f
DUCKS UNLIMITED, INC. (;a. I NEW JERSEY MEADOWLANDS I ONE DEKORTE PARK PLAZA LYNDHURST, NEW JERSEY 0707 I-3799 PHONE: (20 1) 460 - 466 1 FAX: (20 1) 460 - 8434
Baseline Monitoring Program:
Soil and Sediment Contamination at Wetland Enhancement Sites
Within the Hackensack Meadowlands
March 1998
Prepared for:
Hackensack Meadowlands Development Commission One DeKorte Park Plaza Lyndhurst, New Jersey 07071
i TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 .o INTRODUCTION 1 ..P. I 2.0 CONTAMINANTS AT WETLAND ENHANCEMENT SITES 1
2.0 Methods 1 2.1 Results: Sisselman Tract 1 2.2 Results: Harrier Meadow 2 2.3 Results: Skeetkill Creek Marsh 3 2.4 Results: Mill Creek Marsh 3
3 .o BACKGROUND CONTAMINATION IN THE bi.EADOW-LANDS 5
4.0 ECOLOGY OF HEAVY METALS 6
5 .o POTENTIAL FOR CONTAMINATION BIO-AVAILABILITY 8
6.0 POTENTIAL FOR CONTAMINANT BIO-ACCUh4ULATION 9
6.1 Heavy Metal Bio-Concentration in Marsh Vegetation 10 6.2 Heavy Metal Bio-Concentration in Marsh Animals . 11 6.3 Potential for Bio-Magnification of Heavy Metals 12 ‘6.4 Bio-Concentration and Bio-Magnification of Organochlorines 13
7.0 CONCLUSIONS 15
8.0 REFERENCES 16
Tables 24
i % 1.0 INTRODUCTION
The following report describes the results of soils sampling and analysis at several wetland restoration sitcs in the Hackensack Meadowlands District. It provides some background on the ambient levels of soil contamination present throughout the District in order to place the results of this analysis in perspective. Finally, it provides a brief review of the ecology of heavy metal and organochlorine contaminants is provided in order to understand the implications of.observed contaminant levels.
Preliminary surveys were conducted to screen soils at the Perry’s Creek Canal site (a.k.a. Sisselman tract), Harrier Meadow, Skeetkill Creek M&h, and Mill Creek Marsh in order to detect the presence of potential chemical contaminants which might affect future plans for wetland restoration. The history of significant manufacturing activity in the Hackensack Meadowlands suggested the potential for soil contamination. Sampling at the Berry’s Creek Canal site was conducted on January 4, 1996 and December 22, 1997. Sampling at Harrier Meadow and the adjacent Kingsland mudflats was done February-August 1996. Mill Creek Marsh was sampled April 21-22, 1997. Finally, samples were taken at the Skeetkill Creek Marsh site on March 10, 1997. Results summarized below are described more fully in the final reports for these projects on file at the HMDC and should be consulted as needed. *
2.0 CONTAMINANTS AT WETLAND ENHANCEMENT SITES . . 2.1 Methods’
Due to time and cost constraints, soils sampling described in this report was done on a preliminary, rather than comprehensive, basis. Sampling for U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) priority Pollutants + 40 peaks was concentrated in those portions of the properties where signi&ant excavation is contemplated and/or where the potential for contamination was judged to be highest. Additional scnxning for .the ‘potential presence of Priority Pollutant metals was conducted m the rem&r&r of the sites; Composite samples were collected, comprising soil taken at O-6, 12-18, and 24-30 in .,:.. intervals below grade or, if groundwater was encountered at or near the surface, at the O-6 in interval above standing water. The composite sampling methods used here provide a costeffective means of performing an initial. screening for contamination on large sites.
The soils analysis was conducted according to New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection (NJDEP) criteria (Cleanup Standards for Contaminated Sites, N.J.A.C. 7:26D-et seq.). ‘I& NJDEP recognizes three levels of contamination as follows (from most to least stringent cleanup standards): Residential Direct Contact limits (RD), Non-residential Direct Contact limits (NRD), and Impact to Ground Water limits.
These cleanup standards have been developed primarily to address human health effects, with some consideration of ecological receptors in some cases. Thus, direct and indirect effects of contaminants \ on wildlife cannot be determined from the results of these analysis, particularly since the effects on different species vary based on route of exposure and metabolic pathways affected. In most cases, very . little data is available on the soil and sediment contaminant levels that pose a threat to benthic infauna, vegetation, and the wildlife that feeds on them. As a comparison, results were compared to other published criteria on biological effects (NOAA 1990, Long ef al. 1995).
At both sites, the preliminary analyses either did not detect or revealed relatively low concentrations of TPHC, cyanides, PP+l5, and PP+25 (individually and cornposited). Elevated levels of some organochlorines and/or several heavy metals were detected at all sites (Tables 1 and 2).
2.2 Results: Sissetman Tract
. 2.2.1 Pesticides and Polvchlorinated Biphenyls IPCBQ
Sampling in the southwestern comer of the property included analysis for pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls. Analysis detected 4,4’-DDT, as well as DDT metabolites, including 4,4’- DDE and 4,4’-DDD. None of these levels exceeded soil standards, but these contaminants were detected in three of the four samples collected. Similarly, dieldrin was detected in hvo of the four samples, but at levels below standards. PCBs were not detected (Table 1).
2.2.2 pioritv Pollutant Metals . .
All samples were analyzed for Priority Pollutant metals. While most were found at levels below MDEP criteria, several heavy metals were detected in the samples at levels exceeding those standards. Arsenic was detected at three of eight sample locations at concentrations in excess of the RD criterion and cadmium exceeded the standard at several locations. Surprisingly, mercury was not detected in any of the samples (Table 2).
2.3 Results Harrier Meadow
2.3.1 Pestrcldes’ ’ and Polvchlorinati Biohenvls (PO
At Hamier Meadow analysis of samples taken from the northern property boundary (along the margin of an existing landiill) detected elevated levels of total PCBs and several Priority Pollutant metals which exceeded RD soil criteria. Levels of 4,4’-DDT ranged between 1.6% and 77.5 % of NJDEP cleanup standards, but DDT residues were detected at every sample location. Additionally, chlordam (no standard) and dieldrin were detected at low levels at all locations, with one location yielding die&in levels exceeding the RD criterion. PCE3 levels exceeded the RD criterion at all sample locations adjacent to the landfill.
2.3.2 J’rioritv Pollutant Me&&
2 All soil samples were analyzed for Priority Pollutant metals. In general, heavy metals were detected at levels below RD criteria, however there were some exceptions (Table 2). Cadmium was detected at levels exceeding criteria at all locations. Lead levels exceeded cleanup standards at three of the 10 sample locations. In addition, one level of arsenic, cadmium, and zinc, and three levels of lead exceeded the NRD criteria. The highest levels of contamination were uniformly encountered in soil samples collected along the landfill margin. Some of the heavy metals were detected only in these samples and levels of others were one or two orders of magnitude higher than in other samples. These results suggest that contamination is Iocalized in this portion of the property.
2.4 Results: Skeetkill Creek Marsh
2.4.1 Pesticides and Polvchlorinated Biphenvls (PCBS1
Analysis of soils at the Skeetkill Creek site yielded several organochlorine pesticides and their metabolites (Table 1). PCBs (primarily Aroclor 1260) were detected in several of the composited samples. Soils analysis detected relatively low concentrations of organic contaminants, but total PCBs were detected ip some samples at levels exceeding the RD criterion.
2.4.2 Prioritv Pollutant Metals
Analysis for PP metals showed levels of arsenic at all sample locations, but exceeded RD standards at only one location (Table 2). Cadmium exceeded RD levels at 3 of 5 sample locations, while chromium, lead, and nickel were detected at concentrations exceeding their respective standards at only one sampling location. The presence of arsenic and 4,4’-DDT and its metabolites could be explained by past mosquito control activities. Other possible. sources of contaminants include unauthorized dumping along the northern boundary and stormwater runoff from Pleasantview Tenace and the parking area along the eastern portion of the site.
2.5 Results: MU Creek Marsh
2.5.1 Pesticides and Polychlorinated Bipbenvls (PCBS)
In light of the absence of any industrial land use at or directly adjacent to the site, Sample locations were based primarily on the need to obtain a representative sampling of the site conditions. Twelve sediment were collected from Mill Creek and remnant mosquito control ditches that cross portions of the property. Soil samples were taken at the intersection of a 600 ft grid. fro pesticides, 4,4’-DDT and 4,4-DDE, and one PCB (Aroclor-1248) were detected in sediment and soil samples at levels that were well below accepted standards (Table 2). Highest detected levels were found in Mill Creek sediments upstream from the adjacent sewage treatment plant. Recorded values are at the lower end of values detected in the New York/New Jersey Harbor Estuary (NOAA 1988).
3 \ 2.5.2 Prioritvt b.tiQ
Nine metals were detected in sediment samples (Table 2). Only two sediment samples had cadmium values above the trip blank with detected values of 17.6 ppm and 6.0 ppm. These values are within the range of background values observed within the Hackensack Meadowlands (Table 3). Both values were associated with Mill Creek and the northern tributary to the Site from Mill Creek. Chromium was detected in all of the sediment samples. Concentrations range from a low of 27.7 ppm to a high of 520 ppm. These values are well within the range of concentrations observed in the Meadowlands in general, and are significantly below values recorded for Mill and Cromakill Creeks (Table 3). Copper and lead were detected in all of the sediment samples. Copper concentrations ranged from 12.8 ppm to 323.7 ppm. Lead was detected in concentrations ranging from 8.7 ppm to 414.9 ppm. Mercury was detected above the trip blank in all except two samples. Concentrations ranged from 0.07 to 13.40 ppm, within the background range in the Meadowlands (Table 3). Nickel was detected in all of the sediment samples. Concentrations ranged from 22.5 ppm to 398.6 ppm. These values are below the ranges of those observed in Cromakill Creek (840-1,100 ppm) and Mill Creek (640-670 ppm). Selenium values above the trip blank (0.01 ppm) were detected in only two of the sediment samples, These values were significantly lower than NRD criteria. Silver was detected in all of the sediment samples at concentrations below the NJDEP NRiI criterion. Zinc was detected in all of the sediment samples at levels significantly below the ranges of those reported in Cromakill Creek (5,800 - 7,000 ppm) and Mill Creek (1,500 - 1,800 ppm) (Table 3).
Nine contaminant metals were detected in soil samples (Table 2). Chromium was detected in ah of the soil samples. Concentrations ranged from 44.2 ppm to 296.5 ppm. The values detected are well within the range of concentrations observed in the Meadowlands in general, and are significantly below values recorded for sediments in Mill and Cromakill Creeks (Table 3). Copper was detected in all of the soil samples at concentrations ranging from 30.8 ppm to 186.0 ppm. Lead was detected in all of the soil samples. Concentrations, ranging from 76.5 ppm to 890 ppm, were similar to sediment concentrations observed in the Meadowlands. Mercury was detected above the trip blank in all except one sample at concentrations ranging from 0.12 ppm to 41.17 ppm. Nickel was detected in all of the soil samples. Concentrations ranged from 34.7 ppm to 353.5 ppm. These values are below the ranges of those observed in Cromakill Creek (840-1,100 ppm) and Mill Creek (640-670 ppm). Silver was detected in all of the soil samples. Concentrations range fi-om 1.1 ppm to 7.5 ppm. Zinc was detected in all of the soil samples at concentrations ranging from 138.5 ppm to 595.0 ppm. Observed values were concentrations observed in Cromakill Creek (5,800 - 7,000 ppm) and Mill Creek (1,500 - 1,800 ppm). In general, levels of metal contaminants in soils were well within the range of background at other Meadowlands sites (Table 3).
4 2.6 D’kcussion
The soils analyses described above were derived from a limited number of cornposited samples. In addition, the analysis was performed with reference to standards for human health effects. Since the sites are not proposed for residential or commerciai/industrial development, these stringent standards may not apply. However, review of these preliminary results raises several questions pertinent to the use of these tracts as wetland restoration sites:
1. What is the potential for discharge of contaminated particulates into the surrounding estuarine system as a.result of restoration activities?
2. To what extent are contaminants bio-available and to what degree do they pose a risk to benthic animals and higher trophic levels?
3. What is the potential for biomagnification or bioaccumulation of contaminants in wetland plants and animals?
3.0 BACKGROUND CONTAMINATION IN THE MEADOWLANDS
During 1972-1988, sediment samples from the Hackensack River consistently demonstrated high concentrations of EZRA Priority Metals, due to high levels of municipal and industrial discharges, and served as a source of metals for Newark Bay (USEPA 1981, Myerson ef al. 1982, Goeller 1989). Squibb et al. (1991) showed that cadmium, arsenic and DDT (and its metabolites) were all present in the waters of the New YorWNew Jersey estuary system at levels above those with predictable negative effects on marine life (Table 4)..
They recorded total DDT in tissues of Hackensack River blue crabs (0.22 to 0.79 ppm) and striped bass (<0.02 to 0.61 ppm) which exceeded USEPA standards for human exposure (0.032 ppm). Tissue levels of arsenic exceeded standards (0.0062 ppm) in the tissues of blue mussels, blue crabs, lobster and winter flounder. sediments, mussels, and fish livers collected within the Hudson-Raritan Estuary (including lower Hacke-nsack River) and analyzed by NOAA as part of the National Status and Trends Program demonstrated consistently elevated concentrations of DDT, other pesticides, PCBs, and several heavy metals (including cadmium, lead, mercury, and nickel) (Long et al. 1995a). Levels in the estuary were often the highest or among the highest measured at 250 sites nationwide, with some sediment concentrations equalling or exceeding known toxicity thresholds (Gottholrn et ui. 1993). Go&r (1989) presented data to show that cadmium inputs to the river system (range: 1.8 to 9.9 ppm in Hackmsack River sediments) have been constant over the previous 30 yr, while chromium inputs had declined since a peak in the early 1960’s caused by large chromium inputs from the Berry’s Creek Canal. Table 4. Comparison of contaminant levels in the NY-NJ Estuary with minimum levels with known predictable negative effects on marine life (from Squibb et al. 1991).
Contaminant Contaminant Concentration (ppb) I 1 I 1 NY/NJ Estuary Adverse Effect Level Total As 12-440 63 Acid Soluble Cd 0.13 - 160 2.7 DDT ~0.001 - 0.06 0.001 I DDE I CO.02 -‘2.4 I 0.001 I DDD The highest recorded levels o f cadmium were found in the upper reaches of Berry’s Creek.(16.6 ppm) and Berry’s Creek Canal (9.0 ppm). Metal load input to the river did not appear to be restricted to any individual point source enrichment, but, rather, an overall elevation of metals at various points in time (noticeably elevated levels of chromium in sediments deposited in the early 1960’s). For comparison with the wetland enhancement sites, Table 3 summarizes soils contamination results from recent studies done at vaiious locations in the District, . 4.0 ECOLOGY OF HEAVY METALS Some heavy metals, notably mercury and cadmium, are of concern in marine and aquatic environments due to their high toxicity and persistence in biological tissues (Neff ef al. 1978). High concentrations of heavy metals in sediments can have adverse effects on benthic organisms through the ingestion of axMaminat.ed particulates. Cadmium at > 10,000 &L (ppb) is lethal to adult and subadult fishes, but mollusks show sublethal effects at 30 &L and crustacean larvae at 11 &L. Mast cadmium concentrations causing meaningful biochemical and physiological effects are in the range of 11 to SO pg/L (McLeese er al. 1987). Sauer (1987) demonstrated chronic toxicity, including scale deform&on, in killifish (Fundulus hetemdims) at cadmium concentrations in water of 0.1 ppm. Sediment-bound contaminants are not inert and metal concentrations tend to reach equilibria between the water column, sediment pools, and the bioia. Various metals are more or less soluble in e, depending on their chemical form. Most, however, tend to be found attxhed to suspended particulates. J%uarine sediments in developed areas act as both sources and sinks for toxic chemicals, . including heavy metals. Most of the metals that are discharged into the estt&ne environment are either already bound to particulate matter or become rapidly associated with suspended particles as they enter the system. Thus, the largest pool of toxics in a developed estuary tends to reside in the sediments (Squibb ef al. 1991). 6 For example, Galluzzi and Sabounjian (1980) found very little mercury in filtered water samples from f3erty’s Creek, but found mercury levels as high as 9.9 PglL (ppb) in unfiltered samples due to suspended particulates which provided binding sites to carry the metal. The attachment of heavy metals to particulates in the water column depends on an array of interacting environmental variables, including the form of ,the metal, the nature of the particulates, pH, and salinity. Experiments performed by Santschi et al. (1980) showed that chromium is rapidly bound in sediments and settled particles, with 50% of the available Cr” removed from the water column in 8 days. In contrast, cadmium tends to be bound much more slowly, with 50% removed from the water column in 50 to 400 qays. In general, when suspended materials settle by gravity, the bound metals settle with it, reducing the metal concentration in the water column while accumulating metals in the bottom sediment (Riberg . and Vostal 1972). Heavy metal contamination tends to decrease with depth in the soil/sediment column and tends to be greater in soils with higher organic matter and/or clay content. Thus, heavy metals may accumulate locally as a function of soils and interstitial water chemistry (sorptive properties of soils and sediments, and the prevailing vegetation and hydrology). Tidal action and groundwater fluctuation influence the distribution of heavy metals and in areas of high water table, heavy metals tend, to accumulate in the upper soil profile (Torlucci 1982). In areas where high water table brings contamination to the surface, the biota is exposed to heavy metals in sediments. The potential effects of heavy metals in sediments and soils are complex and variable, depending on synergistic relationships between the metals, organic compounds, nutrients and other contaminants. These relationships are compounded by the fact that metals occur in different forms, combinations and concentrations in the soil/sediment column which may alter their effects on organisms. For example, chromium speciation in sediments is highly variable and dependent upon the physic&chemical conditions in the overlying water column (Coleman 1988). Chromium(W) is highly toxic and mutagenic and readily crosses cell membranes. Chromium(III), on the other hand, crosses cell membranes only under extreme conditions of long incubation at high concentrations. Chromium(TV) tends to be reduced in microbially produced hydrogen sulfide in sediments to (30 in marinejestuarine systems (Stie et al. 1981) and thence readily sorbed to organic ma&ials (Pfeiffer ef’u& 1980). While these relationships make it difficult to definitively determine the potential effixts of certain metals in certain situations, it can be reasonably inferred that the potential for adverse effects in- as metal concentration increases. However, certain sediments, depending on their structure and composition (e.g., amount of clay and organic matter) may ameliorate the effects of metals in solution through adsorption of the metal to clay substrates. Jackim et al. (1977) demonstrated that clams (Myu are&u) took up greater amounts of aqueous cadmium when held without a substrate than when they were held in sand and mud sediments. While, little is known about the relative availability of chromium in most soils, there is evidence that soils tend to attenuate the toxic effects of certain chromium ions (Cole 1988). Sediment chromium tends to be only slightly biologically active (Nriagu and Nieber 1988). 7 Clay particles play a significant role in the bio-availability of metals. Clays tend to be negatively charged which attracts positively charged metal ions. The pH of soils is important: as the pH rises (becomes less acid), positively charged metal ions become more strongly bound to the clays; as the pH drops (becomes more acid) metal ions are replaced by hydrogen radicals and the metals may enter solution and become available. Once bound to clay particles, metals are much less toxic to organisms and may be completely unavailable to them. Rabich and Stotzky (1977) showed that clays may protect soil organisms from the adverse effects of cadmium by binding the metal ions so tightly that none of the metal is available to the organisms. 5.0 POTENTIAL FOR CONTAMINANT BIO-AVAILABILITY Of primary concern regarding the use of these sites for wetland restoration is the possibility of mobilizing contaminants during soil movement and grading. Under natural conditions, sediment movement in estuarine waters occurs on a regular basis, redistributing chemicals and organic matter and patticulates, and resuspending and exchanging materials with the water column (Oviatt and Nixon 1975). The uitimate distribution of disturbed suspended sediments in estuarine systems is dependent upon a variety of factors, including energy levels in the source area, sediment types and their settling rates, and the nature of the disturbance (Bohlen et al. 1979). Waslenchuk and Windom (1978) presented convincing evidence that arsenic associated with particulate matter in estuarine waters is largely unreactive: that is, this is little or no exchange between pariculates and the dissolved state. However, Luther et al. (1987) and Maest et al. (1984) found that cadmium is distributed almost entirely in the dissolved state in Newark and Raritan Bays, respectively. Much of the available published information on the effects of sediment disturbance on the distribution of heavy metals and other contaminants comes from data collected by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Dredged Material Research Project (DMRP). Chen et al. (1976) demonstrated that metals released from dredged sediments were generally found in the water column in the subppb range of concentration, even in oxidizing conditions. Fulk ef al. (1975) used k&oratory experiments to demonstrate that concentrations of pesticides (including DDT and die&in) and PCBs in the water column above disturbed sediments were below detection limits. Toxic compounds tended to be asmdakd with sediments and adsorption of toxic compounds occurred much more easily than desorption. They postulated that transfer of PCBs and pesticides to the water column as a result of .d.redgiirg was minimal. Brown (1978) concluded that organochlorine contaminants tend to be tightly bound to soil particles and leaching tends to be minimal in most cases. i- Burks and Angler (1978) concluded that the effects of dredged material disposal in open water are temporary and usually restricted to the immediate area of disposal. Release of metals during disposal in open waters was found to be short lived, as metals are readily sorbed to ~~xx&xI particles and precipitate to the bottom. While the authors concluded that the potential for pesticide residues to cause harm is also minimal, they pointed out the potential hazard to bent& organisms which attempt to recolonize sediments contaminated by pesticides. 8 More recent work, however, suggests that under certain conditions, resuspension of bottom sediments by tidal mixing or disturbance (e.g., from dredging [Luther ef ui. l983)), or as the result of chemical action (Poling 1990), may increase metal concentrations in the water column. In laboratory experiments, cadmium and arsenic in dredged sediments were shown to migrate into the water column over time, while PC& either were not released from sediments or were released in amounts below a.nalyticaI detection limits (Blom er of. 1976, Bmnnon ef al. 1978). Laube et al. (1979) used laboratory studies to show that algae (Anabaena and Ankisrdsmur) accumulated cadmium and copper when the only source was contaminated sediment, even though the water column was acting as the medium for metal transport and showed only negligible metal levels. In 72 hours of exposure, 7-20 ppm Cu and 9-20 ppm Cd were accumulated in the algae. Algal accumulation could make the metals available to higher trophic levels. In a similar study in freshwater, Birge et al. (1987) performed an experiment to assess the effects of sediment-associated cadmium on early life stages of rainbow trout (Salvo gairdnetii). Waters held above sediments enriched with 1.0 mg/kg of Cd were found to contain Cd at concentrations of 6.8 pg/L and to reduce 20 d survival of post-hatching trout (Table 5). 6.0 POTENTIAL FOR CONTAMINANT BIO-ACCUMULATION Various contaminants, including heavy metals, have the tendency to bioaccumulate in estuarine organisms. Bioaccumulation is an umbrella term used to describe two different processes. Bioconcentration is the ability of organisms to accumulate contaminant concentrations (loading) that greatly exceed those in the ambient environment (either water column or sediment). Biomagnification is the concentration of contaminants up the food chain, with the result that low levels of contaminants at the bottom of the food chain are progressively accumulated to harmful or even lethal levels in organisms at the top. 6.1 Heavy Metal Bio-Cokmtration in Marsh Vegetation As previously discusse~I, coastal marsh sedime~~~ts tend to act as sinks for metals. However, metals tend to ti taken up in the roots of marsh vegetation (notably Sparrina akmiim) and incxxpo~ into the above-ground biomass. About half of the annual standing crop of S’nu is exported to deeper water by tidal flushing (Teal 1%2), so that metals may be exported out of the marsh sequestered in plant tissues (Banus ef al. 1975). Table 5. Effects of cadmium-enriched sediments on early life stages of rainbow trout (Birge et a/. 1987). Sediment Total [Cd] Oh Enrichment Sun/ival at hg/kg) 20 d’ 9 . ’ treatment began at early egg stage and lasted 4 d post-hatching l different from control (P~0.05). Gambrell er al. (1977, 1980) conducted laboratory and greenhouse experiments on the uptake of heavy -metals by marsh vegetation (including Distichlis spicafa, Spam’na altemi~om, and S. cyrwsuroiak). Oxidizing conditions appeared to increase uptake of some metals, notably cadmium, but the physicochemical conditions of the soil and the nature of the individual metals and plants determined uptake rates. Reducing conditions and low pH appeared to reduce the rate of uptake. Kraus (1988) demonstrated that Sparrim alremijibra was able to accumulate cadmium, as well as other metals, from the soil and had the potential to export a variety of heavy metals into the estuary as detritus. The availability and effects on animals feeding on plant tissues and detritus have not been well researched, although fiddler crabs apparently obtain heavy metal burdens from ingested plant materials (Odum et al. 1969). 6.2 Heavy Metal Bidoncentration in Marsh Animals Bioconcentration in estuarine organisms has been consistently demonstrated for many heavy metals (Wilson 1988). For example, there is evidence to suggest that cadmium is accumulated from bottom and suspended sediments and from food, the processes of accumulation being intluenced by physiochemical factors including salinity, temperature, and the chemical form of the metal (Ray and McLeese 1987, Wilson 1988). Bioaccumulation of cadmium has been shown in crustaceans, polychaete worms, and some fishes. Cadmium appears to be rapidly accumulated and retakd for extended periods of time in animal tissues (Neff ef al. 1978). Bryan and Hummerstone (1973) compared concentrations of zinc and cadmium in tissues of the polychaete worm Nereis diwnicolor to those of the local estuarine sediments. The tissue concentrations of zinc varied by a factor of 2.7 (130-350 &g dry wt.), while sediment concentrations varied by a factor of 30 (NO-3,000 &g dry wt.). Ln contrast, tissue cadmium concentrations varied by a factor of 45 (0.08-3.6 pg/g dry wt.) and were roughly proportional to sediment concentrations, 10 : which varied by a factor of 46 (0.2-9.3 fig/g dry wt.). These results suggest that certain metals are more readily taken up by benthic organisms or may be regulated more efficiently by them, . Bryan and Hummerstone (1978) demonstrated that the bivalve Scbbiculan’a plana absorkd heavy metals, including cadmium and zinc, from sediment ingested during feeding. Metal uptake appeared to increase with body size, Depuration of cadmium took more than one year in uncontaminated waters. Animals which are acclimated to environments that are high in heavy metals may increase or decrease their rates of uptake of different metals. Chapman et al. (1979) showed that sediment-dwelling oligochaete worms accumulated high concentrations of heavy metals, including cadmium, lead and nickel, and demonstrated very high tolerances to concentrations toxic to other benthos. This may provide metals at levels higher than sediment background to animals higher in the food chain that prey on the worms, Laboratory experiments with contaminated marine sediments showed that the deposit-feeding clam, Macoma balthica, and the filter-feeding mussel, Mytilus edulis, accumulated heavy metals (Cd, Cu, Zn, and As) from the sediment ‘in 30 days (McGreer et al. 1980). The filter feeder took up Cd, Pb, and Zn in the greatest amounts, while the deposit feeder accumulated more As and PCBs. In addition, cadmium was found to affect burrowing behavior. Neff et al. (1978) measured the accumulation of eight heavy metals (Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb, and Zn) in benthic invertebrates exposed to metal-enriched sediments for periods up to six weeks at different salinities. Variations in accumulation were due to animal species, metals, type of sediment, and salinity. For example, higher salinity environments tend to result in greater concentrations of metals in animal tissues, although these effects varied with metal and species. In general, however, statistically significant accumulation was detected in only 36 of 136 (26.5%) metal-species-sediment test combinations. Bulk metal analyses of test sediments did not correlate with metal bioava&bility (Neff et al. 1978). 6.3 Potential for Bio-Magnification of Heavy Metals There is little evidence to suggest the biomagnification of most metals in estuarine food chains (Wilson 1988). Some studies have suggested biomagnification of arsenic and mercury, but the evidence is i.mm&ent (Wagner 1973). In relatively unpolluted waters with sediment arsenic levels of 15 ppm, Leatherland and Burton (1974) showed that algae contained 11-54 ppm and rno&rscs showed levels of 3-24 ppm, while fish muscle averaged 5 ppm. Piscivorous cuttlefish (Sepia ou) contained 73 ppm in mantle tissue. Cadmium tissue concentrations in other molluscs (0.3 to 21 ppm) were considerably higher than those in bottom muds (0.6 ppm). Flatau and Aubert (1!?7!3) demonstrated that cadmium was bioconcentmted in the food web, but that the concentration factor actually decreased from phytoplankton through fish. In addition, the presence of sediment lowered the concentration of cadmium in annelids and ~WWXZUIS. 11 In natural systems, chromium can accumulate in the microbial population and pass through the foodchain. Johnson er al. (1981) showed bioconcentration in burrowing crabs and Gray and Clarke (1984) showed that certain algae concentrated chromium 2.9 x IO’ times surrounding water concentration. However, other authors have suggested that chromium does not bio-magnify in natural systems (Holdway 1988). Burger el al. (1984) compared concentrations of several heavy metals in the foods and organs of waterfowl and shorebirds using Raritan Ray. Analysis of metal burdens in the tissues of birds can demonstrate how organisms in different positions on the food chain accumulate and amplify metals. Metal concentrations in the livers of four species (black duck, greater scaup, herring gull, and common tern) were found to be at least four times greater than .metal levels measured in their foods. Cadmium showed greater bioconcentration than any of the other metals analyzed (Table 6). Bioaccumulation . (CF) and an ascending mean concentration for all three metals in birds of higher trophic status suggest biomagnification of all three metals. In contrast, Kraus (1989) showed that tree swallows (Tochycinefu .bicoZor) failed to accumulate cadmium in their tissues after feeding on midges which live as sub-adults ,in sediments with cadmium levels of 4.9 mg/kg. . Table 6. Concentration factors (ratio of metal levels in bird liver tissue:food) of heavy metals in birds of Raritan Bay (from Burger et al. 1984). Species Mercury Lead ’ Cadmium Black Duck 6.3 4.0 5.9 Greater Scaup 7.3 8.2 6.0 Herring Gull 6.1 6.4 7.3 Common Tern 7.6 8.3 9.9 Average CF 6.8 6.7 7.3 8 12 6.4 BitKonccntration and BieMagnification of Orgnnochlorines Organochlorines (including pesticides and PCBs) are extremely resistant to degradation and their adverse effects on estuarine systems derives from their persistence in the environment and their tendency to accumulate in body tissues. Their affinity for fatty tissues and lipids enhances both their mobility and loading (Wilson 1988). In general, the number of chlorine atoms joined to the base hydrocarbon chain of these compounds determines both their refractory nature, as well as their toxicity. DDT in the environment breaks down gradually to DDE and DDD and, aIthough both degradation products resemble the parent in toxicity and persistence, there is evidence to suggest that DDE is the worst of the group (Wilson 1988). DDT was banned from US agricultural use in 1972 (USEPA 1972). DDT has a half life of about three years with 5- 10% typically persisting 10 yr after an application. One study from Maryland showed 40% of DDT persisting after 17 yr (Brown 1978). Some PCBs are more refractory even than DDT and have been calculated to be up to 300 times more persistent in marine environments (Harvey et al. 1974), Oiganochlorine contaminants may be acutely toxic leading to debilitation and morbidity, or at chronic toxicities they ,may bio-accumulate through higher trophic levels in the food chain, causing reduced reproduction and/or altered behavior patterns. Levels of 2.0 fig/g (wet weight) in the tissues of fish are high enough to pose a threat to piscivorous species (Winger et &. 1988). Residues of DDT in plant detritus of salt marshes on Long Island of about 10 ppm caused neurological damage to fiddler crabs (Ucu spp.) (Brown 1978). Fiddler crabs forage in mud and sediments, sorting the smallest particle sizes for ingestion. These fine particles also contain the highest concentmtions of organochlorines in marsh sediments (Odum er al. 1969). Not surprisingly, fiddler crabs concentrate DDE as much as three times above the levels present in the sediments upon which they feed (Odum d al. 1969, Krebs ef al. 1974). Similarly, Langston (1978) showed that marine bivalves accumulated PCBs in their tissues up to 240 times ambient concentrations, apparently through ingestion of contaminaM sediments. , Unlike heavy metals, organochlorines demonstrate a marked tendency to bio-rnagniQ up the food chain. Woodwell et al. (1967) described the bio-magnification effects on a Long Island ma& system. * The marsh had been sprayed with DDT for mosquito control over 20 years at a rate of 0.2 lb&. WhiIe the marsh sediments contained only 0.0005 ppm of DDT residues, succes&e trophic levels in the local food chain concentrated the pesticide 52,800 times (Table 6). Brown (1978) described how an application of DDT against charoborid midges in Califomia resulted in 0.02 ppm of DDD in the water column water, which was subsequently magnified 80,000 times to levels toxic to piscivorous western grebes. Atlantic croaker held in watezs with 0.1 ppb of DDT for two weeks contained 40,000 times that concentration in their tissues. Birds may store sub-lethal amounts of DDT in their body fat that would be f$tal if they directly contacted the bird’s nervous system. Hickey (1966) showed that healthy herring gulls (Larrcs argemims) were able to tolerate in excess of 2400 ppm of DDT (or its metabolites DDE and DDD) in body fat, but only 20 ppm in their brain tissue. If birds are stressed, whether through hunger or illness, and begin to live off their body fat, the stored pesticides may be released into tbeblood stream (W&on 13 1988). This exposes the animal to a sudden high dose of the contaminant which can accumulate in the nervous tissues until lethal levels are reached (Hickey 1966, Van Velzen ef (II. 1972). Table 6. DDT (tD,DT residues on a whole weight basis,) concentration and biomagnification in a Long Island salt marsh (from Woodwell et s/. 1967). Trophic Level DDT) @pm) . .I Concentration Factor Marsh sediment 0.0005 - Plankton 0.04 80 Bay shrimp 0.16 320 Minnows 0.94 1.880 I Pickerel 1.33 2.660 Gull 6.0 12,000 Cormorant 26.4 52.800 7.0 CONCLUSIONS Background levels of priority pollutants and heavy metals tend to be high in some parts of the Meadowlands and the Hackensack River has historically acted as, a pollutant source for New-& Bay. With some exceptions, contaminant loading appears to he the result of industrial history rather than direct point sources. Biological activity of heavy metals is strongly media&l by environmental conditions. In particular, soil and water chemistry in t%uarine waters can act to eff&tively sequester most metals in the sediment column. Data on bio-availability -of metal amtaminants after s&ime!nt disturbance is equivocal. There is evidence that many metals and organo&lorines rapidly settle out of tig.water column as adsorbed particulates. However, some studies have shown that cerfain metals remain biologically active, whether adsoxbzd or not. Similarly, studies on the bicwx#lcenhation of heavy metals in animal tissues indicate that species and environmental conditions play SignZcant roles intheseprocesses. The finai restoration projects are intended to support foraging resident and m@tory waterfowl and shorebirds.~ The susceptibility of these Species should he addressed, regardless of regulatory criteria. ~resultsreflectanalysisofcompositedsamplessothatwehaveno~~cc#r#ningthet distribution of contaminants in the soil column.= The vertical distribution of contaminants may have considerable bearing on their availability to wildlife using the re&oM wetlands. Waterfowl and 14 shorebirds currently using the wetlands may not have exposure to these contaminants if there are sequestered at depths below their probing, but excavation may expose them. 1. With few exceptions, levels of contamination on the preferred sites did not exceed the most stringent State soil cleanup standards (based on potential human health impacts) (NJDEP Cleanup Standards for Contaminated Sites, N.J.A.C. 7:26D-ef seq.). 2. In general, levels of contamination appear to reflect background conditions within the District rather than a particular point source or event. 3. Exceptions include several PP metals on both sites and total PCBs on a portion of the LRFC site. However, since the sites are not being considered for development, application of stringent State standards may not be appropriate. 4. Concentrations of heavy metals are, in many cases, several orders of magnitude lower than those previously found at other mitigation sites in the District 5. Levels of contamination were apparently not uniform across the sites. Additional data will have to be collected to determine their actual distribution, across the site and in the soil column. 15 8.0 REFERENCES Babich, H. and G. Stotzky. 1977. Reductions in the toxicity of cadmium to microorganisms by clay minerals. Appl. Env. Microbial. 33: 696705. Birge, W.J., J.A. Black, A.G. Westerman and P.C. Francis. 1987. 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The potential for biological effects of sediment-sorbed contaminants in the National Status and Trends Program. NOAA Tech. Memo. NOS-OMA-52. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Seattle, WA. 175 pp. Long, E.R., D.A. Wolfe, K.J. Scott, G.B. Thursby d al. 1995a. Magnitude and extent of sediment toxicity in the Hudson-Raritan Estuary. NOAA Tech. Memo, NOS-ORCA-88. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Silver Spring, MD. 230 pp. 18 Long, E.R., D.D. MacDonald, S.L. Smith and F.D. Calder. 1995b. Incidence of adverse biological effects within ranges of chemical concentrations in marine and estuarine sediments. Env. Manage. 19: 81-97. Luoma, S.N. and J.L. Carter. 1991. Effects of trace metals on aquatic benthos. pp. 261-300. In: M.C. Newman and A.W. McIntosh teds.). Metal ecotoxicology: concepts and applications. Lewis Publishers, Inc., Chelsea, MI. Luther, Ill., G. W., A.L. Myerson, J.J. Krajewski and R.I. Hires. 1987. Metal fluctuations and behavior during tidal excursions in Newark Bay, New Jersey. Bull. New Jersey Acad. Sci. 32: 4% 59. Maest, A., S. Brantley, P. EMman, M. Borcsik and D. Crerar. 1984. Geochemistry of metal transport in the Raritan River and estuary. Bull. New Jersey Acad. Sci. 29: 69-78. McGreer, E.R., B.J. Reid and H. Nelson. 1980. Mobilization, bioaccumulation, and sublethal effects of contaminants from marine sediments. pp. 130-151. In: N. Bermingham ef al. (eds.). Proc. 7th Ann. Aquatic Toxicity Workshop: Nov. 5-7, 1980. Montreal, Quebec. Can. Tech. Rep. Fish. Aquat. Sci. No. 990. McLeese, D.W., J.B. Sprague and S. Ray. 1987. Effects of cadmium on marine biota. pp. 171-198. In: J.O. Nriagu and J.B. Sprague (eds.). Cadmium in the aquatic environment. John Wiley & Sons, lx;, New York, NY. Myerson, A.L., G.W. Luther III, J. Krajewski and RI. Hires. 1981. Heavy metal distribution in Newark Bay sediments. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 12: 244-250. _. 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The fate of trace metals in &r&ansett Bay, Rhode Island: radiotracer experiments in microcosms. Est. Coastal Mar. Sci. 10: 635-654. Sauer, G.R. 1987. The effect of cadmium and zinc on calcium uptake and scale,regeneration in FunaUus hetemclim. pp. 373-399. In: W.B. Vemberg, et al. (eds.). Pollution physiology of estuarine organisms. Univ. South Carolina Press, Columbia, SC. . i Simillie, R.H. K. Hunter and M. Loutit. 1980. Reduction of chromium(IV) by bac@ially produced hydrogen sulphide in a marine environment. Water Res. 15: 1351-1354. Shacklette, H.T., J.C. Hamilton, J.G. Boemger and J.M. Bowles. 19’71. Elemental composition of swficial materials in the conterminous United States. Statistical studies in field geochemi&y. Geological Survey Professional Paper 574-D. U.S. Gov. Printing Office, ;Washington, DC. 71 pp. Squibb, KS., J.M. O’Connor and T.J. Kneip. 1991. New YorkMew Jersey ha&$ *&$uary program Module 3.1: toxics characterization report. Institute of Env. Medicine, N&w+York Univ. Medical Center, Tuxedo, NY. 188 pp. _.* _ Tori&, J;; Jr. 1982. The distribution of he&y metal concentrations in sed@nent surrounding a sanitary landfill in the Hackensack Meadowlands, New Jersey. M.!k Thesis, Rut&rs University, .I New Brunswick, NJ. 129 pp. U.S. EPA. 1972. Fed. Reg. 37: 13369-13376. U.S. EPA. 1980. Ambient water quality criteria for chromium. Office of Watet ReguI&lons‘and Standa&, Criteria and Standards Division, Washington, DC., EPA/440&8CKQ5. 20 U.S. EPA. 1981. Passaic River sampling stations, March 4 and December 1, 1981. Draft report (in Squibb ef al. 199 I). Van Velzen, A. C. er al. 1972. Lethal mobilization of DDT by cowbirds. J. Wildl. Manage. 36: 733- 739. Wagner, S.L. 1973. Arsenic and cadmium in the environment. pp. 45-57. In: Heavy metals in the environment. Rept. SEMN-WR-016.73, Oregon State Univ. Water Resources Research Inst., Corvallis, OR. Waslenchuk, D.G. and H.L. Windom. 1978. Factors controlling the estuarine chemistry of arsenic. Est. Coastal Mar. Sci. 7: 455-464. , Wilson, J.G. 1988. The biology of estuarine management. Croom Helm, Ltd. & Chapman and Hall, New York, NY. 204 pp. Wiiger, P.V., D.P. Schultz and W.W. Johnson. 1988. Contaminant residues in fish from National Wildlife Refuges in the Southeast. pp. 38-46. In: Proc. Natl. Symp. Protection of Wetlands from Agricultural Impacts, Biological Report 88(16). U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, DC. Woodwell, G.M., C.F. Wurster and P.A. Isaacson. 1967. DDT residues in an east coast estuary: a case of biological concentration of a persistent insecticide. Science 156: 821-824. 21 Table 1. Summary of heavy metal contamination levels at wetland restoration sites within the Hackensack Meadowlands. . Location Arsenic Cadmium ClUtiUm COQOW LO&Id Mw Sisselman East 0 - 31.5 0 - 13.6 15.6 - 181 17.2 - 75.1 o- 107 N Sisselman West 4.0 - 27.9 0 - 2.9 o- 111 0 - 86.5 0- 124 O- Skeetkill Creek 3.6 - 29.8 0 - 2.6 17.6 - 1320 17.0 - 363 0 - 542 N Harrier Meadow Landfill margin 4.3 - 31.3 14.6 - 151 102-256 200 - 751 613 - 1680 N Remainder of site 0 12.4 1.1 -4.8 ‘8.4 - 20.3 8.6 - 41.2 o- 102 N Kingsland Mudflats o-3.9 0 ~. 27.3 - 253 Mill Creek Marsh Sediment samples ND NJDEP Standard’ 20 1 .o 500 500 400 I 1 NOAA Standard2 9 145 ERLIERMJ 8.2i70 1.219.6 811370 j4/270 46.7/219 1 0115 ‘Residential Direct Contact Standard (NJAC 7:26D) 2Median range of potential adverse effects in sediments (NOAA 19901 %ontaminant concentrations < ERL represent minimal-effects range; concentrations > ERM represent probable effects range (ppm, dry weight) w (after Long et al. 1995). 22 Table 2. Summary of pesticide contamination levels (ppb) at wetland restoration sites within the Hacksnsack Meadowlands (value in parentheses is mean f standard error). 4,4’-DOT 4,4”-DDE 4,4’-DOD Dieldrin Total Chlordane Sisselman Tract 0 - 65.7 0 - 3.8 0 - 8.5 o- 1.1 ND (12.7 f 10.1) (2.0 It 0.7) (3.0 f 1.7) (0.4 f 0.2) Skeetkill Creek 0.6 - 13.3 0.1 - 50.5 0.6 - 313.0 ND 0.3 - 70.0 (3.4 f 2.2) (12.3 f 8.5) (25.8 f 19.5) (17.0 f 11.9) Harrier .- Meadow: 32.2 - 1550.0 13.0 - 201 .o 20.3 - 426.0 7.3 - 57.9 ll.l- 199.1 Landfill Margin (587.7 f (8.8.9 k 46.7) (157.1 f (29.5 f 12.2) (90.0 f 45.9) 394.4) 109.7) ND 0 - 1.8’ 0 - 142.0 Remainder of ND 0- 6.1 (0.1 *o.l) (6.0 f 5.8) site (0.4 f 0.3) Kingsland ND 2.0 - 23.2 ND 0 - 4.3’ 0.5 - 18.7 Muflats (7.8 f 2.8) (0.6 f 0.5) (5.8 f 2.3) Mill Creek Marsh: 0 - 20.9 .’ 0 - 2.3 ND ND 0 - 5853 Sediments (2.8 f 1.5) (0.6 f 0.2) ND ND (112.0 f Soils 52.6) ‘0 - 14.4 0 - 10.4 0 - 136.03 (1.4 f 0.8) (5.3 f-4.1) _, .: *.- d,i’ :. (39.7 it 1.1.5) ,. -” NJDEP 3,000 42.0 Standard’ FlOAA 7.0 15.0 20.0 8.0 6.0 Standard6 ERLIERM6 1.58/46.1 2.2127.0 ’ Detected in only one sample. ‘Aroclor 1254 only. ‘Aroclor 1248 only. ‘Residential Direct Contact Standard (NJAC 7:26D) ‘Median range of potential adverse effects in sediments (NOAA 1990) 23 ‘Contaminant concentrations < ERL represent minimal-effects range; concentrations > ERM represent probable effects range (after Long et al. 1995). .” 24 Table 3. Summary of heavy metal contamination levels at various locations within the Hackensack Meadowlands. Arsenic Cadmium Chromium Nickel Zinc I Cromakill Creek2 190 - 350 30 - 49 8000 - 840 - 5800 - 18500 1,100 7000 Mill Creek’ 160 5-8 2300 - 640 - 670 1500 - ,, 2500 1800 Cedar Creek2 12 - 18 165 - 280 210 - 220 Riser Ditch2 29 - 31 6 - 28 62 1200 Sawmill Creek3 16 Berry’s Creek’ 10 Mall Landfill’ 1.89 166.9 48.9 256.8 Other Landfills’ 4.5 622.9 51.3 688.1 Kingsland 4.9 1098.6 79.7 Impound.” . Hackensack River near Mall Lp 0.05 0.041 4.8 2.0 10.41 \ Hackensack River at Sawmill Ck6 SCP, Carlstadt’ NJDEP Standard’ NOAA Standard’ “Clean” soil’o ‘mean concentration in positive samples or reported range of concentrations. ’ values from Hartz’ Mountain Industries (1978); Riser Ditch is in the headwaters of Berry’s Creek and Cedar Creek joins the Hackensack River 0.5 mi downstream of Mill Creek. %ediment Cd (dry weight) at Sawmill Creek WMA (Kraus 1988) ‘from Poling (1990) for sediments bTorlucci (1982) %raus (1989) ’ in saturated fill materials; (Dames & Moore, Inc. 1990. Final report: remedial investigation, SCP site, Carlstadt, NJ. Vol. I. D&M, Cranford, NJ.) qesidential Direct Contact Standard (NJAC 7:26D) 25 @Median range of potential adverse effects in sediments (NOAA 1990) ‘* national geometric mean for soils from Shacklette et al. (1971) and Kirkham (1979); values foi As and Cd from Curry and Gigliotti (19731. . ‘. 26 - .’