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Home , Moral relativism, Moral skepticism, Relativism

International Journal of Social and Humanity, Vol. 3, No. 4, July 2013

Virtue Theory, and Survival

Joseph Grcic

there can be no objective or in any Abstract— theory claims that moral define the human endeavor including . moral person. claims there are no necessary Metaethical relativism is the claim that moral universal moral values-this theory is not rationally sustainable have only within a given cultural framework. Any as a theory of ethics. The necessary functions of social order two different normative systems are incommensurable and and require certain moral virtues. There are six main universal moral virtues: wisdom, courage, , humanity, one cannot be rationally judged to be superior to the . temperance, and transcendence. Societies cannot function Relativism in the extreme form conflicts with the fact that efficiently without these core virtues. there are similarities in moral virtues found across all stable . These virtues and values are a function of the Index terms—Moral relativism, social structure, virtue universality of human , human needs and the common theory. problems societies must solve to survive. The differences that do exist in moral norms are limited and arise due to different social and historical contexts, and I. INTRODUCTION systems which shape moral norms to some degree. But The realm of ethics seems to be one of the most these differences are secondary when compared to the larger conflicted and uncertain in philosophy and in human . common foundation of core values based on the common This conflict would be tolerable if it did not have practical problems which must be solved for communities to survive. and serious consequences and ramifications in the arena of human action, society, and moral in general. To develop an approach towards addressing this critical III. VIRTUE THEORY problem an appropriate must be used. Since Studies of various religious and philosophical traditions the issue involves the interface of ethical values and social show the existence of some universal moral virtues. structures, an interdisciplinary, historical, comparative, Perspectives as diverse as , , conceptual and logical methodology must be implemented. , , Judaism, , Islam, , The findings of , , psychology and , and others defend six core virtues as other must be assessed. Further, the contributions necessary for social order and human flourishing. [6] But of philosophy including various ethical paradigms and tools before examining this claim, a brief explanation of for logical analysis must be incorporated. understanding ethics from the perspective of virtues in contrast to other main approaches is needed. Deontology such as that of Kant is a rationalistic view of ethics which II. RELATIVISM rejects any role for emotions and is based on the view of ethics on the nature of the formed and the duties One aspect of the problem of ethical disagreements and skepticism about the rational resolution of moral disputes is accepted. Teleological ethics such as the of John S. Mill, understands ethics as based on the the rise of the theory of rela tivism of which there are several forms. Descriptive or is the factual claim consequences in terms of caused by actions [7]- that there are disagreements about in different [9]. cultures and different even within one . Ethical Virtues are character traits or habits of action which, or moral relativism is the normative view that there is and according to virtue theory, define the moral person. Virtue cannot be no one correct rational morality or set of for theory accepts the importance of intentions and all societies [1]-[3]. Relativism, in its extreme forms, holds consequences but rejects as rationalistic and unrealistic that morality is a social construct such that in any view of ethics in the other approaches and sees ethical moral system is possible in any society. [4] It claims actions as combining and emotions. A virtue nothing can be judged intrinsically, necessarily and approach sees ethical as not just deducing specific universally to be or . Some defenders of relativism acts from abstract but having a type of character see moral systems as ideological in nature whose primary with sound judgment to respond correctly to varied complex function is to perpetuate the ruling [5]. Ethical circumstances. grounds moral values in the relativism is often a consequence of epistemological personality structure and as such provides the necessary relativism and postmodern skepticism which claim that motivational element which deontological and teleological paradigms lack. Finally, virtue ethics is open to using the findings of disciplines such as psychology, sociology, Manuscript received April 3, 2013; revised June 3, 2013. Joseph Grcic is with Indiana State University. he is a professor of anthropology and other disciplines to clarify morality and philosophy, His lastest published book is Free and Equal (e-mail: understand the lived context of human action and how [email protected])

DOI: 10.7763/IJSSH.2013.V3.273 416 International Journal of and Humanity, Vol. 3, No. 4, July 2013 moral behavior is generated. about the of life. It has been defined as practical which maximizes one’s own good and the good of others in a harmonious way. Wisdom IV. UNIVERSAL VIRTUES incorporates the insight that knowledge, defined as justified Six foundational virtues have been discovered to play true belief, is a kind of map of and as such is a central roles in cross-cultural traditions and societies [10]. necessary presupposition for the success of any human These virtues are not defined in exactly the same manner in endeavor. Since wisdom presupposes and all cultures but there is a common core meaning. The communication also presupposes it follows that without virtues are: courage, justice, humanity, temperance, communication there is no social order. Without social transcendence and wisdom. Courage is defined as the order and a society cannot exist for long. rational response to fear and has three main aspects, Moral norms and virtues are the solution to the problem physical, moral and psychological. Physical courage is form of maintaining social order among members of a species of courage wherein one overcomes the fear of physical who have social and anti-social tendencies. Moral virtues injury or death to save others or oneself. Moral courage channel human impulses and actions into ordered means to hold to one’s moral beliefs in the face of attacks, with the actions of others. They constitute a structure of and psychological courage concerns the ability to endure rules which define appropriate means for the achievement and confront personal mental or physical illness or difficult of ends with minimal conflict and inefficiency in meeting situation. the needs of its members. The virtue of justice concerns treating people fairly in the Anti-social activity is due to many factors. The scarcity proper distribution of and duties or treating equals of desired objects (food, wealth, status, etc.) differences in equally and unequals unequally. Different theories have class, ideologies, moral and intellectual limitations, the been proposed through the ages such as the apostle Paul’s dependency of persons and their vulnerability to attack by command “If any would not work, neither should he eat.” others may all play a role. Moral norms and their (2Thess 3:10) or ’s theory of a just society as one internalization as virtues are the solution to persons seeking where everyone performs one’s function, what they do best the satisfaction of their needs in a social context without or Marx’s of “From each according to his ability, to producing the Hobbesian state of war of all against all. each according to his need” the core idea is the need to meet Moral norms constitute the 'glue' that counteracts the the needs of society [11], Whether distribution of is centrifugal forces of unlimited and irrational self-interest. based on need, contribution, status or some other criteria, Moral norms limit the area of the unknown and there is a common understanding that justice is necessary unpredictable, reducing the frustration of expectations and for the harmonious relations among persons. A just society minimizing conflict. is also necessary for generating a belief on the part of the populace that the burdens of society are allocated fairly so that the political system is accepted as legitimate which is V. SOCIAL STRUCTURE essential for social stability. There are numerous kinds of societies in existence but no The virtue of humanity concerns altruistic behavior such how diverse, some sociologists have plausibly as actions of generosity and kindness. Actions here go argued that all societies must perform certain functions to beyond the demands of justice and concerns empathy for continue in existence with minimal violence and disorder others and the reduction of their . Here one finds [12]. Specifically, Talcott Parsons has argued, in short, that friendship, forgiveness and the golden rule (Do onto others society is a system of interrelated processes each which as you would want done to you.), reciprocity and the like. perform an essential function for the maintenance of the The virtue of temperance concerns moderation in the whole. According to Parsons, for a society to survive as a pursuit of pleasures associated with food, alcohol and sex. society it must successfully perform four necessary Temperance or prudence involves the ability to monitor and functions, adaptation, goal attainment, socialization or control one’s emotions and behavior in order to preserve maintenance and integration. Let us consider each in one’s health and maintain good relations with others. turn. Without temperance one would not have the mental clarity Just as individuals must adapt to survive so too a society to pursue wisdom or have the judgment for any of the to exist must adapt to its environment and solve problems. virtues. To adapt it must gain knowledge of its environment and The virtue of transcendence concerns the belief in a make changes in the social system to enable the society to larger purpose beyond self-interest. Transcendence involves continue to survive and function in a rational manner. an appreciation of beauty, gratitude, hope, a sense of humor Adaptation and problem solving require knowledge and and spirituality. It rejects cosmic , that life has no collective efforts require decision-making and cooperation meaning, and affirms, whether in explicitly religious or non- to implement decisions. Cooperation requires communica- religious means, the value of human existence and the value tion which in turn requires a rule requiring truth-telling in at of the community. least most collective endeavors; random lying would The virtue of wisdom is perhaps the most basic virtue. It eliminate trust and produce social chaos. Simply put, is defined as having knowledge of the basic of life, survival implies knowledge and cooperation, and especially self-knowledge, and the ethical application of this knowledge implies adherence to truth and rejection of lying. knowledge to real life situations. Wisdom means a rational Here the virtue of wisdom as a kind of knowledge is clearly open-mindedness, love of learning, and good judgment operative.

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All stable and enduring social systems must provide for maladaptive and incapable of confronting hostile groups. group survival. They strive to do this by successfully Adaptation and socialization are clearly necessary for competing with hostile social groups and by extracting the societal order and survival. These functions necessitate the necessities of life from the environment and producing the realization of certain goals if the existence of a society is to goods and services required. In addition to an efficient be more probable. These goals can be political, military, economy, for adaptation to be successful, the political economic or social. Here all the key the virtues are relevant. structures must establish a monopoly of power and control a First, wisdom requires that societal goals must be logically certain territory where the members of the community live articulated, consistent, reasonable and rationally prioritized. to defend against enemies and control internal criminal Secondly, members of the given society must be sufficiently elements. The virtue of wisdom is a necessity in the ability motivated to pursue collective goals such as the production of a community to adapt which is enhanced by the of necessary goods and services and defense against expansion of knowledge and the development of new enemies. Here the virtues of courage and justice are clearly technology; these factors can all play a pivotal role in relevant. A society without courageous individuals would controlling the physical environment and extracting not have a successful military and a society not perceived as resources to provide for social needs. [13] just by its members would not motivate its members As already suggested, truth is a presupposition of sufficiently to defend it against enemies. knowledge which is itself a presupposition of the virtue of To perform its necessary functions successfully, the wisdom. However, the motivation to act in conformity to political system must be perceived as legitimate. Legitimacy the preferring truth-telling does not arise by nature is the idea that the power wielded by the government is alone but must be a product of appropriate socialization. believed by the majority of the populace as morally and Human , because of their and ability to legally justified and applied for the common good. This is a organize and learn, are remarkably plastic and capable of key component of the virtue of justice and transcendence. adapting to a diverse range of environments. What Transcendence, the belief in the connection to a higher adaptations and changes are made, their effectiveness and purpose, which could be humanity itself, contributes to the how they are implemented is in part determined by the efficient actualization of social goals. The virtue of nature and effectiveness of socialization, the complex humanity or compassion contributes the social glue which psychological and social processes which transmit the reduces social conflict and tension. Clearly temperance, the cultural system form one generation to the next. The virtues control of natural appetite is also necessary to reduce of wisdom and humanity and transcendence are necessary conflict, and promote the health of members. And courage for the process of socialization, the transference of is essential for the successful completion of all challenging knowledge to the new generation. Socialization presupposes activities. To control fear and react rationally to difficult an accurate representation of reality or knowledge, which is circumstances are essential for goal attainment. the basis of wisdom. Integration concerns the regulation and coordination of One purpose of socialization is the creation of sufficient the main institutions of a rational society. Successful motivation of the members to support and maintain the integration is necessary in order to minimize conflict, beliefs and values of the social system. This is primarily maximize efficiency and maintain sufficient unity to act as a generated by the and school system which group. This is achieved primarily by a common language, include the inculcation of moral values which deal with the , family structures, customs and moral virtues. proper relationship between members and the regulation of Societal integration implies all the virtues especially that of means to achieve goals. The internalization of ethical wisdom. virtues and customs are central for legitimacy and social Wisdom is essential for knowledge and its proper control where the majority of individuals accept the basic application is essential to all social action. And wisdom structure of the community, and work to support it against shows that there are two mechanisms for integration, enemies internal and external to it. The socialization or socialization and social control through promulgation of law internalization and institutionalization of these basic values and its enforcement. In socialization, the cultural and beliefs are the necessary conditions for social are internalized by individual members of society which, if functioning. Proper socialization trains new members to successful, motivate members to generally conform to conform to the norms of their community, contribute to its social norms and customs. Adequate socialization seeks to functioning and control potentially disruptive behavior. avoid cultural patterns which weaken the necessary degree For societies to continue to exist and for socialization to of order by demanding too little of its members or by be successful, a society must produce, nurture and educate making impossible demands on society and thereby creating new members of that society. Sexual expression must be conflict. allowed but must conform to rational social norms to reduce The virtues of justice, temperance, humanity, courage conflict. The values implicit in this context are the and transcendence also contribute to social integration. encouragement of some form of family unit, the prohibition Justice promotes the sense of legitimacy of the status quo, of the killing and violence against in-group members and temperance enhances human performance by (except when socially sanctioned such as self-defense) and maintaining health. Courage is essential in all endeavors to the production, nurture and socialization and training of meet challenges and humanity unifies through infants. Without reproduction and nurture, societies would compassionate action while transcendence adds added obviously cease to exist and without socialization into the cultural system would cease to function efficiently, be meaning, hence importance, to all human action.

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VI. CONCLUSION [5] M. Karl, Communist Manifesto, Hacket, pp. 25-9. [6] C. Peterson and E. P. Martin, Seligman, Character Strengths and It is clear that the universality of some virtues is not a Virtues, Oxford, pp. 12-20. coincidence but a necessity. The requirements of social [7] I. Kant, Foundations of the of Morals, Hacket, 1987, pp. order, survival and individual flourishing presuppose the 11-24. [8] J. S. Mill, Utilitarianism, Hacket, 1967, pp.7-15. existence and implementation of central moral virtues found [9] B. Ruth, Patterns of Culture , Oxford, 1934, pp. 23-26. across all cultures. [14] [10] C. Peterson, op., cit., pp. 23; Plato, Republic, Marx, op., cit., pp. 34. [11] , Nicomachean Ethics, Cambridge, pp. 33-43. [12] P. Talcott, The Social System, Harvard, pp. 154-65. REFERENCES [13] P. Karl, The Open Society and It Enemies, Chicago, pp. 254-67. [1] W. David, Moral Relativity, Berkeley, 1986, pp. 12-45. [14] C. Roger and M. Slote, Virtue Ethics, Eds., Oxford, 1997. [2] W. G., Folkways, Hacket, 1906, pp. 31-65; [3] E. Westermarck, The Origin and Development of the Moral , Joseph Grcic is a professor of philosophy at Indiana State University. His Macmillan, 1906, pp. 5-11. latest published book is Free and Equal. [4] J. P. Sartre, is a , Hacket, pp. 12.

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