Agricultural Missions

Adopt-a-People. It is difficult to sustain a mis- cated and wild species), provision of creative em- sion focus on the billions of people in the world ployment for people, sustenance of strategic or even on the multitudes of languages and cul- stocks of food against poor harvests, and the in- tures in a given country. Adopt-a-people is a mis- tegration with other uses of land for human wel- sion mobilization strategy that helps Christians fare. get connected with a specific group of people Aims of Agricultural Mission. Agricultural who are in spiritual need. It focuses on the goal missionary work aims to present the good news of discipling a particular people group (see Peo- of Jesus Christ in rural areas so that this gospel ples, People Groups), and sees the sending of transforms not only individuals and their social missionaries as one of the important means to relationships, but also the way they farm. In fulfill that goal. short, agricultural missions seek to promote liv- Adopt-a-people was conceptualized to help ing and farming to the glory of God. In effect, congregations focus on a specific aspect of the God has provided two means of conveying how Great Commission. It facilitates the visualization this should be done—creation and the Bible— of the real needs of other people groups, enables which are perceived through the senses and con- the realization of tangible accomplishments, de- science, and which require the motivation of the velops and sustains involvement, and encourages Holy Spirit to enable us to farm accordingly. The more meaningful and focused prayer. A people creation mandate given to humankind is ex- group focus helps Christians to maintain an em- pressed in Genesis 1:26–31, notably the assign- phasis on the goal of reaching a people group ment of “dominion” (meaning in Hebrew, “com- and then discipling Christians from within that plete authority”) and the subsequent description people. Churches in the people group are also of plants “pleasant to the eyes and good for food” helped to evangelize their own people and even- (Gen. 2:8). Wisdom and discernment are needed tually to send out their own missionaries. to pursue a course of development that is not Adopt-a-people does not mean that a church only economic, but also social, and which ad- or mission organization is adopting a group into dresses the whole person, body, mind, and spirit. their own organization or that no other churches The right pursuit of agriculture, specific to or groups can work with that particular people. each locality, has a crucial part to play in manag- Rather, the goal of adopt-a-people is to be used ing change and increasing well-being of the local by God to see a people adopted into his heavenly people. The local principle is extremely import- family. Thus, the implementation of the adopt-a- ant: experience is the treasure of years, and gen- people concept requires maintaining a commit- erations of local farmers have accumulated ment until the Great Commission is fulfilled in much wealth of this kind. It is the task of the ag- the targeted group. In pragmatic terms, the min- ricultural missionary to learn, respect, and oper- imal involvement for a church (or fellowship) ate within this fund of local experience, knowl- using the adopt-a-people idea is to provide in- edge, and wisdom, introducing new ideas from formed, dedicated prayer for the targeted people elsewhere only if technically, economically, and group. Other levels of involvement range from socioculturally appropriate. It may also be the logistical or research help to financial support to missionary’s task to help people discern local be- short-term projects among the targeted people liefs and practices that may run counter to the group and even the commissioning and support will and purposes of God. While some non-Chris- of long-term missionaries from the adopting or- tian beliefs may leave people in undeveloped ganization. bon­dage, uncontrolled materialism leads to over- Terry J. Riley exploitation of land, plants, animals, and people. Agricultural missionaries need not only technical Bibliography. IJFM 12:1 (January–March 1995). agricultural competence and wholistic biblical understanding, but also humility to learn from Agricultural Missions. Agriculture is the main local farmers and cultural sensitivity to facilitate means of livelihood for 65 percent to 90 percent beneficial changes. of the population in most African, Asian, and Activities. Agricultural missions comprise a Latin American countries. Even for industrial- wide variety of activities. In Latin America mis- ized countries such as the United Kingdom, sions have developed demonstration farms man- where farmers represent less than 2 percent of aged at orphanages, and engage in land right the workforce, agricultural mission is vitally work for justice and reconciliation. In many needed. countries of Africa, farmers’ savings clubs and co- The practice of agriculture involves caring operatives assist farmers financially and help management or stewardship of land and natural train leadership. Services are also operated to en- resources in order to satisfy several objectives, able farmers to combine responsible Christian including food production, maintenance of the principles in their farming practice. Additionally, environment (e.g., the soil and habitat), conser- rural development counseling is provided by vation of genetic resources (of both domesti- RURCON (Rural Development Counselors for 1 Attrition

Christian Churches in Africa). In Europe, the heart, inability to sustain cross-cultural ministry, “Farm Crisis Network” was set up to help stressed or death on the field. European farmers, and the Christian Farmers’ Facing the contemporary attrition challenges, Association was established for united action. In the World Evangelical Fellowship Missions North America, agricultural communities run by Commission carried out during 1995–97 a Christians have been established, some of which 14-nation­ study of attrition in 6 Old Sending are designed to provide a place where the needy Countries (OSC) and 8 New Sending Countries such as ex-convicts can rehabilitate and develop (NSC). This study generated significant data on marketable work skills. In countries in Asia, attrition in 454 agencies (and some mission-send- tree-planting services and alternative farming ing churches) with some 23,000 long-term mis- schemes have been established. Around the sionaries (one-sixth of the global missionary world, teaching agriculture in schools, colleges, force, according to Patrick Johnstone). In terms and universities provides the opportunity to de- of the global long-term missions force, one mis- velop appropriate agricultural techniques. sionary in twenty (5.l% of the mission force) Summary. In addition to the development of leaves the field yearly. Of these, 71% depart for appropriate agricultural techniques and land preventable reasons. In other words, if we estab- stewardship, agricultural missions involve at lish a global missionary force of 140,000, 5.1% least three critical thrusts. The first is contextual overall annual attrition would be 7,140 people, evangelism, communicating the gospel to and and 71% of that figure suggests that 5,070 mis- through people who live and work in an agricul- sionaries are returning home for what is called tural context. The second is church growth, seek- “preventable attrition.” ing to help improve and manage agricultural de- There are at least four perspectives regarding velopment as part of the life and witness of local the causes of any specific case of attrition: (1) churches. Finally is pastoral care, which includes the reasons agency and church leaders believe ministry to those engaged in agriculture, and/or they have heard and understood; (2) the re- agricultural ethics and assisting the application corded reasons in agency files; (3) the reasons of biblical principles to farm practice and agri- missionaries hold in private or may share with cultural policy formulation. closest friends; and (4) the reasons one can live John Wibberley with in public knowledge. The true human pic- Bibliography. S. Higginbottom, The Gospel and the ture is always complex and no single perspective Plow, Or, the Old Gospel and Modern Farming in An- will be totally accurate. cient India; B. H. Hunnicutt and W. W. Reid, The Story Recent studies suggest that preventable attri- of Agricultural Missions; I. W. Moomaw, Deep Furrows: tion may be reduced by more and/or better Goals, Methods and Results of Those Who Work Toward (a) initial screening and selection procedures, a Brighter Tomorrow. (b) appropriate pre-field equipping/training for the task, and/or (c) field-based strategizing, shep- Attrition. Departure from field service by mis- herding, and supervising. Inadequate attention sionaries, regardless of the cause. There are two in any of these areas may result in unwanted at- general categories. Unpreventable attrition (un- trition or, worse, the case of missionaries who derstandable or acceptable) includes retirement, should go home, for their own good and the completion of a contract, medical leave, or a le- good of the ministry, but do not. gitimate call to another place or ministry. Pre- Reducing attrition engages seven strategic ventable attrition occurs “when missionaries, missions stakeholders: missionaries (current, because of mismanagement, unrealistic expec­ previous, future); missions mobilizers (the tations, systemic abuse, personal failure, or prime motivators); church leaders (pastors and other personal reasons, leave the field before the committees); missionary trainers (regardless of mission or church feels that they should. In so type, size, or level of equipping program); mis- doing, missionaries may reflect negatively on sion sending bodies (churches and agencies); themselves, but of greater concern is the nega- national receiving churches (where they exist); tive impact on the specific mission structure and member care providers (pastors, medical and the cause of world missions” (Taylor, 1997, and mental health personnel). While attrition 18). cannot be totally eliminated, it can be signifi- Attrition has been a critical issue facing the cantly ­diminished. church through its history. In the New Testa- William David Taylor ment, Stephen is martyred, John Mark abandons the apostolic team but is later restored to minis- Bibliography. W. D. Taylor, Too Valuable to Lose: Ex- try through Barnabas, and Demas apparently ploring the Causes and Cures of Missionary Attrition. leaves for good without known restoration. Throughout mission history, attrition has been Bible Translation. The primary objective of evident, reflecting the high cost of “sending mis- Bible translation is to make God’s Word available sion,” whether through sickness, change of to all the people of the world in the language 2 Bible Translation they know best—their mother tongue. Transla- both numbers and maturity during the last half tion has been central to communicating God’s of the twentieth century. In 1950, the entire Bible Word from the beginning of time. was available in 105 languages and the New Tes- Translation Throughout History. In the be- tament in 229. The decade of the 1960s saw the ginning God spoke, and what he said was mani- number of languages in which the whole Bible fest in the creation—the first translation (Gen. 1; was available more than double, while the de- Rom. 1). Throughout the ages, whenever God cades of the 1970s and 1980s saw a steady 50 interacted with human beings, he used their lan- percent increase in the number of languages into guage within a particular cultural context. When which the New Testament had been translated. that language was not adequate for communica- By 1995 the numbers had grown to 349 and 841 tion, the Word was translated so it would have respectively, with at least one book of the Bible maximum impact (Ezra, Nehemiah, and Acts 2). available in 2,092 different languages. In the Greek-speaking world of the intertesta- mental period it became evident that the Hebrew The Growing Number of Languages with Torah was not understood by the Jews of the Di- Complete Translations aspora (nor by the Romans and barbarians), so The Entire The New the Septuagint (LXX) came into being. The ne- Year Bible Testament cessity of understanding what God had to say was most evident in the Holy Spirit’s enabling 1950 105 229 the apostles to declare the wonders of God in the 1960 123 260 languages of those who heard (Acts 2:11). Fur- 1970 249 329 thermore, the apostle Paul and the other New 1980 275 495 Testament writers used the language of the day 1990 318 726 not only to communicate their message to their 1995 349 841 particular audiences, but also to clarify Old Tes- tament passages. The availability of the Scriptures has enabled In the first four hundred years of Christianity, people to build the church on the foundation of translations of the Scriptures into Syriac, Cop- God’s Word, to apply it to their own theological tic, Gothic, and Latin contributed to reaching development, and to guard against heresy in the peoples of the Near East, Egypt, northern their particular context. While not a tool kit for Europe, and the Roman Empire respectively. church growth, vernacular translation does help More recently, the impact of the Reformation to create an environment for church growth. can be traced in part to the availability of Scrip- Never before in the history of humankind have ture in the languages of the people (Old En- people had the freedom to search the Scriptures glish, German, French, and Italian). The con- for themselves in their own language. A vernacu- cept of the translatability of Scripture is central lar Scripture provides nurture and witness that to understanding biblical history as well as impacts the way people live—it is a tool for con- modern missions. version and relevant Christian living, not a colo- At the turn of the nineteenth century, William nial formula for coercion. Carey was instrumental in the translation of The Impact of Linguistics and Anthropology. Scripture into many of the languages of India. De- During this same period, the science of Linguis- spite incredible odds, Robert Morrison was able tics and the work of anthropologists brought in sixteen years to translate the entire Bible into new insight to the translation effort. Eugene Ni- Chinese. Bible societies were formed at the begin- da’s landmark work Toward a Science of Transla- ning of the nineteenth century to provide funds tion (1964) paved the way for the development of for the printing of vernacular Scriptures. Their translation as an academic discipline in its own work continued in the twentieth century under right. New understandings of Communication the Wycliffe Bible Translators, an organization theory and its applicability to translation theory that has been central to the story of mission ex- became evident. And just as translations must pansion to unreached peoples through­out the “talk right” to be understood, translators came to world. In short, translation has been part of God’s realize that the people whose lives are presented communication to human beings from the time in the translations must also “act right.” There- of creation. God wants all people (whom he cre- fore, studies of the social context and cultural ated) to know what he says and to understand his activity are important to translators as they seek Word within their particular context, wherever to communicate in a particular language and and whenever that may be (see Translation The- culture. Studies indicate that the inferences peo- ory). ple make about what is being said come out of Translation as Mission Strategy. Bible trans- their cultural expectations. Unless they are told lation as a mission strategy greatly impacted otherwise, these basic assumptions constrain evangelization, church planting, and growth in them to associate the meaning of a text with the 3 Bible Translation behavioral forms therein, thereby biasing their benefit the entire Christian and non-Christian understanding of what God intended. community. The basic problem in translation throughout The Impact of Translation. With national in- the colonial period was that well-intentioned dependence, a political phenomenon throughout missionaries brought their own theological and the world in the latter half of the twentieth cen- cultural biases to the interpretation of Scripture. tury, has come a growing sense of religious inde- Often they inadvertently passed on their misun- pendence. Rather than do things the way the co- derstanding of the original linguistic and cul- lonialists did, people increasingly desire to tural setting. This resulted in a clash of world- express themselves in ways appropriate to their views between the contexts of the Bible, the own values and beliefs. As they read Scripture in translator, and those who received the transla- the major languages of the world, or a regional tion. In this way people came to understand God trade language, they may come to think of God from the perspective of the missionary-transla- as foreign to their vernacular context. However, tor—and Scripture, for them, was often foreign. when God’s communication to human beings is Ironically, the majority of people around the couched in their own language and culture, its world understand the cultural contexts in the power and authority come to them directly. Bible much better than do Western missionaries. Desmond Tutu maintains that the Bible is a Their kinship and social structures, as well as revolutionary text because it helps people under- economic, political, and religious concerns, are stand that God created all human beings for rela- much more similar to the biblical context than to tionship with him and with each other. The Bible the context of translators impacted by the En- empowers the powerless and forces the powerful lightenment. The growing awareness of the im- to recognize their own weakness before God. portance of both language and culture raises the Such knowledge enables people to exercise per- questions of who should be translators and what sonal freedom while at the same time recogniz- is the role of consultants in this process. There ing the plurality of contexts in which God inter- has been a rising interest in training national acts—with all peoples. Hence vernacular translators. Scripture provides people with spiritual under- Translation Training. People with expertise in standing and encourages harmony. It promotes a their own cultural context are asking to be in- celebration of differences rather than a focus on volved in the translation process. For too long, difference—unity in plurality, not division based translations have been viewed as the end product on contrast (Gal. 3:28–29). Thus no people group of a highly technical process that can be mastered can be truly independent, but needs to recognize only by linguistically and theologically trained ex- its interdependence with others, even as they ex- perts. This perspective is changing to a focus on press mutual dependence on God. Through trans- translation as being the responsibility of the lated Scripture people are able to develop an church and an ongoing work in the process—a awareness of God and understand their relation- part of over four thousand years of biblical his- ship to him. Because of the Word they are able to tory. establish their own Christian priorities and re- With the increase in education, self-awareness, sponsibility for nurture, growth, and witness. No and sophistication, nationals want to be involved longer bound by what others say, they can de- in the translation process to ensure local aware- velop their own theology and apply it to daily liv- ness of what God in fact said. On the other hand, ing. the exegetical and linguistic skills necessary for Inasmuch as God speaks every language re- understanding what God said in the original gardless of the number of its native speakers, we texts and contexts are not quickly learned and must apply God’s message to each language and passed on. Accordingly, there is an increasing culture. Translators must utilize the entire as- emphasis on making translation a team enter- semblage of communication style and genres prise implemented from within the church. The necessary for people to appreciate God’s message Bible societies have long encouraged utilizing to them. This suggests that translation must go national translators, while missionaries super- far beyond the print media utilized by transla- vise the projects and international consultants tors from the West and employ a multiplicity of ensure the exegetical faithfulness of the transla- media (audio, video, drama, mime, etc.) with a tion. Wycliffe and other translation-oriented or- plurality of formats (stories, comedy, art, musi- ganizations are developing aids that will facili- cal presentations and dance) recognized and tate the understanding of source texts. Programs used by the people of the society. External ex- are being designed to train nationals to translate perts must combine their skills with internal ex- into their own languages or into another lan- perts to produce a translation that effectively guage spoken in their country. This provides op- communicates to a particular community. To portunity for all segments of the church to con- this end translation organizations have estab- tribute to the process and to collaborate to lished an international consortium with the ex- 4 Burnout press purpose of training translators and making areas where formal models of theological educa- God’s Word available to every people group. tion were disallowed or restricted by govern- Once a translation is available, it takes on in- ments hostile to the growth and spread of the carnational identity within the target commu- Christian church. Joseph Dillow was appointed nity. God’s truth and the truth of the culture in- general director and Al Bridges as managing di- teract to establish Christian truth for that rector. Fred Holland and Lois McKinney served particular context. Vernacular Scripture both af- as educational advisors. firms local behavior and traditions and critiques In 1989 the name BEE was changed to BEE other behaviors and practices with which God International to expand the BEE ministry to would not be pleased in any human context. It other countries. In 1996 BEE International be- also critiques cultural practices that the people came Church Leadership International with a themselves often recognize as going against their focus exclusively on the former Soviet Union and cultural conscience (Rom. 2:14–16). Jesus af- Eastern Europe. firmed that he came to give abundant life (John BEE World was launched by Jody Dillow to 10:10), which is possible only as people live up to extend the original BEE ministry to China, Viet- their own cultural expectations. Further, trans- nam, Korea, the United States, and eventually, lated Scripture provides authority for Christian worldwide. doctrine and the development of theology within Following Theological Education by Exten- the church and the community. It also becomes sion (TEE) methodology, programmed instruc- the standard for both determining appropriate tion textbooks and workbooks were prepared discipline and avoiding heresy. over the seventeen courses that comprised the God’s Word, available in the cultures and lan- curriculum. Biblical subjects, evangelism, some guages of the world, has resulted in changed life- methods courses, and study of the church styles and new allegiance to him who created, formed the core. Western philosophical and his- loves, sustains, and speaks to all human beings. torical understandings were purposefully re- This provides the basis for that wonderful scene placed with culturally sensitive and contextual- described by the apostle John: “a great multitude ized forms acceptable in the “closed” countries that no one could count, from every nation, of the world. tribe, people and language, standing before the BEE was interdenominational from the begin- throne and in front of the Lamb . . . And they ning. Students from a number of constituencies cried out in a loud voice: ‘salvation belongs to were invited to participate in the classes—lay- our God who sits on the throne and to the lamb’” pastors, teachers, elders, deacons, layleaders, (Rev. 7:9–10). It takes the multiplicity of views and university students. Instruction was offered expressed in all the languages of the world to ad- at the university level. Program graduates re- equately give honor and praise to God. To that ceived a diploma roughly comparable to a Mas- end may we diligently seek to make the sparks of ter of Arts in Biblical Studies. divine truth known to the nations through the Terry Read availability of translated Scripture. Through the Word made known, through creation, church Burnout. The state of emotional, physical, and/ history, and the application of cultural, exegeti- or spiritual exhaustion that makes the missionary cal and linguistic tools, people can grasp the sig- unable to carry out his or her work. While it is nificance of God in their midst and use that un- not normally terminal in life-and-death terms, it derstanding to build his body, the church. is often fatal to missionary effectiveness. R. Daniel Shaw Potential causes of burnout are many, but overwork, undersupport, and prolonged expo- Bibliography. K. Barnwell, Introduction to Seman- sure to the pressures of living and working cross-­ tics and Translation; J. Beekman, J. J. Callow, and culturally are three of the most important. M. Kopesec, The Semantic Structure of Written Com- munication; D. S. Gilliland, The Word among Us: Con- Learning the language and becoming bicultural textualizing Theology for Mission Today; M. L. Larson, can be particularly stressful to newcomers; living Meaning-Based Translation; P. Newmark, Approaches to in the public view, facing unfulfilled expecta- Translation; E. A. Nida, Toward a Science of Translation; tions, and issues of self-esteem may be more im- L. Sanneh, Translating the Message; R. D. Shaw, Trans­ portant burnout issues for longer-term veterans. culturation; idem, Notes on Translation 8 (1994): 44–50; Unfortunately, all these challenges are often E. R. Wendland, The Cultural Factor in Bible Transla- compounded by a lack of pastoral care or by tion; R. Winter, Reaching the Unreached, pp. 17–44. mission administrators insensitive to the psycho- logical pressures their missionaries face. Reli- Biblical Education by Extension. Biblical Edu- able figures are hard to come by, but some esti- cation by Extension (BEE) was organized in mate that between 20 percent and 50 percent of 1979 in Vienna, Austria, by a number of mission new missionaries fail to return for a second organizations in Eastern Europe with the pur- term. This attrition is seldom the result of theo- pose of training church leaders in geographical logical difficulties or problems in communicat- 5 Candidate Selection ing the gospel. It is almost always attributable, at marks would include a sense of God’s call to least in part, to an inability to adapt to the kinds ministry and staying power, a firm grasp of of issues that lead to burnout. Scripture, and appropriate ministry skills. Other Increasingly, mission agencies are seeking minimal qualifications may include flexibility ways to address the causes of burnout before and empathetic contextual skills, servant-leader- they occur. Training seminars, mentoring pro- ship and­followership, and moral purity. grams, team-building efforts, pastoral care min- The use of multiple assessment tools can pro- istries, and more flexible schedules have all vide the selectors and the candidate with a com- proven helpful. But the rigors of missionary life, prehensive evaluation. Many agencies use per- particularly among some of the least reached sonal interviews, doctrinal statements, letters of peoples of the world, are still significant. And the reference, and psychological testing. Some re- limitations of human and material resources quire additional participation in simulation exer- available to the worldwide missionary enterprise cises or supervised ministry experience. Multiple would seem to suggest that the issue of burnout assessment tools, when tied to specific future will not soon pass from the scene. ministry tasks, can provide all parties with a Gary R. Corwin comprehensive evaluation. Bibliography. M. F. Foyle, Overcoming Missionary Attrition (premature departures) carries a Stress; M. Jones, Psychology of Missionary Adjustment; heavy price tag: lost ministry opportunities, lost K. O’Donnell, ed., Missionary Care: Counting the Cost finances, family stress, and friction between in- for World Evangelization; E. Schubert, What Missionar- stitutions. While justifiable reasons for attrition ies Need to Know about Burnout and Depression. exist (such as marriage, failing health, retire- ment, and care of parents), unjustifiable rea- Candidate Selection. Statisticians estimate that sons also exist (such as peer conflict, moral there are over 144,000 missionaries worldwide problems, and adjustment and training issues). and that this number of cross-cultural Christian It therefore becomes incumbent on each agency workers will continue to grow. They note that leader in every country to track and investigate this burgeoning missionary force will come in- the accuracy of the reasons given for attrition. creasingly from non-Western countries. Such research, when not inhibited by pride on Principles of candidate selection for ministry the part of agency leadership or the involved can be found in both the Old and New Testa- Christian worker, will assist selectors in the nec- ments. Jethro advised Moses to select capable essary adjustments of the selection and fol- men who met certain qualifications to serve as low-up procedures. judges (Exod. 18:21). Those selected to work on Those involved as candidate selectors should the tabernacle had to possess certain skills and represent the institutions who will provide the abilities (Exod. 35:10, 30–35). The same was true candidate future support in some manner. These for replacement of an apostle (Acts 1:21–22) or institutions may include the sending churches, the institution of a new leadership role for dea- agencies, national churches, and training institu- cons (Acts 6:3). tions. Institutional partnership in the selection Candidate selection is most healthy when process will ensure ownership and accountabil- viewed from a systems perspective. Effective se- ity. Such partnership in selection also demon- lection procedures must work in tandem with strates to the candidate the concern and credibil- the follow-up support scaffolding of continuous ity of each part. training and mentoring, or approved candidates Tom A. Steffan will be shortchanged in their total ministry effec- tiveness. Selection procedures should be consid- Bibliography. T. Graham, EMQ 23:1 (1987): 70–79; ered one step in a system designed not only to C. Ridley, How to Select Church Planters: A Self-Study recruit and qualify capable candidates, but also Manual for Recruiting, Screening, Interviewing and to provide ministry-long maintenance. Evaluating Qualified Church Planters; B. Sawatsky, Selection benchmarks should be specific to the EMQ 27:4 (1991): 342–47. task anticipated. What qualifies a person for mis- sionary Church Planting does not automatically Child Evangelism. Both biblical and historical qualify the candidate for Bible Translation, records document the priority among global cul- dorm parenting, tentmaking, or camp ministries. tures of passing on a spiritual heritage to the To assure sound selection benchmarks are in next generation. While we may observe con- place, wise selectors will attempt to determine certed efforts throughout church history to bap- the minimal skills required for effectiveness for a tize, catechize, and evangelize children and particular position. Additionally, they must ask youth, until recently there has been a dearth of what commitment, competency, cultural, and global strategic planning to address children and character benchmarks will be required to accom- youth as a particular focus of worldwide mis- plish these tasks effectively. Commitment bench- sionary efforts. 6 Church

The New Testament and records of the Apos- ploitation of children as child laborers and sex tolic Fathers are quite clear when they speak of objects is growing rapidly. Two-thirds of an esti- children and faith. The training of a child was a mated 130 million children worldwide with no parental responsibility; failure by parents in car- access to basic education are girls. rying out this responsibility brought sorrow to This tragic present state of the world’s children, child and parent alike. Second- and ear- particularly in non-Western settings, highlights a ly-third-century Christians baptized neither in- number of missiological implications. While chil- fants nor young children, but by a.d. 250 infant dren need to hear the gospel of Jesus Christ in baptism was practiced, particularly in North Af- contextualized forms that state clearly the for- rican Christianity. Cyprian of Carthage and Au- giveness present in the work of Christ, missions gustine of Hippo argued that original sin was the strategists increasingly plan and implement ho- chief reason for the need to baptize infants and listic forms of ministry to children. The plight of no one, including children, should be refused the urban poor, where growing numbers of chil- God’s mercy and grace. While the Reformation dren can be found, requires a reevaluation of produced groups with varying viewpoints on Christian mission in urban contexts. Crucial to baptism of children, there did emerge a variety any mission strategy to children is the growing of catechetical approaches, which indicates the evidence that women are the key to societal intentionality of churches born out of the Refor- change and have the most impact on the lives of mation to instruct and nurture children to full children. Mission agencies in the future will no participation in Christian faith. longer be able to avoid developing strategies for Although its impact and significance has been ministry to children and may even have to re- disputed, the Sunday school stands as a histori- think the People Group concept with its priority cal representation of concern for children and on adults. Christian faith. Its origins in England in the Byron D. Klaus 1780s stems from efforts by Robert Raikes and Bibliography. W. Barclay, Educational Ideals in the others to educate marginalized poor children Ancient World; L. Hunt, Handbook on Child Evange- caught in massive changes brought about by the lism; C. Ingle, ed., Children and Conversion; R. Lynn Industrial Revolution. The American version and E. Wright, The Big Little School: Two Hundred emerged as a pioneering-missionary vehicle with Years of Sunday School; B. Myers, IBMR 18:3 (1994); obvious shades of American revivalism. For ex- D. C. Wyckoff, ed., Renewing the Sunday School and the ample, the American Sunday School Union CCD; UNICEF, Children of the Americas. began in 1824 with the resolve to establish “Sun- day schools in every destitute place in the Valley Church. One way to define the church has been of the Mississippi.” to do a word study of ekklemsia, the word used at The last half of the nineteenth century saw the least seventy-three times in the New Testament Sunday school movement grow to international to refer to the church. “The word is derived from prominence as “uniform lessons” became a vehi- ek and kaleom and (speaks of) the assembly of free cle of expansion. By 1900 3 million En- citizens in the Greek city-states who through a glish-speaking students used these lessons in herald were ‘called out’ of their homes to the New Zealand, Australia, Japan, Korea, China, marketplace. In ordinary usage the word de- Africa, and wherever British or American mis- noted ‘the people as assembled,’ ‘the public meet- sionaries served. The uniform lessons were also ing’” (Berkhof, 1986, 343). The term ekklemsia in- translated into scores of languages that in- dicated the self-consciousness of the early creased the influence of the Sunday school Christians, who saw themselves as the continua- worldwide. tion of what God had begun in the wilderness Evangelistic Sunday schools in the United with the nation of Israel, called together by the States have gone through both growth and de- proclamation of the gospel for the purpose of be- cline patterns during the twentieth century, but longing to God through Christ by the power of their evangelistic focus on children has remained the Holy Spirit (see, for example, Acts 19:39). Yet constant. Research indicates that 85 percent of a word study of ekklemsia tells us little about the people make decisions for Jesus Christ before reason for which the group is called, the pur- they reach fifteen years of age. poses and goals of the group, or the parameters Recent studies support the strategic signifi- that determine who is part of the group. cance of evangelism to children. One-third of the A second way to describe the church is by world’s population is under fifteen years of age, crafting a propositional definition. How we with 85 percent of those under fifteen living in the would love to have the confidence of Martin Lu- Third World. The vast group of children existing ther who said, “Thank God a seven-year-old child in non-Western settings are increasingly living in knows what the church is, namely holy believers urban slums. Forty thousand children under five and sheep who hear the voice of their shepherd die daily and some estimate that 100 million chil- (John 10:3). So children pray, ‘I believe in one dren live or work on city streets worldwide. Ex- holy Christian Church.’ Its holiness . . . consists 7 Church of the Word of God and true faith” (Luther’s gregations to a transformed, purpose-driven life Works, vol. xi). Hendrik Kraemer came close to of mission in the world, locally and globally. Luther’s simple definition: “Where there is a A fifth method of defining the church involves group of baptized Christians, there is the affirming a series of seemingly contradictory Church” (The Missionary Obligation of the characteristics. When we try to describe the Church, 40). However, a purely propositional church we are immediately caught in a tension definition is not enough to show us the church’s between the sociological and theological views of structure, purpose, destiny, or mission. In fact, the church. The church is both divine and the New Testament gives us no formal definition human, created by the Holy Spirit yet brought of the church. about by gathering human beings. The tension A third way to define the church was used by can be illustrated by mentioning five comple- Jesus and the New Testament writers: metaphors mentary couplets. The church is not either one of the church. Paul Minear demonstrated that or the other of these—it is both, simultaneously. there are at least ninety-six different images of 1. The church is both form and essence. What the church in the New Testament. We are famil- we believe to be the “essence” of the church is iar with many of these, like body, temple, build- not seen in its forms. We believe the church to be ing, household, family, saints, New Israel, new one, yet it is divided; to be holy, yet it is the com- creation, and branches of the vine. These rich munion of sinners. We believe the essence of dis- images express what the church is and serve also cipleship is love, yet we experience actions in the to show what the church should become. They church that are far from loving. call the members of the church to see themselves 2. The church is both phenomenon and creed. in a new light, challenging them to become more The church is to be believed. But what is be- like the pictures offered. lieved is not seen. That which is perceived as a These images are metaphors of the church in phenomenon of the visible world does not pres- mission. Almost all the images of the church in ent itself as the object of our faith. The church is the New Testament are not still photographs but too often not believable. We could also use the rather moving pictures, dynamic videos of the words “Real-Ideal” or “Relevance-Transcen- church living out its witness in the world. For ex- dence” to represent this seeming contradiction. ample, the church is the salt of the earth. It is the We cannot be members of an “ideal” church light of the world. As the Body of Christ, it is the apart from the “real” one. The real must always physical presence of Jesus in the world. As a be challenged and called by the ideal; the ideal royal priesthood (1 Peter 2) the church is a priest must be understood and lived out in the real for the Gentiles, who see the good works of the world. church and glorify God. 3. The church is both institution and commu- The church soon found that it needed a way to nity; organization and organism. During the Mid- bring all the pictures together in a simple de- dle Ages, the exclusively institutional view of the scription. Shortly after the apostolic era, the church took on its most extreme form. In reac- church followed a fourth way to define itself by tion, the sixteenth-century Reformers empha- using three words that appeared in the Apostles’ sized the church as fellowship and communion. Creed, with a fourth added soon thereafter and Many people feel today that we need to seek to institutionalized at Chalcedon. All the subse- keep both elements in equal perspective, espe- quent ecumenical creeds adopted these four cially when it comes to missionary cooperation marks or notes (from the Latin notae) about the between churches and mission agencies. The church. “I believe . . . the holy catholic church, church is both institution and community. The the communion of saints,” is accepted by all community invariably, and necessarily, takes on major Christian traditions, on all continents, in institutional form; the institution only exists as all the languages of the church. the concrete expression of the communion of The four creedal marks of the church have persons. tended to be understood as static adjectives mod- 4. The church is both visible and invisible. The ifying the church. As such, they have fostered in- visible-invisible distinction has been used as a stitutionalization, maintenance, and decline in way to get around some of the difficulties in- the church. Hans Küng and G. C. Berkouwer em- volved in the first three paradoxes presented phasized that the four marks are not only gifts but above. The visible-invisible distinction, though also tasks facing the church. Moltmann saw the not explicitly found in the New Testament, was four as descriptive of the church’s solidarity with proposed in the early centuries of the church’s the poor. C. Van Engen and D. Guder have sug- life. The visible-invisible distinction is with us gested we think of the four marks as adverbs because of the reality of the church as a mixture modifying the missionary action of the church. As of holiness and sinfulness. (For example, see the such, they call the church to be the unifying, sanc- parable of the tares in Matt. 13:24–30, 36–43.) tifying, reconciling, and proclaiming presence of The distinction is important, but perhaps it must Jesus Christ in the world, challenging local con- be remembered that there is one church, not 8 Church two. “The one church, in its essential nature and practice for the next hundred years, the formula in its external forms alike, is always at once visi- stated that churches were maturing when they ble and invisible” (Berkhof, 1986, 399). became self-supporting economically, self-gov- 5. The church is both imperfect and perfect. erning structurally, and self-propagating locally. Luther spoke of the church as “simul justus, With heavy stress on institution and orga- simul peccator,” seeing it as simultaneously just nization, the formula unfortunately tended to and sinful, holy and unrighteous, universal and produce self-centered, self-preoccupied national particular. But the church is not, therefore, justi- churches that often turned in upon themselves fied to remain sinful, divided, and particular. and demonstrated little commitment or vision “Faith in the holiness of the church,” Moltmann for world evangelization. said, “can no more be a justification of its unholy 3. This tendency toward introversion of three- condition than the justification of sinners means self churches fueled the search for what became a justification of sin” (Moltmann, 1977, 22–23). a third major paradigm of the church’s self-­ The local congregation derives its essential na- understanding: indigenous national churches in ture only as it authentically exhibits the nature mission. Beginning with Roland Allen’s call for and characteristics of the universal church. And, the spontaneous expansion of the church, the universal church is experienced by women churches all around the globe began to see them- and men, witnesses to the world who give ob- selves as equal partners whose essential purpose servable shape to the church only as it is mani- was mission. In the 1920s the term “daughter fested in local churches. churches” was used to refer to the churches in Hendrikus Berkhof called for a special visibil- Asia, Africa, and Latin America. By 1938 at the ity to see and recognize the church. The church, International Missionary Council (IMC) meet- he said, has a threefold character, being related ing in Tambaram, Madras, India, the “older” (1) to God as the new covenant community of churches and “younger” ones stressed a mis- the Holy Spirit, (2) to the believers as the com- sion-oriented view of the church. The record of munion of saints, and (3) simultaneously as the this conference, The World Mission of the Church, apostolic church sent to the world (Berkhof, shows the delegates wrestling with the intimate 1986, 344–45). The missionary movement has relationship of church and mission (see also Tam- been the arena where this threefold character baram Conference [1938]). That same year Hen- has been given concrete shape as the church has drik Kraemer called for churches to move from spread over the globe, comprising now around missionfield to independent church. John Ne- one-third of all humanity. vius, Mel Hodges, Donald McGavran, and oth- A sixth way to define the church involves the ers began calling for Indigenous Churches, com- actual shape which the church has taken munions, organisms, and fellowships that would throughout its missionary expansion around the be culturally appropriate to their contexts. world. During the last five hundred years there Along with indigeneity, the missionary nature have been four major paradigms of the church in of the church was increasingly being empha- mission: colonial expansion, three-self churches, sized. Those attending the 1952 IMC meeting in indigenous national churches, and partner Willingen, Germany, affirmed that “there is no churches in mission. participation in Christ without participation in 1. From the early 1500s to the middle of the his mission to the world” (The Missionary Obliga- 1800s the principal paradigm of the church in tion of the Church, 3 [see also Willingen Confer- mission involved the churches of Western Europe ence (1952)]). The most complete development and North America “planting” the church in Af- of this view was Johannes Blauw’s The Mission- rica, Asia, and Latin America. With notable ex- ary Nature of the Church, published in 1962, one ceptions, this era could be described as a colonial year before the newly formed Commission on competition in church cloning by Western forms World Mission and Evangelism of the World of Christendom. Gisbert Voetius (1589–1676) de- Council of Churches met in Mexico City, em- scribed this perspective well when he spoke of phasizing “mission on six continents” (see also the goal of mission being (1) the conversion of Mexico City Conference [1963]). The 1960s was people, (2) the planting of the church, and (3) the a time of the birth of nations, particularly in Af- glory of God. But Voetius was a child of his time. rica, terminating colonial domination by Eu- That which was planted was mostly carbon cop- rope. These movements began to recognize that ies of the Western forms of ecclesiastical struc- the “national churches,” the churches in each tures, Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and Protestant. nation, had a responsibility to evangelize their 2. A second paradigm emerged around the own nations. The church was missionary in its middle of the 1800s when Henry Venn and nature and local in its outreach. Rufus Anderson proposed the Three-Self For- 4. In the subsequent forty years, the world has mula as a way for the church in Africa, Asia, and changed as has the world church. The fourth Latin America to become autonomous and paradigm reflects the fact that today over two- independent. Dominating mission theory and thirds of all Christians live south of the equator. 9 Church Development

Christianity can no longer be considered a West- lism is incomplete if it does not gather the con- ern religion. Western Europe and North America verts in congregations which, in turn, know how are increasingly seen as mission fields. Nominal- to multiply themselves. Therefore, the multipli- ism and secularization contributed to these for- cation of churches (local congregations) is the merly mission-sending areas becoming mostly best, and fastest, way to evangelize the world. post-Christian. Meanwhile, mission-sending “Church Planting” became the technical term from the south has been increasing to such an used to describe this category of evangelism. extent that today more cross-cultural missionar- Mission societies and boards began to appoint ies are being sent and supported by the churches “church planters” and “church developers.” Mis- in Africa, Asia, and Latin America than from Eu- sion statements incorporated the goal of planting rope and North America. Thus since the 1970s and developing churches in every socioeconomic the missionary nature of the church has meant and ethno-linguistic group in the world. “A that churches and mission agencies are called to church for every people” became the motto. As partner together in a reciprocal flow of world the missiological science developed, a concomi- evangelization that crisscrosses the globe. Thus tant emphasis emerged. How do you develop the the church’s nature and forms of existence have congregation once it is planted? How do you en- been radically reshaped by mission. sure its continuing growth? How do you prevent Although we know that the ideas are distinct, a plateau after several years? Research, surveys, it is impossible to understand church without and study of these questions became a part of mission. Mission activity is supported by the the church growth theory. Planting churches and church, carried out by members of the church, developing them were seen as interdependent and the fruits of mission are received by the disciplines in the study of missiology. church. On the other hand, the church lives out As the Church Growth Movement developed its calling in the world through mission, finds its and tested its theory, the term “church growth” essential purpose in its participation in God’s came to mean a process of planting, developing, mission, and engages in a multitude of activities and multiplying churches. This process has be- whose purpose is mission. “Just as we must in- come a unit of study in most missiological curric- sist that a church which has ceased to be a mis- ulums. The Church Growth Movement has had a sion has lost the essential character of a church, significant, and somewhat controversial, impact so we must also say that a mission which is not on general missiology, especially in the evangeli- at the same time truly a church is not a true ex- cal wing of the modern missionary movement. pression of the divine apostolate. An unchurchly A perusal of the church growth literature on mission is as much a monstrosity as an unmis- this subject, written by both those who espouse sionary church” (Newbigin, 1954, 169). the movement and those who oppose it, reveals Charles Van Engen five dimensions of genuine, integral church de- velopment. Bibliography. R. Allen, The Spontaneous Expansion Internal church development means that the or- of the Church; K. Barth, Church Dogmatics, vol. IV; ganized church has body life. The members will H. Berkhof, Christian Faith, 339–422; G. C. Berkouwer, be growing in grace, in knowledge of the faith, in The Church; J. Blauw, The Missionary Nature of the Bible study, and in Christian living. The church Church; D. Bonhoeffer, The Communion of the Saints; S. Grenz, Theology for the Community of God, 601–742; will be in a constant state of edification. Love, D. Guder, ed., Missional Church; H. Küng, The Church; fellowship, and cooperation will be characteris- P. Minear, Images of the Church in the New Testament; tics common to the church. The church will be a J. Moltmann, The Church in the Power of the Spirit; warm center in the community that radiates S. Neill, CDCWM, pp. 109–10; L. Newbigin, The House- Christian love, service, and concern. Spiritual hold of God; A. Schmemann, Church, World, Mission; gifts will be emphasized, discovered, and used C. Van Engen, The Growth of the True Church; idem, for the collective edification of all. Spiritual God’s Missionary People. growth in discipleship will be evident. Worship and praise will be fleshed out in sacrificial ser- Church Development. Evangelical missions vice and stewardship. This internal growth is a have always emphasized personal evangelism sine qua non for the other dimensions of devel- and starting churches (congregations) as their opment. basic purpose. This dual purpose was formal- Centripetal church development means the ized, and technically analyzed, in the 1960s by church is reaching out to its community. The the appearance of what came to be known as the members will be trained to witness as individu- Church Growth Movement, initiated and pio- als, and collectively, to the nonchurched of the neered by Donald Anderson McGavran. A sci- community. Evangelistic activities will be peren- ence of church planting and church development nial. People will be added regularly to the mem- resulted that has complemented the perennial bership not only by transfer, or by biological emphasis of missions on personal evangelism. growth, but by conversion. A constant numerical Church growth theory says that personal evange- growth will be expected and experienced. In 10 Church Missions Conferences other words, people will be attracted to the merical increase will face serious consequences. church by its reputation of internal growth and Balance is basic for genuine church development. by its intentional efforts to reach them with the Justice C. Anderson gospel. The internal growth will not lead to spir- Bibliography. V. Gerber, God’s Way to Keep a Church itual introversion, but will be a catalyst to nu- Going and Growing; M. Hodges, Growing Young merical growth. Nongrowth will be a curable dis- Churches; D. A. McGavran, How Churches Grow; idem, ease. Understanding Church Growth; D. Miles, Church Centrifugal church development means that the Growth: A Mighty River; E. C. Smith, Balanced Church church will try to reproduce itself, or multiply it- Growth. self. It will try to become the mother of another church. It will extend itself into other areas of its Church Missions Conferences. The wide- field, and use its membership to start missions in spread sponsorship of mission conferences by sectors of its society unreachable by its normal local churches reflects the significant role program. It will even be willing to sacrifice some played by the local church in world missions. Al- of its own members to form a nucleus for a new though the primary purpose of church mission congregation. A really growing church will not conferences is educational, they are also used as be content to just grow larger; it will try to give a catalyst for increasing prayer and financial birth to other churches. This multiplication prin- support for missionaries. ciple will many times prevent the customary The essential character of church mission con- “plateau syndrome,” experienced by so many ferences has changed little since the nineteenth congregations after ten or twelve years of life. century. Although there is some variation among Cross-cultural church development means that denominations, most conferences feature (1) one the church that tries to multiply itself in a plural- or more speakers, often furloughed missionaries; istic world will inevitably confront the cross-­ (2) meals that include an inspirational or educa- cultural challenge. A sector of the field of the tional program focused on missions; (3) a mis- church will be the home of a different socioeco- sion-related children’s program; (4) a pledge nomic, or ethno-linguistic people group. The drive for the church’s yearly missions budget; church will want to penetrate that group and try and (5) a motivational call to support missionar- to start a church within it. The pluralistic nature ies through prayer or to volunteer for missionary of most communities today guarantees this en- service. counter. The church will seek the means to evan- In the decades following the Second World gelize within the other culture. War, North American churches such as The Peo- ple’s Church of Toronto and the Park Street Con- If there is no cross-cultural group in the area, gregational Church of Boston were notable for then the church will want to seek ways to create sponsoring large-scale mission conferences last- world awareness among its members. Each local ing a week or more and involving speakers and congregation should be aware that it is a part of exhibits from a wide variety of missionary agen- the universal church of Jesus Christ and his cies. These influential conferences provided a world mission. It will initiate activities that will prototype for other evangelical churches. Also involve it in the world mission of its denomina- helpful was the establishment of the Association tion. It will participate through missionary edu- of Church Missions Committees (ACMC, now cation, prayer, sacrificial giving to missions Advancing Churches in Mission Commitment) in causes, and cooperation in world missions proj- 1974, which led to the publication of materials ects. In this way the church will avoid Ethnocen- that outlined a systematic approach to planning trism and see itself as a part of the universal and implementing mission conferences. In re- community of Christ. cent years, church-sponsored conferences have Influential church development means that the also been influenced by innovations in electronic church growing in the four dimensions will be media and communications technology. Contem- able to have a greater impact on the larger soci- porary mission conferences may include fea- ety in which it operates. A loving, caring, growing ture-length films, videotapes of missionaries at church will demonstrate the characteristics of work, computer-generated presentations, and Christ’s kingdom and will gain the favor of the live telephone or video links with missionaries community. In this way it, and its members, can on the field. have a more positive influence on the political, Church mission conferences vary in size and economic, and social aspects of its field of ser- duration, from the annual weekend conference vice. in a single church to larger conferences involving In summary, authentic church development a network of churches in a geographical area. In will be integral, involving simultaneous growth in the round-robin model, a group of churches al- all five dimensions. Any church that continues to ternate the leadership of the conference with the grow bigger without at the same time growing site changing from year to year. The Concerts of better by expanding its base to care for the nu- Prayer movement has stimulated interdenomina- 11 Church Planting tional collaboration among churches, with em- Church planting also augments evangelism phasis on prayer for missionaries in particular and church growth. Studies show that new con- areas of the world. gregations evangelize more effectively than older The manner in which financial support is congregations, as new congregations put more raised for missions also varies. In churches where energy into growth and less into maintenance. missions are included in the overall budget (or in Additionally, church planting promotes geo- a larger denominational budget), the primary graphical and People Group expansion. New goal of the conference is often to educate the con- churches are demanded to reach both geograph- gregation about how finances are spent and to ical regions and people groups. New housing stimulate prayer for missionaries. In contrast, the areas and underchurched regions demand new faith-promise model of giving separates the churches. It becomes increasingly clear that the church’s missions budget from the regular bud- churches of the fathers do not always reach the get. Churches following the faith-promise model sons and daughters. The present diversity of peo- often use an annual mission conference to chal- ple (and peoples) demands a diversity of lenge embers to give to missions in excess of their churches; this diversity can only be provided by regular church pledge. A third approach is the the unlimited multiplication of churches. single offering, exemplified by the Southern Bap- Church planting also satisfies critical needs. tists’ annual Lottie Moon Offering, which raises Some declare that we already have enough support for the denominational mission budget. churches and rather than starting new congrega- In some churches, the mission conference may tions we should build up the existing groups. The include a single offering for one or more mission- truth is that seldom are there enough churches aries serving with Faith Missions or for a specific to meet community needs. Most often, differing mission-related project. groups of people cannot be adequately served by As the primary means of contact between mis- existing churches. sionary candidates or furloughed missionaries Finally, church planting strengthens Christian and the average church attender, church mission witness. Starting new churches not only helps conferences play an understated but critical role Christianity progress; the ministry contributes to in contemporary world evangelization. the spiritual progress of existing Christians. Op- Alan A. Seaman portunities for spiritual ministry expand with the starting of new congregations. Bibliography. M. Collins and C. Blackburn, Mis- Obviously, church planting is an imperative sions on the Move in the Local Church; ACMC, Your action for effective church or denominational Church: Planning a Missions Conference. growth. The Methods of Church Planting. Study of Church Planting. Church planting has become church planting demands attention both to why the most frequently used term for starting new and to how—considering the types of and the di- churches. By definition church planting can be rect steps to new churches. described as the effort to bring men and women Church planting models can follow either the to faith in Christ and incorporate them into modality type or the sodality type. Modality growing, reproducing Christian fellowships. Far models involve a local church giving birth to a from denominational aggrandizement, church new congregation. The church plant might be ac- planting seeks to extend God’s kingdom through complished by sending out a group of members starting multitudes of local congregations. to become the nucleus of the new group. This The Importance of Church Planting. Chris­ model, sometimes called colonization, usually tian missions has no more productive method achieves extension growth. Extension growth than starting new churches. Peter Wagner calls usually reaches the same type of people served church planting the world’s single most effective by the parent church. evangelistic method. Donald A. McGavran con- Sodality models involve church starts by an tends that the only way Christian missions can agency other than a local church. The planting meet the expanding needs of the fantastically agency might be a parachurch organization, a mounting populations of the world is by provid- church-planting team, or an individual church ing fantastically multiplying churches. Church planter. Sodality models may produce a congre- planting’s importance rests on several founda- gation much like the founding entity, but might tions. It reflects biblical patterns. Luke recorded result in bridging growth, which produces a con- the amazing expansion of the New Testament gregation for a different kind of people, such as a churches, moving from recounting the increase congregation for persons of different ethnic in numbers of members to the fact that the num- groups or socioeconomic strata. ber of congregations “multiplied” (Acts 9:31). Church planting generally follows a pattern of The Bible, in both direct teaching and overall persuading, preparing, and producing. The first principles, includes teaching on both the why step of church planting, persuading, consists of and the hows of church planting. convincing churches and persons that planting is 12 Church/Mission Relations called for. Persuading begins with spiritual dy- Bibliography. C. Brock, Indigenous Church Planting; namics of prayer, God’s will and call. Church C. L. Chaney, Church Planting at the End of the Twenti- planting, a spiritual undertaking, requires the eth Century; D. J. Hesselgrave, Planting Churches power of the Holy Spirit. Cross-Culturally: A Guide for Home and Foreign Mis- sions; P. B. Jones, Understanding Church Growth and A second phase in persuading for church Decline; J. Redford, Planting New Churches; D. W. planting relates to creating a climate for church Shenk, Creating Communities of the Kingdom: New Tes- planting. Not every Christian or every church tament Models of Church Planting; C. P. Wagner, Church member is convinced of the need for or advis- Planting for a Greater Harvest. ability of new churches. Every church, denomi- nation, or other church-planting entity should Church/Mission Relations. As old as the Acts of have some group that will lead the entity in ex- the Apostles, relational issues between the tension efforts. This group, which may be a mis- church local and the church itinerant (missions) sions committee, a church-planting task force, or have been an important focus in Christian his- a planning committee, guides the church-plant- tory. Acts 13–15 includes seminal passages de- ing entity in committing resources to starting scribing the commissioning and ministry of Paul new churches. and Barnabas as missionaries sent out by the The second step of the church planting pro- church at Antioch. The passage describes the su- cess, preparing, begins the actual process of start- premely important Council at Jerusalem, which ing the church. A first phase of the preparing step set the pattern for addressing cultural issues in relates to establishing goals. Goals relate not just the ever-increasing expansion of the church. The to the determination to start churches, but in- key issues of “Who sends the missionary?” and clude plans for specific kinds of churches. Goals “What kind of accountability of them is appro- also consider the areas for new churches. These priate?” find their answers in these passages. plans should be based, when available, on the Paul and Barnabas, the archetypal first mis- soundest data from demographic research mate- sionaries sent out by the postresurrection rials. church, provide a pattern that is most instruc- The study of the areas for the new church tive. On the issue of sending, it is clear from Acts seeks to ascertain the need for and possibilities that they received both an internal and an exter- of a new church. The area must be cultivated, nal call to itinerant cross-cultural ministry to that is, contacts made with the people in the Gentiles. The elders in Acts 13 conclude “It community to ascertain needs and make known seemed good both to the Holy Spirit and to us” the nature of the new congregation. Meeting to commission Paul and Barnabas for this minis- places should be sought. try. And so they did. And as Paul and Barnabas The third step in church planting, producing, went they kept in mind the importance of their relates to actually beginning the church. Bible sending and prayer base, and the need to be ac- study groups and evangelistic efforts instigate countable to it. Their return visits and reports the actual meetings of the church. (Acts 14 and 18) are clear testimony to this. At The producing step must lead to establishing the same time, they functioned quite inde- the church both in the eyes of the members pendently under the Holy Spirit’s guidance in de- themselves and of the community. Eventually, termining both the itinerary and methods of the church will have to secure facilities. Care their missionary work. must be taken, however, so that provision of fa- The tensions that have existed in the modern cilities does not consume the time and energy of period in church–mission relations have cen- the new congregation that should be expended in tered primarily on these same ancient issues, continuing growth. The church-planting effort “Who sends the missionary?” and “What consti- includes care for achieving continuing growth. tutes an appropriate system of accountability?” New churches should continue to grow in num- For some, the issue is described in strictly theo- ber of members, quality of life, and eventual re- logical terms: local churches ought to send mis- production. sionaries, and the only reason mission agencies Conclusion. Church planting remains a cen- even exist is because the churches fell down on tral interest and activity in missions. Almost the job. For others, the issue is more complex. every community in the world needs more While agreeing with the principle that the local churches. To remain faithful to the Lord of the church is the sender of missionaries, some point Harvest, churches must emphasize vast efforts out that agencies are the necessary bridge to toward forming new congregations. The Great doing that with accountability and effectiveness. Commission demands the constant provision of Were there no agencies, they argue, the churches churches into which disciples can be incorpo- would just have to invent them again. Both logis- rated and developed. tics and appropriate accountability require it, Ebbie C. Smith they say. 13 Deputation

Supporters of the agency model point out that and many evangelical denominations in contrast Paul and Barnabas were their prototype, sent out to denomination mission boards that are usually by the local church but self-governing under the funded through a unified budget not requiring leadership of the Holy Spirit in both their strat- missionaries to raise their own support. There egy and methodology. Accountability consisted are certain variations. The Christian and Mis- in reporting back, not in getting prior approval. sionary Alliance requires missionaries to minis- While faxes and the internet did not yet exist, it ter in churches and district conferences to help seems unlikely that on-the-spot decision making raise funds for the mission, but not for personal would have been overruled in any case. They support. Overseas Missionary Fellowship asks seemed to operate on the assumption that the appointees to seek out prayer support but not to church itinerant is also part of the universal ask for funds. The origin of this term is related to church, even if it is not everything that the the appointment of deputies (assistants) to stand church in its local manifestation encompasses. in with the sheriff and his posse to accomplish a That it is, rather, a transcultural bridge, in sym- task, just as the supporters choose to stand in biotic relationship with the local church of the prayer and financial commitment to assist in the present, but also with the local church of the fu- missionary’s ministry. ture. The fact that they appointed elders as they The process of deputation has several draw- went certainly seems to indicate as much. backs: different personalities can work for or Most notable among those advocating the against the candidate; one’s personal network can “two-structure” approach has been missiologist be well developed or very limited; the costs of Ralph Winter, whose 1974 modality/sodality missionary support have risen with inflation framework is the most extensive treatment of (often equivalent to public school teacher’s sala- this subject. Bruce Camp, writing in 1995, pro- ries), and the time factor has steadily increased vides a rare theoretical challenge to this view. from one to two years with certain high cost-of- Our own day has seen a number of new enti- living countries taking even three years of this ties and models directly relevant to church and procedure; the constant displacement of a mis- mission relations. The ministry of ACMC (Ad- sionary’s family can create hardship; and there vancing Churches in Mission Commitment, orig- are often significantly different levels of personal- inally the Association of Church Mission Com- ized help in fundraising. The often overlooked mittees) over the last two decades has been a aspect of deputation is the opportunity to share strategic attempt to help local churches take the appointee’s passion and testimony with other their responsibility in the world mission enter- potential missionaries. Historically deputation prise more seriously. It has done much to enable developed in the nineteenth century with the them to become more than simply disbursers of birth of interdenominational mission societies, money. Other entities, such as the Antioch Net- but today the majority of North American Protes- work, have endeavored to link churches in mis- tant missionaries are supported through this sys- sion, particularly the plethora of burgeoning new tem. mega churches. At the same time, progressive John Easterling agencies are working hard to genuinely serve the Bibliography. B. Barnett, Friend-Raising: Building a churches, recognizing that effective communica- Missionary Support Team That Lasts; J. H. Kane, Under- tion has sometimes broken down and an un- standing Christian Mission. wholesome dichotomy has developed. The turn of the twenty-first century will be an Development. In terms of missionary activity interesting time for discerning how church and and mission strategy, development usually de- mission relations in North America ultimately notes an inclusive process in which the physical evolve. New models and hybrids of models are and social needs of persons and groups are given almost certain to emerge. attention alongside their spiritual needs. Gary R. Corwin Development is a general word, commonly Bibliography. R. Allen, The Spontaneous Expansion used with reference to such diverse matters as of the Church; B. K. Camp, Missiology 23:2 (1995): 197– fundraising, improvement of property or re- 209; S. F. Metcalf, EMQ 29:2 (1993): 142–49; C. Van sources, increased effectiveness and profitability Engen, God’s Missionary People: Rethinking the Purpose of a business or social enterprise, expansion and of the Local Church; R. D. Winter, PCWM, pp. B:45–57. fulfillment of complex mental capacities, physi- cal maturation—especially of children, and spir- Deputation. In the deputation process initial itual deepening across a lifetime. missionary appointees visit churches and other Developmentalism, a closely related term in the gatherings of Christians to present their ministry field of psychology and social psychology, em- for the purpose of developing prayer and finan- phasizes the built-in characteristics of the organ- cial support to underwrite missionary endeavors. ism, the person, or the social enterprise. A devel- This procedure is found in independent missions opmental viewpoint assumes that changes in the 14 Development maturing human being or in a developing society sources are committed to the purposes of social represent an emergence of the patterns and char- development the emphasis on verbal proclama- acteristics that are psychogenetically predis- tion of the gospel will suffer. Some have argued posed and patterned—built into the organism or that this position is based on the curious as- system. The writings of Piaget and Kohlberg, for sumption that God’s capacities and resources are example, assume that development is not some- limited. thing that the parent or teacher causes but rather Another argument against expending Christian participates in. Developmentalism does not deny resources for physical, social, and economic de- the influences of environment, but it avoids as- velopment is based upon the view that the pri- suming that the environment or any outside mary task of God’s people is to act upon Christ’s agents are the singular explanation for all out- primary motive: “to seek and to save . . . the comes in the development of a person or of a so- lost.” This position arises from the view that God ciety. From a developmental perspective, devel- is honored as his people use resources wisely opment is defined in terms of the processes and in a manner disciplined to the priorities of through which maturing persons or emergent the Kingdom of God. The conclusion one reaches societies lose the limitations that have character- will depend on how these priorities are under- ized their previous condition. stood (see also Missionary Task). The major obstacles to social development in- Whatever the argument against the church’s clude (1) defeatism, in which people see no possi- participation in development assistance, the ex- bilities beyond the conditions and restrictiveness ample provided by Jesus Christ’s engagement in with which they are currently most familiar, whole-person ministry stands clearly as the most (2) dependency, an actual condition or a mental valid precedent. Strategically, as well, current ev- state in which people assume that they are not idence in the field strongly suggests that large- adequate apart from significant help and re- scale evangelization of communities and large sources from the outside, and (3) pride, through extended families often follows closely the offer- which people become self-sufficient and resistant ing of development assistance provided in the to encouragements and assistance from outsid- name of Jesus Christ. This recognition has led to ers. yet another view: legitimization of development The role of the outsider, whether teacher, par- assistance because of its pragmatic value as a ent, missionary, agriculturalist, or health worker, tool of evangelization. is a matter of assisting, stimulating, encouraging, Although parachurch organizations such as and providing access to the resources essential to Food for the Hungry and World Vision have development. Thus, such outsiders could be bet- emerged largely to balance the church’s mid-­ ter described as development technicians. The century denial of the importance of the physical activity in which outsiders provide valuable ser- and social needs of people, especially the poor in vices within contemporary church ministries and underdeveloped regions, there is still no consen- evangelism in many places is development assis- sus on the place of development assistance tance. within Christian missions. Development assistance has become an in- The local church, as a community of faith, is creasing emphasis within missions in recent an especially appropriate context for community years. Although the concern for the well-being of development. In regions where the church is human beings has been a facet of deliberate well-planted, participation of Christians in the Christian missions all through the modern mis- social welfare of their communities often pro- sionary era, conservative and narrow views of vides the incentive and motivational core for missions took a toll during the middle of the substantial development process. Thus the twentieth century. Defining missions as verbal churches of the world are increasingly providing proclamation of the gospel makes people more the leadership and community resource-centers enthusiastic about building schools than about for social change. building hospitals. Since development assistance Relief activities are substantially different from is usually a slow and rather costly investment in development assistance (see also Relief Work). people, the threat to other missionary activity Although relief is a more common response to has created a substantial schism. For evangeli- human need and is widely supported by Chris- cals and conservatives, especially for fundamen- tians as a reflection of Jesus’ teaching about the talists, meeting spiritual needs is arguably more contrast between sheep and goats in Matthew 25 important than attending to physical or so- and his teaching about responsibilities to one’s cio-political matters. neighbor in the “good Samaritan” story, relief In missiological debates development assis- tends toward counter-developmental interven- tance often is seen as competing for resources tions and outcomes. Necessary as it is to save that would otherwise be invested in spiritual lives and to reduce suffering, delivering food and matters, especially verbal evangelization. The ar- medical supplies can soon lead to a dependent gument usually springs from the fear that if re- condition, especially if delivered overmuch or 15 Disaster Response overlong. The tendency to think of development Bibliography. E. J. Elliston, ed., Christian Relief and as a sort of companion of relief often leads to Development; D. C. Korten, Getting to the 21st Cen- confusion. Indeed, it is easier to solicit funds and tury—Voluntary Action and the Global Agenda; J. M. elicit sympathy for relief needs, but relief rarely Perkins, Beyond Charity: The Call to Christian Commu- leads to making the necessary changes in so- nity Development; T. Yamamori, B. Myers, et al., Serv- ing with the Poor in Asia; idem, Serving with the Poor in cio-political structure, productivity, lifestyle, and Africa; idem, Serving with the Poor in Latin America. culture. A Chinese proverb is used to sum up this problem: Give a man a fish and he eats today; teach a man to fish and he eats for a lifetime. Disaster Response. Disaster may be defined as Development assistance requires the participa- a sudden turn of events (from natural or human tion of those being assisted. The one who assists causes) which brings about or threatens injury must first listen and learn, resisting the tempta- or death to a great number of people, disrupting tion to exert undue influence through one’s ex- normal life and requiring immediate action. pertise and outside leverage. Development assis- Luke 21:9–11 (lb) predicts natural disasters tance requires great patience and appropriate such as earthquakes, famines, epidemics, and creativity. The primary goal is to encourage peo- “terrifying things happening in the heavens,” ple to accept the possibility of bettering their perhaps like cyclones and hurricanes. It also conditions through self-help. warns of human-made disasters such as revolu- The major obstacle to effective development tions and wars “for nation shall rise against na- assistance is the difficulty of bringing into har- tion and kingdom against kingdom.” Millions of mony the motives of insiders and outsiders. people are affected annually by natural disasters. Views of the appropriate conditions of life, de- People, caught in war or civil strife, seek asylum grees of willingness to accept change, personal as refugees, and their number is on the rise. and community dignity and pride all must be Studies describe the world of tomorrow to be considered. Who decides what goals are worthy? more susceptible to all kinds of disturbances Who decides how hard and how fast to work? than the world of today. Both biblical prophecy Who decides the best use of resources? Ordi- and the empirical data affirm the need to antici- narily, the perverted golden rule prevails: Those pate coming disasters. who hold the gold make the rules. The influence Responding to disaster is not the responsibility of well-intentioned outsiders, while important in of Christians only. It is the responsibility of every the short-run, commonly becomes the under- compassionate person. Yet, Christians have a mining destructive force in many development good reason to be involved in disaster response. projects. The Great Commandment (Matt. 22:37–39) dic- Another common obstacle is disagreement on tates that the people of God love him and their the scope of the problem being addressed by the neighbors as themselves. All humans are created development effort. Even Mother Teresa of Cal- in the image of God and, therefore, each life is cutta was persistently criticized for not address- precious—each person one for whom Christ ing the underlying socio-political problems that died. All the victims of disaster, natural or hu- produce India’s poverty. Instead, she defined her man-made, should be treated with dignity and mission in terms of treating symptoms, not respect. causes. Arguments about how large to draw the The Book of Acts gives an example of how target can cause development activities to bypass Christians should act in response to a disaster. the most basic of human needs: the need to be One of the prophets named Agabus predicted a directly involved in the quest for change. great famine coming upon the land of Israel In recent years the emphasis on development (which later came to pass during the reign of has waned, among missionary efforts and in re- Claudius). “So the believers [in Antioch] decided gard to international assistance in general. The to send relief to the Christians in Judea, each giv- results of development activity have been uneven ing as much as he could.” Their gifts were con- and often disappointing. Particularly among signed to Barnabas and Paul, and they were de- those who describe themselves as “doing devel- livered to the elders of the church in Jerusalem opment” and, worse yet, “delivering develop- (Acts 11:27–30). ment,” effectiveness typically has been minimal. In Capernaum Jesus, turning to his enemies, Human groups simply cannot be pushed into de- asked, “Is it all right to do kind deeds on Sabbath velopment by outside efforts. Broad-scale com- days? . . . Is it a day to save lives or to destroy munity participation and altruistic local initia- them?” No response! Jesus “was deeply disturbed tives are essential, and they must arise out of by their indifference to human need” (Mark what Paulo Freire called conscientization, more 3:1–5 lb). Elsewhere we are admonished to “stop thoughtful awareness of the conditions in which just saying we love people,” but to “really love people find themselves, coupled with a height- them, and show it by our actions” (1 John 3:17– ened sense of moral responsibility and initiative. 18). In implementing disaster relief, we must Ted Ward work closely, whenever and wherever possible, 16 Economics with existing churches and missions in order abode (Phil. 3:20; 1 Peter 1:1, 17; 2:11). The love that we might help enhance their ministry. of money is the root of all types of evil (1 Tim. All disasters create concomitant needs for the 6:10; cf. Mark 4:18–19; 1 Tim. 3:3; 2 Tim. 3:2), no afflicted. They will need such items as food, shel- one can serve two masters, God and Money ter, medicine, clothes, and blankets. In a disaster, (Matt. 6:24), and rich persons will enter the king- we must do all we can to provide these basic dom only with great difficulty (Mark 10:23–31; needs. In every case, food assistance is para- Luke 12:16–21; 16:19–31; 19:1–10; 1 Tim. 6:17– mount. 19; James 5:1–6). In the seer’s apocalyptic vision, Finally, we must remember that the most basic Babylon the Great, with its excessive reliance on human need is beyond the physical—to be recon- her own wealth, has fallen (Rev. 17–18). ciled to God and to have fellowship with him Contemporary Relevance. Economics and mis- (2 Cor. 5:18). The Lord God says in Amos 8:11: sion interface at several crucial junctions. Rele- “The time is surely coming . . . when I will send a vant issues include: (1) the general economic en- famine on the land—not a famine of bread or vironment for mission (Bonk) and the question of water, but of hearing the words of the Lord.” which economic system is most compatible with Tetsunao Yamamori biblical principles (Chewning, Smith); (2) the eco- nomic situation of missionaries, including the Economics. Economics deals with the alloca- raising of funds, “tentmaking,” the problem of tion of limited resources. Mission, in a Christian fluctuating currency exchange rates, the problem context, entails the church’s modeling and prop- of financial indebtedness of missionary candi- agation of the gospel message. Economics and dates (see Debt), and the issue of greater cost effi- mission intersect at many crucial junctures. We ciency of national missionaries (Yohannan); (3) first look at mission-economic highlights in bib- the economic circumstances of the target cultures lical history before discussing the contemporary of mission, raising issues such as the need for economic implications for mission. community Development and Relief Work, so- Scriptural Foundation. From the earliest ciological barriers between the missionary and days of God’s dealings with his people, it is clear nationals, the need for economic support of new that God’s call ought to take priority over an in- converts ostracized from their socioeconomic dividual’s loyalties. Abraham, the father of be- community, and the problem of Indigenous lievers, was called to leave his home, even to sac- Churches’ dependence on foreign funds. rifice his son; the other patriarchs, likewise, were Of contemporary movements, it is particularly enjoined to live by faith (Heb. 11:8–22). Moses, Liberation Theology that focuses on economic too, chose to renounce his earthly possessions issues, usually in terms of Marxist economic (Heb. 11:24–28), and the abandonment of analysis. The following factors, however, appear self-pursuits was required of the Old Testament to contradict this approach (France): first, Jesus prophets. The same principle is reflected in the conceived of his own role not in terms of politi- New Testament in Christ’s own self-emptying cal or national liberation but of the restoration (Phil. 2:7), his selfless service (Mark 10:45; John of an individual’s personal relationship with 13:1–15), and his becoming poor to make believ- God; he explicitly rejected a political role, stress- ers rich (2 Cor. 8:9). Such sacrifice also became ing rather love and forgiveness even of one’s ene- the requirement for discipleship (Luke 9:57–62; mies, an element frequently missing in radical Jesus’ stewardship parables). movements; second, liberation in the New Testa- Of the four Evangelists, it is Luke who shows ment almost always pertains to liberation from the greatest interest in economic issues. Luke’s sin; third, Jesus does not present a program for account of the life of the early church in Acts achieving the redistribution of wealth or other provides an eschatological foretaste of kingdom socioeconomic reforms; liberation theology con- living (Acts 2:44–45; 4:32–37). Paul, likewise, em- centrates on the symptom of socioeconomic jus- ulated self-sacrifice in his own life and ministry, tice while neglecting to deal with the root cause, calling believers to the sharing of resources with the fallenness of human nature, which produces those in need (esp. the collection for the Jerusa- the twisted values of selfish materialism. lem church: Rom. 15:25–27; 1 Cor. 16:1–4; 2 Cor. A sensitivity to economic issues is vital for the 8–9), contentment with life’s necessities (Phil. church’s effective ministry. The world’s rapid Ur- 4:11–12; 1 Tim. 6:6–8), a disinterested attitude banization, the evolution of modern technologies toward worldly possessions (1 Cor. 7:30–31), and creating a new information elite, the increasing hospitality (Rom. 12:13). gap between rich and poor countries, and many Believers were to extend hospitality to mis- other factors affect the church’s ministry at home sionaries and itinerant preachers of the gospel and abroad in many ways. Evangelical spokesmen (Matt. 10:10–15; Heb. 13:2; 2 John 10–11; 3 John such as R. Sider and T. Campolo have called for a 5–8). Fundamental to missions is the acknowl- more simple, radical life-style on the part of edgment that Christians are merely resident Christians for the sake of missions. It has been aliens and that this world is not their permanent the subject of considerable debate in evangelical 17 Educational Mission Work circles over the past decades to what extent social Among resistant people groups and in Cre- and economic concerns are to be part of the mis- ative-Access Countries, educational services can sionary enterprise (see Great Commandment). afford an entree that does not otherwise exist. Some advocate the priority of evangelism and The twentieth-century emergence of English as church planting, while others favor a holistic ap- the language of international commerce has cre- proach that also incorporates social and eco- ated an enormous demand for teachers of En­ nomic issues. Many favor an approach that is pat- glish as a second language, many of whom are terned after the model of Christ’s incarnation and Christians who serve with explicitly missionary service. intent (see Teaching English to Speakers of The following implications for modern mis- Other Languages). Development workers and sions emerge from these considerations: (1) bib- Agricultural Missions also offer educational lical discipleship, the prerequisite for missions, services as a means of incarnating Christian entails a disinterested attitude toward worldly compassion and winning a hearing for the gos- possessions; (2) material resources are to be pel. Radio, television, and literature ministries used for the spreading of God’s kingdom (Jesus’ are likewise intentionally educational (see Mass kingdom and stewardship parables); (3) solidar- Media). It is Communication of (i.e., instruction ity is called for between believers of different in) Christian truth that renders any ministry means in local churches and across cultures, “missionary.” leading to a sharing of resources; (4) the ultimate Educational ministries are also prevalent in issues in missions are spiritual, but economic the church. Discipleship programs are designed and social factors may provide barriers to effec- to cultivate Christian understanding and habits tive evangelization (Bonk); (5) all missions work among the recently converted, and catechism or takes place in a political, economic, and social baptismal classes are common in most tradi- environment, and these factors influence the ac- tions. In addition to teaching that occurs in reg- complishment of the missionary task (Clouse). ular preaching services, church education pro- grams, such as Sunday school and neighborhood Andreas Köstenberger or Small Group Bible studies provide important Bibliography. J. J. Bonk, Missions and Money: Afflu- stimulus for growth in grace. Nonformal eve- ence as a Western Missionary Problem; R. C. Chewning, ning, weekend, or seasonal training programs ed., Biblical Principles and Economics: The Founda- provide additional instruction for believers, in- tions; R. G. Clouse, ed., Wealth and Poverty: Four Chris- cluding formal and informal church leaders. tian Views; P. H. Davids, DJG, pp. 701–10; R. T. France, Theological education entails training for Evangelical Quarterly 58 (1986): 3–23; I. Smith, God Christian ministry. Bible schools, seminaries, and and Culture, pp. 162–79; K. P. Yohannan, Why the World Waits: Exposing the Reality of Modern Missions. Theological Education by Extension (TEE) re- ceive high priority in the work of missions. In sev- eral regions of the world, “pastors’ conferences” Educational Mission Work. Mission work is in- offer a unique opportunity for both trained and herently educational. The Great Commission, the untrained church leaders to receive stimulus and mandate and charter of Christian missions, is a instruction aimed at developing their ministries. command to “make disciples” and to “teach”— Educational mission work also includes train- both explicitly educational activities. Despite the ing missionaries and their children. Schools for misguided efforts of some in church history, Missionary Children exist in every region of the Christian Ethics (and the biblical view of persons world, enabling parents to provide quality educa- that underlies it) preclude any attempt to make tion for their families in proximity to their area of converts by force or deception. Informing others service. Although missionary training schools in of gospel truth, clarifying their understanding of the West may not be considered part of the global the truth and its implications, and calling for de- missionary endeavor, training missionaries called cision is the task of missions (see Missionary and sent from churches in the non-Western world Task). is an urgent and strategic aspect of educational Modern missionaries pursue that task through mission work. Likewise, on-field professional de- a wide variety of educational means. Preaching velopment of the missionary force is a responsi- may have a persuasive intent, but its method is bility of mission leadership critical to each mis- educational. Home Bible studies and “one-on- sionary’s continuing vitality and effectiveness. one” encounters are the stock in trade of mission- Schools have held a central role in the modern ary evangelists and church planters the world Protestant missionary enterprise from its very in- over; in each case the method is to witness to and ception. The case of missions in India is instruc- nurture understanding of biblical truth. Bible tive. After arriving in India in 1793, William correspondence courses (see Bible Education by Carey set immediately to learning and to translat- Extension), explicitly educational in their design, ing the Bible into several Indian languages, but he have been effectively used as evangelistic tools in also established schools for instruction in these many cultures, especially in Muslim lands. languages. In 1819, Carey founded Serampore 18 Ethnomusicology

College. Just eleven years later, in 1830, Alexan- minished their missionary role and significance der Duff arrived in Calcutta with a vision of today. With respect to social transformation, few reaching India’s upper castes through European (if any) societies are congenial to the church or secondary schools and universities using the En­ to Christian values. Nevertheless, it can be ar- glish language. Briefly, the debate between “ver- gued that mission schools and colleges have nacularists” and “Anglicists” raged, but Duff’s vi- helped shape the world on which the twenty-first sion won the day and mission-founded century dawns. How the benefits of mission English-language­ schools spread across the sub- schooling square with the task and goal of Chris- continent. In 1859, when the English colonial tian missions is an issue on which all Christians government addressed the education of its Indian should prayerfully reflect. subjects, the decision was taken to provide grants- Robert W. Ferris in-aid to agencies operating schools and colleges Bibliography. R. Allen, Education in the Native that would agree to adhere to government stan- Church; W. H. T. Gairdner, Edinburgh 1910; IMC, The dards, to include specified courses in their curric- Life of The Church; J. H. Kane, Life and Work on the ulum, and to submit to government inspection. Mission Field; S. C. Neill, Colonialism and Christian This came as an enormous boon to the founding Missions; World Missionary Conference, Report of missions. With the increasing influx of missionary Commission III: Education in Relation to the Christian- personnel, the government’s policy led to a rapid ization of National Life. multiplication of mission schools, which re- mained strong until a national education program Ethnomusicology. Ethnomusicology is an aca- was established following independence in 1947. demic discipline emerging in the twentieth cen- Mission schools were similarly significant in tury. It grew out of the tension posed by the China during the nineteenth and early twentieth adage, “Music is a universal language,” and the centuries. In Japan, education was the only type discovery of great varieties of music never previ- of mission work permitted prior to 1873. In the ously observed as a result of nineteenth-century Middle East, mission-founded universities won explorations into various parts of the world. With high regard. In sub-Sahara Africa, “bush schools” its roots dating back to the 1880s in the field of (led by indigenous pastors or catechists) and mis- comparative musicology, the term “ethnomusi- sion schools (nearly all at the primary level) were cology” was first coined in 1958 by Jaap Kunst. the principal sources of education well into the As a discipline, ethnomusicology has grown from 1960s. initial “arm-chair” observations of music col- Three factors account for the commitment of lected by explorers to active analysis, documenta- mission personnel and financial resources to tion, and participant-observation research of the schooling. As a religion of the Book, Literacy is ever-burgeoning musics of the world’s cultures. vitally important to the Christian mission. A Ethnomusicology is interdisciplinary, drawing somewhat fuller understanding of Christian from Anthropology, Linguistics, and musicol- truth, furthermore, is important to the develop- ogy. A major goal of ethnomusicologists today is ment and exercise of Leadership within the to understand the music of the world’s peoples. Christian community. Finally, at least since Alex- Traditionally, ethnomusicology includes the ander Duff, Christian missionaries have sought study of folk and traditional music, contempo- through schooling to engender a social transfor- rary music in oral tradition, and Eastern art mation which, even among non-Christians, is music. It involves the study of conceptual issues congenial to Christianity and its values. Consti- such as the origin of music, musical change, tutional government, legal assurance of egalitar- composition and improvisation, music as sym- ian human rights, capitalistic economies, and bol, universals in music, the roles and functions modern technologies were viewed as fruits of of music in society, the comparison of musical Christianity in the West, which were to be shared systems, and the interrelationships of music in through mission schools. multimedia events with drama and dance. Al- In light of the immense investment of mission though research methodologies can apply to any resources in schooling—perhaps more than any musical culture, ethnomusicologists most often other kind of mission work—it is appropriate to study cultures other than their own. review the benefits realized. Most observers ac- Historically, ethnomusicologists have debated knowledge that the evangelistic effect of mission the philosophical and methodological founda- schools is minimal. Sometimes (as in Japan and tions of the discipline. The great divide falls be- the Middle East) educational work has provided tween anthropological and musicological ap- access to populations otherwise inaccessible, but proaches to music. Alan Merriam’s thinking the close linkage between mission schools and evolved from seeing ethnomusicology as “the colonial powers also proved problematic as na- study of music in culture” (1960), to “the study tionalism grew in Africa and Asia (see Nation, of music as culture” (1973), to the assertion that Nation-Building, Nationalism, and Colonialism). “music is culture and what musicians do is soci- Nationalism of mission schools has greatly di- ety” (1975). Musicological approaches, on the 19 Family Life of the Missionary other hand, kept their focus on the transcription gies, ethnomusicological concerns, and her de- and analysis of the world’s musics. sire to provide indigenous songs for worship. Despite this conflict in approaches, ethnomu- Roberta King, who focuses on music as commu- sicologists today generally agree on five main nication, seeks to encourage the development of characteristics of the field. First, they recognize culturally relevant and meaningful songs for similarities and universals in music and musical communicating the gospel that are readily ac- behavior over against an appreciation for the ceptable to and understood by the receiving cul- plethora of musical styles worldwide. Second, ture. The process includes working with indige- they agree that personal research must be car- nous Christian musicians in setting Scripture to ried out in the field. Drawing from anthropologi- song; the approach leads to creative contextual- cal methodologies, field research includes the ization of the gospel. James Krabill has studied gathering of data about music, the collecting of the growth and theological development of an music, participant-observation techniques, the indigenous church, the Harrists of Côte d’Ivoire, audio-videorecording of music events, the collec- through the study of their song texts. The South- tion of song texts and musical instruments, the ern Baptists and Christian Missionary Alliance investigation of concepts about musical sound also pursue various approaches to incorporating and musical behavior, and learning to perform ethnomusicology in mission. Newer missions, the music under investigation. Third, ethnomusi- such as Frontiers, are sending teams to areas of cologists generally agree that music can be writ- the world where music and dance are major ten down and analyzed from a visible format. channels of communication and encouraging They seek solutions that go beyond the adapta- them to develop evangelistic methods based on tion of Western musical notation. Fourth, ethno- the “arts.” musicologists investigate music as a phenome- Ethnomusicology can and should be integrated non of culture. They insist that music has roles into every level of the missionary task. The mis- and functions within the wider cultural organi- sionary-ethnomusicologist’s major work is to de- zation of societies, and that the study of music velop mission approaches and methods that are within its cultural context produces a true, genu- meaningful and helpful to the church, that are ine understanding of that music. Finally, ethno- readily understood by missionaries as being musicologists extend their interests to the pro- highly effective, that are in agreement with na- cesses of musical change, the ways in which tional church leaders’ goals and concerns for the music remains stable, grows, and disappears. church, and that are readily accessible to Chris­ They interest themselves in the music of a cul- tian workers. Ethnomusicology for missions is ture as a whole, in the individual song or piece, more than the mere development and collection and in the life of an individual or group. of indigenous hymns, although this is important Ethnomusicology and Mission. Historically, in itself. Rather, in addition, it seeks to contribute music and ethnomusicology played only a minor to the overall increased effectiveness of making role when it came to doing the task of mission. Christ known through the study of a culture’s Parallel to academia, most missionaries viewed musical genres, the learning of a people’s world- music as “a universal language” that required the view through the study of song texts, the identifi- translation of Western hymns into local dialects cation of the role and function of music for devel- for new converts. However, current research oping methods in the use of music for shows that the discipline of ethnomusicology evangelism, music for making disciples, and can greatly impact the task of missions. Two music for training leaders. Finally, the develop- major approaches help accomplish this. First, ment of meaningful songs for worship that lead ethnomusicology, through the study of a culture’s people to an encounter with God is an ultimate music and song texts, can bring a deeper dimen- goal. sion in cultural understandings of the people Roberta R. King with whom a cross-cultural worker is minister- Bibliography. V. Chenowith, Melodic Perception and ing. Second, it can help make the gospel more Analysis; J. R. Krabill, The Hymnody of the Harrist relevant by working within the indigenous com- Church among the Dida of South-Central Ivory Coast munication systems inherent within a culture. (1913–1949): A Historico-Religious Study; A. Merriam, The development of culturally appropriate songs The Anthropology of Music; Helen Myers, ed., Ethno- and music for evangelism, discipleship, and wor- musicology: Historical and Regional Studies; B. Nettl, ship makes a major contribution to creative con- The Study of Ethnomusicology: Twenty-nine Issues and textualization of the gospel. Concepts. Within contemporary missions, ethnomusicol- ogy is receiving a more recognized role for mak- Family Life of the Missionary. With the genera- ing Christ known among the nations. Vida Che- tional shift in evangelical missions, the family nowith, a pioneer in ethnomusicology for life of missionaries has become a crucial topic. mission as a professional musician and Bible Earlier volumes on Christian mission generally translator, has combined linguistic methodolo- did not address the issue. In the age of rugged 20 Financing Missions individualism it simply would not have occurred Field Responsibilities. A missionary’s lifestyle to people. That is not to say that missionaries in and field of service involve several parties: send- the past did not marry and have families, but it ing church, mission agency, co-workers, and na- does recognize that the reduced life expectancy tionals (including leaders and national churches). of missionaries in the nineteenth century made Field responsibilities include at least six areas: the subject somewhat moot, particularly since personal and family welfare, interpersonal rela- the children of missionaries most often re- tionships, effective communication, witness and mained in the home country for their education evangelism, planting and/or development of the and safety. As the twentieth century progressed, church, and leadership preparation. The personal children did go overseas with their parents, but needs of the missionary include spiritual growth, usually spent most of their time in the protected physical care, intellectual stimulation, and needs and often insulated enclave of the missionary of the spouse and children. When these needs are school. adequately met, the missionary can then minister In the mid-twentieth century, family issues with greater freedom and success. Interpersonal began to receive expanded attention in mission- relationships must start in the home as a founda- ary circles. This has had both positive and nega- tion (see Family Life of the Missionary). The mis- tive effects. On the positive side, it opened up a sionaries need to work as team members with an discussion of very real issues that impact both interdependent spirit of humility and love (see Teams in Mission). Missionaries need to develop a the effectiveness and longevity of missionaries. servant attitude in working with others. The open On the negative side, an almost idolatrous fixa- lines of communication among missionaries, mis- tion on family needs has at times undercut the sion administrators, and nationals create the purposes for which missionaries go forth in the basis of trust and a sense of concern. Second Lan- first place. guage Acquisition and cultural understanding are This is in many respects a time of transition in necessary for identifying with the nationals and the way agencies and churches respond to issues reaching out to those who do not know Christ. of family life among missionaries. Most agencies The development and planting of churches give today are highly aware that family issues are permanence and stability to the emerging Chris- among the most important factors impacting tian community. The final goal of the missionary both missionary recruitment and attrition. Woe is selectively training local leaders who are spiri- to the agency that has not developed policies and tually mature and gifted (see Leadership). The made suitable provision. Perhaps chief among end result will be Indigenous Churches, churches the issues is the education of children. Gone are that are strong and ultimately independent from the days when missionaries happily sent their missionary leadership. Each field responsibility children off to boarding school; most want mul- needs to be kept in balance with others to avoid tiple options. Burnout and to maximize the missionary’s effec- A related issue of great importance is the status tiveness. of the missionary wife. Here, too, maximum flex- John Easterling ibility is desired and often demanded. For some Bibliography. P. A. Beals, A People for His Name. the issue is finding a satisfying ministry niche, which may or may not parallel that of the hus- band. For others the primary issue is the freedom Financing Missions. Biblical Models. Three not to have significant responsibilities outside the biblical models of financing missionary efforts home, particularly if there are children whom the are found in the life of Paul. He wrote to the Phi- couple desire to homeschool. Whatever the par- lippians that he had learned to trust God in all ticular issue, maximum flexibility with under- circumstances to provide his needs (Phil. 4:12– 14). A tentmaker by trade (Acts 18:3), he men- standing and encouragement is necessary. This tioned to the Ephesians and the Thessalonians can provide no small challenge to agencies and that he provided his own needs through his labor churches seeking to maintain cost-effective, ac- (Acts 20:34 and 1 Thess. 2:9). Tent-Making Mis- countable, and equitable policies. The good news sion, as it is known today, is named after this is that significant research and many broadly practice. In writing to the Corinthians, however, based efforts and organizations have emerged to Paul directly urged them to give generously address such family issues as care for Missionary (2 Cor. 8–9). His flexibility for financing mission- Children, reentry into the home culture (see Re- ary work illustrates a general principle that any entry Shock), and retirement planning. method which is ethically sound and God-honor- Gary R. Corwin ing may be considered acceptable. Bibliography. P. Echerd and A. Arathoon, eds., Un- Types of Missionary Support. The most com- derstanding and Nurturing the Missionary Family; B. J. mon method of mission funding has long been Kenney, The Missionary Family; R. J. Rowen and S. F. the voluntary contribution of members of local Rowen, Sojourners: The Family on the Move. churches, though there are multiple means used 21 Fund Raising to channel what is given to where it is needed. sionaries altogether (see also Foreign Financing Some denominational missions assess member of Indigenous Workers). churches on a per capita basis to fund the de- Third, some rightly question the amount that nominational mission efforts, while others allow Western missionaries feel they must raise, which each church to develop its own mission budget often adds up to many thousands of dollars per and give money as it sees fit. Non-denomina- month to finance family travel and lifestyles tional mission agencies also serve as administra- which are often well above the level of indige- tive conduits through which money is collected nous populations along with benefits such as and distributed (see also Faith Missions). Many health insurance and retirement income. The im- agencies require each missionary to raise his or plications of this for giving patterns and priori- her own individual support, while others form a ties is now being felt in churches, mission agen- central pool for which every missionary raises cies, and on the various fields of service (Bonk; money and out of which all salaries and project see also Missionary Affluence). funding comes. Fourth, control of money and exercise of Following Paul’s example (Acts 18:3), many power cannot be separated as easily as we might continue to engage in tent-making mission. This like. This is especially significant when foreign is perhaps the most common method of financ- funds have been used to initiate and preserve ing Third-World missionaries, whose churches large missionary institutions (e.g., schools, and and agencies often do not have the financial ca- hospitals) which the local economy could not pability to underwrite international travel or support unaided. Such institutions have tended urban mission work among the economic elite in to foster dependence rather than Partnership in the major cities of the world. missionary efforts. Since the dawn of political states looking fa- Finally, alarms over future Western missionary funding has begun to sound in many quarters. vorably on Christianity, missions have also been Models that have become traditional in the West, financed out of state treasuries, including finan- such as the mission agency relying on local cial grants, land grants, and imperial patronages. churches to passively and unquestioningly give During the colonial era, many Protestant efforts whenever approached, no longer hold. Discretion- were financed by colonial grant-in-aid deals ary finances in the consumer-driven Western cul- which mutually benefited missionary and colo- tures appear to be dwindling, as in commitment to nial enterprise. The resulting entanglements of traditional mission fund-raising techniques. church and state, however, often left a mixed In light of these factors, it will be increasingly perception on the part of both missionaries and important in the future to find new and appropri- the national churches, with the latter seeing the ate ways to creatively trust God to supply the nec- former as agents of the supporting state rather essary means for engaging in the missionary task. than ambassadors of Christ. However, since it is God’s intention to see the Finally, contemporary economic trends in the whole world reached, it does not seem unreason- West have enabled the development of numerous able to assume that he will continue to provide private foundations and trust funds, many of the means to do so, though not necessarily in the which underwrite projects and otherwise finance ways we expect and not without our taking seri- Christian charitable work as well as direct evan- ously our responsibility to the Great Commission. gelistic endeavors. A. Scott Moreau Issues in Financing Mission. Recently, how- ever, several issues of significance for future mis- Bibliography. J. Bonk, Missions and Money: Afflu- sion financing have been raised. First, at least in ence as a Western Missionary Problem; L. Bush, Fund- ing Third World Missions; CDCWM, pp. 208–9; J. F. North America, mission giving has largely come Engel, A Clouded Future: Advancing North American out of discretionary income, which has been dry- World Missions; J. Ronsvale and S. Ronsvale, Behind ing up over the last few decades. While a wealthy the Stained Glass Windows. generation that is now in process of dying has been leaving large gifts to missionary work in Fund Raising. Missionary enterprises require wills and trust funds, such giving is generally not adequate financial underwriting. Missions at- projected to extend beyond this generation. tached to mainline denominations may use spe- Second, many Western churches and agencies cial offerings (Southern Baptists) or assessments have begun to build giving policies around the per church member (Presbyterian Church financing of Third World missionaries, who are [U.S.A.]) to supply the needs. The missionary significantly cheaper than Western missionaries. may have little to do in this process or may have In general this emphasis, based on new thinking only a catalytic role (Christian and Missionary of global partnership and cost-effectiveness, is a Alliance) speaking at district missions confer- welcome change. Unfortunately, however, for ences. For a growing number of evangelical de- some it has become an inappropriate vehicle to nominational missions (Evangelical Free) and call for a cessation of supporting Western mis- for all independent societies (AIM, SIM), fund 22 Gender Roles raising is a task shared by the agency and the in- and there continues to be pressure for the rede- dividual missionary. Churches may partner with fining of gender roles. Few areas of inquiry are a mission agency to help in underwriting the so fraught with personal biases as the gen- support of individuals, mission-run institutions, der-role related characteristics of men and and special projects. These funds may (Overseas women. Though formerly research in this area Missionary Fellowship) or may not (The Evan- was done primarily by men, a large number of gelical Alliance Mission) be pooled by the agency research-trained women are now involved and to underwrite the general needs of the mission. new insights have resulted. The mission may provide significant help, train- All societies provide institutionalized gen- ing, and guidance for those raising funds, but der-appropriate roles. In some societies moving many agencies rely on the individual to follow up into womanhood requires special ritual and cele- contacts and raise one’s own support. The admin- bration for girls, often perceived as preparation istrative cost of fund raising varies a great deal. In for marriage. Gilmore (1990), who has re- some cases there is practically no overhead be- searched the approved way of being an adult cause of volunteers in the home office (World male in many societies around the world, sees Prayer League); in other cases it is a fixed per- manhood as generally needing to be achieved. It centage of all income (e.g., CBInternational—15 is a precarious state that boys must win against percent). Missions with a higher cost may often powerful odds and that can be diminished or lost have greater benefits for their missionaries than as well. It involves conceptually separating adult do those with little or no administrative costs. males from the women and girls in society. John Easterling Womanhood, in contrast, he sees as a natural condition that happens through biological matu- Bibliography. B. Barnett, Friend Raising: Building a ration and is culturally refined or augmented Missionary Support Team That Lasts. through body ornamentation or cosmetic behav- ior. Furlough. The period of time when the mission- Though male domination is a universal with ary is home from the field for a set period of rest, men filling the positions of authority and power, reentry (adjustment to the changes in one’s home women have great influence. Men and their val- country), taking care of personal and family ues, status, and work, tend to be “in focus” while needs, and giving reports to supporters. Since women have much responsibility and work hard the 1980s, the word “furlough” has been replaced in the background, more “out of focus.” In many with the term “home assignment,” for the mis- societies a woman’s status depends on her hus- sionary is still on active duty while at home. band’s status in society. In others, a woman’s sta- Missionaries are often assigned a percentage tus depends almost totally on her position of time to spend in active ministry in churches. among the other women. Another way of con- Certain missions with denominational under- trasting men’s and women’s status is to see men’s writing (Southern Baptists) make this time position as “public” and women’s as “private” (in strictly a period of rest and retooling, but most the home). Men are most often seen as protec- missions require missionaries to spend time vis- tors and providers and women as childbearers iting supporters. A furlough was often set on a and nurturers, both being necessary for the four-to-one ratio—four years on the field and well-being of society. one year on furlough. However, medical, educa- The Bible clearly states that all humans are tional, and financial needs often required an ex- created in God’s image, both male and female tension to meet the personal situation of the mis- (Gen. 1:27). Furthermore, humans, both male sionary. and female, have been given salvation and made With the advent of inexpensive international ambassadors for God (2 Cor. 5:17–20). However, travel, a greater percentage of missionaries are there are a variety of interpretations of what the moving to summer furloughs every two or three Bible teaches concerning the relationships of years so as to not leave their ministry for an en- men, women, and God. On the one hand, a hier- tire year nor to interrupt the educational pro- archical arrangement is perceived with woman grams of their children. under man who is under God (Mickelsen, 1983). John Easterling On the other hand, equality between male and female is perceived with both being equally re- Gender Roles. The term “gender” refers to the sponsible to God (Spencer, 1985). Yet another nonbiological, social, cultural, and psychological interpretation focuses on complementarity with aspect of being male or female. Gender roles re- male and female using their God-given strengths flect the cultural norms of the society and can be for honoring and serving God (Hull, 1987). defined as the learned or socialized differences The institutionalized Western church has gen- in behavior between male and female. Society’s erally reserved the positions of authority, decision definition of feminine and masculine gender role making, and top leadership for males. However, expectations has changed throughout history from the very beginning of the modern mission 23 Health Care and Missions movement women have played an active role. Be- ders. Changes affecting the women also bring sides providing home-front support, they re- change for the men, and vice versa. All of these sponded to God’s call and went to the field, first changes influence the structure and program of as wives and mothers but later as teachers, the church and development programs. Often a nurses, and nannies. Once on the field they be- different approach is needed to reach those came church planters, evangelists, preachers, and choosing to retain traditional role definition administrators. Their choice to become mission- from those who choose change. aries reflected their deep Christian commitment Marguerite G. Kraft and their search for a structure that would allow Bibliography. E. E. Brusco, The Reformation of Ma- them to unite the spiritual with practical needs in chismo: Evangelical Conversion and Gender in Colom- the world. In the early decades of the twentieth bia; D. D. Gilmore, Manhood in the Making: Cultural century women outnumbered men on the mis- Concepts of Masculinity; G. G. Hull, Equal to Serve: sion field by a ratio of more than two to one. Women and Men in the Church and the Home; A. Mick- They have been the “guardians of the great com- elsen, Authority and the Bible; A. B. Spencer, Beyond the mission” (Tucker, 1988). Though there were for- Curse: Women Called to Ministry; R. A. Tucker, GGC; ty-four women’s missionary boards sending both M. S. VanLeeuwen, Gender and Grace: Love, Work, and men and women to the field in 1910, today the Parenting in a Changing World. authority structure and decision-making power in mission organizations is mostly in male hands. Health Care and Missions. In the 1970s it be- It is important for missionaries to understand came clear that the traditional pattern of health the fact that differences in gender roles are so- care delivery in medical missions, that of medi- cially defined. In cross-cultural work the ten- cal institutions staffed by trained medical profes- dency is to impose the cultural patterns of the sionals, was inadequate. Institutions were unable carrier of the gospel on the assumption that they to cure the number of sick who came and had are biblical without even investigating what it done little to improve the health of the majority means to be male or female in the receptor soci- of people in the communities they served. A vari- ety. The Bible, however, shows God working ac- ety of global health agencies and Christian cording to the gender role definition of each bib- groups addressed this issue, with significant lical society. In divided societies where women leadership for the Christian community coming function in the women’s world and men in the from the Christian Medical Commission in Ge- men’s world, it is usually best that the carrier of neva. Historic mission involvement in schools, the gospel be the same sex as the hearer. Women agriculture, evangelism, and church planting—as need to reach the women and the men the men well as hospitals and clinics—reflected a genu- in such a society. If one gender creates and sings ine, though often unarticulated, concern for so- the songs of the society, then that sex should be cial and economic transformation as well as for tapped as a key resource for that role in the spiritual development. The legacy of the 1970s church. Division of labor according to gender as was to focus attention on community participa- prescribed by the society does not have to tion in health care, the responsibility of govern- change when people become Christian. Leader- ments in health care, the relationship between ship training in the church for males and fe- health and Development, training personnel for males should be related to the roles they play in primary care, using appropriate technology in society. Brusco (1995) has done an excellent an- health care, and providing essential affordable thropological study on the effect of conversion to drugs. evangelical Protestantism on gender roles in Co- The World Health Organization definition of lombia. Her work shows how allegiance to Christ health includes physical, mental, and social brings gender role changes. well-being, but the biblical concept of Shalom Dealing with these and other changes is im- moves beyond that, encompassing the welfare, portant to crosscultural communicators of the health, and prosperity of both the person and gospel. Often legislation allows for change long persons-in-community. Around the globe there before there is a change in attitude and practice. have emerged many models of integrated holistic For instance, in areas where the women’s role ministry that promote health. They are diversely has been traditionally in the home and then they sponsored by mission agencies, churches, devel- are given the option of training for a career, opment agencies, grassroots organizations, and when they are working outside the home they combinations of those groups. continue to be unconsciously evaluated by soci- Model Programs. Parachurch organizations, ety on how well they run their homes. New tech- such as the Luke Society and Campus Crusade nologies, urbanization, education, war, and in- for Christ, have made significant contributions dustrialization all result in subtle changes in in the area of Christian health ministries. The gender roles. There needs to be sensitivity not Luke Society, working in the Ashanti province of just to the logistics of what is happening, but to Ghana since 1989, founded twenty-two commu- the meaning of what is happening to both gen- nity health centers with trained workers as part 24 Home Schooling of a larger program that also included evange- in-home tutors, home education under the su- lism, church planting, and income-generation pervision of a traveling teacher who chooses the projects. Community Health Evangelism, origi- curriculum and evaluates the students on a regu- nally a program of Life Ministry Africa (Campus lar basis, cooperative home schooling among Crusade for Christ), was conceived to help the various families, and home-based education that church meet both the physical and spiritual is parent-designed and -led. needs of the people. Community health evange- Some missionary families educate their chil- lists teach health workers, who in turn train oth- dren at home due to a lack of financially or geo- ers in disease prevention, health promotion, and graphically accessible alternatives. Other parents how to have an abundant Christian life through home school a child because of the particular a personal relationship with Christ. needs and personality of that child. For others Traditional mission agencies working in part- the decision to home school is based on a com- nership with local churches have developed mitment to an educational philosophy; many strong programs as well. In the Republic of home-schooling parents share the belief that the Congo, the Vanga Evangelical Hospital under the education of children is primarily the responsibil- leadership of Dan Fountain developed in three ity and right of parents. (Mary Hood described decades from a rural hospital with two dispensa- four educational philosophies that can motivate ries to a 300-bed referral hospital with five physi- home schooling—essentialism, progressivism, pe- cians and a network of 50 primary health care rennialism, and existentialism.) Since no single centers, working in partnership with the Baptist schooling option is best for all families, for all Church of Western Zaire. There has been a sig- children, or even for all stages in a given child’s nificant impact on morbidity and mortality in its life, home schooling will not be ideal for every catchment area of 200,000 people. family. The flexible, community-oriented initiatives, Home schooling, however, offers some distinct which began in the 1970s, have proliferated in advantages, including the following: the individ- subsequent years. Documentation of these initia- ualized instruction can take into account a pu- tives has been undertaken by MARC, a division pil’s learning styles and interests; self-directed of World Vision International, in a series of pub- learning is encouraged; learning takes place in a lications by Ted Yamamori and colleagues enti- secure environment; there is more adult–child tled Serving with the Poor in Africa, Serving with interaction than in a large classroom; the flexible the Poor in Asia, and Serving with the Poor in schedule can take advantage of the richness of Latin America, making engaging reading on the unique learning environment; the student Christian social transformation, integrated de- can have an opportunity to become bilingual and velopment, and health care that ministers to bicultural and to know and appreciate people of both physical and spiritual needs. the local culture; the child can be involved in Evvy Campbell ministry along with the parents; family closeness is facilitated and enhanced; the young person Bibliography. C. Bellamy, The State of the World’s Children 1996; B. Bradshaw, Bridging the Gap: Evange- tends to be less peer-dependent and less suscepti- lism, Development and Shalom; D. M. Ewert, A New ble to peer pressure; in a multinational mission Agenda for Medical Missions; E. Ram, Transforming the instruction can be conducted in the family’s Health: Christian Approaches to Healing and Wholeness; native language. S. B. Rifkin, Community Health in Asia; E. H. Patterson In the majority of research studies the educa- and S. B. Rifkin, Health Care in China: An Introduction; tional learning outcome of home-schooled chil- D. Van Reken, Mission and Ministry: Christian Medical dren has been found to be highly positive. Ray, in Practice in Today’s Changing World Cultures. a study of 4,600 children in the United States, found that home-educated children averaged at Home Schooling. Home education has a rich or above the 80th percentile on standardized heritage and is an expression of the historical achievement tests in all academic subject areas: practice of home- and family-centered learning. language, mathematics, reading, listening, sci- Five World War II leaders were schooled at ence, and social studies. Home-educated learn- home: Franklin Roosevelt, Winston Churchill, ers have also generally been found to do well in Konrad Adenauer, Douglas MacArthur, and measures of social and emotional adjustment. George Patton. Many Western Missionary Chil- Elizabeth S. Brewster dren in the modern missions era have been home-schooled. A whole generation of mission- Bibliography. P. Echerd and A. Arathoon, eds., Un- ary children grew up under the Calvert School derstanding and Nurturing the Missionary Family; J. A. Holzmann, Helping Missionaries Grow: Readings in correspondence course. Mental Health and Missions; M. Hood, Home School Home schooling currently takes a variety of Reseacher (1991): 1–8; E. K. McEwan, Schooling Op- forms: correspondence education through an es- tions; R. Moore and D. Moore, Home Style Teaching; tablished correspondence course, home school P. Nelson, EMQ 24 (1988): 126–29; D. C. Pollock, IBMR as a satellite of a day school or residence school, 13 (1989): 13–19; B. D. Ray, Marching to the Beat of 25 In-Service Education

Their Own Drum!—A Profile of Home Education Re- schools, and universities; with nonformal oppor- search; B. A. Tetzel and P. Mortenson, eds., Interna- tunities at seminars, conferences, and institutes; tional Conference on Missionary Kids 1984; T. E. Wade and with informal possibilities through the re- Jr., The Home School Manual. sources of libraries, book stores, newspapers, radio, and television. In addition, computer In-Service Education. Efforts by mission agen- technology is increasingly making bibliographic cies, training schools, and churches to provide databases, in­de­pen­dent study courses, missio- in-service education for their missionaries are logical forums, and other resources available poorly documented. Even so, the scattered infor- through CD-ROMs, the internet, and the World mation which is available reveals some encour- Wide Web. aging trends. In the midst of these encouraging trends, there Cooperative models are beginning to emerge. are causes for concern: the gap between prefield AVANTE mission in Brazil is combining its re- orientation programs and the missionary’s initial sources with those of missions schools and field experience is sometimes wide and deep; churches into an extended training program continuing education can be haphazard, rather which begins with initial orientation and field than planned and purposeful; the resources of experience, continues through advanced missio- national churches are seldom used effectively. logical studies, and culminates in a supervised Missionaries are far more than human re- term of service in a team situation in another sources to be developed for missions. They are country (Neuza Itioka in Taylor, ed., 111–20). persons created in God’s image, growing in North American agencies and schools are begin- Christ-likeness, and infinitely more valuable ning to work together in helping missionaries to than any task they may perform. When all is said pursue a substantial portion of a master’s degree and done, in-service education is ongoing disci- on the field. plemaking, encouraging Christ’s intercultural Some in-service efforts are consciously adopt- servants to keep learning from him. ing adult education methods (Brewer). A Praxis Lois McKinney Douglas model which integrates new learnings with life experience is being employed. Times and places Bibliography. M. Brewer, ERT 14 (July 1990): 154– are flexible. Formal, nonformal, and informal 279; M. S. Knowles, The Modern Practice of Adult Edu- delivery modes are all used. Missionaries are en- cation: From Pedagogy to Andragogy, rev. ed.; EMQ 24 couraged to pursue their individual goals within (October 1988); W. D. Taylor, ed., Internationalizing cooperative learning communities. Missionary Training. Agencies, churches, and schools are increas- ingly realizing that in-service education contin- Indigenization. In the broadest sense, indigeni- ues beyond the first term and home assignment. zation is a term describing the “translatability” Ministries change and expand. Transfers to new of the universal Christian faith into the forms geographical locations occur. Children no longer and symbols of the particular cultures of the require full-time care (Taylor, 9, 10). Even retire- world. Still widely accepted among evangelicals, ment does not lessen the missionary’s educa- the word validates all human languages and cul- tional needs. tures before God as legitimate paths for under- A growing concern for the care and Spiritual standing his divine meanings. Formation of missionaries can also be discerned. Indigenization provided the freedom for the At least one agency offers a “mental health Greek translators of the Hebrew Old Testament check-up” to returning missionaries. Mental (the Septuagint) to take a word like theos from health professional and mission leaders in the the idolatrous world of polytheism and use it to United States and Canada are convening confer- describe the only Creator of heaven and earth, ences to explore issues related to missionary care the God (theos) and Father of our Lord Jesus (see Member Care). Christ. Many church pastors are visiting fields to pro- Indigenization enabled first-century Christian vide counseling and spiritual encouragement for Jews in Gentile-dominated Antioch to cross a their missionaries. Churches are also helping massive cultural barrier and begin preaching to with funds for study programs, books, and jour- the Greeks (Walls, 1996, 17). They knew that nals. Others are initiating missiological dialogues their time-honored word Christ would mean lit- with missionaries on e-mail. A few larger tle to their neighbors. So they used another churches are offering their own courses and sem- name to identify their Messiah in this new cul- inars for missionaries.­ tural setting: “the Lord Jesus” (Acts 11:20). The explosion of resources for in-service edu- The same process of indigenization allowed cation has also been encouraging. On Home As- freedom for the emerging churches of the world signment, and often on the field as well, mis- to wrestle with infusing traditional cultural and sionaries are being helped to network with social practices with new Christian meaning. formal study options in seminaries, graduate Patterns of worship and music, of initiation, 26 Indigenization marriage, and funeral rites, even of church struc- which those cultures are judged, transformed, ture and leadership could be adapted or trans- and liberated. formed by the gospel. The Rocky Road of Indigenization. This apos- The Boundaries of Indigenization. Indigeni- tolic balance did not always appear in the centu- zation is born out of the tension created by two ries that follow. Within the Roman Catholic realities. One is the recognition that Christians Church, Accommodation grew as a middle ground bring with their faith the particulars of their cul- of gradualism. The imperfections of the pagan ture and social group and best appropriate that world of nature were to be supplemented by the faith in terms of those particulars. The other is perfections of grace. Thus, in the seventh century the recognition that this new Christian faith Pope Gregory the Great could advise Augustine, brings with it a universalizing factor that extends his evangelist laboring in England, “to destroy the Christian community past the particular bor- the idols, but the temples themselves are to be ders of culture and group. sprinkled with holy water, altars set up, and relics Indigenization as a process asks, How can the enclosed in them.” church be a universal, global Christian commu- Later Jesuit experiments particularly in China nity and also a particular community, shaped moved in a similar direction. Matteo Ricci saw within its own culture and society? How can the the Chinese homage to Confucius and to the an- gospel flower be planted in new soil without also cestors as ritual expressions of gratitude not inim- planting the foreign flower pot? ical to the Christian faith. He “found in Confucius Working within these boundaries is not easy. the natural theology, the preparatio evangelica, of How do the churches keep the balance between China as his theological training had given him freedom to develop on their own path and alle- this for the West in Aristotle” (Allen, 1960, 39). giance to the transcultural gospel uniting all the In Europe observers often matched Jesuit en- churches? What should be the relation of a thusiasm. The philosopher Leibnitz could argue, Christian church to its non-Christian past? When “I almost think it necessary that Chinese mis- does indigenization in the name of Christian lib- sionaries should be sent to us to teach us the erty slip into over-indigenization or Syncretism? aim and practice of natural theology, as we send When does hesitation over indigenization slip missionaries to them to instruct them in re- into legalism and traditionalism? vealed religion.” Toward a Biblical Framework. The legiti- In the face of mounting opposition by the Do- macy of this process flows from the “accommo- minicans, confusion, and misunderstanding, in dations of God himself” (Battles, 1977, 19–38). 1744, the papacy said enough was enough. Such Revelation itself comes with a sensitivity to the experiments in accommodation were con- time, place, culture, and literary genres of its re- demned and Roman Catholic missionary ceptors but never with capitulation to error. churches found themselves required to reflect in There is a history to special revelation; the con- every detail the Catholic customs of the moment. descending Father communicates truth to us in a Not until 1938 was that ban lifted. And not until form suited to our particular human situations the years following the Second Vatican Council (see Bible; Vos, 1948, 11–27). (1962–65) did Roman Catholic missiology seek Out of the reservoir of ancient Near Eastern to reclaim and correct features of the accommo- metaphors God paints himself as the divine war- dation model in what is now called Incultura- rior (Exod. 15:1–3) come to deliver his people tion (Luzbetak, 1988, 82–83). from Egypt. He reshapes the treaty language of Protestant models in the nineteenth century the ancient Hittite codes from their polytheistic promised more freedom but often practiced a connections to draw a picture of the covenant similar reluctance toward indigenization. There made between Creator and creature, Redeemer were many reasons for the hesitancy: a long his- and redeemed (Exod. 20:1–17). He encloses his tory of Ethnocentrism that identified things eternal Word in the limiting wrappings of the Christian with the superiority of things Western; Hebrew language, his own coming in the God- the shaping role played by the missionary “out- man Jesus Christ, the Word of God incarnate as sider” in the receptor culture; the sense that the a first-century Palestinian Jew. “native church” was still too immature to be “let In the fullness and power of his Holy Spirit he go”; the emerging national churches’ own identi- breaks through that Hebrew sociocultural world fication of the shape of Christianity with its Eu- to proclaim Christ both across and within the ropean models. global borders of cultural diversities and linguis- The promotion of the “indigenous church for- tic expressions (Acts 1:8). Pentecost transforms mula” (see Indigenous Churches) in the latter the Babel curse of diversity into global blessing; half of the nineteenth century began to break we are called to be all things to all people in through those patterns. Developed by the mis- order to save some at any cost (1 Cor. 9:23). The sionary community to identify the emerging world’s cultures become home where the gospel church, the “three-self” understanding of the takes root. And the gospel becomes the leaven in church as self-governing, self-propagating, and 27 Indigenous Churches self-supporting became a stepping stone to other expected the churches to support themselves. questions that would expand into the twentieth Paul appointed and trained elders to lead all the century. churches he planted. He gave the churches over The indigenous church began to ask, What to the care of the Holy Spirit, but he also visited were the implications of selfhood beyond the them and wrote to them periodically. “three-selfs”? Could the local church possess all Henry Venn (1796–1873) of the Church Mis- three selfs and still look and sound “foreign”? sionary Society and Rufus Anderson (1796–1880) The recall of foreign missionaries during World of the American Board of Commissioners of For- War II and the breaking up of Western Colonial- eign Missions first used the term “indigenous ism gave the global church the long promised church” in the mid-nineteenth century. They both freedom to press these questions. wrote about the necessity of planting “three-self” Indigenization became the slogan word under churches—churches that would be self-support- which such questions were asked. How could the ing, self-governing, and self-propagating (Venn church now be itself, responsible to the Lord and used the term “self-extending”). They exhorted to its own cultural world (Beyerhaus and Lefe- missionaries to establish churches that could sup- ver, 1964)? How could the church now planted port themselves, govern themselves, and carry out on six continents be a viable, prophetic force in a program of evangelism and missions. They cau- its own culture, reflecting the full power of the tioned missionaries about becoming absorbed in gospel in every part of its social context? pastoring and maintaining churches, insisting Since the 1970s the term Contextualization that the missionary’s primary task must be plant- has also been used to include these discussions ing new churches that would be “self-reliant” and and to add other topics. What of the self-theolo- “purely native.” They instructed their missionar- gizing of the global church? Indigenization is ies to train national pastors and hand the care of being seen as more than what is happening on the churches over to them at the earliest opportu- “the mission field out there.” It is a reflection nity. Venn coupled the concept of indigenous process that does not exempt the West from churches with euthanasia in missions. By eutha- self-analysis. Indigenization/contextualization nasia he meant that missionaries should plant now places the burden of initiative and responsi- churches, train leaders, and then move on to new, bility “squarely on Christians in the local con- unevangelized regions. Henry Venn believed that text” (Taber, 1991, 177). missionaries should always be temporary work- Harvie M. Conn ers, not permanent fixtures. John L. Nevius (1829–93), a Presbyterian mis- Bibliography. E. L. Allen, Christianity Among the Re- ligions; F. Battles, Interpretation 31 (1977): 19–38; sionary to China, built on Venn and Anderson’s P. Beyerhaus and H. Lefever, The Responsible Church indigenous principles in his classic work, Plant- and the Foreign Mission; V. Cronin, The Wise Man From ing and Development of Missionary Churches. Ne- the West; L. Luzbetak, The Church and Cultures; vius developed a set of principles that came to be C. Taber, The World is Too Much with Us; G. Vos, Bibli- called “The Nevius Plan”: (1) Christians should cal Theology; A. Walls, The Missionary Movement in continue to live in their neighborhoods and pur- Christian History. sue their occupations, being self-supporting and witnessing to their co-workers and neighbors. (2) Indigenous Churches. The term “indigenous” Missions should only develop programs and in- comes from biology and indicates a plant or ani- stitutions that the national church desired and mal native to an area. Missiologists adopted the could support. (3) The national churches should word and used it to refer to churches that reflect call out and support their own pastors. the cultural distinctives of their ethnolinguistic (4) Churches should be built in the native style group. The missionary effort to establish indige- with money and materials given by the church nous churches is an effort to plant churches that members. (5) Intensive biblical and doctrinal in- fit naturally into their environment and to avoid struction should be provided for church leaders planting churches that replicate Western pat- every year. In his writings Nevius criticized the terns. heavily subsidized work that most missions car- Missionary efforts to establish indigenous ried on in China. Nevius’s principles had little churches are attempts to do missions as the impact in China, but when the American Presby- apostle Paul did. A brief recital of Paul’s mission- terians began their work in Korea, the new mis- ary methods demonstrates this fact. Paul served sionaries invited Nevius to advise them. They as an itinerant missionary, never staying more adopted his plan and enjoyed great success. than three years in any city. Paul’s approach to Roland Allen (1868–1947), an Anglican priest, evangelizing regions was to plant churches in served as a missionary in China with the Society cities from which the gospel would permeate the for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign surrounding areas. He never appealed to the Parts from 1892 until 1904. Like Nevius, he crit- churches in Antioch or Jerusalem for funds with icized the methods employed by most missions which to support the new churches. Rather, he in China. He wrote several books, but expressed 28 Justice of God his philosophy of indigenous missions in Mis- and missions. (6) Self-giving. An indigenous sionary Methods: St. Paul’s or Ours? (1912) and church knows the social needs of its community The Spontaneous Expansion of the Church and endeavors to minister to those needs. (1927). Tippett summarizes his understanding of the Allen emphasized the role of the Holy Spirit in indigenous church with this definition: “When missions and encouraged missionaries to work the indigenous people of a community think of in itinerant church planting, trusting the Holy the Lord as their own, not a foreign Christ; when Spirit to develop the churches. Allen’s main prin- they do things as unto the Lord, meeting the cul- ciples are these: (1) All permanent teaching must tural needs around them, worshipping in pat- be intelligible and so easily understood that terns they understand; when their congregations those who receive it can retain it, use it, and pass function in participation in a body which is it on. (2) All organizations should be set up in a structurally indigenous; then you have an indige- way that national Christians can maintain them. nous church” (136). (3) Church finances should be provided and con- In recent years some missiologists have sug- trolled by the local church members. (4) Chris- gested adding a seventh mark to Tippett’s list— tians should be taught to provide pastoral care self-theologizing. They believe a truly indigenous for each other. (5) Missionaries should give na- church will develop its own theology, expressed tional believers the authority to exercise spiritual in culturally appropriate ways. These theologies gifts freely and at once. Allen’s principles have would affirm the central doctrines of the Chris­ influenced many twentieth-century missiolo- tian faith, but they would express them using gists, most prominently Donald McGavran. metaphors and concepts that reflect their own Melvin Hodges (1909–86), a missionary and unique cultures. mission administrator with the Assemblies of Missionaries who seek to establish indigenous God, wrote The Indigenous Church (1953). churches should keep these principles in mind as Widely used in missions courses, this book ex- they begin their work: (1) Missionaries should pressed the ideas of Venn, Anderson, Nevius, and plant churches with the goal in mind. This Allen in an updated, popular format. Hodges ac- means that the desired outcome—an indigenous knowledged the difficulty missionaries experi- church—should influence the methods em- ence in changing a field from a subsidy approach ployed. (2) There will always be a dynamic ten- to an indigenous approach. He also emphasized sion between supracultural doctrines and vari- training national workers and giving them re- able cultural traits. (3) Church planters should sponsibility for the care of the churches, freeing expect the churches to support themselves from the missionaries to concentrate on starting new the beginning. (4) Bible study groups should be churches. encouraged to make basic decisions even before In his book, Verdict Theology in Missionary The- they organize as churches. (5) Missionaries ory, Alan Tippett (1911–88) updated the three-self should encourage new congregations to evange- formula of Henry Venn. Tippett served on the fac- lize their communities and seek opportunities to ulty of the School of World Mission at Fuller Sem- begin new churches. (6) Missionaries should al- inary and was a member of Donald McGavran’s ways use reproducible methods of evangelism, inner circle. The writings of Tippett, McGavran, teaching, preaching, and leadership. (7) Mission- and others show that the Church Growth Move- aries should give priority to developing nationals ment accepted and built on the work of the earlier to serve as church leaders. (8) Missionaries proponents of indigenous missions. should view themselves as temporary church In Verdict Theology Tippett proposed a sixfold planters rather than permanent pastors. (9) Mis- description of an indigenous church: (1) Self-im- sionaries should resist the temptation to estab- age. The church sees itself as being independent lish institutions and wait for the national church from the mission, serving as Christ’s church in to take the initiative. (10) Missionaries must its locality. (2) Self-functioning. The church is allow the national churches to develop theolo- capable of carrying on all the normal functions gies and practices that are biblical yet appropri- of a church—worship, Christian education, and ate in their cultural settings. so on. (3) Self-determining. This means the John Mark Terry church can and does make its own decisions. Bibliography. R. Pierce Beaver, ed., To Advance the The local churches do not depend on the mission Gospel: Selections from the Writings of Rufus Anderson; to make their decisions for them. Tippett echoes M. L. Hodges, The Indigenous Church; J. L. Nevius, Venn in saying that the mission has to die for the Planting and Development of Missionary Churches; church to be born. (4) Self-supporting. The A. Tippett, Verdict Theology in Missionary Theory; church carries its own financial burdens and fi- M. Warren, ed., To Apply the Gospel: Selections from the nances its own service projects. (5) Self-propaga- Writings of Henry Venn. tion. The national church sees itself as responsi- ble for carrying out the Great Commission. The Justice of God. The evangelistic commitment of church gives itself wholeheartedly to evangelism evangelical missions has continuously stressed 29 Justice of God the centrality of the cross of Jesus Christ as pay- This debate concerning the relationship of jus- ment for the penalty for sin. This atoning work tice issues to mission can also be placed within a satisfies the requirements of the justice of God wider global discussion. In the first place, reflec- for eternal life. The Bible reveals, however, that tion on the topic can be set against the backdrop the justice of God encompasses more than the of the history of missions around the globe. spiritual dimension. His demands extend into the Some missiologists denounce what they consider concrete realities of human social existence. For to be the complicity of mission agencies with the the last several decades this aspect of the justice European colonization of the Two-Thirds World of God and the relevance of this justice to the and the surfacing of contemporary North Atlan- worldwide mission of the Christian church has tic economic neo-colonial attitudes in mission generated vigorous debate within evangelical cir- structures and operation (Costas). More nuanced cles. approaches would suggest a chronological con- Opinions differ over whether social justice is- vergence and some ideological affinities of early sues should be strictly distinguished from the missions with that colonizing activity and do mandate to evangelize the lost and instead be recognize certain theological limitations. These considered by individual Christians subsequent responses offer a more positive evaluation of pi- to conversion; whether social action should be oneer and modern missionary efforts (Escobar understood as providing a bridge to evangelism and Driver; Scott; Sanneh; Núñez and Taylor). by presenting opportunities for the verbal proc- Second, the relationship between justice and lamation of the gospel of eternal salvation; or mission has received attention at several inter- lastly, should the concern for social justice be national evangelical congresses. An increasing seen as an integral part of the broader mission of awareness of Christian social responsibility has the church in the world. In other words, is social been encouraged by these gatherings, beginning justice the by-product of the mission of evange- with Wheaton and Berlin in 1966, through Lau- lism, the means toward accomplishing that fore- sanne (1974) to Manila (1989). The World Evan- most task of evangelism, or a legitimate goal of gelical Fellowship has sponsored various con- mission? sultations and regional congresses to wrestle Background to the Debate. Evangelical mis- with justice. These meetings have witnessed the sions historically have demonstrated an interest growing input of theologians from developing in matters of social import. Mission activity, at countries, who daily face the harsh realities of least to some degree, has been directed at the poverty and war, and of those whom some label eradication of personal vices, the establishment “radical” evangelicals (e.g., Ron Sider and Jim of hospitals and orphanages, the promotion of Wallis). Several recently published missiology literacy, and the provision of emergency relief texts underscore the centrality of the justice of from natural disasters. Critics, however, would God for mission (Scott; Dyrness; Bosch). For suggest that these laudable efforts are but ges- certain missiologists this trend is cause for tures of charity, which focus on the individual alarm, because the primacy of evangelism is and ignore the systemic realities that perpetuate perceived to be under threat. They liken this di- social ills. They posit that such endeavors also rection in missiological reflection to some of the are limited by a missiological perspective that is theological options taken by the World Council condemnatory of society and wary of close con- of Churches since its watershed assembly at tact with a fallen world. Many locate the seedbed Uppsala of 1968 (Beyerhaus). of this reticence to engage the larger context in Foundational Biblical and Theological the fundamentalist-modernist controversies of Themes. The following brief survey establishes the early part of the twentieth century. that the demand for justice, both spiritual and Nevertheless, in some evangelical circles there social, is dear to the heart of God. This all-­ has been a broadening of the theology of mission encompassing justice should be central to the over the last fifty years to embrace a more holistic mission of the people of God in the world and framework (Van Engen; see Holistic Mission). incarnated within the community of faith. Dif- This development represents a recuperation of ferent missiological positions, of course, will ap- evangelical roots in, for example, the influence of preciate this mandate in their own particular John Wesley (1703–91) and Methodism on En­ ways. glish society, the successful efforts by William Wil- The Fall and spread of sin. God announces in berforce (1759–1833) and others to abolish the the garden that to eat the forbidden fruit will slave trade in the British Empire, and the two bring death (Gen. 2:16–17). Later revelation indi- Great Awakenings in the United States in the cates that transgression brought spiritual death eighteenth and nineteenth centuries which were (Rom. 5:12–21), and the provision of covering concerned with improving the moral life of believ- through the death of an animal (Gen. 3:21) fore- ers and fomenting Christian education and an- shadows the Law’s sacrifices for sin and ulti- ti-slavery sentiments (see Abolitionist Move- mately the sacrifice of the Lamb of God, Jesus ment). Christ (e.g., Isa. 53:7–13; John 2:9; Heb. 9–10; 30 Land, Land Reform, Land Rights

Rev. 5:6–14). The first human death recorded a richer significance, even as Jesus declares its after the Fall in Genesis 3 is fratricide. Cain kills fulfillment. On the one hand, the mention of the Abel. Later, Lamech boasts of his intention of poor, prisoners, the sick, and the oppressed an- uncontrolled revenge (Gen. 4:2–9, 23–24). Cain is ticipates the special targets of his ministry. A judged by God, and the impetuosity of Lamech is closer look at Lucan theology indicates that contrasted with calling on the name of the Lord these terms have spiritual implications, too. His (Gen. 4:10–16, 26; cf. 5:24). The Lord condemns deeds and words are good news to those who are the pervasive violence with a universal Flood open to God and his Christ (6:20–26), whose (Gen. 6:11) but afterward delegates the authority bondage can be demonic (4:33–35; 9:1, 37–43; to maintain justice to human agents and struc- 11:14–28) and their blindness spiritual (1:79; tures (Gen. 9:5–6; Rom. 12:17–13:5). These early 7:47; 24:47). His person and work exemplify the chapters of the first book of the Bible disclose grace and exigencies of divine justice, and in his that, even as sin has both vertical and horizontal death it finds propitiation (Rom. 3:25–26; Heb. dimensions, the justice of God involves every di- 2:17; 1 John 2:2, 4:10). mension of human existence. John 20:21. Some propose that the words of The call of Abram. The divine commitment to Jesus in John 20:21 (cf. John 17:18; Mark 12:28– the various spheres of justice reflected in Gene- 31 and parallels) should be taken as the commis- sis 1–11 serves as the framework for the call of sion which defines Christian mission: the life and Abram. Part of this charge is that he be a chan- ministry of Jesus are a paradigm to be imitated nel of blessing to the world (Gen. 12:3). This (Stott). This perspective does not devalue evange- blessing involves worship and confession of the listic proclamation, which others consider the true God, as well as trusting obedience (e.g., defining prescription in the other Great Commis- Gen. 12:7–8, 14:18–24, 15:6, 18:17–19; see Abra- sion passages (Matt. 28:18–20; Mark 16:15–18; hamic Covenant). The patriarchal accounts in Luke 24:45–49), but argues rather for a more Genesis demonstrate that the notion of blessing comprehensive understanding of mission—a ho- has a social dimension grounded in the charac- listic vision which would incorporate both the ter of God. For instance, Abraham intercedes for spiritual and social spheres of God’s justice. Sodom on the basis of divine justice (Gen. Finally, mention should be made of the theme 18:22–32), a justice which demands chastise- of the Kingdom of God. The dynamic rule of God ment, but that is tempered by mercy. is inseparable from the justice of his character. The exodus and Sinai. God responds to the cry Throughout history he expresses the demand for of the Israelites in Egypt because of God’s cove- justice and intervenes to effect it in the various nant, but action on their behalf also is motivated spheres suggested in the preceding survey. The by compassion for their suffering of cruel infan- future establishment of a kingdom of justice, in ticide and oppressive labor (Exod. 2:23–25). all of its breadth, is an integral part of the bibli- While they are miraculously delivered in part to cal hope. be free to worship the Lord (Exod. 5:3), they are M. Daniel Carroll R. called as well to create a new type of society in Bibliography. M. Arias and A. Johnson, The Great the Promised Land. The Law given at Sinai Commission: Biblical Models for Evangelism; P. J. Bey- (Exod. 20–40) and presented in the rest of the erhaus, God’s Kingdom & the Utopian Error; D. J. Pentateuch reveals that God is founding an alter- Bosch, Transforming Mission: Paradigm Shifts in Theol- native community with a different kind of spiri- ogy of Mission; O. E. Costas, Christ Outside the Gate: tual ethos and social ethic. The Lord desires jus- Mission Beyond Christendom; W. A. Dyrness, Let the tice among his own people, and their laws are to Earth Rejoice: A Biblical Theology of Holistic Mission; be a model and testimony to the surrounding S. Escobar and J. Driver, Christian Mission and Social nations (Deut. 4:5–8). Justice; E. A. Núñez, C. and W. D. Taylor, Crisis and Hope in Latin America: An Evangelical Perspective (rev. The Servant Songs of Isaiah. The themes of sal- ed.); L. Sanneh, Encountering the West: Christianity and vation and justice are repeated throughout these the Global Cultural Process; W. Scott, Bring Forth Jus- messianic passages (Isa. 42:1–9; 49:1–13; 50:4– tice: A Contemporary Perspective on Mission; J. R. W. 11; 52:13–53:12). The ministry of the Servant will Stott, Christian Mission in the Modern World; C. E. Van be to establish a reign of righteousness and Engen, Earthen Vessels: American Evangelicals and For- peace in faithfulness to the God of Israel, a strik- eign Missions, 1880–1980, pp. 203–32. ing antithesis to the idolatry, war, and oppression that serve as the backdrop to this portion of Isa- Land, Land Reform, Land Rights. The subject iah. This hope embraces all the nations of the of land is an underrated issue in mission; it is earth and is secured by the voluntary self-sacri- hardly mentioned in textbooks and is largely ig- fice of the Servant. nored in training courses. Luke 4:16–20. This inaugural sermon of Jesus’ Historically, missionaries from the West often ministry is based on Isaiah 61:1–2a (and 58:6b). associated with the powerful and privileged in That Isaianic passage, which describes a messi- order to get permission to stay in a country. This anic jubilee for the nation of Israel, is now given agreement was often conditioned by an expecta- 31 Lausanne Congress on World Evangelization (1974) tion of noninvolvement in questions of power especially urgent since land reform efforts con- and land ownership. The colonial mentality of tinue to fail because of the obstruction of power- missions in the early part of the twentieth cen- ful, vested interests. Even where missionary agri­ tury meant that missionaries were more identi- culturalists have made an impact working with fied with the conquerors and exploiters than the farmers to reclaim marginalized land, the incen- struggling classes. In the words of Desmond Tutu tive to do this is restricted by the awareness that of South Africa: “Before the missionaries came too much improvement may draw fresh interfer- they had the Bible and we had the land. They ence from the rich. said ‘Let us pray,’ and when we opened our eyes, Landless people in the cities are a greater chal- we had the Bible and they had the land!” lenge. They live in vulnerable places along ex- Many missions purchased land for cathedrals pressways, river banks, and canals, where the and churches, schools, hostels, and hospitals as “haves” would not reside. Resettlement is rarely the physical base to reach people. Missionary satisfactory because it takes the urban poor away compounds, by contrast, have often been places from the locations in the city where they survive of privacy and protection that conflict with a on what the wealthy discard. genuinely incarnational ministry. The need for One recent hopeful shift in mission is the move- land as a base for mission consumes energy and ment toward incarnation, the willingness of evan- money. The complexities of foreigners buying gelical Christian groups to live in urban slums land, with payoffs to power holders and tradi- and shanty towns. Serving the poor by identifying tional owners, established patterns for later deal- in their daily struggle has brought hope that peo- ings. Regular payments for maintenance and ple on the margins of life can meet a Jesus who is labor can reinforce the perception that mission- not confined to temples made by human hands or ary groups are powerful and patronizing. the white washed sectors of the city. This perception affects how the gospel is re- Many tribal people groups will only be reached ceived. Land ownership by missions can contrib- by the love of Christ as unresolved questions ute to a mentality that isolates national Chris- about their traditional lands are taken seriously. tians from the common life of their community; This, and the global increase in refugees who are to become a Christian is thus to become an alien. landless for reasons of drought, desertification, And when the mission passes ownership of their war, or floods presents great challenges for mis- land to the national church, this may become a sion in the twenty-first century. millstone around the neck, the opposite to the Evangelicals need a biblical worldview that re- experience of the early church (Acts 4:34–35). lates land rights and land reform to the Good In contrast to the relative wealth of traditional News of God’s kingdom. The drawback is that missions, millions of landless people have little good news about land to the poor and vulnerable time to consider the gospel in their daily struggle is often bad news to the rich and powerful. to survive. About one out of every five human be- John Steward ings in the world lives in the city in significant poverty. These people are internally displaced or Bibliography. J. Bonk, Missions and Money; refugees because of regional, racial, and reli- M. Duncan, Costly Mission; S. Mott, Biblical Ethics and gious conflict, natural calamity, or the effects of Social Change; N. O’Brien, Revolution from the Heart; industrial development, the Green Revolution, H. Snyder, Earthcurrents; C. Wright, Living as the Peo- and urbanization. ple of God: An Eye for an Eye. One of the happiest experiences in the Old Tes- tament was the equitable division of land within Lausanne Congress on World Evangelization Israel, to be passed down the family line in per- (1974). The First International Congress on petuity (Num. 26:52-56; 33:54; Ezek. 47:14). Sev- World Evangelization convened in Lausanne, eral biblical ethicists suggest that a key human Switzerland, in July 1974. For ten days, 2,430 right God desires is for every household not to be participants and 570 observers from 150 coun- permanently deprived of land. tries studied, discussed, and fellowshiped around Few evangelicals have a gospel that would re- the church’s evangelistic and missionary man- solve conflict between warring factions or reset- date. Invitations were extended on the basis of tle the homeless after a major disaster. Fewer seven for every one million Protestants in the express Good News to the poor by confronting country, plus two for every ten million unreached the injustices of wealthy landowners and huge people in the country. For example, India re- agribusiness­ that make peasant farmers or free- ceived seventy invitations in the first category holders into day laborers on what was once their and 150 in the second. The United States had by own land. Niall O’Brien calls this “land reform in far the largest representation (more than 500), ­reverse.” plus innumerable American missionaries repre- Evangelical missions have not given sufficient senting countries where they worked. attention to issues of justice and righteousness The Congress Convening Committee included as they pertain to questions about land. This is 168 men and 5 women from 70 countries. Each 32 Leadership country had its own national advisory committee History. Beginning with the apostolic leader- to select participants. They were approved by the ship at Pentecost (Acts 2), God has raised up Congress Planning Committee, made up of 28 people to lead his work “to the ends of the earth” men and one woman from 17 countries (10 of (Acts 1:8). With authority delegated by the Lord them from the U.S.). Officially invited visitors in- Jesus Christ (Matt. 28:18), the first missions cluded some Roman Catholics and administra- were loosely organized bands, both apostolic and tors from the World Council of Churches. The lay, driven by a deep commitment to Jesus and a congress operated on a $3.3 million budget. lifestyle that stood in contrast to the decaying Evangelist Billy Graham put his prestige, influ- culture around them. Although there are notable ence, and organization behind the congress. examples of individual leaders, no formal leader- Participation began months before the con- ship structures existed apart from those of the gress convened. Eleven major papers were circu- growing church. lated in advance and comments solicited. Those With the emergence of monasticism (see Mo- who gave papers responded in their presenta- nastic Movement) in the fourth century, the ma- tions. Small group discussions were organized jority of missionaries came from the ranks of under four major divisions: (1) national strategy devout monastics following the patterns of lead- groups; (2) demonstrations of evangelistic meth- ership established in the monasteries. Charac- ods; (3) specialized evangelistic strategy groups; teristic of these missionaries was their strict and (4) theology of evangelization groups. vows and obedience, which spread by establish- The plenary program was built on seven “Bib- ing new monasteries, the dominant form of mis- lical Foundation Papers” and five “Issue Strategy sions through the seventeenth century. By the Papers.” There were seven other major ad- eighteenth century, the Protestant Reformation dresses, three panels, two special multimedia had given birth to new patterns of leadership in programs, and a closing communion service. mission, including a return to an emphasis on Among the major speakers were Billy Graham, the role of laity. Four major types of leadership John R. W. Stott, Susumu Uda, Donald Mc- characterized the emerging Protestant missions: (1) the educated and ordained clergy of the Gavran, Harold Lindsell, René Padilla, Michael major Protestant church traditions, such as Green, George Peters, Ralph Winter, Gottfried Episcopal, Presbyterian, and Congregational; Osei-Mensah, Peter Beyerhaus, Samuel Esco- (2) the eldership or council rule of the pietists bar, Malcolm Muggeridge, Francis Schaeffer, Henri Blocher, and E. V. Hill. and Anabaptists; (3) the new leadership models Participants were asked to sign a 3,000-word of the renewal movements such as the Method- document, “The Lausanne Covenant.” Early on, ists, Baptists, and various independent groups; and (4) visionary individuals whose commitment it had been submitted in draft form and revi- to the task and charismatic personalities drew sions requested. Hundreds of submissions were others to follow. made by individuals and delegations. By ad- The fourth type of leadership often led to an- journment, 2,200 participants had signed it. A other Protestant innovation, the interdenomina- poll of participants showed that 86 percent of the tional missionary society. During the so-called 1,140 who responded favored post-congress fel- Great Century of Mission (1792–1914), there lowship, and 79 percent favored the appointment was an explosion of voluntary societies that of a “continuation committee” of 25 people. This brought together both clergy and laity. The dom- committee evolved into The Lausanne Com- inant leadership characteristic of the new societ- mmittee for World Evangelization. ies was the pragmatic concern for the spread of Jim reapsome the gospel, which stood in contrast to the care- fully defined roles of traditional church struc- Leadership. The history of Christian missions is tures. As the movement grew and new societies replete with examples of key people appointed emerged, the influential leadership positions by God to carry the gospel to the unreached. It is were filled by clergy and lay leaders who had natural to look for these people in any given pe- previously held no significant positions in their riod and to consider their leadership as norma- churches. These voluntary societies also set tive. However, the study of leadership in mis- themselves apart from the church structures by sions has revealed a number of patterns of the appointment of leaders from specialized leadership that go beyond the role of an individ- fields, such as medicine, or individuals whose ual person or group. Leadership is a process in strong commitment to the cause distinguished which leaders influence followers in given con- them as proponents. Another departure from the texts to achieve the purposes to which they were church structures was the openness to women in called. The unique aspect of leadership and mis- positions of leadership. sion is the nature of their interaction under the Mission leadership continued to change and guidance of the Holy Spirit in understanding and adapt during the twentieth century as the end of obedience to the Missio Dei. the colonial era spread. The success of interde- 33 Leadership nominational missions in the establishment of the national pastor is often a new form within churches and ministries, particularly in the the culture. The issues of power and function be- Southern Hemisphere, created a multiplicity of come significant in the growing role of church national church and parachurch leadership roles. leadership. Often misunderstandings arise be- Leadership began to transition from the hands of tween the local community and the mission and expatriate missionaries to those of the national church, based on the lack of credible models leaders, leading to an era of integration and na- within the culture coupled with the external re- tionalization. The shift in the roles of the field sources provided by the missions. Unwittingly, councils and field leaders, while often difficult, missions create a powerful new model for lead- resulted in the emergence of partnerships be- ership, which becomes a much-sought-after role. tween national church leaders and mission liai- The irony is that among interdenominational son officers. A similar trend toward nationaliza- missions particularly, the lay people who tion was widespread among parachurch brought the gospel end up creating a clergy-dom- ministries, often leading to increased pressure to inated church, struggling with the role of the recruit leadership from within the national laity. church structures. Finally, denominational and A concomitant to the issue of culture is the renewal movements have also flourished and emergence of indigenous forms and functions of moved toward nationalization following the same church leadership. Collectivist societies have a patterns as their mission counterparts. The result more contextualized form of leadership involved of this shift has been a major focus on global in all aspects of life. One result of this view of leadership development at the end of the twenti- leadership is the involvement of clergy in poli- eth century. tics, even to the point of holding elected offices Mission and Church Leadership. Critical is- and engaging in business. As churches grow and sues emerged as the four major types of missions continue to influence society, leadership either began to plant churches, especially for the inter- takes on new areas of influence or becomes in- denominational societies. The first was the na- creasingly irrelevant within the context. ture of leadership in the church. Denominational As national churches have worked through the missions planted churches based on their home issues of independence and interdependence, a countries, providing both structure and models growing realization of the responsibility for for leadership. The movement toward seminaries world mission has impacted them. Not only have and the recruitment of faculty ensured a direct non-Western churches taken the responsibility correspondence with the theological distinctives for selection and training of church workers, but of the denomination. The second group, those also a growing number have assumed the role of whose polity was based on eldership, were in missionary sending churches. The missions vary many ways able to include growing Christian in leadership approaches, although the move- leaders in their fellowships based on a mentor- ments are often tied to renewal within the ing model supplemented by Bible schools. Their church, making the dominant model that of vi- commitment to community gave a rationale for sionary leaders. training that included both practical and theo- Contemporary Issues. The central concern of logical aspects. The groups that emerged from mission leadership has always been the ability to the revivals, such as the Methodists, began with prayerfully understand and obey the mission of a direct correlation to the selection and training God. It is not surprising that this essentially of leadership that grew out of their movements. theological task is at times pressured by the com- The churches planted by the interdenomina- plexities of managing the multicultural organiza- tional societies have a variety of leadership mod- tions that have emerged. The pragmatic concern els based on both denominational and indige- for the spread of the gospel that led to the cre- nous traditions. A wide variety of selection and ation of mission societies continues to be the training models have been used; however, Bible dominant characteristic of mission leadership. schools that served the missions became major This raises some of the greatest opportunities contributors to leadership development. and challenges today, especially in the relation- Churches that grow out of mission societies ships between missions and churches. struggle with the issues of Culture and leader- It was inevitable that the growth of mission so- ship. The more individualistic missionaries tend cieties would lead to increasing pressures on toward the selection and training of individuals leadership, both internally and externally. Inter- to fill the roles. By initially working under the nal concerns focus primarily on the recruitment, direction of the missionary, in either practical or preparation, support, supervision, and care of church-related work, the local leader is then edu- missionaries. As missions have grown numeri- cated through mission schools and Bible colleges cally, their structures diversify to cope with the (see Theological Education in Non-Western range of issues, establishing a need for expertise Contexts). Due to the affiliation with the expa- in each of these primary areas. In tension with triate missionary, the ascribed Status of these internal issues are the external concerns of 34 Literacy, Literature Mission Work building and maintaining a supportive constitu- to focus on literature. There are more than 300 ency, locating and establishing ministry with all significant literature organizations at national the concomitant relational and resource issues, and international levels. An example of an inter- and developing strategies appropriate to the po- national agency is the Christian Literature Cru- litical, social, cultural, and spiritual context. A sade with bookstores around the world. Over- necessary characteristic of mission leadership seas Missionary Fellowship has publishing continues to be the ability to assess the changing houses in several countries. Christian Communi- world situation and move toward the future cations Limited operates several bookstores in while retaining the unique vision God has given. Hong Kong and has expanded into other coun- As the complexities of missions have grown so tries where Chinese churches exist. has the range of solutions, to the point where Books have a long history. Clay tablets the size new specialized roles and organizations have of shredded-wheat biscuits were used in Babylon emerged to cover many of these challenges. The as far back as 2400 b.c.; papyrus was used in development of leadership to meet the increas- Egypt as early as 4000 b.c. The single most im- ing demands, including selection and training, portant development for book publishing was remains a major challenge for missions. Despite the invention of the printing press with movable the changing times, the need for spiritual lead- type. Recently, a major step has been taken as ers remains the same throughout the ages. It is personal computers become desktop publishing the duty of those in authority to identify people machines. for positions of leadership who have been pre- Print is the oldest mass medium and has been pared by God to influence missions with all used in all aspects of Christian work. Indeed, it their complexities, toward the purposes of God. seems impossible to imagine Christian mission A study of the patterns by which leadership without printed material. Our teaching is pre- emerges reveals three essential areas of develop- sented in books, magazines, and pamphlets. ment: the spiritual formation of the individual Follow-up to evangelistic crusades and mass (see Spiritual Formation), the formation of media programs are primarily done by letters knowledge through the education process, and and packages of printed material. The quarterly the formation of necessary skills through experi- magazine Interlit helps missions use literature ential learning. Both formal and nonformal pro- more effectively. grams to address these areas proliferated at the More than 22,000 new Christian book titles are end of the twentieth century. Perhaps the most published each year, and there are more than encouraging development has been the rediscov- 23,000 periodicals. The great majority of books ery of the role of mentoring in the development published by Christians are for Christians; only a of leadership, a realization with antecedents in small portion are suitable for evangelistic use. Of the early monastic period. course, the Bible is by far the world’s number As has been the case in every major epoch of one best-seller. missions history, the need for innovative leader- Of special interest are magazines published for ship is vital. A theologically appropriate response evangelistic purposes. For example, Break- to the challenges of diverse colleagues, constitu- through, a Chinese magazine published in Hong encies, and contexts remains the task of leader- Kong, reaches the young. In the Middle East, Ma- ship and missions at the beginning of the twen- galla reaches Arabic-speaking people in several ty-first century. countries. Step, published in Nairobi, has a Douglas McConnell higher circulation than any other magazine in Af- Bibliography. J. R. Clinton, The Making of a Leader; rica. R. L. Hughes, R. C. Ginnett, and G. J. Curphy, Leader- Several organizations are devoted to the publi- ship: Enhancing the Lessons of Experience; K. S. Lato- cation of tracts, which have had extensive use. urette, A History of Christianity, 2 vols.; S. Lingenfelter, The use of tracts has declined in the West over Transforming Culture; S. Neill, A History of Christian the last few years, though recently comics have Missions; D. Robert, American Women in Mission: A been produced for similar purposes. In the West Social History of their Thought and Practice; J. O. Sand- ers, Spiritual Leadership; H. A. Snyder, The Radical the usual perception is that comics are for chil- Wesley and Patterns for Church Renewal; R. A. Tucker, dren, but in many countries they are widely used Guardians of the Great Commission: The Story of by adults. Various Bible Societies have pro- Women in Modern Missions; A. F. Walls, The Missionary duced whole series of Bible comics for semiliter- Movement in Christian History. ates. Mission agencies also use literature extensively Literacy, Literature Mission Work. Literacy is for promotional purposes. A forerunner to direct a threshold to another world. The printed page mail was the missionary prayer letter, which was can communicate to hundreds of millions of sent to supporters. During the last few years, di- people. Accordingly, in the world of missions, rect mail has become a major fund-raising numerous organizations have been established method for Christian organizations. 35 Media

In comparison to other Media, literature munication tools, and worldwide literature orga- makes big demands: one must be able to read, nizations such as David C. Cook have been estab- which takes years of learning and practice. Be- lished. Magazines such as Breakthrough in Hong cause the Bible is often the first book to be Kong and Step in East Africa have extensive printed in a language, many missions have fo- readership. Today, however, print is increasingly cused on literacy as a primary aim. Governments being challenged by the electronic media. make huge investments in schools and literacy Audio media include radio, cassettes, records, programs to help people to read. Even so, it is CDs, and any other media that use sound only. estimated that less than half the world’s people Radio has been used extensively by churches and are readers. The nonliterate are usually the poor missions around the world and it demonstrates and less privileged; but even in countries with many possibilities for evangelism and Christian high literacy, reading is decreasing because of nurture. Major international radio organizations television. include Far Eastern Broadcasting Company, Among the literacy methods used by mission Trans Word Radio, and HCJB (see Radio Mission organizations we can mention the Laubach Work). The use of audiocassettes includes possi- method (see Laubach, Frank Charles), which bilities for this unique and versatile medium that could be called a disciple-making model. It is are possibly greater than any other medium also known as the “each one teach one” method. available for Christian mission. Hosanna in the The Gudaschinsky method, widely used by Wy- U.S. produces several million cassettes a year cliffe Bible Translators, could be called the that are increasingly used in Christian mission. “reading to learn” method. The Freire method Video media include television, film, slides, aims at consciousness raising (see Freire, Paulo video, and DVD (Digital Video Disk). The video Reglus Neves). Each of these methods reflects medium is having an enormous impact on soci- the background in which it was first developed. eties around the world. It is changing entertain- Today other methods are being introduced, in- ment patterns as well as family life, and it is im- cluding the use of audiocassettes as the teacher. pacting classroom instruction and educational Viggo Søgaard methods. We could argue that video has caused a communication revolution that may be on the Bibliography. J. Chaplin, Adventure with a Pen; same level as that experienced at the invention of Training Exchange: A Resource Directory for People in the printing press. Publishing; R. E. Wolseley, Still in Print: Journey of a Television has an all-pervasive influence and Writer, Teacher, Journalist. the extensive use of television makes it one of the strongest forces in society. The average person in Media. The media play a significant role in the industrialized world spends several hours in Christian mission, and several mission organiza- front of the television set each day. Christian tions are built around specific media. The leaders need to be aware of both the possibilities all-pervasive influence of the media challenges of using television in Christian ministry, but also Christians to investigate and use the media effec- the possible dangers that extensive exposure to tively in mission. Attitudes to Christian use of television can have on church, society, and fam- media span from almost uninhibited praise to ily life. nearly total rejection. Film is a medium with unique possibilities in Media Classification. In popular usage the Christian mission. Few media are more persua- term “media” refers to the whole complex of sive than film. A prime example of film use is the broadcasting, particularly television, and its Jesus Film. Video is challenging or replacing film many uses. Marshal McLuhan defined media as as movies are recorded on video cassettes and extensions of the human body, the microphone made available for home use. becoming an extension of the voice and the cam- Computer media. The computer is impacting era an extension of the eye. all media, but its specific uses for E-mail and the Media can be classified according to the con- internet have changed the way people stay in text of use. Personal media are media used by a touch, advertise their services, and get their en- single person or in an interpersonal situation. tertainment. Many Christian ministries are using Group media signify media that are used to en- web pages on the internet for church activities, hance or stimulate interaction with or among a counseling services, and marketing products. For group of people. Mass media are understood as those with access to computers, this medium media that aim at communicating with multiple will increase in significance in the decades to audiences at the same time. come (see also Information Technology). Media Types and Ministries. Printed media in- Drama and art. Music, painting, and dance- clude books, newspapers, magazines, brochures, drama all deserve much more extensive treat- and anything using the alphabet. In the past, ment. We cannot envision a radio or television print media have been chosen by churches and program without music. Music is central to missionary organizations as their primary com- church services and evangelistic approaches. The 36 Media artist is important in all media work. Dance- content, and form of presentation that are ap- drama and other folk media are today being re- propriate for the intended audience. discovered by many churches, and we are experi- Specific Challenges to Media Users. As in all encing exciting new uses of drama and aspects of Christian mission, the commission to traditional music (see also Ethnomusicology). communicate is the mandate. There is a clear Media People. Different groups of people are goal of being prophetic and to present the gospel involved in media. There are media theorists who in such a way that people will want to listen, un- study the theological, missiological, and theoret- derstand, follow, and commit themselves. ical basis for Christian use of the media. Media Christian communication is person-based. strategists define and plan the use of a medium Jesus showed us the example by becoming a real in the total context of a local church or mission human being, participating in our affairs (Phil. enterprise. There are also artists and media spe- 2:7; John 1:14). In him, the message and the me- cialists who produce programs. Finally, the dium became one. This person-centeredness media users or generalists distribute and use the must be carefully guarded in media communica- programs for a given audience. tion. Credibility of a piece of literature is associ- Media Research. There has been relatively lit- ated with the way it is distributed and with the tle in-depth study of the effects of media in mis- person who is giving it out. We need to make our sion, and few controlled experiments. This is in use of media be person-centered. sharp contrast to secular use of media, where The audience (receptors) has priority, and media huge sums of money are used on research, and programs need to be receptor-oriented. Jesus il- where a significant body of material is available. lustrated receptor orientation by creating para- The lack of research in Christian media has re- bles out of everyday life of the listeners. In a par- sulted in counting media activities rather than able, the audience become players, and as such measuring media results. each one discovers new truths and principles. Marketing organizations will collect extensive There must be a close relationship with the data on the availability and usefulness of individ- local church. It is the local church that provides ual media channels in a given context. Diffusion permanent structures for effective communica- studies have, likewise, analyzed the effects of tion. If churches are to function as a base for various media. Christian communicators can use media strategies and have a sense of ownership, the available methods for testing media prod- they need to be involved in the decision-making ucts. with respect to media employment and program Christian Media Organizations. Media users design. have established associations where their spe- The effective use of media is based on the prin- cial interests are treated. Among the organiza- ciple of process. Communication itself is a pro- tions with cross-media and global perspectives cess, but the listener will also be living through are the International Christian Media Commis- an ongoing Decision-Making process. During sion (ICMC) which has evangelical roots, and this process the needs of the audience will the World Association of Christian Communica- change and the communicator must adapt his or tion (WACC), which was formed on an ecumen- her programs and use of media accordingly. ical basis and covers organizations and Good information is mandatory if effective churches from around the world. The National communication through media is to take place. Religious Broadcasters is a major organization Research provides us with information on which in the U.S. decisions can be based, and it makes media com- Issues: Media and God’s Communication Ap- munication possible. The main concern is not proach. The challenge for the future is to make the number of research methods used, but the the use of media in church and mission conform fact that the needs of the audience have been to patterns that are consistent with Scripture. studied and that products (radio programs, bro- From the creation of the world God has commu- chures, books, videos, etc.) are adequately tested nicated to humanity. Passages such as Romans before broadcasting or distribution. 1:20 and Psalm 19:1–4 speak of God’s communi- Finally, media use needs to be rooted in the cation through creation. In the New Testament, cultural context of the audience. As the gospel is we see God revealing himself through his Son clothed in the new culture it penetrates that cul- (John 1:14: Heb. 1:1–3a). ture with the true life of Christ. Then, from A study of God’s communicational activities within that culture, it blooms to new tunes and yields significant guidelines for media use. God new instruments. An intercultural understanding uses communication symbols that are under- will lead us to investigate local and traditional stood by us within our specific cultural contexts. media and art forms. A number of groups in He uses language, culture, and human form. He Asian countries, such as India, Thailand, and In- is working for an interactive relationship. Our donesia, have demonstrated the viability of using use of media must follow similar patterns, and traditional forms of dance and drama in evange- media programs need format, music selections, lism. The Balinese church has incorporated local 37 Medical Mission Work cultural themes in the architecture of church compassionate treatment of four thousand resi- buildings. These are helpful examples of develop- dent patients at an 1100-acre leprosy village in ing appropriate media within a culture to com- the early 1950s. Stanley Browne, a boy with an municate the gospel more effectively. encyclopedic memory from a modest south Lon- Viggo B. Søgaard don home, became one of the world’s leading specialists in leprosy control and prevention. The Bibliography. J. F. Engel, Contemporary Christian Communication: Theory and Practice; C. H. Kraft, Com- Salvation Army Nurses’ Fellowship, born out of munication Theory for Christian Witness, rev. ed.; the blitz in bomb-scarred London during the M. McLuhan, Understanding Media: The Extensions of Second World War, rapidly grew to become an Man; D. K. Smith, Creating Understanding Across Cul- international organization. Their midwives trav- tural Landscapes; V. B. Søgaard, Everything You Need to eled by bicycle or paddle-boat or trudged on Know for a Cassette Ministry; idem, Media in Church foot. Payment for services might be “a love-gift and Mission: Communicating the Gospel. of an egg, or a posy of wild flowers, or maybe a handful of grain” (Carr, 1978, 30). Between 1850 Medical Mission Work. The term “medical mis- and 1950 there were more than 1,500 medical sion” originally referred to a medical post, such missionaries from Britain alone serving in the as a clinic or dispensary for the poor, which was developing world (Aitken, Fuller, and Johnson, supported by a Christian congregation. By the 1984, 158). middle of the nineteenth century, the meaning of Issues in Medical Missions. The place of the term had broadened, referring primarily to medical missions in the larger context of world the medical branch of Protestant overseas mis- missions has been repeatedly examined. Mission sions which paralleled the rapid growth of medi- societies, particularly those formed by churches cal science (Grundmann, 1997, 184). in Great Britain and Europe in the nineteenth The literature of medical missions, including century, had as their highest priorities spreading the publications of the mission societies which the gospel through evangelism and educating in- proliferated during the nineteenth century, was digenous populations through schools. Medical dominated by biographical accounts of physicians missionaries were “to be first preachers, then and nurses who were compelled by the urgency of medical men, if time remained for that” (Gel- human suffering and the desire to fulfill the Great fund, 1984, 19). Nevertheless, a characteristic Commission. John Thomas joined William Carey feature of this evangelical movement became the in India in 1773 and fought the practices of aban- establishment of health services where none ex- doning sick babies to death by exposure and the isted. The 1928 International Missionary Coun- burning of Hindu widows on the funeral pyres of cil meeting in Jerusalem clearly stated that their dead husbands. The first American medical “Medical work should be regarded as in itself an missionary, John Scudder, was a minister of the expression of the spirit of the Master, and should Reformed Church in America as well as a physi- not be thought of as only a pioneer of evangelism cian. His granddaughter, Ida Scudder, one of 42 or as merely a philanthropic agency” (Lowe, missionaries in four generations of that family 1886, 18). More recently compassionate minis- who collectively contributed more than eleven tries, such as medical missions, have been de- hundred years of missionary service, founded the scribed as part of holistic ministry which “de- Vellore Medical College in India in 1900. Edith fines evangelism and social action as functionally Brown, an Englishwoman, laid the foundation for separate, relationally inseparable, and essential the first Asian women’s medical school, Ludhiana to the total ministry of the Church” (Yamamori, Christian Medical College, and Peter Parker, the 1997, 7; see also Holistic Missions). first American missionary to China in 1834, Financially maintaining institutions built in started a modern teaching hospital. By 1933 six of the pioneering phase of medical missions has China’s twelve medical schools were financed by been increasingly difficult. Mission hospitals ac- missionary societies. cepting government subsidies forfeited in princi- In the mid-twentieth century there were many ple their religious freedom and ability to operate prominent missionary physicians, particularly in autonomously. National churches and govern- Africa. Helen Roseveare served with the World- ments, however, have often not been able to as- wide Evangelization Crusade in the Congo and sume the burden of these institutions, particu- during the bloody civil war was raped and beaten larly that of paying staff salaries. repeatedly by Simba Rebels who occupied the Adequate staffing for hospitals has been a pe- Nebobongo mission compound where she rennial concern. Frenetic levels of activity in worked. Paul Carlson, who worked at the Wasolo overcrowded facilities have often characterized mission station in the Ubangi Province of Congo, mission hospitals and dispensaries because of was captured and tortured before being killed in the pressing human need they address with lim- the streets of Stanleyville. Carl Becker, who spent ited resources. Predictably, there is a high level nearly fifty years in the Congo under the Africa of exhaustion, burnout, and turnover among the Inland Mission, was perhaps best known for his staff due to the medical work, staff experience 38 Member Care in Missions frustration at the lack of time for spiritual minis- opment, national rather than mission ownership try, family priorities, and personal rejuvenation. and leadership, collegial rather than teacher-­ The appropriateness of technology for health student relationships, and sustainable indige- care services is a key issue. Remote hospitals nous growth are emphasized (Van Reken, 1987, with irregular power supplies often seek and re- 6). quest sophisticated medical equipment for ra- Another trend is an increase in short-term diology services, surgery, intensive care units, medical missions with agencies such as Medical and laboratories. Government and mission funds Group Missions, in which participants provide disproportionately support institutions rather service in their areas of specialization or as edu- than health promotion at the community level. cators. Early retirement and mid-career job Additionally, physicians functioning as surgeons changes have also resulted in professionals pur- or family practitioners soon come to realize that suing second careers as medical missionaries. the sicknesses they are treating could be better Tent Making Mission, receiving compensation addressed through adequate sanitation, a clean for work done in the field, is also a trend, as are water supply, and good nutrition. group practices for physicians in the U.S. which Political instability, antagonistic postures to- are structured to encourage their staff to engage ward Christian ministries by governments and in medical missions. Board certification is in- religious groups such as Islam, the inability of creasingly normative, as is a master’s degree in institutions to significantly impact morbidity public health. Continuing education conferences and mortality rates in their areas of service, and are provided annually by the Christian Medical difficulties in integrating health ministries with and Dental Society, alternately held in Malaysia affiliated local churches are all significant issues and Africa. in medical missions (Van Reken, 1987, 16–19). The future of medical missions increasingly Directions and Trends in Medical Missions. lies in partnering with the church, as God’s cho- An important influence on medical missions was sen channel for the restoration of wholeness and the International Conference on Primary Health the transformation of society, and in promoting Care, held in the former U.S.S.R. in 1978 at Al- effective community-based health care, ma-Ata, which focused global attention on health grounded in the discipline of public health, care at the community level. It defined primary which genuinely impacts morbidity and morality health care as that which is accessible, accept- rates while encouraging positive health behav- able, affordable, and linked to community initia- iors. tives. Further, primary health care included pre- Evvy Campbell ventive, promotive, curative, and rehabilitative aspects and focused on clean water, adequate Bibliography. J. T. Aitken, H. W. C. Fuller, D. John- sanitation, immunization programs, maternal/ son, The Influence of Christians in Medicine; S. G. child health, promotion of food supply and Browne, Heralds of Health: The Saga of Christian Medi- cal Initiatives; I. Carr, Tender Loving Care: The Salvation proper nutrition, prevention and control of en- Army Nurses’ Fellowship at Work; Y. Cheung, Mission- demic diseases, and education. Emphasis was ary Medicine in China: A Study of Two Canadian Protes- placed on coordinating efforts with other sectors tant Missions in China Before 1937; D. E. Fountain, of community and national development that im- Health, the Bible, and the Church; C. Grundmann, pact health, such as housing, communications, DMTHP, pp. 184–87; M. Gelfund, Christian Doctor and public works, and agriculture. MAP Interna- Nurse: The History of Medical Missions in South Africa tional, a Christian relief and development organi- from 1799–1976; J. C. Hefley, The Cross and the Scalpel: zation, and the Christian Medical Society led New Directions and Opportunities for Christian Health missions and medical ministries policymakers in Care Ministries: A Declaration and Study Guide; the development of a declaration identifying how J. Lowe, Medical Missions: Their Place and Power; R. A. Tucker, FJIJ; M. Yates, In Central America and the Ca- the Alma-Ata conference might affect the struc- ribbean with Medical Group Missions: Mission-Dollar ture of Christian health care ministries. This fa- Vacations; D. E. Van Reken, Mission and Ministry: cilitated the movement of the medical missions Christian Medical Practice in Today’s Changing World community away from hospital-based ministries Cultures; WHO/UNICEF, Primary Health Care: Report of and toward community-oriented ministries. The the International Conference on Primary Health Care Al- Christian Medical Commission in Geneva, ma-Ata, USSR, 6–12 September 1978; T. Yamamori, through its influential Contact magazine, encour- Furthering the Kingdom Through Relief and Develop- aged the development of holistic integrated ment: Where and How Is It Happening? health programs throughout the world. David Van Reken has described the progres- Member Care in Missions. The concept of sion of medical missions as moving from the pi- member care—that mission members need to be oneer doing phase through a teaching era in cared for in important ways—has its roots in the which training schools were founded, and into New Testament. The Great Commission was an enabling period. In this final phase doing and given alongside the Great Commandment, with teaching continue, but goals of community devel- love for one another being the hallmark of Chris- 39 Migration tian discipleship (John 13:34–35). Scores of “one ies of the newer sending countries. O’Donnell another” injunctions in the New Testament sum- aptly summed up the standing and significance mon Christians to demonstrate this care for of this young interdisciplinary field when he other believers, including care for missionaries, wrote, “Member care has grown in prominence in many ways. Even Jesus, the missionary proto- and is now generally understood to be a biblical type, indicated that he needed caring compan- responsibility and a central component of mis- ionship when he said, “My soul is overwhelmed sion strategy.” with sorrow to the point of death. Stay here and Jeanne L. Jensma keep watch with me” (Matt. 26:38). And the apostle Paul was fervent in expressing his grati- Bibliography. L. M. Gardner, JTP 15 (1987): 308–14; K. S. O’Donnell, JTP 25 (1997): 143–54; idem, Mission- tude for having been refreshed by the ministry of ary Care: Counting the Cost for World Evangelization. Onesiphorus (2 Tim. 1:16–18). Today’s missionaries need care as well. The sending church, mission administrators, and Migration. Migration is as old as the departure field colleagues are all responsible to provide of Adam and Eve from the garden (Gen. 3:23–24). quality care for the missionary—whether at Its uprooting nature drove Cain in fear to the se- home or abroad, frontliner or support staff, adult curity of the city (Gen. 4:13–14, 17) and scattered or child or perhaps even adult MK—from the the builders of Babel’s city and tower (Gen. 11:9). missionary family’s first days with the mission Today, as of old, it has been motivated by famine through retirement or termination of service and natural disaster, by the search for a better (and sometimes beyond). Often member care life, and by political conflict and war. specialists are utilized: pastoral counselors or Migration Then and Now. Past or present, mental health professionals with specialized in- these migratory movements take many forms, terest and experience in caring for missionaries; some more peaceful in origin. The Berbers of Af- specialists from either inside or outside the mis- rica’s past and today’s Fulani demonstrate no- sion. These caregivers target the physical, psy- madism, a fixed lifestyle of wandering from place chological, and spiritual well-being of missionar- to place. Immigration, a relatively free movement ies, seeking to promote overall health and of peoples within and across political boundar- wholeness (and, concomitantly, greater effective- ies, has a long history. With the passage of the ness in ministry as well). 1793 Alien Bill in England its formal control was Member care generally begins with assessment initiated and now has become the rule (Kritz, to help missions select, prepare, and place mis- Keely, and Tomasi, 1983, xiii). sionaries with a view toward maximizing the fit Out of the displacement of war and sociopolit- between the missionary and his or her tasks, ical struggle have come the cause/effect patterns team mates, and host culture (see also Field Ad- of Invasion and Displacement Migration. The justment). Member care goes on to offer prefield mass intrusions into Israel’s history by conquer- and Furlough seminars on topics such as educa- ing Assyria and Babylonia are good examples. tional options for Missionary Children, stress They were accompanied by deportation, resettle- management, Burnout prevention, conflict reso- ment, and assimilation. Things have not changed lution, and coping with transition. Member care much. World War II saw the displacement of includes training missionaries to support one some 40 million people in Europe alone. Since another on the field. Reentry debriefing at the the end of the Vietnam War in 1975, over 2 mil- beginning of furlough can help missionaries lion people have fled from Southeast Asia. make the most of furlough. Reentry seminars for But there are new twists also. Ease of travel MKs transitioning into college is another facet of has increased international migration. Currently member care. So is providing on- or off-field an estimated 125 million people live officially counseling for missionaries for preventive rea- outside the countries of their birth, some per- sons or in times of crisis, difficult transitions, or manently, others as a temporary labor force. Mi- burnout. Helping missionaries exit the mission gration in the eighteenth and early nineteenth with grace is a “must” of caring for the mission- centuries flowed from richer countries to poorer ary at retirement or service termination. ones; now the flow is from less developed re- Member care is an emerging specialized inter- gions to more developed ones. There is a grow- disciplinary field with a constantly expanding ing feminization of both international and inter- network of professionals, organizations, care nal migration. centers, literature, and research. Standards of However, it is internal migration within the care and professional ethics have yet to be devel- Third World countries that has deeply modified oped, as does the development of training mod- past patterns. That migration is from rural to els and good training opportunities. More robust urban areas, supporting a continuing trend to- research is needed. Also needed is greater inter- ward ever-larger cities. Budgets are swamped by nationalization, developing better and more cul- human needs and Poverty has become the domi- turally appropriate member care for missionar- nant social problem. Africa today resembles a 40 Missionary Children

“huge refugee camp” (Mieth and Cahill, 1993, A third type of mission headquarters is signifi- 15). cantly involved in the daily life and activity of the Mission Response. Migration has been a major missionary. The home office may decide the “bridge of God” for Christianity’s spread in the strategies, procedures, goals, and even methods past (Norwood, 1969). “Aliens and strangers in for individual fields. They can provide vision, the world” (1 Peter 2:11), Christians have wan- help set goals, and encourage missionaries who dered in dispersion “among the nations” (Luke might be facing obstacles in their ministry. They 24:47). Christian immigrants planted the church may also provide medical and psychological sup- at Rome and in Gaul. Wandering monks crossed port, emotional care, and spiritual advice (see Europe and followed the ancient silk route also Member Care in Missions). through Central Asia into China. Even such brutal Leaders in mission headquarters are often for- invasions as the Crusades and the colonial con- mer missionaries, pastors, or key lay leaders quests of Africa, Asia, and Latin America opened from churches. The leaders may also consist of pilgrim paths for a compromised Christianity. individuals or groups of people burdened for a Christians were part of the transoceanic migra- particular type of ministry. Some headquarters tions to Australia and North America in the seven- are led by entrepreneurial leaders who have a vi- teenth and eighteenth centuries. Opportunities for sion for ministry but minimal cross-cultural ex- skilled labor abroad today have opened Creative perience. Access Countries to Tent-Making Missions. Recently, larger churches have been bypassing Migrants have also been the objects of evange- mission agencies. They totally support their mis- lism and compassionate service. Christian minis- sionaries, believing that the expense and extra su- tries like the TEAR Fund, World Vision, and pervision of a missions organization is not World Relief have become involved in social needed. While in some cases this may be true, serving through a mission agency often provides transformation and Development projects for greater long-term stability for the missionary, refugees and “children at risk.” Church Planting has had its successes among the mainline Chi- broader prayer support, and more experienced nese, relocating after 1949 in Taiwan. The church care. has not forgotten that the treatment of strangers Glenn Kendall and aliens is still a criterion of fidelity to God’s covenant (Exod. 22:21; James 2:14–17). In caring Missionary Children. With an international for strangers, they care for Jesus (Matt. 25:36, mission force composed primarily of families, 40). missionary children (better known as MKs—mis- sionary kids; see Third Culture Kids) become Harvie M. Conn central players in this movement. Western mis- Bibliography. M. Kritz, C. Keely, and S. Tomasi, sions focused on the needs of their own off- eds., Global Trends in Migration: Theory and Research spring; but with the globalization of mission, on International Population Movements; D. Mieth and MKs now come from all nations and go to all na- L. Cahill, eds., Migrants and Refugees; F. Norwood, tions—whether they want to or not. Missions Strangers and Exiles: A History of Religious Exiles, leaders from the newer sending countries vols. 1–2. (non-Western, Two-Thirds World) now grapple with issues that formerly challenged leaders Mission Headquarters. The development of from the older sending nations (Europe, North mission headquarters began with the original America, Australia, New Zealand), such as MK missionaries of the modern missionary move- educational needs and cultural identity. Korean ment. Individuals were burdened and called by missionaries in the Philippines offer a fascinat- God to go overseas. They needed help of people ing case study. Early on they sent their children at home to pray for them and to send finances. to a boarding school shaped by U.S. curriculum There are several philosophies of mission and values. However, they saw their children in- headquarters. Some headquarters are simply a creasingly isolated from Korean culture, some conduit for money to the missionary and provide grappling with tensions of internal identity and tax deductible receipts for the donors. In this others unqualified for Korean universities. They case, minimal help or accountability is offered to finally responded by establishing a Korean the missionaries. Other mission agencies have school. developed headquarters that share in decision MKs are the youngest, and perhaps the most making with the missionaries on the field. Typi- vulnerable of “God’s chosen people who are liv- cally, in this approach, the mission headquarters ing as foreigners in the lands. . . .” (1 Peter 1:1). or mission board will establish broad areas of Pollock has noted that MKs worldwide grapple policy and a doctrinal statement. Missionaries with the following crucial issues, each with its are allowed to develop individual strategy and own benefits and particular challenges. (1) Mo- occasionally even define the structural relation- bility: MKs are adaptable with rich memory ships on the field. banks, but also struggle with rootlessness and 41 Money restless migratory drives. (2) Relationships: they culture for the last stages of their education, and can grow deep people-roots by themselves, but there they face ongoing significant challenges tend to protect themselves while some drift into and change, both positive and negative. Transi- insulation. (3) Cultural balance: they enjoy a tions can be keenly anticipated or feared, either broad knowledge of cultural diversity as global as stepping stones to maturity or fraught with pilgrims, but they can become “hidden immi- uncertainty and laced with pain. (3) Decisions at grants,” off-balance­ in their own “passport” cul- diverse crossroads. MKs have little control over ture. (4) Language: many speak multiple lan- their early life. As dependents of God’s global no- guages, appreciate learning styles and linguistic madic families, their parents determined where nuances, many become excellent teachers, but or how to live and how to school them. As depen- they can also suffer from language limitation dents they live with the results of these choices. and confusion. (5) Worldview: they tend to have Entering adulthood the decisions become per- broad cultural paradigms, able to think laterally, sonalized and critical: What is their personal but can appear arrogant, reflecting patriotic am- faith and value system? How will they live? Will bivalence toward their “passport” nationality. (6) they accept or reject their backgrounds and their Cross-cultural skills: MKs are keen observers, parents’ faith? (4) Processing throughout their adaptable, less judgmental, cultural bridges, but lives. At different stages of their life they will can appear to lack in convictions, be “social cha- work through process memories, transitions, meleons” and socially undeveloped. (7) and key decisions, and it is crucial that they be Leave-taking: MKs project sensitive empathy, but encouraged to process these key elements that saying farewell is always a critical passage from have so shaped them. The adult processing of nation to nation, school to school, people group unresolved grief which can be a haunting ele- to people group, grappling with closure, which ment must be addressed reasonably and thor- on the negative side can generate unresolved oughly. Again the critical faith factor emerges, emotional conflicts. (8) Development: most MKs and MKs reflect the spectrum of attitudes of the reflect higher personal maturity in relational and particular spiritual and organizational subcul- communication skills, and are comfortable ture in which they were raised. working cross-generationally; but some experi- The majority of MKs do quite well emotion- ence stunted maturation and delayed develop- ally, psychologically, spiritually, and career-wise. mental transitions, and many grieve the inability A small percentage are brilliant or outstanding to “return home”; and those whose entire educa- leaders. But many are troubled and problematic. tion was done in Chris­tian boarding schools run The prime stakeholders in MK welfare include the risk of growing up in a sequence of unrealis- the following groups: MKs themselves, their par- tic “bubbles,” comfortable only in those mission- ents and close family; home-sending churches ary subcultures. and mission societies; member care (physical Adult MKs never cease being MKs, and this re- and mental) providers; and educators. Healthy ality has generated serious analysis of their par- MKs tend to come from healthy families; unfor- ticular issues. A surprising percentage return to tunately some missionary families are seriously some aspect of cross-cultural ministry, enter the dysfunctional. New geography and cross-cultural helping professions, or head into other aspects of ministry never compensate for these dysfunc- the borderless marketplace—whether in busi- tions. Therefore church and mission leadership ness, education, governmental foreign service, or must be alert to and address the holistic welfare relief and development. As adults they grapple of their missionary families. with the challenges of what it means to be an William David Taylor adult MK, including: (1) Processing their memo- Bibliography. A. Daugherty-Gordon, Don’t Pig Out ries. Most MKs share a memory pool that weaves on Junk Food: The MK’s Guide to Survival in the U.S.; them together, but not all come to positive terms D. Pollock, and R. Van Reken, Global Nomads: Growing with their emotions and story. Many have been Up Among Worlds; W. D. Taylor, Too Valuable to Lose: damaged in childhood and find it difficult to sur- Exploring the Causes and Cures of Missionary Attrition; mount these handicaps. Other idealize their D. Walters, An Assessment of Reentry Issues of the Chil- backgrounds or families, though in time the un- dren of Missionaries. realistic perceptions will crumble or they hope- fully will develop a healthy understanding and Money. The fact and scale of Western money acceptance of their past. (2) Transitioning constitutes a major barrier to cross-cultural through life. Some of these changes are not transmission of the gospel, all the more so be- unique to MKs, but they experience many of cause chains of affluence may prevent discern- them, requiring constant variation and adjust- ment of their evil effects. For example, a major ment. Those who studied in boarding schools cause of conflict according to the Epistle of present a different profile from those who stud- James is covetousness. Historically, Western ied in a national, private, or international school. Christian missionary outreach was undertaken The vast majority transition to their passport in tandem with an insatiable quest in the West to 42 Motive, Motivation control global resources, a process which began ing the material prosperity of the West and the during centuries of the slave trade and colonial aspirations of the world’s poor and calls for a expansion of the West, and which continues new biblical perspective on care of God’s cre- through multinational corporations and interna- ation. tional agencies such as the World Bank and In- Paul R. Dekar ternational Monetary Fund. These chains also Bibliography. J. J. Bonk, Missions and Money: Afflu- lead to the worship of false gods. In a pastoral ence as a Western Missionary Problem; D. J. Hall, The message to North American churches, Bishop Steward. A Biblical Symbol Come of Age; I. McCrae, Oscar Romero of El Salvador (1917–80) wrote in Global Economics. Seeking a Christian Ethic; M. Meeks, 1979 that the idolatry of wealth and private God the Economist. The Doctrine of God and Political property inclines persons toward “having more” Economy; R. Sider, Rich Christians in an Age of Hunger: and lessens their interest in “being more.” It is Moving from Affluence to Generosity. this absolutism that supports structural violence and oppression of people (Voice of the Voiceless, Motive, Motivation. One’s motives for seeking 173). Elsewhere Romero wrote that the god of missionary service must be correct ones. Some money forces us to turn our backs on the God of Christians are fascinated with the romance of Christianity. As people want the god of money, travel, the idea that missions is the highest form many reproach the church and kill movements of Christian service, the intrigue of another cul- that try to destroy false idols. ture, or the desire to do good. These are all inad- The analysis of James and the prophetic warn- equate motives, which pale when compared with ings of Romero are but two portrayals of how the centrality of biblical motives. money is a problem to those throughout the The missionary is one who is “sent.” Although world struggling to incarnate the gospel. Mission humans are involved in the process, the mission- activity cannot take place without money, but ary must sense that the Holy Spirit is sending money poses at least three challenges. First, the him or her. affluent, including those who live privileged lives God’s dealings with Abraham (Gen. 12:2–3) are among the poor, must take into account teach- an early biblical indication that God desires to ings of the Bible on the subject of the poor, the call, bless, and send his people, so that “all peo- wealthy, and the consequences of acquisitive- ples on earth will be blessed” through them. This ness. Second, Western missionaries have worked is repeatedly indicated to Abraham (Gen. 18:18; from positions of power and Missionary Afflu- 22:16–18), as well as to Isaac (Gen. 26:4) and ence. The relative wealth of Western Christians Jacob (Gen. 28:13–14). It is apparent that God engenders strategies which create dependency did not intend Israel to be the sole recipient of among younger churches and harm the poor. Fi- his grace and love. Rather, Israel was to be a nally, affluence leads the relatively wealthy channel and a conduit through which his love Christians of the West to aid and abet the pro- could flow “to all nations on earth.” At high mo- cesses which have plunged poor nations into a ments in Israel’s history, this focus was renewed succession of traumas and may contribute to fu- (1 Kings 8:43; Ps. 96:3). ture crises (see also Wealth and Poverty). The five Great Commission passages of the Formidable as these challenges might seem, New Testament give us strong motivation for many Christians are attempting to surmount mission. Even Jesus’ disciples finally caught on. them. The following illustrations are suggestive. Peter, in Acts 3:25, points back to God’s promise Individually, Christians coming to grips with the to Abraham: “Through your offspring all peoples call to follow Jesus are simplifying their lifestyles on earth will be blessed.” Paul echoes the same and counting the benefits of self-denial. Mission thought in Galatians 3:8. It is apparent that boards have changed policies relating to how God’s plan has always been to wrap his message missionaries live. Church agencies have sought up in his people and then send them to reach to be more responsible in investment and devel- others. This is the bedrock motivation for mis- opment policies. Whether as individuals or cor- sion. We go in obedience to his will. porately, many Christians have articulated an un- Another motivation that has propelled Chris- derstanding of Christian stewardship as tians to missionary service has been the needs of servant­ hood,­ advocacy for justice, and empower- the world. The number of Unreached Peoples is ment of the poor. Since the onset of the Two- a stimulus to missionary activity. Other Chris- Thirds World debt crisis in the early 1980s, many tians have been moved to do missionary work Christians have advocated debt forgiveness for because of the hunger, sickness, or poverty severely poor countries. Many Christian voices around the globe. Acts 13:1–4 indicates that lead- are calling for a recovery of the Jubilee tradition ership in the church has a role to play (under the to free the poor from all debt without condition. direction of the Holy Spirit) in setting apart per- There is a growing religious environmental sons for missionary service. movement which articulates the understanding God’s guidance to individuals in the form of a that the earth has lost the capability of sustain- Missionary Calling is also a powerful motiva- 43 Peoples, People Groups tion for mission. As he did with Abraham, so distinctives, was in existence, many agencies and God still speaks to individuals. The nature of a strategists declared “mission” to be complete call is the subject of great debate. Certainly we within the entire boundaries of these na- may say that such a call varies among people. tion-states. Blindness to the possibility of mis- For some it may come as a thunderclap; for oth- sion on the part of the “Younger” churches took ers, it comes like the gradual dawning of a new the next step of excluding from view countries day. However it is defined, most churches and from which Westerners were restricted. For a mission agencies desire that a person should significant segment of mission sending, the day have a clear sense that God is leading him or her of mission was declared over. Supposed national to apply for missionary service. This motivation churches existed, while whole segments of na- often is the only anchor that will hold the new tions had no church or witness. A new definition missionary steady during the dark testing times was needed. of Culture Shock and other problems on the The often artificial nature of nation-state field. boundaries was missed. The consistent national Biblical motives must be central for missions. experience, especially in Africa, was of near civil The needs of the world may beckon us, the ro- war, as truer identities surfaced and civil wars or mance of other cultures may intrigue us, but in unifying border strikes sought to reunite peoples the end the primary motivation for mission must through stronger tribal or ethnolinguistic identi- be because “Christ’s love compels us” (2 Cor. ties. These natural units intruded themselves on 5:14). the attention of mission strategists. Awareness of Charles R. Gailey their reality forced, yet again, a redefinition of mission if the church was to express her univer- Bibliography. P. A. Beals, A People For His Name; sal, catholic nature. The simplest and most evi- C. Van Engen, Mission on the Way. dent basis was ethnolinguistic. Leslie G. Brierley of WEC began listing Re- Peoples, People Groups. Way of perceiving hu- maining Unevangelized Peoples (RUPs) after manity as being composed of identifiable cul- 1941. Cameron Townsend led the identification tural and/or sociological grouping. Mission is of first Two Thousand Tongues to Go and later, then seen as directed to such groups. Our Lord’s through the Ethnologue (Grimes, 1988) which mandate as recorded in Acts 1:8 made an early now describes about seven thousand language related strategic distinction: “You will be my wit- groups. Donald McGavran, beginning in 1955, nesses, in Jerusalem, and in all Judea, and Sa- called attention in his writings to People Move- maria, and to the ends of the earth.” ments. R. Pierce Beaver chaired a 1972 confer- Later the Constantinian church, challenged ence on “The Gospel and Frontier Peoples.” from the north, sent missionaries to “barbar- MARC listed certain people groups at the World ians.” They in turn carried the gospel into pagan Congress on Evangelism (Berlin Congress northern Europe and transformed other barbar- 1966), and came to advocate the term “Un- ian peoples into the entity that left its stamp on reached” People Groups, first using the term for the definition of missions: Christendom. En the Lausanne Congress on World Evangelism route, mission was defined as directed toward (1974). These were popularized and defined in the “heath men” or “Heathen.” the Unreached Peoples MARC series from 1979 to When the modern missionary movement took 1987. The series included the Lausanne Commit- shape, Europeans became aware, through travel tee for World Evangelization Strategy Working and trade, of the vast reaches of whole “dark Group (SWG) definition of a people group as “a continents” without the gospel. There were the significantly large sociological grouping of peo- civilized inhabitants of Christendom, and there ple who perceive themselves to have a common was the non-Christian world of the colonies. No affinity for one another. . . . From the viewpoint further definition seemed necessary. Later, the of evangelization, this is the largest possible historic flow of colonial contacts caused mission group within which the Gospel can spread with- agencies and denominations to shift focus from out encountering barriers to understanding or the coastal port cities to the interior areas of acceptance.” Although Dayton and Wagner ex- these continents. Hence names like Africa Inland perimented with a definition of unreached as Mission, Sudan Interior Mission, China Inland less than 20 percent Christian, the SWG moved Mission. “Interiors” now defined mission. to define unreached as the absence of a viable The surge of missionary effort subsequent to church capable of carrying on the group’s evan- World War II took place in the context of newly gelization. Ralph Winter espoused the term independent nation-states, fifty-seven formed in “Hidden” or “Frontier” following his definitive Africa in a single decade. Mission agencies re- paper presented at the 1974 Lausanne Confer- sponded by focusing strategy on “national” ence. These semantic differences were resolved boundaries and church bodies within them. at a Chicago airport conference, when the SWG Once a group, recognizable by denominational called together a set of missions leaders who 44 Politics agreed on a definition that would make “fron- terms of units that are the focus of evangelism tier” and “hidden” synonyms of the now prevail- will continue to evolve. For the moment, real, in- ing “unreached,” by which was meant any group termediate groups without a contextualized that did not contain a contextualized church de- church constitute our best working definition. monstrably capable of completing the evangeli- Recently, at least 1,746 large, ethnolinguistic zation of the group. Both are to be distinguished groups have been identified which are verified as from the less precise “homogeneous unit” popu- having no church among them capable of an- larized by the Church Growth Movement. nouncing Christ’s Good News. Many have not a In practice, several definitional difficulties re- single believer. Such groups are truly aliens to mained. 1. Was exhaustive and exclusive catego- grace. This eternal tragedy is a current and com- rizing possible or necessary? 2. Most of the defi- pelling call for continuing mission. The groups nitions remain to this day more serviceable for listed do not include intersective urban groups. nonurban, traditional peoples. The intersective The gospel has not been and does not go where a groups so common in sociological and urban meaningful invitation to follow Christ is not analysis are confusing if shoe-horned into a clas- given. Missionaries from both the north and sification that seeks to sort each and every in- south are necessary in order to bring a commu- habitant of earth into one and only one group. nity of faith into existence which can speak the 3. The difference between evangelized peoples language and live the Christian life in every and unreached people groups seems to be that group. The integrity of each group’s identity re- evangelization focuses on individuals and on ex- quires this of us. While “they” are unreached ternal efforts made by others, while unreached (i.e., no such church exists) the nature of our deals with groups and with outcomes in church obedience calls us to obedient going. Until then, planting. The terms are unfortunately not used “they” are and will remain “unreached people carefully. 4. Macro distinctions are used in at- groups.” tempts to simplify and communicate, but no- Samuel Wilson menclature remains a problem. Various authors have suggested solutions, including Wilson and Bibliography. B. F. Grimes, ed., Ethnologue; P. John- Schreck: Peoples vs. People Groups (Schreck, stone and M. Smith, eds., The Unreached Peoples; 1987); Winter: Macro-, Mega-, and Micro-spheres; H. Schreck and D. Barrett, eds., Clarifying the Task: Un- reached Peoples. Johnstone: Affinity Blocs and Gateway People Clusters (Johnstone, 1996). The basics of the definition for those who use Politics. From New Testament times to the pres- the concept are these: 1. Strategic decision fo- ent, the relationship of Christian missions to cuses on groups, not individuals. Strictly speak- government and politics has been ambivalent. ing, individuals are not unreached, but unevange- On one hand, Jesus, Paul, and Peter all under- lized. 2. The group must be real, not just a stood the legitimate claims of human govern- conceptual category. 3. Not all groups are of stra- ment as an institution ordained by God for the tegic interest. A group may be too small, that is, restraint of evil and the promotion of good not large enough to require that a contextualized (Matt. 22:21; John 19:11; Rom. 13:1–7; 1 Tim. church become the vehicle of living out Christi- 2:1–2; 1 Peter 2:13–17). On the other hand, the anity in sociocultural ways. The group must not New Testament also affirms that: (1) civil author- be so large as to contain within itself segments ity is subordinate to the sovereign God (Matt. that constitute barriers to evangelization. 4. The 26:51–53; John 18:36); (2) there are times when group is no longer unreached when a viable, con- the claims of the state interfere with the believ- textualized church exists capable of carrying on er’s obedience to God (Acts 4:19 and 5:29); and effective witness. Thus, boundary-crossing mis- (3) government sometimes assumes an idola- sion is defined, and not merely the boundary be- trous and demonic character, as is evident tween faith and unbelief. Evangelism is needed throughout the Book of Revelation. Christian after mission is theoretically fulfilled. missionaries in all ages have had to function Missiologists, particularly from South Africa, with an awareness of the biblical tension be- have objected to the use of the concepts on the tween the positive and negative traits of the po- grounds that it promotes racist church bodies. litical realm. While this danger does exist, partisans respond In the early church, Christian evangelists pri- that social divisions will and do already charac- marily faced circumstances where the Roman terize branches of the church, and it is better to government was hostile and offered extremely recognize and work against them, much as one limited possibilities for political engagement. Al- would not reject the concept of caste or class, though persecution sometimes was sporadic, af- while still opposing their prejudicial effects (see fording Christians the opportunities to utilize also Homogenous Unit Principle). some of the benefits of the imperial system to The church of Jesus Christ is always mission- spread the gospel, Christianity enjoyed no legal ary. The ways of defining missions sending in standing or protection. In the apostolic era, the 45 Politics apostle Paul did not hesitate to invoke his mon thread that ran through much of Christian Roman citizenship when he was mistreated or missions from the fourth century on was an eccle- when his life was in danger (Acts 16:37–39; siastical willingness to rely on some measure of 22:25–29; 25:7–12). It is not apparent, however, political assistance for fulfilling the Great Com- that Paul’s example proved to be ultimately help- mission. ful for his own cause or for later generations of Although the Constantinian impulse did not Christians who fell victim when the Roman state die quickly, it was struck a mortal blow by the intensified its campaigns against the church. The Enlightenment, which encouraged a division of initial evangelization of the Roman Empire oc- the “religious” and the “secular.” Enlightenment curred apart from any direct support or encour- thought influenced the American political exper- agement on the part of civil authorities. In fact, iment, especially regarding the separation of Christian refusal to participate in the emperor church and state. Hence the American mission- cult and state sacrifices provoked particularly ag- ary movement developed without the baggage of gressive attempts to exterminate the Christian the older European traditions; most mission movement between 250 and 311, thus highlight- agencies viewed themselves as nonpolitical, a ing an adversarial relationship between church perception that was not shared by European co- and state that places major roadblocks in the lonial authorities who sometimes feared Ameri- path of Christian missionary advance (see also can missionaries as subversives. In addition, the Church/State Relations). American missions enterprise did not entirely Constantine’s ascendancy to the imperial escape the clutches of Manifest Destiny and im- throne in the early fourth century set the stage perialism in the late nineteenth and early twenti- for a whole new pattern of Christian expansion. eth centuries, when missionary leaders often ex- The emperor’s embrace of Christianity and his pressed facile sentiments that joined national granting of favors to the institutional church and evangelical interests. In two notable cases, held enormous implications for missions, which Protestant boards cooperated with the United were reinforced later in the same century when States government in providing educational and Theodosius declared Christianity to be the one social services for Native Americans at home and official state religion. These dramatic shifts cre- Filipinos overseas. ated an alliance of throne and altar where, for In the twentieth century, Christian missions several centuries, Christian missionary outreach encountered new challenges on the political would be significantly undergirded by the carnal front. Rising nationalism in Asia and Africa con- weapons of “Christian” governments. In early tributed to the collapse of colonial empires, medieval western Europe, for example, kings like which finally put to rest the antiquated notion of Charlemagne in Saxon Germany and Olaf Trygg­ government-sponsored mission. At the same vason in Norway employed military force as a time, the emergence of totalitarian governments, tactic in the Christianization of typically unwill- particularly under the banner of communism, ing subjects. Later the Crusades illustrated the once again raised the issues of doing missions in dangers of church-state coalitions aimed at the the context of Persecution. Similar concerns expansion of Christendom, whether directed at have been expressed in response to a resurgent infidel Muslims who were attacked by European Islam, since missionary activity in many Islamic armies seeking to reclaim the Holy Land or at nations is prohibited or severely curtailed. Be- pagan Prussians who were compelled to be bap- yond the problems inherent in relating to hostile tized by the victorious Teutonic Knights. governments, modern missionaries have been The Constantinian-Theodosian model persisted involved in many projects in the developing in some form into the Reformation and early world that have political implications, including modern periods. On the Roman Catholic side, the encouragement of democracy, the operation Spain and Portugal built overseas empires with of schools and hospitals, and the introduction of the blessing of Pope Alexander VI, who on the eve social reforms. Further, compelling evidence sug- of the Reformation charged the monarchs of gests that American missionaries have influ- those countries with the evangelization of the enced the foreign policy of the United States in lands that they conquered, thus creating a royal the Near East and China; more ominously, some patronage system to support Catholic missionary have charged that the Central Intelligence endeavor. For their part, European Protestants al- Agency has used missionaries in its covert opera- most universally accepted the state church tradi- tions. Finally, political developments since 1989 tion and the territorial conception of Christen- in the former Soviet bloc have opened unex- dom. These principles informed their early, sluggish mission efforts and eventually contrib- pected opportunities for ministry in areas that uted to the linkage between colonization and previously had been closed to missionaries. Christianization that characterized the European James A. Patterson missionary enterprise in the nineteenth and early Bibliography. E. L. Frizen, Jr. and W. T. Coggins, twentieth centuries (see Colonialism). The com- Christ and Caesar in Christian Missions; C. W. Forman, 46 Radio Mission Work

Missiology 9 (October 1981): 409–22; J. H. Kane, Missi- and the decline of the Bible college movement in ology 5 (October 1977): 411–26; S. Neill, Colonialism the latter quarter of the twentieth century have and Christian Missions; B. Stanley, The Bible and the paralleled one another. Flag: Protestant Missions and British Imperialism in the Since those traditional means of promoting Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries. missions have become less effective, a new breed has emerged, as yet unorganized, but who refer Promotion of Mission. In the New Testament to themselves as “mobilizers.” Advancing we do not see the kind of promotion of the mis- Churches in Missions Commitment (ACMC), The sionary enterprise we find today. The command U.S. Center for World Missions, one of its many of Christ and the working of the Holy Spirit in spinoffs, the Frontier Missions Movement, and the local congregation were enough to make a the AD 2000 and Beyond movement are represen- church send and support missionaries—at least tative. in Antioch. Jerusalem, however, needed some In the field of publishing there are several proactive promotion. journals devoted to promoting missions, both The strongest sending bodies among twenti- mission agency journals and independent jour- eth-century American churches were born as nals like Frontiers. Perhaps the most influential mission sending agencies in the nineteenth cen- publication has been Patrick Johnstone’s Opera- tury: the Christian and Missionary Alliance and tion World, a prayer guide with a distribution of the Southern Baptist Convention. It takes less hundreds of thousands. than 200 CMAers to send out a missionary, for The mysterious thing about promotion is that example, while it takes 1,800 evangelicals in gen- no matter what we may do, it is God’s sovereign eral to send one missionary. Probably no more intervention that has been the successful pro- than 10 percent of evangelical congregations in moter of missions. The surge of World War II North America have a strong missions promo- veterans, who had seen a needy world firsthand, tion program, such as an annual Church Mis- muscled the missions enterprise at midcentury. sions Conference. Given this track record, God Then came the emergence of a powerful Third seems to have raised up other means of promot- World mission initiative and, closing out the cen- ing his purposes of world evangelism—para- tury, the mighty ingathering in China with no church organizations, mission sending agencies, missionary assistance at all! God is still sover- conventions, student movements, Bible colleges, eign, and the sovereign God’s method is still the and, of late, “mobilizers.” church in which his Spirit is free to move. Of the hundreds of mission sending agencies, Robertson McQuilkin several have been so successful in recruiting that they dwarf the average denominational mission Radio Mission Work. Radio is used extensively boards: Wycliffe Bible Translators (6,000+), in mission. The first wireless broadcast sent out Campus Crusade for Christ (15,000+), Youth to the world was an informal Christian program With a Mission (7,000+), and Operation Mobili- on Christmas Eve, 1906. The program included a zation (2,000+). All these are specialized: transla- solo, “O Holy Night,” as well as a reading of the tion, campus, or short-term. Conventions in this Christmas story from the Gospel of Luke. Chris­ century have been the catalysts for mission pro- tian radio broadcasting as such began on Janu- motion, beginning with Edinburgh (1910), con- ary 2, 1921, when a church service was broad- tinuing through the triennial Urbana student cast in Pittsburgh. conventions under InterVarsity Fellowship (1946 The first missionary station, HCJB, “The Voice and following), advanced by the congresses initi- of the Andes,” began broadcasting in 1931 from ated by Billy Graham (Berlin [1966] and Laus- Ecuador. The Far East Broadcasting Company anne [1974]), and culminating in the great con- (FEBC) was founded in 1946, to be followed by ventions in Korea in the 1980s and 1990s. Trans World Radio (TWR), Radio ELWA, and Student movements have energized the mis- others. Today powerful Christian shortwave sions movement, beginning with the Student radio stations cover the world, broadcasting in Volunteer Movement at the close of the nine- numerous languages. There are also a few pow- teenth century and continuing through the Stu- erful medium-wave international stations, in- dent Foreign Missions Fellowship (initiator of cluding TWR broadcasting from Monte Carlo in Urbana, merged with IVF), and, later in the cen- Southern Europe and FEBC from a powerful tury, smaller student movements like the Caleb medium wave station covering a large section of Project. China. In the great half century of North American There are numerous local Christian stations, missions advance following World War II, the broadcasting on FM or medium wave to a single Bible colleges led the way. It was said that 80 city or community. Some are commercial sta- percent of American missionaries in that era had tions with professional staff, others are small a Bible college background. It is interesting that and simple stations that depend on volunteers. the decline in missions interest in the churches For all, a high level of commitment is required. 47 Radio Mission Work

Christian radio broadcasters are today on the World by 2000 effort, which fostered an unprece- air in some 200 different languages with 1,000 dented level of cooperation among the various hours of transmitter time per week from major partner organizations. international broadcasters alone. This does not The World by 2000 strategically targeted large include local in-country stations, commercial language groups which had not been previously time, and public broadcast time. The English served by daily missionary radio broadcasts. (34%), Spanish (22%), Mandarin (8.6%), and These groups included many of the world’s least Russian (6.4%) languages dominate on the inter- evangelized peoples. By 1997, the World by 2000’s national broadcasts; with the remaining 190 lan- list of megalanguages (each spoken by at least guages and dialects accounting for only 29% of one million people) covered by Christian broad- the total. For example, there are eleven million casting increased by 80—raising up new groups English speakers in India, and a total of more of believers and planting new churches among than 102 hours of broadcasting each week is in many of these previously unreached peoples. English, but the fifty million Marathi speakers Because little or no broadcast media of any only get three hours a week, and the thirty-three kind had been available in many of these lan- million Urdu speakers get less than four hours guages, the sheer novelty factor of these newly per week. launched programs attracts positive attention In the hands of Christian communicators with almost immediately. Although many of these the knowledge, means, and courage to use it cre- peoples are relatively media-poor, the advent of atively, radio has proven to be a powerful and regular radio broadcasts in their language has effective tool in the task of world evangelization. attracted considerable interest. Early on, listen- Programs such as The Old-Fashioned Revival ing among such media-starved peoples has Hour, Back to the Bible, and others have made a tended to be avid, regular, and often a group ex- significant contribution to the religious life of perience. In northern Mozambique, for exam- America. It is estimated that Charles E. Fuller ple, clusters of Lomwe listeners gather each had twenty million listeners a week up until his night around one of the few radios to be found retirement in 1967. in their village. As the gospel message is thus In the international context, most of Southeast regularly heard in a group setting, listeners Asia’s mountain-dwelling Hmong people have often linger to discuss the program content been almost completely cut off from any direct after the conclusion of each Lomwe broadcast. cross-cultural contact. Yet, on rare occasions In time, such a listening group can naturally be- when outsiders were able to visit, some reported come the nucleus for a new Christian congrega- strong indications of thousands of Hmong con- tion. As the Holy Spirit enables such newly versions to Christianity. In the early 1990s, the formed fellowships to expand, each may blossom Vietnamese government conceded (somewhat into a larger church, and/or start a daughter con- regretfully) that hundreds of thousands of gregation. Evidence abounds that during the Hmong had become Christians. Far East Broad- first seven years of Lomwe broadcasting from casting Company’s radio programs in the Hmong Trans World Radio/Swaziland to northern Mo- language offered the only available means by zambique, over 300 new churches were thus which most of these Hmong converts could have started by listeners. Church planting progress possibly heard the gospel. Indeed, in 1995 when has since been reported among other Mozambi- two Hmong expatriates were able to conduct an can peoples who began receiving first-ever gos- extraordinary journey to several Hmong villages pel broadcasts during the 1990s, including the in northern Vietnam, they were greeted by multi- Makhuwa, Makonde, and Sena. tudes of Hmong believers who welcomed them Similarly, new churches have sprung up among to impromptu open-air worship services which listeners to many of the other pioneering radio included original Christian songs exclusively fea- broadcasts launched through the World by 2000 tured on FEBC’s Hmong broadcasts. Most had effort. The Banjaras of India, the Gypsies of cen- never met a Christian from outside their village, tral Europe, the Bariba of Benin, and the Chuvash yet many were quite familiar with the Hmong of central Asia are just some of the notable exam- songs heard only in FEBC’s broadcasts. ples. Although daily gospel broadcasts are still In 1985, mindful of radio’s potential impact needed for dozens of megalanguage groups who among many of the world’s hardest-to-reach peo- remain unreached by Christian radio, steady ples, the leaders of HCJB World Radio, Far East progress continues to be made toward the World Broadcasting Company, Trans World Radio, and by 2000 goal. The accompanying examples of SIM (operator of radio station of ELWA in Libe- churches planted bear witness to the reliability of ria) launched the cooperative World by 2000 ini- the Lord’s promise that his Word will never return tiative to provide every man, woman, and child void. In addition, recent political developments on earth the opportunity to hear Christian radio such as the fall of communist regimes in Europe broadcasts in a language each can understand. and the end of apartheid in South Africa have led Soon thereafter, broadcasters FEBA Radio and to the added availability of many powerful inter- Words of Hope became active partners in the national radio transmitters which had previously 48 Reached and Unreached Mission Fields been used exclusively for the broadcasting of po- This greatly reduces the number of unevange- litical propaganda. As a result, transmitters in lized people groups. Others opt to focus on Mat- Russia, Albania, Armenia, Poland, and South Af- thew 28:18–20 and Luke 24:47–48 and the goal rica have been added to the available inventory of of evangelism is said to be discipling the “na- super-powered international transmitters which tions” or people groups. But what is it to “disci- are available for missionary broadcasting. ple”? Some have said that when there is a wit- Radio can readily adapt to changing social and nessing church movement, the missionary task is cultural conditions, and it has several advantages complete. Others point out that a witnessing for Christian mission. It requires listening only, church movement in a tribe of 1,000 may mean making it possible to reach all, including the the group is evangelized or “reached,” but what more than one billion nonliterates. Radio uses if the group is 40 million in size? So others add sound only, which makes programming fairly in- the phrase, “capable of reaching its own people.” expensive. It has wide coverage and can reach If there is such a church movement, no more most people through the estimated 1.2 billion outside help would be needed to complete the radio sets in use around the world. It crosses re- task of evangelism, however defined. Still others ligious and political barriers. Furthermore, radio define a reached people as those which are ma- can handle a variety of program formats, limited jority Christian. If Christian is used in an evan- only by the creativity of the producer. gelical sense, however, no more than a handful Most Christian broadcasters ask for letter re- of very small ethnic groups could be considered sponse from the listeners; in 1988, FEBC alone “reached” on that definition. received approximately 615,000 letters from lis- This debate is not academic nit-picking; it is teners. Unfortunately, most Christian radio min- very pragmatic, defining the task that remains istries have not developed feedback systems that and targeting those areas in which a church or do not require mail, and thus non- and semi-lit- mission should invest precious, limited re- erates are excluded. sources. The consensus that seems to be emerg- Viggo Søgaard and Lee DeYoung ing at the end of the twentieth century is to have Bibliography. E. G. Bowman with S. F. Titus, Eyes a scale from “least reached” to “most reached.” beyond the Horizon; F. A. Gray, Radio in Mission. On this basis it can be said that there are at least 1,600 people groups larger than 10,000 in size in Reached and Unreached Mission Fields. Since which there is no witnessing church movement the mid-1970s intense debate has raged over capable of reaching its own people. If smaller what a mission field is and what it means for a groups are included, the number of unreached field to be reached. In general, since the Laus- escalates to at least 6,000, including many with anne Congress on World Evangelism of 1974, no gospel witness at all. the concept of a People Group, defined by com- The majority of the least reached groups fall mon language and culture, has displaced the within the 10/40 Window, a band of ethnic older idea of a nation-state. There continues to groups stretching east between the 10th and 40th be a discussion of whether the people groups to degree latitudes (north) from the Atlantic Ocean be evangelized should be defined more in terms to Indonesia in the Pacific. This embraces na- of language or dialect (with over 12,000 in the tions in northern Africa, the Middle East, and world) or of culture (over 20,000). But leaving the Far East in which the least reached religious some latitude for those definitions, the chief eth- groups are concentrated: Islam, Hinduism, and nolinguistic groups have been identified. Buddhism. These are not only the least reached, But how do we determine when a group has they are the least reachable, the most resistant. been “reached”? In the mid-1980s there were In fact, because of religious, political, and cul- said to be 12,000 unevangelized groups, but by tural barriers, they are also the least accessible 1990 that estimate was reduced to 6,000. With (see Creative Access Countries). the advent of the AD 2000 and Beyond Move- If “Christian” is defined as one who has a per- ment, this was reduced to 2,000, then by 1995, to sonal relationship with God through faith in 1,600. Did the missionary enterprise advance Jesus Christ, and “mission field” is defined as that rapidly? No, the definition of “evangelized” any ethnolinguistic group in which there is no or “reached” changed. Does “evangelized” mean witnessing church movement capable of evange- that every person would hear with understand- lizing that group, perhaps half the people groups ing the way to life in Christ as Mark 16:15 and of the world have been “reached.” The other half Acts 1:8 seem to indicate? Or, as the objective set need outside assistance, commonly called mis- by some in recent years, does “evangelized” sionaries. If those groups with fewer than 10,000 mean that every person would have access to the were excluded from the tally, then the majority gospel? That is, when a church is near enough or of the remaining people groups have been there are radio broadcasts or book shops, the reached. If, on the other hand “reached” focuses Bible has been translated into their language— on individuals rather than ethnic groups, and everyone could hear the gospel if they wanted to. “access to the gospel” is the criterion, perhaps 49 Receptivity more than half the individuals of the world have Spiritual issues relate to the kinds of spiritual been reached. If, however, “reached” means they commitments the people have made. The history have actually heard the gospel with understand- of the spiritual commitments of a person or a ing, far less than half could be considered people sets the stage for the receptivity of the reached. person or the people. The most succinct, reliable, and easily under- Receptivity affects the whole conversion pro- stood data on the reached or unreached status of cess. David Krawthwol provides a descriptive se- each nation is found in Operation World. The quence of the attitudinal change process. At each most sophisticated composite of the efforts of stage of the change process—receiving, respond- the major research groups is found in Status of ing, valuing, organization around values, and Global Evangelization: Model and Database De- characterization by a set of values—the person or sign, put out by Southern Baptist Convention, the community makes decisions (see also Change, FMB and updated periodically. Sociology of). While the term “worldview” was Robertson McQuilkin not widely used when Krawthwol described this process, the process could be described as world- Receptivity. The dynamic state of a person or view change or the process of conversion. At each people in which, if presented with the Christian stage a person must be willing (receptive) to con- gospel in terms they can understand, they will tinue in the process. One may in the accepting of a respond favorably to this gospel. new idea or in the acceptance of the gospel stop or Receptivity or responsiveness to the gospel is stall the process, or may accelerate the process. obviously demonstrated when people respond to Edgar J. Elliston the gospel by a faith commitment to Jesus Bibliography. D. Krawthwol et al., Taxonomy of Ed- Christ, are incorporated into congregations, and ucational Objectives The Classification of Educational become responsible, reproducing believers. The Goals Handbook II: Affective Domain; D. McGavran, degree of receptivity can be measured easily Understanding Church Growth. after a population has been presented with the gospel over time. However, it is more difficult to Relief Work. Mercy to and relief of the sufferer measure in advance. has been part of Christian practice from the early The prediction of receptivity is one of the church to the present. Jewish culture, on which major concerns that faces missions in making so many of the early church practices were based, decisions about either opening a new ministry or structured acts of charity into the life of the peo- closing an existing one. Individual missions have ple. The Old Testament contains numerous laws developed research instruments for evaluating and practices regarding response to the poor and receptivity. Many of these instruments share a weak (Exod. 22:25–27; Deut. 15:7–11; 24:19–21). set of common assumptions. Two key assump- The conflicts that arise in Acts 6 really emerge tions include: (1) If some people in a community out of the Jerusalem church’s attempt to live are responding to the gospel, others may be ex- compassionately in response to needy widows. pected to respond as well. (2) If the people are The history of Christianity from Francis of As- experiencing significant Worldview change or sisi to Martin Luther, from the Wesley brothers worldview dissonance, or if they have experi- to the modern missionary movement, is replete enced significant social, economic, or political with accounts of outstanding men and women changes, they may be expected to be receptive to who have represented Christ by bringing relief the gospel (see also Anomie). and wholeness physically to the tragedies and Receptivity is a dynamic condition that crises of various societies. However, without seri- changes over time with a given person or a whole ous reflection on the larger socioeconomic con- population. The variables that lead to one’s being text in which poverty and crisis occur, well-­ open to begin to move through the process of intended compassionate efforts can really be change to become a mature Christian vary over nothing more than the phenomenon of “rice time. Two key sets of variables interact, but need Christianity,” which is the tendency to use efforts to be assessed differently. The first set of vari- of compassion as a means to an end by dangling ables relate to sociocultural concerns and the goods and services in front of people as a carrot second to spiritual concerns. for acceptance of the Christian faith. Sociocultural concerns relate to a wide range A current definition of relief is “urgent provi- of issues, including homogeneity/heterogeneity sion of resources to reduce suffering resulting of the community, the rate of worldview change, from a natural or human-made disaster.” It is, in previous knowledge of and attitude toward the essence, immediate and temporary, prolonged Christian gospel, past experience with people only when self-reliance is impossible. The United who are perceived to be Christian, and the level States has over 250 Christian agencies which of satisfaction/dissatisfaction with the present specialize in relief efforts around the world. religious system. These organizations are diverse theologically; 50 Short-term Missions some are governmentally subsidized and some ture may have been idealized in the missionary’s are privately funded. Definitions of the term “re- mind and no longer fits one’s expectations. lief” vary widely among these organizations. The changes that have taken place in the mis- While relief should never be completely dis- sionary can be manifold. A major consideration tinct from Development, these two related func- here is that the nature of friendships and rela- tions must be differentiated. Relief seeks to sal- tionships varies dramatically from culture to cul- vage human life and prolong survival in crisis ture. Missionaries who have crossed that divide circumstances. Development is a process that often find that the way they look at relationships enables a community to provide for its own has fundamentally shifted, making readjustment needs, above previous levels. Development must to their home culture difficult. The missionary be indigenous, comprehensive, and aimed at im- had to learn a host of new rules in the new cul- proved self-reliance. ture; though initially strange, they have become Christian relief work must ultimately rise comfortable ways of life that must be unlearned above traditional reactive methods and plan pro- in the home culture. actively. Natural disasters and regional crises The home culture (especially in the urban set- will inevitably impact Poverty or frustrate the ting) also changes while the missionary is away. progress of the poor to reach self-reliance. Changes may range from the relatively mundane Learning the method of contingency planning (new television shows, new music, new stores) to can dramatically reduce losses in crises necessi- deeper innovations (new church worship forms tating relief intervention. The key to relief is to or even new religions, new expectations of toler- address potential needs before disaster occurs. ation, new views on truth). All of these combined Relief from a Christian perspective is not just can make for a bewildering experience for one who is seeking security in what home was like alleviating the effects of war, natural disasters, or before departure. tragedy. Christian relief involves the whole per- Reentry shock can be particularly acute for the son who is introduced to new life under the rule children of missionaries (see Third Culture Kids of God’s kingdom. and Missionary Children), some of whom may The following are some key objectives in a the- be entering the parents’ home culture for the ology of relief: (1) Engagement in disaster relief first time or have no real memories of that cul- must be efficient and effective, meeting real ture. Particular care should be taken to help needs in a God-honoring way. (2) Relief efforts them adjust to life in what for them was never must be done with genuine care, compassion, really home at all. and respect for a people and their culture. A. Scott Moreau (3) The lifestyles and manner of relief workers must evidence that the Good News is true. Bibliography. C. N. Austin, Cross-Cultural Reentry: A (4) There should not be any attempt to prosely- Book of Readings. tize, capitalize on tragedy, or discriminate in dis- tribution of supplies. (5) The presentation of the Short-term Missions. A term typically used to Christian message must be adapted to the degree describe missionary service, normally involving of knowledge and understanding of Jesus Christ cross-cultural immersion, that is intentionally in the context being served. (6) Finally, long-term designed to last from a few weeks to less than effects on the people in their journey with Jesus two years. Christ should always be considered. Short-term missions finds its roots in the Byron D. Klaus Scriptures and, in a broad sense, can be under- stood through the words of Jesus in the Great Bibliography. A. Beals, Beyond Hunger: A Biblical Commandment (Matt. 22:37–39) and the Great Mandate for Social Responsibility; E. Elliston, ed., Commission (Matt. 28:18–20). In a sense Jesus es- Christian Relief and Development; M. Meggay, Trans- tablishes the guidelines for the early short-term forming Society; F. O’Gorman; Charity and Change. mission experiences and demonstrates what is at the core of short-term missions in the sending Reverse Culture Shock. The psychological, out of the twelve (Matt. 10:1–42) and the seven- emotional, and even spiritual adjustment of mis- ty-two (Luke 10:1–20). He states quite clearly sionaries who return to their home culture after that those who are sent must love the Lord their having adjusted to a new culture. This shock is God with all their heart, soul, and mind and then parallel to the Culture Shock experienced in ini- love their neighbor as themselves. From that tial adjustment to the mission field, but may be posture, they must recognize that all authority even more difficult because it can hit so unex- has been given to him; therefore, they should go pectedly. Also referred to as reentry shock, ad- and make disciples of all nations. justment is necessary because both the mission- Scope. As a modern-day phenomenon, the ary and the home culture have changed while the short-term missions movement has spanned the missionary was away. In addition, the home cul- globe and has provided opportunities for thou- 51 Short-term Missions sands of individuals to experience, for a brief candidates tends to make their decisions and time, the world of missions. The length of service commitments based on the knowledge gained often varies from a week to several years. Mis- through firsthand experience. As a result of sion agencies, churches, high schools, colleges short-term service a world vision can be devel- and universities, parachurch ministries, families, oped that in turn affects the mobilization efforts and individuals are increasingly exploring and of the church at large. In addition, many feel promoting short-term missions. The wide variety that short-term missions provides valuable re- of people taking advantage of these opportuni- spite for career missionaries, brings a fresh en- ties include youth, college and university stu- thusiasm from the outside, and accomplishes dents, single adults, families, and seniors. The practical projects as well as significant ministry. kinds of work that individuals and teams engage Obviously, many who serve in short-term mis- in include, but are not limited to, construction sions are likely candidates for long-term service, projects, teaching English, athletics and sports, and in fact, a significant number of career mis- drama and the arts, medical and health care, sionaries today have had a short-term mission evangelism and discipleship, church planting, experience. Those who return without making a youth ministries, camp work, prayer and re- commitment to long-term service are able to im- search, and general assistance. pact the churches that they are a part of with a Growth. The short-term missions movement global awareness and an expanded vision of has grown dramatically over the past several de- God’s work in the world. As a result, the prayer cades. Mission agencies, church denominations, efforts and the giving patterns for missions are and parachurch organizations as well as indepen- enhanced. dent teams continue to contribute to the large Needs. The short-term missions experience is numbers involved in the short-term missions en- valid, but there are some important components terprise. During the late 1990s, more than thirty that must be put into place to ensure its effec- thousand individuals joined forces each year with tiveness. A careful selection process should be career missionaries and nationals to serve in established so that those who are sent know the urban centers, towns, and countries around the purpose for which they are being sent and are world. This rapid growth is due in part to mod- willing to go as learners and servants. Clear com- ern travel that allows individuals to journey to munication channels should be established with the remotest areas of the world in a relatively churches, nationals, and missionaries on the short time. There continues to be a desire on the field in order to clarify expectations. Thorough part of those who go to make themselves avail- preparation for those on the field, as well as the able in service without committing their entire short-term workers, is essential. A clear under- lives to a missions career. There has been an standing developed through training in the areas overwhelming acknowledgment of short-term of spiritual formation, cultural issues, and inter- missions in recent years, and, though there is personal dynamics is necessary. Short-term much discussion about the practice, it is obvious workers should also understand the biblical that short-term missions is a powerful and effec- basis of their service. Realistic expectations for tive force in the modern missions movement. the short-term worker must be explored. Those The Critics. Many have been critical of short- expectations should assume a posture of learn- term missions for numerous reasons. One of the ing and a desire to serve with the national lead- main criticisms focuses on the motivation of ers and career missionaries in a supportive part- those who go. Many career missionaries feel that nership. One of the most important dimensions short-term missionaries lack real commitment of any short-term mission is careful reflection at and endurance. Often the national church ques- the end of the experience. Short-term workers tions the presence of the short-term worker in must debrief and process their experience so that their culture because it appears that the motiva- they can be responsible with what they have tion of the short-termer is unclear. Some feel been allowed to experience. This will not only that the short-term workers provide a distraction enable short-term workers to understand their for career missionaries. Other concerns focus on mission experience better, but it will allow them the perception that the results from short-term to communicate their vision to others. ministry are unreliable and there is little lasting Conclusion. The short-term mission move- fruit produced from the work of the short-term ment is rooted in the Scriptures and will con- workers. Many suggest that the financial costs tinue to be a driving force for the advancement are too high and possibly take money away from of the global cause of Jesus Christ. Short-term career missionaries. missions must continue to be tied to long-term The Value. Despite the many criticisms, short- missions. Partnerships must be forged between term missions is moving forward. The short- the ones who go, the national hosts, the career term missions movement definitely has been a missionaries, the sending church, and those with key factor in the mobilization of world mission whom the short-term workers serve. Training, globally. The present generation of missionary preparation, and careful follow-up will be vital 52 Spiritual Warfare elements to the effectiveness of the work. As This battle is portrayed in the Gospels and in these areas intersect, short-term missions will the rest of the New Testament. Paul states clearly fulfill its intended goals and will continue to en- that “our struggle is . . . against the powers of able people to develop a global missionary vision this dark world and against the spiritual forces and make an impact for the cause of Christ. of evil in the heavenly realms” (Eph. 6:12). These Dennis Massaro are real enemies, and resistance against them will involve spiritual warfare. While we are as- Bibliography. S. Barnes, EMQ 28:4 (1992): 376–81; sured of victory in the battle, we are never as- B. Berry, Mission Today 96 Special Report- Short-Term sured that we will not have to fight in the battle. Missions; idem, The Short Term Mission Handbook; S. Hawthorne ed., Stepping Out; J. Nyquist and P. Hie- The influence of the Enlightenment and later bert, Trinity World Forum, Spring 1995, pp. 1–4; the evolutionary hypothesis began a process L. Pelt, EMQ 28: 4 (1992): 384–88; M. Pocock, EMQ which has resulted in the secularization of the 23:2 (1987): 154–60; J. Raymo, Marching to a Different Western worldview. As a result, biblical refer- Drummer; B. Sjogren and B. Sterns, Run with the Vi- ences to the role of spirit beings in the realm of sion. the created world are often misinterpreted or ig- nored in dealing with the text, and many mis- Spiritual Warfare. Spiritual warfare is the sionaries have gone to the field with a defective Christian encounter with evil supernatural pow- worldview, resulting in serious flaws in their ap- ers led by Satan and his army of fallen angels, proach to animistic belief systems. generally called demons or evil spirits (see At the other end of the spectrum, there is a Demon, Demons). The original battle was be- tendency to overemphasize the role of spirits tween Satan and God, but on the level of the which produces a Christian Syncretism with An- heavenlies, the war has been won decisively by imism. People use the Bible as a good luck charm God (Col. 2:15; 1 John 3:8). On earth the battles to protect one from evil spirits, prescribe certain continue, but the issue is to determine not who words or expressions to be used in dealing with will win but whether God’s people will appropri- demons, or assume that knowing the name of a ate the victory won for them by the cross and the demon gives more power over it. People coming resurrection. from animistic backgrounds also fall into syncre- The conflict began in the Garden of Eden as tism, but that is usually because the Christians recorded in Genesis 3 and will continue until the who introduce them to Christ do not help them fulfillment of the events predicted in Revelation understand the Christian worldview as it relates to issues of spiritual power. 20. Scripture makes it clear that Satan leads the Much of this confusion stems from the fact anti-God and anti-Christian forces as “the prince that Satan’s primary tactic is deception. That of this world” (John 12:31; 14:30; 16:11) or “the does not mean that everything a demon says is a god of this world” (2 Cor. 4:4) and as a leader of lie. Deception gains its power by concealing the the fallen angels (Matt. 25:41). It is also clear, lie in surrounding truth. What is needed is dis- however, that although Satan gained some mea- cernment, not simply in responding to what a sure of control through the events in the garden, demon may say but in dealing with the deceiving God retains ultimate sovereignty over his cre- spirits that are constantly trying to confuse our ation. God’s people are assured of victory in the belief system (Rev. 12:9; 1 Tim. 4:1). battle when they engage the enemy on the basis The primary issue in deception is always truth, of faith and obedience—the conditions set by and Satan deceives especially concerning the God in his covenant with Israel and the implica- source of power and of knowledge. God has pro- tions of submitting to God in James 4:7. vided all the power and knowledge we need to Every battle Israel fought in the conquest of live as “more than conquerors” in Christ; but Canaan was won or lost on spiritual consider- ever since the Garden of Eden, Satan has been ations. When Israel obeyed God’s commands and trying to cause us not to trust God to provide the acted on the basis of faith, God gave them vic- power we need and to doubt our ability to know tory no matter what the military situation. The God and to trust the Word of God. battle was ultimately between God and the gods. Satan uses his power to cause us to fear him. While idols are treated in the Old Testament with For Christians to fear Satan they must first contempt as utterly devoid of spiritual power doubt the power and provision of God for victory (Ps. 114:4–8; Isa. 40:18–20; 44:9–20; Jer. 10:3ff.), over Satan. Thus he accomplishes two goals: to the god or spirit behind the idol was treated as cause Christians to doubt God and to gain some real (cf. Deut. 32:17; Ps. 106:37; 1 Cor. 10:18–20). measure of control over them through fear. Yahweh was often compared to the gods (1 Kings But Satan will also seek to entice people—be- 8:23; 1 Chron. 16:25; Pss. 86:8; 96:4; 135:5). That lievers or unbelievers—to take power from him was not a comparison with nothing. It was the rather than from God. He comes as an angel of sovereign God compared to the angels who were light and makes his power seem desirable. This in rebellion against him. brings one into contact with a long list of occult 53 Status and Role practices such as fortune telling, magic, sorcery, the mind which underlies it. Paul says that his and witchcraft. Satan has enough power to pro- call was “to open their eyes, to bring them from duce some striking results—“counterfeit mira- darkness to light, and from the power of Satan to cles, signs and wonders” (2 Thess. 2:10). Some God” (Acts 26:18). Thus evangelism is a kind of people only ask, “Does it work?” rather than “Is power encounter, and converts need to under- it from God; is it true?” Many people end up with stand clearly that they are moving from one a spiritual stronghold in their lives because they realm of spiritual power to another. have fallen for Satan’s deceptive use of power. Often associated with conversion is the de- Ultimately spiritual warfare is the battle for struction of objects used in non-Christian reli- the mind. Satan knows that people will always gious practices. This is a visible renunciation of live what they really believe, even if they do not the old ways and old worldview, but it is also a live what they profess to believe. Since one’s be- challenge to the “gods” behind the objects to de- lief about God is foundational to all other beliefs, fend themselves if they are able. Satan will almost always begin by trying to per- Missionaries may well see overt demonic activ- vert one’s belief about the character of God. It ity (see Possession Phenomena), and they need to happened in Eden. Satan said that God’s state- know how to minister with confidence in such a ment about dying if people ate of the fruit was a situation. Many places have been opened to the lie and that God could therefore not be trusted. gospel through seeing a person set free from evil He also implied that God could not love them spirits. Spiritual practitioners in other religions and withhold that beautiful, desirable fruit from may challenge Christians to demonstrate their them. Once they began to question the integrity power in a variety of ways. The missionary needs of God, they came under Satan’s control. to be prepared to respond appropriately. Ulti- It appears that Satan’s great desire is to be God mately prayer may be the most important (Luke 4:5–7; 2 Thess. 2:3, 4). This is also seen in weapon in the Christian’s arsenal against the the Old Testament in the conflict between God enemy. and the gods. As noted above, the real power be- Timothy M. Warner hind the “gods” in the Old Testament is Satan and his host of evil spirits. This same principle Bibliography. N. Anderson, How to Help Others Find applies to all religious systems which set forth a Freedom in Christ; M. Kraft, Understanding Spiritual god other than the Yahweh of Scripture. So the Power; A. S. Moreau, The Essentials of Spiritual War- battle is still in process. Unfortunately, many fare; E. Murphy, The Handbook for Spiritual Warfare; T. Warner, Spiritual Warfare. missionaries have failed to help their converts make a thorough worldview change from an ani- mistic view in which the spirit world is manipu- Status and Role. When social scientists refer to lable to a Christian view in which a sovereign status, the term is less freighted with implica- God is in control. Not only can God not be ma- tions of value than in more popular usage. Sta- nipulated by us, there is absolutely nothing we tus, in Sociology, refers to the position an indi- can do to commend ourselves to God. We are ut- vidual occupies in a group or society. It is based terly dependent on his grace as a means of deal- on the common recognition within the group ing with our sin and relating to him on a daily that the individual occupies the position, not the basis. The very definition of sin is dependent on perceived value of the position. Status is distin- one’s view of the holiness and sovereignty of guished from roles in sociological theory in that God. A low view of sin stems from a low view of individuals occupy a status and play a role. Roles God. define the rights, functions, obligations, and in- Thus winning in spiritual warfare always teractions of persons. Status refers to the posi- needs to begin with a right view of God and with tion from which individuals act out their roles. a right view of what it means to be a child of A status will have wide recognition and group God. If we say that we are children of God by consensus over its definition. There are two faith but believe that we have to earn our daily types of status, ascribed and achieved. Social standing with God, we become the victims of an scientists define ascribed status as one that is impossible situation. By grace God makes us given by society and over which we exercise lit- “co-heirs with Christ” (Rom. 8:17)—a standing tle if any control, such as age, gender, or Ethnic- which we could never earn by our own efforts. ity. An achieved status is the result of some ac- Believing that this is indeed our position “in tion on the part of the individual, such as Christ” provides the only viable position from teacher, student, shopkeeper, consumer, church which to resist the enemy. The battle looks very member, or police officer. different from the vantage point of the throne of Understanding status and role is significant in God than it does from the context of the circum- missions studies because they are important stances of our lives on earth. keys to understanding Culture. The statuses of In missionary ministry this battle may well be parent, laborer, minister, and athlete all point to more like a Power Encounter than the battle for certain images of how we expect people to be- 54 Teams in Mission have in a given social interaction. Sometimes evangelistic teams, church-planting teams, these images are less clear than others, but it is strategic-­ministry teams, and structures in the general consensus of the society or group wider interagency partnerships. around these images that enables us to under- The concept of team mission has found in- stand them as statuses within a society. It is the creasing popularity in recent years. Parallel to action carried out by the person in a particular current management trends that emphasize em- status that we call a role. For example, consum- ployee empowerment and group decision-mak- ers in some cultures interact with the market- ing, it also reflects a deeper understanding of place through bargaining over prices. Shopkeep- community within the body of Christ by stress- ers are expected to enter into a process of ing interdependent relationships, mutual care negotiation over prices. In other countries, such and nurture, and the balance of spiritual gifting. as the United States, prices generally are at- Team structures are therefore seen as provid- tached to goods, and consumers are expected to ing a more biblically correct model of the nature pay the marked price. In some cultures, univer- of the church. When team members develop and sity students are expected to learn by synthesiz- use their own Spiritual Gifts and natural abili- ing and analyzing material, and then produce a ties and, in their areas of weakness, depend on relatively original final paper. In other cultures, the gifts and abilities of others, the newly planted students are expected to master the thought of church gains valuable insight into the interde- the instructor and, in deference to the teacher’s pendence necessary if it is to survive and pros- wisdom, replicate his or her thought as the mark per. Team structures are also an advantage in the of educational accountability. In all cultures, process of Contextualization, for theology is people learn the roles—specific behaviors, val- seen as belonging to the church collectively, and ues, and skills—that are appropriate to a given not to individuals or professionals. New contex- status. tual theologies grow out of the mutual efforts of Also, making the distinction between achieved many Christians to understand and apply the and ascribed status helps us in Cross-Cultural gospel to the specific context. Ministry. For example, many cultures have ritu- The emphasis on team structures is not en- als that make adulthood an achieved status tirely new. It has been suggested that Paul’s mis- (called Rites of Passage), whereas others follow sionary journeys involved a team structure that laws that make adulthood ascribed (such as an was both fluid and mobile. Several individuals eighteen-year-old voting age or individuals being are mentioned in Acts as ministering alongside tried in court as adults at a selected age). Know- of Paul and Barnabas (or Paul and Silas). ing the difference can be crucial in developing Team structures in mission have the advan- cross-cultural ministries to adolescents and tages of providing companionship, continuity, young adults. and balance as well as strength and a greater ob- What most people call status, social scientists jectivity in decision making. Weaknesses include call “social status.” This refers to rank, honor, increased potential for disagreement and dishar- and esteem. Max Weber called it “social honor.” mony, concentration of power, stifling of individ- In virtually all societies, relative prestige be- uality and initiative, inflexibility, and the foster- comes a measuring stick for ranking individuals. ing of dependency. In some Pioneer Mission In some societies, economic resources determine Work, concentrated team structures may be im- social status. In others, personal resources such practical. In such settings a sense of community as courage, intelligence, and leadership ability and teamwork can usually be achieved on a serve to determine social rank. In complex soci- wider scale rather than through immediate phys- eties, a combination of ascribed (race, ethnicity, ical proximity. Healthy missionary teams strive gender, age, even ancestry) and achieved (wealth, to balance these advantages and disadvantages. education, income) statuses determine social Teams should be formed before departure to ranking. the field. It is also recommended that teams in- clude experienced as well as inexperienced mis- Harold Dean Trulear sionaries, and that they have a realistic view in Bibliography. H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills, eds., regard to continuity. Not all of the initial mem- From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology; R. Merton, So- bers will remain with the team, and new mem- cial Theory and Social Structure. bers should be added, especially where the goal is to create a structure that will readily include Teams in Mission. A ministry strategy and orga- national members and eventually become the nizational structure that uses a small-group for- local ministry team. mat and emphasizes interdependent relation- Lastly, it should be pointed out that a true ships in order to accomplish a given task. sense of team does not come with an organiza- Applied to the missionary context, the term has tional structure, but with dynamic interaction been used to describe a wide variety of struc- and the development of relationships over time tures and strategies, including short-term teams, and, most notably, through crisis and conflict 55 Television Evangelism resolution. People working in the same place has had significant influence on the perceived may be a group, but it takes commitment and credibility of all television preachers. mutuality in the face of the task at hand to weave Ben Armstrong, former chairman of the Na- the fabric of a team. tional Religious Broadcasters, has come out Paul F. Hartford strongly in favor of the electronic church as a revolutionary new form of the worshiping, wit- Bibliography. M. S. Harrison, Developing Multina- nessing church. Malcolm Muggeridge, on the tional Teams; J. R. Katzenbach and D. K. Smith, The Wisdom of Teams; S. L. Mackin, EMQ 28:2 (April 1992): other hand, claimed that Jesus would decline the 134–40; D. A. McGavran, Readings in Third World Mis- offer, treating it as the fourth temptation. He was sions, pp. 187–89; K. O’Donnell, ed., Missionary Care; concerned about the fact that television centers D. W. Shenk and E. R. Stutzman, Creating Communi- on violence, sex, and deceit. There are times, ties of the Kingdom; R. D. Winter, Crucial Dimensions Muggeridge conceded, when television can com- in World Evangelization, pp. 326–44. municate true life, as was the case of the televi- sion program he made with Mother Teresa of Television Evangelism. Today, television watch- Calcutta. True life and testimony seem to be well ing is the primary way in which people in many suited for television. countries spend their free time; the average Other parts of the world have seen the devel- household watches several hours of television opment of low-cost city stations serving a limited daily. Unlike radio, which can be listened to community. There are also major developments while driving, washing dishes, or looking at each in the area of satellite television. SAT-7 is a new other, television requires everyone to face in the initiative broadcasting into the Arab world, and same direction and pay full attention. a new Thai operation is giving space to a Chris- From the beginning, the United States opted tian channel that will cover most of East Asia. for commercially based television, and noncom- Among the potential program formats, we mercial public broadcasting has had difficult should mention the big worship service—a times. In Europe, led by such agencies as the church service actually produced for television. BBC in Britain, television has been financed by a A good example would be the Hour of Power, the license fee paid by all owners of television sets; Sunday morning service of the Crystal Cathedral but with the advent of satellite-based broadcast- in California with Robert Schuller. This program ing the commercial model is advancing rapidly has been on the air since 1970. Other formats in- all over the world. clude talk shows, such as the 700 Club with Pat For the Christian evangelist, television has a Robertson. Still others have experimented with number of strengths. It is a medium that reaches short programs or spots. There are many chil- a large group of people at the same time. It can dren’s shows. A real potential would be to de- utilize numerous types of presentation: lecture, velop new forms of teaching the Bible, for bibli- dialogue, drama, dance, music. On the other cal illiteracy is becoming a serious issue in both hand, television is very expensive and, given the church and society. size of the audience, tends to cater to the lowest The challenge is to integrate television with common denominators. Furthermore, it usually other forms of evangelism, in particular with the operates in an entertainment environment. Such outreach of the local church. To do that, the problems may seem insurmountable for Chris­ issue of financial support will need to be solved. tian churches, but the medium is too powerful to There is also a need to find ways to minimize the be left exclusively in the hands of those who have negative impact of television on family life. Ini- no Christian interest and concerns. We should tiatives in this direction have been made by the note that Christian use of television in the United Lutherans in Japan. States is already a billion-dollar enterprise. Viggo Søgaard The church will have to learn that television Bibliography. B. Armstrong, The Electric Church; writes its own rules. Television communicates in W. F. Fore, Television and Religion: The Shaping of the living rooms of the audience, and here the Faith, Values, and Culture; M. Muggeridge, Christ and Christian communicator will be judged on equal the Media; V. B. Søgaard, Media in Church and Mission: terms with other television producers as to skills Communicating the Gospel. and mastery of the medium. The screen has to be filled with scenery, people, motion, and visual ef- Theological Education by Extension. Theologi- fects, and not just a talking head. cal education by extension (TEE) is a term that The electronic church is basically an American describes a method and a movement that ap- phenomenon. We have seen the rise of the tel- peared in the missions world in the early 1960s. evangelists, the superstars of American religious Responding to the rapidly changing patterns of television. They have been the topic of many the church, the ministry, and leadership training, books and articles, ranging from horror stories TEE revolted against the residence type of theo- to unreserved praise. The misbehavior of a few logical education. It espoused a new form of edu- 56 Third Culture Kids (TCK) cation, “which yields to the life cycle of the stu- most Latin American countries in the 1970s. dent, that does not destroy or prevent his From there it has spread to Asia and Africa, productive relation to society, and does not make maintaining its basic principles while assuming the student fit into the needs of a residential different forms. TEE’s adaptability has been one school.” It was theological education for church of its strong points. It targets established leaders growth. instead of prospective leaders. Brief History of the Movement. TEE was born For almost a decade the TEE Movement met in Latin America, occasioned by the general different degrees of opposition from traditional needs of Latin American evangelicals, particu- theological educators. This was due to some un- larly by the Presbyterians in Guatemala in 1962. merited criticism of residential forms by TEE They had an excellent seminary of the traditional proponents. However, after realizing that TEE type in Guatemala City with a highly qualified was not necessarily a substitute for, but a com- faculty. But a survey revealed that in twenty-five plement to, resident theological education, the years the seminary had prepared only ten pas- two sides have gradually fused and see each tors who were actively serving the denomination. other as mutually beneficial. At that time only six students were enrolled— Methodology of the Movement. TEE can bet- hardly sufficient to serve two hundred rapidly ter be understood when one keeps in mind that it growing churches in one of the most fertile fields does not espouse the extermination of resident of all Latin America. Something was radically structures, but only their extension. TEE sug- wrong. gests that the seminary become student-centered Providentially, a trio of highly qualified, un- instead of institution-centered. The seminary usually creative, and evangelically concerned simply extends its theological education in sev- missionary professors made up their faculty. eral ways. Geographically, the seminary goes to Ralph Winter, Jim Emery, and Ross Kinsler all the student in his or her natural habitat. Chrono- had multiple degrees in engineering, anthropol- logically, the schedules of classes are drawn up ogy, and theology. They moved from the city to after consulting the students. Seasonal classes the rural area where most of the churches were, and schedules must be considered. Culturally, but this did not solve the problem. A radical the course material may be the same, but the change in structure was necessary. Center adapts the content to the needs, customs, The church leaders could not come for train- language, and thought patterns of the Center ing if it required residence away from their area. Academically, courses may have to be of- homes. From this sprang the idea of a decentral- fered at several different levels, geared to the ized seminary. If the potential students could not local environment. TEE is apt to reach people of come to the seminary, the seminary would go to different social and economic classes and pre- them! Regional centers were established. pare bivocational ministers. Finally, economi- Courses on three levels were adapted to the cally TEE avoids the enormous expense of main- schedules of the students. Textbooks were put taining institutional buildings and salaried into programmed instruction. Care was taken to faculties. maintain academic excellence. Enrollment im- The TEE Movement has spread to all areas of mediately increased from six to fifty students— the world of mission. Most missiologists agree and the TEE movement was born. that it is not a substitute for resident theological Five advantages of the new TEE program were education, but a needed complement, especially noted by the missionaries. First, the door was in theological education on cross-cultural mis- opened for leaders who desired to reach a higher sion fields. level of training. Second, the leaders could re- ceive theological training in the context of their Justice C. Anderson own subculture. Third, the system permitted Bibliography. R. Covell and P. Wagner, An Extension those students who had low motivation to leave Seminary Primer; V. Gerber, ed., Discipling Through without losing face. Fourth, instead of lowering Theological Education by Extension; F. R. Kinsler, The academic levels, the extension student learns Extension Movement in Theological Education; R. Win- better and develops better study habits in his or ter, ed., Theological Education by Extension. her home. Finally, extension is much more eco- nomical than the conventional seminary, and it Third Culture Kids (TCK). A “third culture kid” saves much time for the professor. (or TCK) is an individual who, having spent a Thus a radical new form of theological educa- significant part of the developmental years in a tion arose in a tiny country of Central America. culture other than that of the parents, incorpo- Soon it became more widely known and its lead- rates elements of his or her parents’ culture with ers went on the road to respond to requests from elements from the culture of the host country to other fields with the same problems. The new form a personal combination of cultures or method spread to Bolivia, Colombia, Brazil, “third culture.” Third culture kids are not only Mexico, and Argentina during the 1960s and into children of missionaries but also children of dip- 57 Tithe, Tithing lomatic, international business, military, and guistic skills. An associated challenge is the fact other personnel who have lived overseas. that the TCK feels deeply the pain of the real The factors that most significantly influence world. At the same time he or she may become the TCK’s life and Worldview are the mobility impatient with those less knowledgeable and dis- and cross-cultural experience that characterize cerning and may be perceived as being critical the developmental period. There are both signif- and arrogant. icant benefits related to being raised in a country Dave Wickstrom other than that of one’s parents during this time of life, as well as accompanying challenges. For Bibliography. D. Pollock, The TCK Profile; R. Van Reken, Letters Never Sent; D. Walters, An Assessment of example, TCKs show mixed levels of maturity, Reentry Issues of the Children of Missionaries. often exhibiting outlooks and understandings of life beyond what would normally be expected by monocultural peers. In addition, TCKs often Tithe, Tithing. Tithing (the giving of one-tenth demonstrate an advanced ability to communi- of one’s income) was an Old Testament ordi- cate with adults and are generally comfortable nance designed by God primarily for the mainte- and capable of getting around in the world, even nance of the temple service (Deut. 12:2–7; 17–19; moving from one country to another. At the same 14:22–29) and for charitable purposes to support time, however, such common tasks as writing a widows, orphans, aliens, and the Levites (those check or using new phone systems may seem who had inherited no property in Israel) (Deut. daunting. As a result, TCKs often subjectively ex- 26:12). It was an ancient custom (Abraham had perience being “out-of-phase” with monocultural paid tithes to Melchizedek; Gen. 14:20) and the peers, feeling they don’t fit in. underlying principle was that God owned every- There are other issues related to the dimen- thing and had given us of his bounty. In recogni- sions of mobility and cross-cultural experience. tion of that, we should return something to him Leave-taking is one; relationships another. Be- to be used for the purposes of ministry. cause the average TCK moves eight times by the In the New Testament, except for one casual age of eighteen and may have to deal with people reference to Abraham (Heb. 7:2), tithing is men- of many cultures, he or she often becomes quite tioned only critically, and that by Jesus, because adaptable, unshaken by change, and may be tithing had become a source of spiritual pride quite adept at building relationships and empa- and abuse among the religious legalists of his thizing sensitively with others. A strong sense of day. Complex regulations were in the process of independence and realistic views about loss and being developed regarding the tithing of virtually death are also developed. During adulthood, everything, rules that were later codified in the however, the TCK may experience a deep sense Mishnah. Jesus points out that such meticulous of rootlessness, a tendency to have too many re- calculation was hypocritical when used as a lationships to manage, and difficulty planning. cloak to cover neglect of what really mat- The pain associated with leave-taking as children tered—“the weightier matters of the law, justice, often results in survival responses such as a “get mercy and faithfulness” (Matt. 23:23; Luke close quickly, detach quickly” response in rela- 11:42). The Old Testament prophets also recog- tionships, and there may be issues of unresolved nized that following the letter of the tithing laws grief from the many separations. Consequently, was meaningless apart from a sincere heart com- guardedness in relationships, almost automatic mitted to the Lord (Amos 4:4). The self-righteous withdrawal from intimacy, and a flattening of Pharisee mentioned by Jesus in his parable, who emotions are common. included tithing as one of his noblest virtues, Because of the variety of experiences develop- epitomized this attitude (Luke 18:9–14). mentally, TCKs have to deal with issues of cul- Although tithing was open to abuse, the funda- tural balance and skills as well as a unique mental principle that God’s people should sup- world­view. While on the one hand they often port the ministry is maintained in the New Testa- have an understanding of different cultures and ment. Jesus accepted financial support for his may move easily and comfortably between them, ministry from those who followed him (Luke they also may experience the sense of being a 8:1–3) and even maintained a surplus, necessitat- “hidden immigrant”—appearing to others as if ing a treasurer (John 13:29), the money being they should fit into a culture while not feeling as used for charitable purposes. Jesus was operat- if they do. In addition, with their exposure to dif- ing on the principle that was later taken up by ferent cultural value systems and resultant abil- the early church that “the worker is worth his ity to see differing points of view, TCKs often ex- keep” (Matt. 10:9–10) and should therefore not perience the challenge of personal values being need to make excessive provision for himself be- unsettled and in constant flux. The unique and cause the ministry should be supported by those expanded worldview of TCKs often leads to a de- who are able to provide. This became the rule sire to become involved in the international laid down by the apostle Paul, one that he traces arena where they often display exceptional lin- directly back to Jesus, that “those who preach 58 Training of Missionaries the gospel should make their living from the gos- to know the trainees’ level of commitment to pel” (1 Cor. 9:14). Paul sees it as a privilege that God, the ministry team, and the task. Do track we can share in the work of the ministry by giv- records demonstrate staying power? What must ing, and he uses Jesus as an example—he was be done to improve these? Competency addresses rich and became poor for us, so that we through the trainees’ needs in relation to exegeting and his poverty might become rich (2 Cor. 8:1–15). communicating Scripture, the use of spiritual So Paul gratefully received gifts for his ministry gifts, cross-cultural tools to exegete the commu- (Phil. 4:14–18) and accepted contributions for nity, skills in team development, conflict resolu- the needs of others (Rom. 16:25–27), but he also tion, planning and problem solving, support worked with his own hands (as a tentmaker) to maintenance, ministry, and contextualization. provide for himself (Acts 18:3; 1 Cor. 4:12). He Culture refers to the trainees’ grasp of the target had learned through this to trust the Lord who culture, mental, emotional, and physical adjust- can supply all our needs according to his riches ment, flexibility, and empowerment. Such a pro- in glory through Christ Jesus (Phil. 4:19). file discerns the gaps between the trainees’ pres- The New Testament teaches that everything ent state and the training path trainees must belongs to God and we owe everything to him. traverse to minister competently cross-culturally. We are to engage in honorable work, support our Profile-based training can take place through families, cheerfully support the ministry from three forms of education: formal, nonformal, our means, give as we are able, and more if nec- and informal. Formal education tends to take essary, counting it a privilege to participate in place in designated locations, be expert-centered the work of God in this way. If God leads us to and sequenced, focuses on individual achieve- give a tithe of our income to such work, that ment, covers topics broadly and in depth, and would certainly be acceptable to him. If God takes extended amounts of time, making it should lead us to give in other ways and accord- costly. Nonformal education tends to be held in ing to other formulas, that would also be an ac- locations of convenience, be participatory in na- ceptable procedure. In the end we should know ture, addresses specific topics in depth, focuses that we brought nothing into this world and we on individual or group improvement, and tends can take nothing out (1 Tim. 5:7), that an inordi- to be short in duration, making it more afford- nate grasping of our money brings nothing but able. Informal education happens any time, any trouble (1 Tim. 4:10), and we should be building place, without cost, as people dialogue about a up treasures in heaven, not on earth, by the way host of personal or ministry topics. Wise trainees we handle our finances. will take advantage of the distinctives that each educational mode offers. Walter A. Elwell Cross-cultural training should reflect much Bibliography. R. de Vaux, Ancient Israel; G. F. Haw- more than the acquisition of cognitive knowl- thorne, NIDNTT, III:851–55; B. K. Morley, EDBT, pp. edge. Whenever possible, it should be field- 779–80; H. Lansdell, The Sacred Tenth: Studies in based, mentor-intensive, and team-oriented; re- Tithe-Giving Ancient and Modern; L. Vischer, Tithing in quire immediate application; and include the Early Church. constructive feedback that addresses the cogni- tive, affective, and behavioral domains. Training of Missionaries. Jesus and Paul placed Like much Bible training, most receive their high priority on training people for ministry missionary training piecemeal. A little theology (Matt. 4:19; 2 Tim. 2:2) with the goal of produc- here, a little character development there; a little ing effective workers with servant hearts capable experience here, a little cross-cultural communi- of expanding Jesus Christ’s rightful reign over his cation there; a little evangelism here, a little fol- creation, leaving future generations a legacy to low-up there; a little prayer here, a little spiritual emulate. Training curriculum includes the warfare there. A more systemic profile-based “what,” “who,” “where,” “when,” “why,” and training model geared to the whole family is “how” in praxis. needed to counteract such fragmented, individu- Preferred cross-cultural training begins with alized training. Such a model will address train- conceptualizing the product. What will it take to ing long term, covering pre-field, on-field, and accomplish the end goal? This calls for a minis- post-field (furloughs) training. This training try profile, that is, a comprehensive picture that model recognizes the need for ministry-long addresses long-term training needs from the per- training that addresses character, commitment, spectives of character, commitment, competence, competence, and culture. Such comprehensive and culture. training will require international partnerships Just as Jesus and Paul placed great emphasis among assemblies, agencies, and academics. on character, so must the trainees’ profile. How Profile-based training calls for evaluation have the trainees’ spiritual pilgrimages prepared benchmarks. Such evaluation helps ensure that them for cross-cultural ministry? What scaffolds trainees continue to lessen the gap between inad- exist? What gaps remain? Trainers will also want equate and adequate training. 59 Transformational Development

Effective cross-cultural workers trained prove human welfare bear witness to the charac- throughout ministry will seek to exemplify high ter and activity of God through Christ. Christian morals in word and deed, all in a con- Second, God reconciles the seen and unseen textual manner. They will resist the temptation elements of creation to himself through Christ. to import materials and methods that cannot be This reconciliation is critically important to reproduced readily by the hearers/readers. transformational development. The Greek term Rather they will seek to empower responsibly the in the passage, apokatallassom, meaning to recon- new community of faith, remembering Jesus’ cile, is a unique expression of katallassom, the words: “anyone who has faith in me will do even common word meaning to reconcile. The apostle greater things than these” (John 14:12). Paul seems to have coined apokatallassom to com- Tom A. Steffen municate a comprehensive view of Reconcilia- tion, particularly things that might not other- Bibliography. A. B. Bruce, The Training of the wise be reconciled. He used the term on two Twelve; R. W. Ferris, Establishing Ministry Training; occasions. On one occasion, Paul used it to af- W. D. Taylor, ed., Internationalizing Missionary Train- firm that God fosters a relationship with the en- ing: A Global Perspective. tire creation. God reconciles the seen and unseen elements of creation to himself through Christ Transformational Development. The term (Col. 1:20), affecting every area of life. “transformational development” was coined to Third, Peace is the result of God’s reconciling recognize the contribution of Development work work through Christ. Peace, meaning a sense of to Christian mission. As an expression of Chris­ harmony in creation, results when communities tian mission, transformational development of people realize that they, through the empow- seeks to change the spiritual assumptions that erment of God, can meet their physical, social, form the basis of a survival strategy in a particu- emotional, and spiritual needs. By integrating lar Culture. The change is from belief in the cul- and addressing these needs, transformational de- ture’s existing spiritual milieu to faith in the Tri- velopment affirms that God’s reconciling work une God as the Creator, Redeemer, and Sustainer through Christ brings the fullness of peace to a of the world. A survival strategy is the combina- fallen creation. tion of agricultural, medical, religious, educa- Bruce Bradshaw tional, commercial, construction, and household activities that contribute to human welfare in a Bibliography. B. Bradshaw, Bridging the Gap: Evan- gelism, Development and Shalom; P. G. Hiebert, Anthro- particular culture. A survival strategy reflects the pological Reflections on Missiological Issues; R. Sider, Worldview assumptions of a community. One Sided Christianity? In most cultures, the activities that comprise a survival strategy have a spiritual foundation. For Translation. Transmission of a message from example, farmers and medical practitioners in one language to another whether in written or traditional African cultures often make Sacri- oral (interpretation) form. Nida and Taber define fices to their Ancestors. They believe the sacri- translation as “reproducing in the receptor lan- fices foster the blessings of spirits or deceased guage the closest natural equivalent of the source ancestors. In many Asian cultures, construction language message, first in terms of meaning and workers place the heads of sacrificed animals in secondly in terms of style.” Translation seeks to the foundations of the buildings and bridges. accurately convey the meaning of the original They believe sacrificed animals appease the spiri- message via clear and natural linguistic forms in tual beings who control human destiny. The spir- the receptor language. Translation is thus based itual beings will prevent the bridges and build- on a correct understanding of the original mes- ings from collapsing if they accept the sacrifices. sage set as it is in particular forms in the source Hindus have a variety of gods from whom they language; it is also subject to the available struc- seek blessings of health, fertility, rain, land, tures of the receptor language. Translation does money, and other necessities of life. In contrast, not occur unless the original meaning is commu- people in secularized Western cultures are prone nicated. A translation can then be evaluated in to believe their survival does not have a spiritual terms of how faithfully it conveys the original basis. This, too, is a spiritual assumption. It as- message, how clearly it conveys that message to sumes the spiritual realm does not exist, or that speakers or hearers in the receptor language, it does not interact with the physical realm. and how naturally the message is expressed in The biblical basis for transformational devel- the receptor language. Accurately conveying the opment is Colossians 1:15–20. This passage has meaning of the original message is paramount, three key points. First, Christ is supreme in all of style secondary. creation. Development that is transformational Translation is based on the premise that every points toward the supremacy of Christ, and af- language is capable of expressing human firms that the development activities that im- thought. A speaker or an author expresses a 60 Worship given message in a given social and physical con- hearing it. Translators typically have a relatively text using particular words and phrases based on extended period of time to study the original his or her intent (e.g., to inform, to persuade), message before providing a written form in the assumptions about what the hearer or reader receptor language. In Bible translation especially will understand, couched in the linguistic and translators enjoy the benefit of detailed studies rhetorical tools he or she controls (e.g., rhetori- of the original message to aid them in their anal- cal questions, metaphors). The translator must ysis. understand this original message before begin- Translation is modeled in Scripture as a means ning translation. Thus, language analysis or exe- to convey a message to people who do not under- gesis is an initial step in the translation process. stand the language of the original message (Mark Since languages are distinct and have different 5:41; 15:34; John 1:38). The postexilic Jews may ways of expressing meaning, a particular word have used interpreters to bridge the gap from the or phrase in a language may have numerous classical Hebrew of the Torah to the Aramaic of meanings. “Chris’s house” expresses a different the audience (Neh. 8:8). relationship between Chris and the house than Agencies such as the United Bible Societies “Chris’s spouse” or “Chris’s hand.” A “hand” on and the Wycliffe Bible Translators (along with an arm is different than a “hand” on a clock or a the Summer Institute of Linguistics) have fo- “hand” of bananas. To “give someone a hand” cused on translation as a missionary tool, specif- may involve physical assistance or applause, de- ically for Bible translation. Translation theory pending on the context. Linguistic forms convey has been advanced by Christian authors; Eu- different meanings in different contexts. gene A. Nida wrote several seminal works on the In addition to the referential sense of words, theory and practice of translation. Countless translation must also consider connotative other agencies around the world rely heavily on meaning. A speaker or author may choose words interpreters and translators to convey their mes- with strong negative or positive connotations. sage to people who speak a language not mas- These meanings must be understood in their tered by their missionaries. Mission interpreters temporal and cultural context. and translators need to be well trained to trans- Transferring the message from the source lan- late accurately, clearly, and naturally. guage to another language involves determining Peter James Silzer which forms in the receptor language will ade- quately convey the original meaning. Very rarely Bibliography. M. L. Larson, Meaning Based Transla- will the same form be appropriate for the multi- tion: A Guide to Cross-Language Equivalence; E. A. ple senses of a word in the source language. The Nida, Toward a Science of Translating; E. A. Nida and source language may have multiple senses for a C. R. Taber, The Theory and Practice of Translation. particular word that demand separate forms in the receptor language (the English noun “key” is Worship. Today as throughout history, worship translated llave in Spanish if it is for a lock, clave and mission are linked inextricably together, for if it is for a code, and tecla if it is on a keyboard). God propels his mission through the drawing of Conversely, the source language may have sepa- worshipers to himself. God’s call to worship him rate lexical items that are appropriately trans- empowers us to respond with his passion to do lated with one word in the receptor language, mission. Thus, worship ignites mission; it is (Indonesian padi, beras, and nasi are all “rice” in God’s divine call-and-response strategy. English.) The lack of simple one-to-one corre- Indeed, the Scriptures resound with his global spondences between languages motivates the call to worship via mission. The prophet Isaiah, translator to seek the most appropriate way to for example, responding in the midst of worship, express the meaning of the receptor language in takes up the call to go (Isa. 6:1–8). Likewise, the words and phrases understood well in the recep- Samaritan woman encounters Jesus Christ, the tor language. incarnate God. He discloses that the Father is The receptor language also determines the seeking authentic worshipers, people in relation- grammatical form of the translation; if words are ship with him. The woman responds by immedi- simply translated one by one from the source ately calling others to come see the man who language the result is merely a glossed text, not a told her everything she had done (John 4:26). Fi- translation. Interlinear translations of texts pro- nally, the greatest call-and-response pattern sur- vide helpful insights about the source language. faces when the disciples meet with the resur- but are not properly called translations as such. rected Jesus just before his ascension (Matt. Translation and interpretation are one task 28:16ff.). Finally recognizing Jesus’ true identity, with two modes of expression. In both tasks, the they fall down and worship him. In the context meaning of an original message must be con- of worship, Jesus gives his crowning imperative, veyed accurately, clearly, and naturally in an- the Great Commission (Matt. 28:17–20). The mis- other language. Interpreters provide oral expres- sionary mandate flows out of an intimate rela- sion of the original message within moments of tionship with God generated in worship. God’s 61 Worship propelling call to go into all the world becomes Movement, is forging an openness to new, global our response of commitment and allegiance to worship forms. him. We join him in his passion to call worship- Among the most exciting developments are the ers to himself. new mission forces from Asia, Africa, and Latin Wherever we have seen meaningful, authentic America. Their distinctive approaches commonly worship, the church has experienced a new mis- revolve around worship. In Kenya, one of the sions thrust. Yet, a radical separation of worship most dynamic examples of church growth is from mission has dominated mission methodol- found at the Nairobi Chapel. The Chapel bases ogies. Donald MacGavran once claimed, “Wor- much of its strategy on the development of ship . . . is good; but worship is worship. It is not meaningful worship (especially music) for effec- evangelism” (1965, 455). The typical practice has tively communicating the gospel to a predomi- been to call people to a saving faith in Jesus nantly university-student based church (Long). Christ with worship being a resultant by-prod- The vision does not stop with Kenya; they are uct. While ignoring God’s primary call to wor- reaching out to neighboring Tanzania. In West ship, missiologists have, however, recognized the Africa, Senufo Christians of Cote d’Ivoire are need for relevant Christian worship to nurture a reaching out to their neighbors through their Christian movement. Thus, the model of “evan- distinctive worship form—song, dance, and gelism-before-worship” has dominated evangeli- drama (King). Christian Inca Indians from Peru cal mission strategies. are reaching out to Native Americans of North Yet God’s call to worship him is currently America. Through their deeper understanding of sweeping around the world in great, new revolu- more culturally relevant worship forms, Inca tionary ways. Along with new openness to new Christians are preaching through the use of In- forms and patterns of worship, there is greater dian storytelling styles. Asians are going to other recognition of the intimate relationship between Asians; Koreans to the Philippines and American worship and mission. Such winds of worship Filipinos to Japan. In one case, Taiwans’ Ho- empowering mission have been building over the sanna Ministries partnered with the Korean past few decades in relation to renewal move- Tyrannus Team in initiating a series of Worship ments. In 1939, for example, the Methodist Epis- and Praise activities in 1989. This partnership copal Church published a small manual, A Book brought forth a movement of renewal in Taiwan of Worship for Village Churches, for the “great where unbelievers came to Christ and believers army of Christian pastors, teachers, and laymen dedicated themselves to missions (Wong). They who are leading the toiling villagers of India discovered “an intimate relationship between through worship to the feet of Christ” (Ziegler, worship and mission” (1993, 3). Worship pro- 1939, 7). The manual resulted from a desire to pelled both evangelism and commitment to do see the church in India take root in its own soil more mission. in tandem with the vast treasures of two thou- With the growing surge of worship empower- sand years of Christian heritage. Research re- ing mission, we must keep five factors in mind in vealed that where dynamic worship was prac- order to achieve a lasting impact for the king- ticed, changed lives and growing churches dom. First, worship must remain worship: we resulted. On the other hand, weak, stagnant and must, above all, seek encounter with God. Wor- ineffective churches existed where worship of ship services should not serve as functional sub- God in Christ was neglected (ibid., 5). stitutes for evangelism. Rather, we must seek au- More recently, as renewal movements grow in thenticity of interaction with God and developing their experience with God, God calls them into relationship with him. Genuine worship of the mission. The common strategic link of each of Creator will attract and confront those who long these groups is their focus on worship with evan- to enter into the kingdom. Likewise, evangelistic gelism as the inclusive by-product: the “wor- programs must pursue evangelism. The two, ship-propels-mission” model. French Benedic- worship and mission, must remain distinct, yet tine monks, for example, have entered Senegal work hand-in-hand. with the goal of creating a model of contextual- Second, we must allow God to transform and ized worship drawn from cultural musical tradi- make anew his original creation. Contextualiza- tions. They have adapted African drums and the tion of the gospel is not an option, but an imper- twenty-one-string Kora harp to attract Muslims ative. Throughout the Scriptures and history, we to Christ. Likewise, the Taizé Movement from see people worshiping God in ways that were France is growing through the development of formerly heathen but then transformed with rad- contemplative, worship forms. Facilitated by the ically new meaning. Service order, length, lan- burgeoning impact of electronic media and new guage, symbolism, prayer forms, songs, dance, musical forms worldwide, the growth of a Wor- bowing, speeches, Scripture reading, and arti- ship and Praise Movement, originating from facts must be captured to nurture believers and such streams as the Jesus People Movement bring the peoples of the world into relationship through Marantha! Music and the Vineyard with the living God. 62 Worship

Third, we are to pursue diversity within the ship (John 4:23), missionaries must first of all be unity of the body of Christ (Eph. 2; 1 Cor. 12): worshipers of the living God. Then they are em- “Diversity (of worship forms) seems to coincide powered to take up God’s passionate call to bring with the periods of effective mission efforts” all peoples to worship him. Besides studying the (Muench, 1981, 104). Foundational mission nature of worship and the numerous patterns goals must seek to make Christ understood and and forms that worship can embody, we must known within their own context. The Celtic train people to lead worship and stimulate mean- church, for example, known as a strong mission ingful worship cross-culturally. Training for wor- church, encouraged each tribal group to develop ship must become a major component in the for- its own worship service pattern. Likewise, wor- mation of missionaries. ship patterns and forms must vary according to Authentic Christian worship brings people to the cultural contexts—including multicultural encounter Jesus Christ. As one looks to God, God settings. In order to know God intimately, peo- reveals his vision to us. We respond to his call. ples from differing contexts require the freedom Thus, worship propels and empowers mission. to interact with him through relevant worship Ultimately, God calls us to participate in achiev- forms. ing God’s vision as entoned by the Psalmist: “All Fourth, there is a great need for research the nations you have made will come and wor- toward developing appropriate worship. We ship before you, O Lord; they will bring glory to must allow dynamic worship to grow and change your name” (Ps. 86:9). as relationship with God deepens. Worship Roberta R. King forms are shaped by and reflect our relationship Bibliography. P. B. Brown In and For the World: with God via appropriate, expressive cultural Bringing the Contemporary Into Christian Worship; J. G. forms. There is great need for openness in pursu- Davies, Worship and Mission; R. R. King, Pathways in ing, experimenting, exchanging, and document- Christian Music Communication: The Case of the Sen- ing experiences in worship. Needed topics of re- ufo of Cote d’Ivoire; K. W. Long, Worship and Church search should include biblical models of worship Growth: A Single Case Study of Nairobi Chapel; S. Mor- that seek precedents for adapting cultural forms, genthaler, Worship Evangelism: Inviting Unbelievers comparative philosophical thought forms, his- into the Presence of God; P. E. Muench, “Worship and torical models of worship from the Christian Mission: A Review of Literature” M.A. Thesis, Fuller movement, uses and meaning of ritual (anthro- Theological Seminary; J. Piper, Let the Nations Be Glad; A. L. C. Wong, The Dynamics of Worship and Praise in pology), verbal and non-verbal symbols (commu- God’s Mission in Taiwan; E. K. Ziegler, A Book of Wor- nication), and comparative cultural worship pat- ship for Village Churches. terns. Finally, we must train for worship and worship leading. In keeping with “spirit and truth” wor-

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