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Emerging Approaches for Fluorescence-Based Newborn Screening of Mucopolysaccharidoses

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Emerging Approaches for Fluorescence-Based Newborn Screening of Mucopolysaccharidoses diagnostics Review Emerging Approaches for Fluorescence-Based Newborn Screening of Mucopolysaccharidoses Rajendra Singh, Shaileja Chopra, Carrie Graham, Melissa Langer, Rainer Ng, Anirudh J. Ullal and Vamsee K. Pamula * Baebies, Inc., P.O. Box 14403, Durham, NC 27709, USA; [email protected] (R.S.); [email protected] (S.C.); [email protected] (C.G.); [email protected] (M.L.); [email protected] (R.N.); [email protected] (A.J.U.) * Correspondence: [email protected] Received: 31 January 2020; Accepted: 7 May 2020; Published: 11 May 2020 Abstract: Interest in newborn screening for mucopolysaccharidoses (MPS) is growing, due in part to ongoing efforts to develop new therapies for these disorders and new screening assays to identify increased risk for the individual MPSs on the basis of deficiency in the cognate enzyme. Existing tests for MPSs utilize either fluorescence or mass spectrometry detection methods to measure biomarkers of disease (e.g., enzyme function or glycosaminoglycans) using either urine or dried blood spot (DBS) samples. There are currently two approaches to fluorescence-based enzyme function assays from DBS: (1) manual reaction mixing, incubation, and termination followed by detection on a microtiter plate reader; and (2) miniaturized automation of these same assay steps using digital microfluidics technology. This article describes the origins of laboratory assays for enzyme activity measurement, the maturation and clinical application of fluorescent enzyme assays for MPS newborn screening, and considerations for future expansion of the technology. Keywords: fluorescence; newborn screening; lysosomal storage disorders; mucopolysaccharidoses 1. Introduction Mucopolysaccharidoses (MPS) are a collection of at least 11 rare genetic disorders that are progressive and vary widely in severity. Most affected children appear normal at birth, with symptoms (including coarse facial features; skeletal and joint changes with limitation in movement; and abnormalities in the liver, spleen, heart, and blood vessels) first developing around or after their first birthday. Patients with MPS require timely diagnosis and treatment for better outcomes. Although individually rare (1:40,000 to 1:200,000), the combined incidence of all MPS disorders is around 1 in 25,000 [1]. Tomatsu et al. estimate that as many as 200 babies are born each year in the United States that are affected with one type of MPS [2]. Although rare, these disorders are devastating to children and their families [3]. The 11 recognized types of MPS are each caused by the deficiency of a specific lysosomal enzyme, which results in the progressive accumulation of glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) in tissues throughout the body and produces the clinical phenotype associated with MPS [3–5]. GAGs are heteropolysaccharides composed of repeating disaccharide units with a high negative charge due to the presence of multiple carboxyl groups and sulfate substitutions. The GAGs elevated in MPSs include dermatan sulfate (DS), heparan sulfate (HS), keratan sulfate (KS), and chondroitin 6-sulfate (CS) (Figure1). Hyaluronic acid is a fifth GAG species that is elevated only in mucopolysaccharidosis type IX (also known as Natowicz syndrome and hyaluronidase deficiency). Clinical phenotypes of the various MPSs (summarized in Table1) di ffer on the basis of the specific enzyme deficiency, but usually include facial dysmorphism, hepatosplenomegaly, cardiac, respiratory, Diagnostics 2020, 10, 294; doi:10.3390/diagnostics10050294 www.mdpi.com/journal/diagnostics Diagnostics 2020, 10, 294 2 of 21 and skeletal involvement, and neurological, hematological, and ocular symptoms. Not included in Table1 is MPS IX, an extremely rare form of the disease that was first described in 1996 [6] and is not yet well characterized. Diagnostics 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 21 FigureFigure 1. 1.Select Select examplesexamples ofof glycosaminoglycanglycosaminoglycan breakdownbreakdown by the mucopolysaccharidoses (MPS) (MPS) enzymes.enzymes. Scissors Scissors indicate indicate the the sites sites cleavedcleaved inin eacheach ofof thethe glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) by by the the various various MPSMPS enzymes. enzymes. HGSNAT HGSNAT (not (not shown) shown) is a transferaseis a transferase that addsthat anadds acetyl an groupacetyl togroup glucosamine to glucosamine residues. residues. GUSB also cleaves dermatan sulfate after GlcA residues are exposed by other enzymes. Gal: GUSB also cleaves dermatan sulfate after GlcA residues are exposed by other enzymes. Gal: galactose; galactose; GlcA: glucuronate; IdoA: iduronate; GlcNAc: N-acetylglucosamine; GalNAc: N- GlcA: glucuronate; IdoA: iduronate; GlcNAc: N-acetylglucosamine; GalNAc: N-acetylgalactosamine; acetylgalactosamine; IDUA: α-iduronidase; IDS: α-iduronide sulfatase; SGSH: N-sulfoglucosamine IDUA: α-iduronidase; IDS: α-iduronide sulfatase; SGSH: N-sulfoglucosamine sulfohydrolase; NAGLU: sulfohydrolase; NAGLU: acetyl α-glucosaminidase; GALNS: N-acetyl galactosamine-6-sulfatase; acetyl α-glucosaminidase; GALNS: N-acetyl galactosamine-6-sulfatase; GLB1: β-galactosidase; ARSB: GLB1: β-galactosidase; ARSB: N-acetyl galactosamine 4-sulfatase; GUSB: β-glucuronidase; GNS: N- N-acetyl galactosamine 4-sulfatase; GUSB: β-glucuronidase; GNS: N-acetyl glucosamine-6-sulfatase; acetyl glucosamine-6-sulfatase; HGSNAT: β-glucosaminide N-acetyl transferase. HGSNAT: β-glucosaminide N-acetyl transferase. ClinicalTable phenotypes 1. Summary ofof MPSthe subtypesvarious MPSs with published (summa fluorescentrized in Table screening 1) differ assays on available. the basis of the specific enzyme deficiency, but usually include facialElevated dysmorphism, hepatosplenomegaly,FDA-Approved cardiac, MPS OMIM# Gene Deficient Enzyme (EC#) Key Disease Features respiratory, and skeletal involvement, and neurological,GAG hematological, and ocular symptoms.Therapies Not MPS I (Hurler, 607014, Corneal clouding, skeletal abnormalities, includedScheie, in Table607015, 1 is IDUAMPS IX, anα-iduronidase extremely (3.2.1.76) rare formDS, of HS the organdisease enlargement, that heartwas disease, first mentaldescribedAldurazyme in 1996 Hurler/Scheie) 607016 retardation, death in childhood [6]MPS and II (Hunter) is not yet300823 well characterized.IDS α-iduronide sulfatase (3.1.6.13) DS, HS Elaprase MPS IIIA N-sulfoglucosamine 252900 SGSH HS (Sanfilippo A) sulfohydrolase (3.10.1.1) MPS IIIB Acetyl α-glucosaminidase 252920 NAGLU HS Profound mental deterioration, (Sanfilippo B) (3.2.1.50) hyperactivity, and mild somatic MPS IIIC α-glucosaminide N-acetyl 252930 HGSNAT HS manifestations (Sanfilippo C) transferase (2.3.1.78) MPS IIID N-acetyl glucosamine-6-sulfatase 252940 GNS HS (Sanfilippo D) (3.1.6.14) MPS IVA N-acetyl galactosamine 253000 GALNS KS, CS Skeletal abnormalities, loose ligaments, Vimzim (Morquio A) -6-sulfatase (3.1.6.4) degenerative joint disease, corneal MPS IVB 253010 GLB1 β-galactosidase (3.2.1.23) KS clouding, heart disease, death in (Morquio B) childhood or young adulthood Corneal clouding, skeletal abnormalities, MPS VI N-acetyl galactosamine 253200 ARSB DS, CS organ enlargement, heart disease, death Naglazyme (Maroteaux-Lamy) 4-sulfatase (3.1.6.1) in childhood Corneal clouding, skeletal abnormalities, MPS VII (Sly) 253220 GUSB β-glucuronidase (3.2.1.31) DS, HS, CS organ enlargement, heart disease, mental Mepsevii retardation, death in childhood GAG abbreviations: dermatan sulfate (DS), heparan sulfate (HS), keratan sulfate (KS), chondroitin sulfate (CS). Diagnostics 2020, 10, 294 3 of 21 2. Overview of Newborn Screening for MPS Disorders Newborn screening (NBS) was first introduced in the United States in the 1960s with a single test for phenylketonuria (PKU), an inherited metabolic disorder that causes elevated levels of phenylalanine in the blood and severe intellectual impairment but that can be effectively treated if identified soon after birth. NBS has subsequently expanded across the United States to include dozens of tests and approximately 45 distinct conditions [7]. All but two of these conditions (congenital hearing loss and critical congenital heart disease) are tested in the public health laboratory setting using a single, small volume blood sample—a dried blood spot (DBS), which is collected by capillary draw from heel-stick of the newborn and dried onto filter paper. This filter paper is also commonly referred to as a “Guthrie card” after Dr. Robert Guthrie who developed the newborn DBS collection technique for PKU screening [8]. DBS offers many advantages over whole blood or isolated leukocyte samples, including simple collection methodologies, ease of transport, and excellent stability for long-term storage [9]. The expansion of NBS has been fueled by the introduction of new therapies, new testing methods, and new technologies [10]. Most notably, the implementation of tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) by Millington and colleagues in the early 2000s enabled dozens of small molecule metabolites (<1000 Da in molecular weight, e.g., amino acids and acylcarnitines), indicative of increased risk of over 30 different conditions, to be analyzed using a single punch of the DBS sample (approximately 3.2 mm) [11]. In contrast to this metabolite-based NBS approach, NBS assays for MPSs and other lysosomal storage disorders rely on direct measurement of enzyme activity to detect enzyme deficiency. NBS for MPS I (Hurler/Scheie) was recommended for inclusion on the U.S. Recommended Uniform Screening Panel (RUSP) in 2016 [12], and at the time of writing, 21 states (California, Delaware, Illinois,
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