire a sample size of

30 or more. However, Warner (2008) suggested sample sizes of 20, and even 10 participants per group should not be dismissed. Therefore, I suggest the findings not be dismissed but used in support of other studies that evaluate mindfulness professional development training and its impact on the use of mobile phone apps. The lack of a control group is another limitation to this study. However, since all participants received the 10% Happier app, those who did not attend the PD were viewed as a control group as the effectiveness of the PD was being examined.

Future research would benefit by adding a control group without any intervention.

Another factor to address is the fact that all participants in the study were academic advisors from the same institution, which limits the generalizability of the results to other settings. Future research would benefit by expanding the sample to include all employees of other institutions and businesses instead of just academic advisors at one institution. Expanding the research would address the issue of sample size and diversity of the participants increasing both the statistical power and generalizability to more diverse populations.

It is also unknown how often participants engaged in a weekly practice routine without the app, and if they practiced as a group. Future research could add survey questions to address how often individuals practiced privately and as a group each week. This study did not offer

additional support other than the initial PD training. Instructions to practice on a regular basis and offering ongoing encouragement could have affected participant engagement. I suggest adding a third group that receives additional support and instructions to examine the effect of this type of engagement. It is also unclear how the PD training as a team of advisors influenced their desire to continue with establishing a practice. In future research, asking participants more questions about how the group training impacted their use of the app and ongoing weekly practice could address this limitation. Future research should examine how employee participation, as a group, influences involvement in an employee wellness program.

Since participants self-selected into the groups, in the post-test, participants were asked why they choose to participate or not participate in the PD at the beginning of the study. Out of the 15 advisors who did not attend the PD, seven reported it was due to time conflicts, three reported not remembering or being aware, and five did not list a reason. The findings are important and address the assumption that those who did not attend the training made their decision as a result of a lack of interest in mindfulness. Since the majority of Group NOPD did not attend due to time conflicts or not remembering, it is assumed that attendance was not based on the level of interest or intent to learn about and practice mindfulness. Recommendations for future research would be to include more than one PD opportunity as a method for addressing scheduling and time conflicts. In addition, it is unclear how effective the PD was as a stand-alone resource for increasing levels of mindfulness. The PI is very passionate about the subject and her zeal for the subject could have influenced the delivery of the PD making participants more interested in using the app. Future research would benefit by adding an additional group who only received the PD training, with no access to the app to measure the effectiveness of the training independently.

The recruitment of advisors was challenging due to their busy schedules and adding another meeting or task to their agenda could have been met with resistance. Furthermore, various beliefs about mindfulness meditation and myths about the practice can hinder individuals from exploring and trying the practice. Even though there are over 6000 research studies that examine the practice of mindfulness, many people still do not understand the content and possible benefits and are skeptical to try it (Goleman & Davidson, 2017). To address this in future studies, researchers could include more explanations about mindfulness during the recruitment process and allow more opportunities for PD training. Finally, it is important to note, the findings in this study were self-reported, and participants may have responded in a manner that represents how they wish they were (Paulhus & Vazire, 2007). With that in mind, additional qualitative information would be helpful with future studies to evaluate how on-going, in-person training and support could impact both mindfulness and stress.

Recommendations for Leadership

Hoert, Herd, and Hambrick (2018) found the perceptions employees have about the support from leadership towards health promotion is associated with participation. In addition, employees who reported higher levels of care from leadership had lower levels of stress and increased positive health activities. The burden falls on the leadership to find quality resources to assist employees in managing workplace stress and increasing awareness. The results of a recent survey indicated stress is high in the United States, with a third of workers reported experiencing chronic stress on the job and less than half identified their workplace being supportive of their well-being (American Psychological Association, 2016). Managers who promote and model mindfulness with their employees cultivate a culture of engagement (Schaufenbuel, 2014).

Whiteman, Snyder, and Ragland (2001) found greater levels of implementation and success

when leaders were involved in health promotion programs. Their study suggested when leaders

participate and stay active in wellness programming, follower support, and involvement

increases.

Leaders who intentionally offer support to employees can make a difference in the level

of wellness program participation (Golaszewski, Allen, & Edington, 2008). When leaders are

available to communicate, listen, and respond to feedback from workers, the culture and climate

of an institution can change. Successful program implementation and participation hinge on

active leadership support (DeJoy, et al, 2009). Kotter (1996) stressed the importance of leaders’

willingness to be self-reflective, open to ideas, and careful to listen. It appears that the levels of

stress reported by employees are on the rise and leaders who are open to ideas and listening

carefully are offering resources to their employees (Tan, 2012). Setting wellness goals and

receiving support from leadership could be helpful as “a manager’s effectiveness may be

increased by providing an environment in which co-workers can participate in setting their own

goals. When implementing a mindfulness program, leaders could work with employees and

establish realistic and measurable goals to assist them in their self-care and workplace mindfulness practice. Involvement in goal setting not only enhances employee performance and productivity but also increases commitment” (Hersey et al., 2007, p.26). This study allowed employees to set a goal of participating in a wellness training program with the freedom to be involved as little or as much in daily mindfulness activities with the aid of a phone app. The participants in this study were made aware that the PD session was supported by the leadership at their institution and anyone who wanted to attend could without any penalty to make up missed office hours. I believe the support from leadership impacted the participation in this study.

Advisors knew they could attend a three-hour professional development (PD) training session on

mindfulness within their normal working hours. The PD was voluntarily attended by the majority of advisors at the institution which indicated an interest in learning about possible ways to reduce stress and increase awareness.

As stress levels increase and attention levels plummet, leaders who are successful at implementing mindfulness programs will be able to motivate employees by providing an environment in which “appropriate goals are available to satisfy needs” (Hersey et al., 2007, p.18). There is a growing need for workplace self-care resources across the country. Offering resources to manage stress is crucial as “the prevalence of chronic stress in our culture makes it a serious public health issue” (Hyland, Lee, & Mills, 2015, p. 589). Kanungo (1992) discussed the responsibility of the organization to “promote productive behavior, higher levels of job satisfaction, and overall improved quality of work life consistent with the dignity of the employee as a human being” (p. 413). When people feel as if they matter, they are more likely to be engaged and have a more positive outlook. Using a mindfulness phone app as the key component of a wellness program could address many concerns of implementation fidelity and effectiveness. Even though there are thousands of studies that support the practice of mindfulness, the types and length of programs and the credentials of the instructors leading the training varies greatly. The findings of my study are promising to those in leadership, as it suggests the benefits of offering a feasible mindfulness resource, that is strong in implementation fidelity, and easily assessable to employees.

Conclusion

The findings of this study indicate both the positive potential of a brief PD training on app usage and increased levels of mindfulness from the use of the 10% Happier mindfulness smartphone app among academic advisors. The ability to access the app from any location at any

time can remove barriers sometimes associated with face-to-face mindfulness programs. Koncz et al. (2016) conducted a six-week mindfulness program for university employees then replicated the study to examine reproducibility. They found improvement in distress and wellbeing in both studies suggesting mindfulness may be an effective resource for reducing stress, increasing wellbeing, and improving engagement. However, finding replicated studies are rare when looking at mindfulness app research, like many programs in this literature review lack replicability or were pilot programs. This study could be easily replicated by offering an initial three-hour mindfulness professional development training and offering the 10% Happier phone app to employees for a one-year period.

The app used in this study is similar to others that offer mindfulness information and are growing in popularity. Research is ongoing and the full potential and effectiveness of this new technology are just coming to light. The need to find easily accessible resources is apparent with the two and a half million people who have downloaded the Headspace smartphone meditation app (Wang, 2015). Mindfulness apps can be viewed as a self-help tool to help one grow in their understanding and participation in the practice of mindfulness, which supports overall wellbeing.

My hope is the findings of this study will add to the body of research for leaders who are carefully contemplating the value of their employees and wish to provide a resource to them to lower stress and increase awareness. However, a word of caution when interpreting the frequency and duration of app usage in this study. Even though usage increased after the initial

PD training, one must keep in mind that as participants became familiar with mindfulness, the need for instruction from the app would not be as important as in the beginning. Many seasoned meditators do not use guided mindfulness recordings or interventions. However, to get started and establish a practice, a mindfulness app could be the venue to help individuals get motivated.

Therefore, leaders could offer a brief membership to an app with the belief that individuals would learn how to incorporate mindfulness into their daily lives within that time frame.

Rebedew (2018) evaluated apps for his patients and recommended the top five, 10% Happier was one of his five choices. His purpose was to find apps that could assist his patients in learning how to practice mindfulness minus the expense and travel (Rebedew, 2018). Offering mindfulness training without face-to-face instruction can reduce costs, increase accessibility, and be more flexible for the participants (Fish, Brimson, & Lynch, 2016). Many employees do not take advantage of wellness programs provided by their institutions (American Psychological

Association, 2016; Winefield, et al., 2002). This study addressed that issue by offering an initial training in an attempt to educate employees on the importance of participating in self-help exercises such as mindfulness meditation.

The intervention of professional development (PD) training was associated with increased use of the 10% Happier phone application. As a result, Group APP reported an increased level of mindfulness and reduced stress. Questions are raised in regard to the importance of ongoing support and the impact it could add to the success of a program that uses a phone app as its main training resource. This research purposely offered a one-time initial training without any additional instructions, support, assignments, or encouragement. After the one-time session, all advisors were given access to the app to use as little or as much as they wanted. Only 20 of the 33 advisors actually accessed the mindfulness app over the one-year period. Even though only those in Group APP experienced significant changes in their level of stress and mindfulness, both groups reported an increase in applying mindfulness to their stress management strategies at the conclusion of the study. In addition, 85% of advisors either agreed or strongly agreed that practicing mindfulness was beneficial to their self-care and wellbeing.

A strength to this study was using a natural sample of participants who work in real- world conditions, supported by a study by Brewer and Crano (2000), as it maximized the ecological validity of the research. The outcomes are useful and important for those in leadership with the responsibility of offering workplace wellness programming to their employees. Finally, the finding of this study is supported by other studies that indicate positive results are possible from following short mindfulness exercises on a mindfulness smartphone app (Mahmood,

Hopthrow, & Randsley de Moura, 2016). If leaders are apprehensive about implementing mindfulness training for employees, this study can serve as another piece of evidence that suggests with initial training and use of a scientifically evaluated mindfulness app, a mindfulness workplace wellness program is possible to lower stress and increase mindfulness.

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APPENDIX A. MINDFULNESS ATTENTION AWARENESS SCALE

Instructions: Below is a collection of statements about your everyday experience. Using the 1-6 scale below, please indicate how frequently or infrequently you currently have each experience. Please answer according to what really reflects your experience rather than what you think your experience should be. Please treat each item separately from every other item.

1 2 3 4 5 6 Almost Very Somewhat Somewhat Very Almost Always Frequently Frequently Infrequently Infrequently Never

I could be experiencing some emotion and not be conscious of it until some time later. 1 2 3 4 5 6

I break or spill things because of carelessness, not paying attention, or thinking of something else. 1 2 3 4 5 6

I find it difficult to stay focused on what’s happening in the present. 1 2 3 4 5 6

I tend to walk quickly to get where I’m going without paying attention to what I experience along the way. 1 2 3 4 5 6

I tend not to notice feelings of physical tension or discomfort until they really grab my attention. 1 2 3 4 5 6

I forget a person’s name almost as soon as I’ve been told it for the first time. 1 2 3 4 5 6

It seems I am “running on automatic,” without much awareness of what I’m doing. 1 2 3 4 5 6

I rush through activities without being really attentive to them. 1 2 3 4 5 6

I get so focused on the goal I want to achieve that I lose touch with what I’m doing right now to get there. 1 2 3 4 5 6

I do jobs or tasks automatically, without being aware of what I'm doing. 1 2 3 4 5 6

I find myself listening to someone with one ear, doing something else at the same time. 1 2 3 4 5 6

1 2 3 4 5 6 Almost Very Somewhat Somewhat Very Almost Always Frequently Frequently Infrequently Infrequently Never

I drive places on ‘automatic pilot’ and then wonder why I went there. 1 2 3 4 5 6

I find myself preoccupied with the future or the past. 1 2 3 4 5 6

I find myself doing things without paying attention. 1 2 3 4 5 6

I snack without being aware that I’m eating. 1 2 3 4 5 6

Brown, K.W. & Ryan, R. M. (2003). The benefits of being present. Mindfulness and its role in psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 822-848

APPENDIX B. PERCEIVED STRESS SCALES

4-Item

Instructions: The questions in this scale ask you about your feelings and thoughts during the last month. In each case, please indicate with a check how often you felt or thought a certain way.

1. In the last month, how often have you felt that you were unable to control the important things in your life? ___0=never ___1=almost never ___2=sometimes ___3=fairly often ___4=very often 2. In the last month, how often have you felt confident about your ability to handle your personal problems? ___0=never ___1=almost never ___2=sometimes ___3=fairly often ___4=very often 3. In the last month, how often have you felt that things were going your way? ___0=never ___1=almost never ___2=sometimes ___3=fairly often ___4=very often 4. In the last month, how often have you felt difficulties were piling up so high that you could not overcome them? ___0=never ___1=almost never ___2=sometimes ___3=fairly often ___4=very often

10-Item

1. In the last month, how often have you been upset because of something that happened unexpectedly? ___0=never ___1=almost never ___2=sometimes ___3=fairly often ___4=very often 2. In the last month, how often have you felt that you were unable to control the important things in your life? ___0=never ___1=almost never ___2=sometimes ___3=fairly often ___4=very often 3. In the last month, how often have you felt nervous and “stressed”? ___0=never ___1=almost never ___2=sometimes ___3=fairly often ___4=very often 4. In the last month, how often have you felt confident about your ability to handle your personal problems?

___0=never ___1=almost never ___2=sometimes ___3=fairly often ___4=very often 5. In the last month, how often have you felt that you were going your way? ___0=never ___1=almost never ___2=sometimes ___3=fairly often ___4=very often 6. In the last month, how often have you found that you could not cope with all the things that you had to do? ___0=never ___1=almost never ___2=sometimes ___3=fairly often ___4=very often 7. In the last month, how often have you been able to control irritations in your life? ___0=never ___1=almost never ___2=sometimes ___3=fairly often ___4=very often 8. In the last month, how often have you felt that you were on top of things? ___0=never ___1=almost never ___2=sometimes ___3=fairly often ___4=very often 9. In the last month, how often have you been angered because of things that were outside of your control? ___0=never ___1=almost never ___2=sometimes ___3=fairly often ___4=very often 10. In the last month, how often have you felt difficulties were piling up so high that you could not overcome them? ___0=never ___1=almost never ___2=sometimes ___3=fairly often ___4=very often

Scoring for the Perceived Stress Scale 4: Questions 1 and 4 Questions 2 and 3 0 = Never 4 = Never 1 = Almost Never 3 = Almost Never 2 = Sometimes 2 = Sometimes 3 = Fairly Often 1 = Fairly Often 4 = Very Often 0 = Very Often

Calculated the mean. Lowest score: 0 Highest score: 4 Higher scores are correlated to more stress. Cohen, S., Kamarck, T., & Mermelstein, R. (1983). A global measure of perceived stress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 24, 385-396.

APPENDIX C. CONSENT LETTER

This research is being conducted by Deborah Hendricks, a student at Bowling Green State

University. You are invited to participate in this study because you are a full-time academic

advisor at Bowling Green State University. This program has been approved by the

Assistant Vice Provost of Academic Affairs and participation will count towards

professional development. The purpose of the research project is to determine if a onetime

mindfulness training and the use of a phone app have a positive impact on academic

advisor’s level of stress and mindfulness. This form will provide additional information such

as risks, benefits, and what will be asked of you. I ask that you read this form carefully and

contact me for clarification with any question you may have. If you wish to participate, you

will need to indicate your agreement by checking the “I agree” statement at the bottom of this page.

Procedures:

As part of this study, you may participate in a one time, in-person mindfulness training session, and you will receive access to a free mindfulness phone app either immediately after the training or one month later, depending on the group to which you are assigned. You are free to use the app as little or as much as you want during the duration of the one-year study. You will be asked to complete a brief survey, four separate times throughout the semester: pre-training, 30 days, 60 days, and one year after training.

Potential Risks and Discomforts:

By participating in this research study, you may experience uncomfortable feelings when thinking about your present moment which can include: unpleasant emotions, reactions to emotions, and other daily stressors. If these feelings arise, additional

support can be accessed by contacting the BGSU Counseling Center at 419-372-

2081 or Behavioral Connections at 419-352-5387.

Potential Benefits:

All participants will receive full access and membership fees waived for the 10%

Happier app for one year. You will also be helping the field of academic advising by

adding to the growing research of mindfulness and the benefits is can add to the

advising community.

Confidentiality:

Your identity will remain confidential throughout and after the study is complete. All

information downloaded from Qualtrics will be password-protected and encrypted.

Only the researchers will have access to any identifiable information. Results of the

study will only be released as summaries of aggregate data. Please be sure to clear

your internet browser and page history after completing each survey.

Right to Withdraw and Questions:

Participation in this study is completely voluntary. You can choose to not participate. If

you wish to be a part of this study, you may discontinue participating at any time

without consequence or penalty. You are free to skip any questions in the surveys

you do not feel comfortable answering or stop answering by closing the browser.

Choosing to participate or not will not affect your relationship with Bowling Green

State University.

Participant Rights and Study Contacts:

Please contact Deborah Hendricks, primary researcher with questions or comments at

419-372-9120 or [email protected] and her faculty advisor, Matthew Lavery at 419-

372-7274 or [email protected].

IRB contact about your rights in the study or to report a complaint:

Research at Bowling Green State University involving human participants is carried out under the oversight of The Institutional Review Board (IRB). This research has been reviewed and approved by the IRB. If you have any questions about your rights as a participant in this research, you can contact The Institutional Review Board at

Bowling Green State University at 419-372-7716 or [email protected]

By clicking "Yes" below, you indicate that you have read and understand the statement of research above, and that you consent to participate in this research study.

Do you consent to participate in this study?

YES BGSU IRB - APPROVED FOR USE IRBNet ID # _ 1089342__ EFFECTIVE ___7/14/2017_ EXPIRES ___06/29/2018_

APPENDIX D. QUALITATIVE QUESTIONS

Q1. What types of stress management strategies did you use prior to the start of this study?

Q2. What types of stress management strategies do you currently use (instead of or in addition to mindfulness practice)?

Q3. What helped or hindered your ongoing mindfulness practice this past year?

Q4. Why did you choose to attend or not attend the professional training session last year?

Q5. What helped or hindered your use of the 10% Happier app this past year?

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APPENDIX E. TABLES

Table 1

Number and Percent of Participants by Demographic Category in Each Group Group PD Group NOPD Total Sample Demographic Group n (%) n (%) n (%) Total Group 18 (55%) 15 (45%) 33 (100%) Gender Female 15 (45%) 11 (33%) 26 (79%) Male 3 (09%) 4 (12%) 7 (21%) Age (in Years) 18-24 2 (06%) 3 (09%) 5 (15%) 25-34 5 (15%) 6 (18%) 11 (33%) 35-44 5 (15%) 3 (09%) 8 (25%) 45-54 5 (15%) 1 (03%) 6 (18%) 55-64 1 (03%) 2 (06%) 3 (09%) Ethnicity Hispanic 0 (00%) 1 (03%) 1 (03%) White, non-Hispanic 18 (54%) 13 (39%) 31 (94%) Other (multiracial or not 0 (00%) 1 (03%) 1 (03%) listed) Highest Degree Earned Bachelor’s 2 (06%) 3 (09%) 5 (15%) Master’s 16 (48%) 10 (30%) 26 (79%) Doctorate 0 (0%) 2 (06%) 2 (06%) Note: Group PD consists of participants who attended the training. Group NOPD consists of participants who did not attend training. Percentages reported on the Total Group row are the percent of the total sample (i.e., n/33). All other percentages represent the percent of the group members in each demographic category. Percentages may sum to greater than 100% within sets of demographic groups due to rounding. All demographics are self-reported. For ethnicity, participants chose from the following options: American Indian or Alaskan Native, Asian, Black, non-Hispanic or African American, Hispanic, Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander, White, non-Hispanic, or Other (multiracial or not listed). Ethnicities not displayed in the table were not selected by any participants.

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Table 2

Number and Percent of Participants by Demographic Category in Each Group

Group APP Group NOAPP Total Sample Demographic Group n (%) n (%) n (% )

Total Group 20 (61%) 13 (39%) 33 (100%) Gender Female 16 (48%) 10 (30%) 26 (80%) Male 4 (12%) 3 (09%) 7 (21%) Age (in Years) 18-24 5 (15%) 7 (21%) 5 (15%) 25-34 4 (12%) 3 (09%) 11 (33%) 35-44 6 (18%) 2 (06%) 9 (27%) 45-54 3 (09%) 1 (03%) 5 (15%) 55-64 2 (06%) 0 (00%) 3 (09%) Ethnicity Hispanic 0 (0%) 1 (03%) 1 (03%) White, non-Hispanic 19 (58%) 12 (36%) 31 (94%) Other (multiracial or not 1 (03%) 0 (00%) 1 (03%) listed) Highest Degree Earned Bachelor’s 5 (15%) 1 (03%) 6 (18%) Master’s 14 (42%) 11 (33%) 25 (76%) Doctorate 1 (00%) 1 (03%) 2 (06%) Note: Group App consists of participants who accessed the 10% Happier mobile app. Group No App consists of participants who did not access the mobile app. Percentages reported on the Total Group row are the percent of the total sample (i.e., n/33). All other percentages represent the percent of the group members in each demographic category. Percentages may sum to greater than 100% within sets of demographic groups due to rounding. All demographics are self-reported. For ethnicity, participants chose from the following options: American Indian or Alaskan Native, Asian, Black, non-Hispanic or African American, Hispanic, Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander, White, non-Hispanic, or Other (multiracial or not listed). Ethnicities not displayed in the table were not selected by any participants.

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Table 3

Differences in Frequency and Minutes of App Use by Group Median Value Group Group PD NOPD (n = 11) (n = 9) U z p r Frequency 11 3 6 3.3 .001 -0.74 Minutes 344 11 10 3.0 .003 -0.67 Note: Group PD-A are the participants who attended PD and used the app. Group NPD-A consists of participants who did not attend PD and used the app.

Table 4

Differences in Reported Mindfulness and Levels of Stress before and after Treatment by Group

Before After Cohen’s Group M SD M SD df t p d MAAS Group APP 3.09 0.73 3.63 1.01 19 3.11 .006* 0.61 Group NOAPP 3.89 0.64 3.98 0.66 12 0.64 .534 0.14 PSS Group APP 2.20 0.77 2.00 0.79 19 -2.61 .017* 0.46 Group NOAPP 1.62 0.55 1.64 0.56 12 0.10 .919 0.04 Note: Paired Samples t-test were conducted on MAAS = Mindfulness Attention and Awareness Scale and PSS = Perceived Stress Scale. Group APP consists of participants who used the 10% Happier mobile app. Group NOAPP consists of participants who did not use the app. * p < .05.

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Table 5

Differences in Levels of Mindfulness and Stress by Group

Group 95% CI for Group APP NOAPP Mean (n = 20) (n = 13) Difference Pre-Test M SD M SD t df MAAS 3.09 0.73 3.88 0.64 0.29, 1.30 3.21* 31 PSS 2.20 0.77 1.62 0.55 -1.09, -0.83 -2.37* 31

Post-Test MAAS 3.63 1.01 3.98 .066 -0.30, 0.99 1.11 31 PSS 2.00 0.79 1.64 0.56 -0.88, 0.15 -1.44 31 Note: Independent Samples t-test we conducted on MAAS = Mindfulness Attention and Awareness Scale and PSS = Perceived Stress Scale. Group APP includes the participants who used the app. Group NOAPP consists of participants who did not use the app. * p < .05.