Final Environmental Assessment Black Canyon Interpretive and Public Use Site Plan

Prepared For

Pahranagat National Wildlife Refuge

PO Box 510 Milepost 32, Hwy 93 Alamo, NV 89001 (775) 725-3417

September 26, 2017 Prepared By Otis Bay, Inc. Ecological Consultants PO Box 919 Verdi, NV 89439 www.otisbay.com TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Acronyms ...... i 1 Purpose and Need ...... 1 2 Alternatives ...... 4 3 Comparison of Alternatives ...... 8 4 Affected Environment ...... 9 5 Environmental Consequences of No Action ...... 15 6 Environmental Consequences of Proposed Action Alternative ...... 17 7 Environmental Compliance Actions For Implementation ...... 21 8 Agency Coordination ...... 21 9 List of Preparers ...... 22 10 References ...... 22

LIST OF ACRONYMS

APE Area of Potential Effect BMPs Best Management Practices cfs Cubic Feet per Second EA Environmental Assessment EPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency FONSI Finding of No Significant Impact FWS U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service GBBO Great Basin Bird Observatory NEMRU Northeastern Mojave Recovery Unit NDOT Nevada Department of Transportation NDOW Nevada Department of Wildlife NHPA National Historic Preservation Act NNHP Nevada Natural Heritage Program NRCS Department of Conservation and Natural Resources NRHP National Register of Historic Places NWR National Wildlife Refuge PNWR Pahranagat National Wildlife Refuge RV Recreational Vehicle SHPO State Historic Preservation Office WAP Wildlife Action Plan WEI Wind Erodibility Index

1 PURPOSE AND NEED

This Environmental Assessment (EA) examines potential significant environmental impacts of constructing visitor use facilities in Black Canyon, Pahranagat National Wildlife Refuge (PNWR), Lincoln County, NV. Black Canyon is located on the east side of U.S. Route 93 nine miles south of Alamo, NV, 88 miles north of Las Vegas, NV, and opposite the PNWR Visitor Center (see map on page 3). In 2012, the US Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) funded a channel restoration project, hydrologically connecting Black Canyon to Upper and Lower Pahranagat Lakes with the addition of a riparian corridor running past a scenic rock butte. This restoration effort enhanced ecological and cultural resource communities along with migratory bird habitat. Black Canyon is a sensitive cultural resource within an Archaeological District listed on the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP). Black Canyon and PNWR are areas of great cultural and spiritual importance to Nuwuvi (Southern Paiute). Black Canyon is a sacred place of creation and reflection and contains many unique petroglyphs, stone rings, and other artifacts or features (Spoon, et al., 2013). Nuwuvi Working Group members developed recommendations in collaboration with FWS for management of Black Canyon including limiting foot traffic to a designated trail around the canyon floor, minimizing access to the top of the butte to protect the resources, and reintroducing native plants and animals (The Mountain Institute, et al., 2015).

The Nuwuvi Working Group and stakeholders conducted a series of meetings to develop an Interpretive and Public Use Site Plan for the Black Canyon Archaeological District (The Mountain Institute, et al., 2015). The development of the plan will assist the on-going revitalization of the Nuwuvi connection with their ancestral lands (Spoon & Arnold, 2012). Increasing numbers of visitors to PNWR and Black Canyon coupled with unrestricted rock climbing can inadvertently damage the abundant cultural and biological resources on PNWR. If unmitigated, these impacts could increasingly degrade precious resources for future generations and visitor experience. Implementation of the Interpretive and Public Use Site Plan for Black Canyon Archaeological District would revitalize the Nuwuvi connection to their ancestral lands, enhance outdoor recreation opportunities to further educate visitors about cultural and natural resources, and improve resource conservation in tandem with visitor safety, to allow continued public use of Black Canyon consistent with FWS policies and oversight.

Construction of the trail plan and interpretive signs aim to foster respect for Black Canyon and promote a sense of place, community, appreciation and stewardship as this site is opened up to general visitation. FWS seeks to protect current stream and native plant recovery efforts and understands the importance of preserving a site of high cultural importance to Nuwuvi. Nuwuvi view everything within the landscape as sacred, and everything, including animals, plants, rocks, earth, water, petroglyphs, etc., contains spirits deserving of respect. From this viewpoint, all resources in Black Canyon are cultural resources, however, for the purposes of writing in this EA, cultural resources refer specifically to rock writing and other archaeological artifacts inventoried in the canyon. Plant and wildlife concerns are discussed under biological resources, and water resources are considered separately as well.

This EA presents only issues deemed relevant to the Proposed Action, and focuses on potential consequences of the Proposed Action to determine if a potentially significant impact could occur due to the action. This document does not analyze region-wide conditions that will not change with or without project implementation. It also does not discuss actions outside of FWS’s jurisdiction, such as construction of safety features on U.S. Route 93, as this would be a Nevada Department of Transportation (NDOT) project. This EA is presented to the public for comments on the action alternatives. Should a determination be made that the presented action alternatives would not result in “significant environmental impacts,” a Finding of No Significant Impact (FONSI) will be prepared by FWS and a Decision Record will be issued that provides rationale for approving the chosen alternative. FWS will decide whether or not to authorize and implement the Interpretive and Public Use Site Plan for Black Canyon Archaeological District.

2 ALTERNATIVES

2.1 Proposed No Action Alternative Under this alternative, no visitor facilities would be developed in Black Canyon. Black Canyon would remain closed to the general public, but unauthorized visitation would be difficult to control and social trails would remain. The existing clearing near the proposed parking lot area would not be improved or maintained. Signs would not be installed and maintained to regulate or direct visitors to important cultural sites, and PNWR staff would not initiate new plantings. PNWR would not coordinate activities with NDOT to install turn lanes on U.S. Route 93 to reduce traffic accidents on PNWR. Parking would remain limited to a small, disturbed dirt area at the south entrance to Black Canyon. No designated Nuwuvi solitude area would be constructed, and no gate improvements would be installed. The development or implementation of a management or area maintenance plan would not occur.

2.2 Proposed Action Alternative Under this alternative (see map on page 5), visitor facilities constructed in Black Canyon would limit visitor traffic and impacts to established trails and a parking area. The project would install amenities that include shaded rest areas and interpretive signs. Turning lanes from U.S. Route 93, constructed in coordination with NDOT, would improve safety for ingress and egress to and from the Black Canyon trailhead. Areas impacted by social trails would be modified by a new trail system restored with native vegetation. Plantings would cover a small unimproved dirt road spur currently located at an entrance gate proposed for removal near the southwest corner of the butte.

The trail design presented below is based on conceptual drawings from the Interpretive and Public Use Site Plan for the Black Canyon Archaeological District (The Mountain Institute, et al., 2015). Actual trail configurations may change slightly with the development of final design plans.

The construction footprint for the trail, parking lot, and visitor facilities at Black Canyon is approximately three acres. A new trail and parking area would be built within areas that have previously been disturbed by abandoned roads or ditches. Approximately one acre of the construction footprint is disturbed soil, thus construction would add approximately two acres of new disturbance. A one-half acre restoration area would add native plantings, and rest areas around the trail would include tree plantings to provide shade for visitors. All trail areas would be constructed with stabilized native soil surfaces. The parking area located at the trailhead would be constructed primarily out of permeable material, such as gravel, but concrete will be used to create Americans with Disabilities Act-compliant parking spaces.

Visitor facilities at Black Canyon would include the construction of Architectural Barriers Act- certified visitor facilities in accordance with guidelines posted by the United States Access Board (https://www.access-board.gov/guidelines-and-standards/buildings-and-sites/about-the- aba-standards/aba-standards accessed 1/26/2017). These facilities would include: - Approximately 2 miles of 4-6’ wide, walking trails composed of native surface material with a slope <12% and no more than 30% of trail length exceeding 8.33% slope. Construction and location of trails (listed below) would minimize disturbance to known cultural resource sites. o Pahranagat Man Trail o Cut-Off Trail o Perimeter Trail o Solitude Spur Trail - Two 4-6’wide, pedestrian bridges with faux wood rails at stream crossings. - One 4-6’ wide boardwalk spanning wetland areas may be installed along the Cut-Off Trail, pending final trail design. - One permeable parking lot, including an overflow parking area, with < 2% slope that can accommodate RVs, buses, and trailers, and parking slots for 8 vehicles. - A ⅟10 acre trailhead area with an interpretive kiosk feature made from weathered steel, natural stone, and concrete. - Up to five rest areas with colored concrete and native boulder walls, shade trees, and a steel interpretive panel/mile marker embedded into native stone. - One rest area (slope < 5% with minimum clear ground space of 3’ by 4’) with a viewing scope (43-51” high eyepiece), colored and native boulder seatwall, cable fence with weathering steel posts, interpretive panel, shade trees, and a native stone wall near designated petroglyphs. - One Solitude Area that includes shade trees and a native boulder wall at the tribally- designated spiritual blessing site for oxbow restoration. - Directional mile markers of weathered steel embedded into native stone base spaced every ½ mile. - One new decorative gate made from gabion columns and weathered fence at the north entrance to the canyon. - Removal of the existing central gate at the southwest corner of the butte.

Construction Best Management Practices (BMPs) would be incorporated during construction to minimize environmental impacts. These include: - Timing construction outside of the breeding bird season (April 1 – July 1); - Diverting water out of Black Canyon to a designated ditch on the west side of U.S. Route 93 during trail and bridge construction to protect water quality; - Flagging and monitoring by a FWS Archaeologist to minimize damage of any known cultural resources located near the construction footprint; - Blessings by Nuwuvi to prepare the land for any ground disturbance or revegetation related to the project; - Establishment of a designated staging area for construction equipment away from sensitive cultural resources and water; and - Use of a water truck to minimize excess airborne dust.

Native planting efforts would restore 0.5 acres near the Pahranagat Man spotting scope area with additional plantings, if needed, at rest areas to deter rock climbing and unwanted damage to cultural resources. Plant species proposed for planting include: catclaw acacia (Acacia gregii), four-wing saltbush (Atriplex canescens), Indian tea (Ephedra viridis), wolfberry (Lycium andersonii), cottonwood (Populus fremontii), gooseberry (Ribes cereum), Wood’s rose (Rosa woodsii), willows (Salix spp.), and globemallow (Sphaeralcea ambigua). Irrigation may be needed during the first growing season to establish plants. The trail alignment may be altered if destruction of cottonwood trees or other desirable plants can be avoided.

The FWS would coordinate with NDOT to install safety improvements to U.S. Route 93. Any road construction activity would be administered by NDOT, thus this EA does not address construction actions associated with road improvements, but focuses on potential environmental consequences of new road features. New safety features would include turning lanes at the intersections from U.S. Route 93 to the PNWR Visitor Center and to the new trailhead parking area at the south entrance to Black Canyon. These roadway improvements would be built to modern standards, capable of supporting RVs, vehicles with trailers, and buses. The turn lanes would be designed for high speed traffic with appropriate lane widths and minimal cut and fill.

During construction of the Black Canyon Interpretive Trails, PNWR staff would develop a management and maintenance plan that includes monitoring needs, tasks, volunteer coordination, operational policies, standards, and routine maintenance actions. The development of a management and maintenance plan will include explanation of co- stewardship opportunities with Nuwuvi.

3 COMPARISON OF ALTERNATIVES

Alternative Consequences No Action Proposed Action Land Use ᴓ + Socioeconomics - + Environmental Justice - + Water Resources - + Biological Resources - +/- Air Quality - + Noise ᴓ - Cultural Resources - +/- Community Facilities ᴓ ᴓ Public Health and Safety - + Summary Area impacts from trespassing Temporary impacts from trail and visitors would occur, degrading parking lot construction or cultural resources and causing modifications include noise and soil traffic safety hazards. These disturbance with properly installed impacts may increase over time as BMPs to minimize potential regional population growth may environmental impacts. A modified spur increased visitation to PNWR. trail system and parking lot would Without visitor facilities, less direct visitor traffic, controlling vegetation enhancement may potential visitor impacts and result in higher cover of non- improving travel safety. The general native, invasive plants and lower public would be allowed entrance to quality habitat for wildlife. No Black Canyon consistent with PNWR enhancement of recreational and policies. Recreational and educational opportunities on educational opportunities on PNWR PNWR would occur. would be enhanced. A management plan would identify trail and vegetation maintenance requirements to enhance wildlife and visitor experiences. The trail would deter damage from social trails and increase public awareness of a culturally important site, however increased visitation could still potentially cause resource degradation without proper management. (+) signifies a gain or environmental benefit (-) signifies a potential environmental impact (ᴓ) signifies no change due to action or no added environmental benefit

4 AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT

4.1 Land Use Current land use within the project area consists primarily of protecting resources and restoring or conserving the area for migratory birds and wildlife. The PNWR has locked access gates and closed Black Canyon to the public, creating management and oversight challenges due to Black Canyon’s close proximity to U.S. Route 93. Unauthorized visitors often enter the canyon to observe petroglyphs depicted on the canyon walls, search out artifacts, and may potentially impact cultural resources through graffiti or other vandalism.

4.2 Socioeconomics PNWR contains 5,382 acres of lakes, streams, wetlands, meadows and desert shrub, offering a scenic experience to support recreational opportunities for hiking, bird and wildlife observation, photography, boating, fishing, hunting, biking, and camping. In 2015, the PNWR Visitor Center opened, providing visitors with refuge information, interpretation of the cultural significance of the area, and opportunities to explore areas on nearby trails. PNWR also offers environmental educational materials and programs for local schools of multiple age groups. Recent visitor counts to PNWR show an increasing trend from approximately 18,000 visitors in 2013 to just over 27,000 visitors in 2015 (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 2015). PNWR management anticipates existing visitor facilities will accommodate 30,000 to 60,000 visitors per year.

Visitors to PNWR contribute to the local economies of small towns within Pahranagat Valley including Alamo, Ash Springs, Crystal Springs, and Hiko. These towns include a variety of facilities for visitors such as lodging, restaurants, convenience stores, and gas stations. Luxury accommodations in the valley include A Cowboy’s Dream Bed and Breakfast and Windmill Ridge Lodge and Bakery. Additional recreation opportunities beyond PNWR include Key Pittman Wildlife Management Area, Basin and Range National Monument, Medsger Pass, Desert NWR, Delamar Dry Lake, and Ash Springs. The valley is also a gateway to the Extraterrestrial Highway. In addition to providing services for visitors, the primary industry in Pahranagat Valley is ranching and agriculture.

Las Vegas is the largest metropolitan area located within 100 miles of PNWR. Over two million people reside in Clark County and many tourists, including international travelers, choose Las Vegas as a vacation destination (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 2015). Clark County is an important point of origin for tourists visiting PNWR.

4.3 Environmental Justice Black Canyon is a place of spiritual and cultural importance to Nuwuvi, who are deeply interconnected to the land and consider everything within the landscape, including living beings, rocks, and natural resources to be sacred. The design of the Proposed Action alternative was created in collaboration with Nuwuvi representatives who participated in

workshops and provided input on design alternatives and recommendations that helped shape the preferred conceptual plan to further enhance the protection and co-management of cultural resources. Nuwuvi are impacted through their removal from ancestral homelands in Pahranagat Valley to other locations.

Hispanics and Latinos constitute 3-4% of the population in Alamo but are the second largest demographic in the state of Nevada and 27% of the population in Clark County (U.S. Census Bureau, 2011-2015). Bilingual educational materials and signage are important features to serve this demographic group.

4.4 Water Resources Black Canyon, a relict oxbow of the pluvial White River, once contained Pahranagat Creek before agricultural stream modifications and the construction of Highway 93. In 2012 Otis Bay, a FWS contractor, converted an abandoned agricultural field to a meandering stream with three wetland ponds and several hills (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 2015). Water from Upper Pahranagat Lake, located north of the canyon on the west side of U.S. Route 93, feeds the small stream capable of transporting flows up to 10 cfs. Water flows through the Black Canyon stream into the Headquarter Ponds through a culvert under U.S. Route 93, eventually flowing through WHIN Marsh, Middle Marsh, and downstream to Lower Pahranagat Lake.

High salinity, total dissolved solids, and alkalinity levels occur in the surface water entering the PNWR because of its location at the terminus of the drainage basin. Both wintertime flushing of salts from soils in upstream agricultural fields and high evaporation rates during the summer concentrate salts and dissolved solids in the terminal lakes on PNWR. Water alkalinity also increases as water passes through PNWR with the highest levels occurring at Lower Pahranagat Lake (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 2015). FWS and Nuwuvi work closely together to identify appropriate approaches to restoring ecological balance of the watershed that incorporates cultural traditions and practices.

4.5 Biological Resources 4.5.1 Flora Prior to wetland restoration in Black Canyon in 2012, Russian knapweed (Acroptilon repens) and field bindweed (Convolvulus arvensis) dominated the canyon floor. Revegetation efforts in 2013 and 2014 focused on planting riparian woodland, rose shrubland, alkali meadow, wet meadow, and emergent marsh plant communities. Although Russian knapweed maintains high cover in some areas, many native plants are maturing. Current water management techniques (i.e., prolonged flooding) are benefiting Russian knapweed control efforts.

No known threatened or endangered plants occur within Black Canyon.

4.5.2 Fauna A query of the Nevada Natural Heritage Program (NNHP) and Nevada Department of Wildlife (NDOW) databases revealed no records of threatened or endangered species in Black Canyon (Nevada Department of Wildlife, 2017; Nevada Natural Heritage Program, 2017), and further research (described below) provided no evidence of species of conservation concern occurring in the canyon floor.

PNWR falls within the boundaries of the Northeastern Mojave Recovery Unit (NEMRU), designated as essential habitat for the federally threatened desert tortoise (Gopherus agassizii), (USFWS 2008). Desert tortoises generally inhabit sandy desert washes and flats containing scattered shrubs interspersed with herbaceous plants. They may also occur on rocky terrain. Very limited areas of desert shrub habitat occur in Black Canyon, and no desert tortoises have been found in the project area. Several other species of reptiles have been observed in the canyon. A chuckwalla, a Nevada Wildlife Action Plan (WAP) species in need of conservation action (Wildlife Action Plan Team, 2013), was documented in the rocky areas of Black Canyon during a refuge-wide baseline inventory in 2010 (SWCA Environmental Consultants, 2011). Additionally, several common reptile species including Mohave rattlesnake (Crotalus scutulatus), common side-blotched lizard (Uta stansburiana), yellow-backed spiny lizard (Sceloporus uniformis), and western whiptail lizard (Aspidoscelis tigris) inhabit the canyon. All of these reptile species are primarily associated with upland or rocky habitat.

Great Plains toads (Anaxyrus cognatus) and northern leopard frogs (Lithobates pipiens) occur on PNWR and are Nevada WAP species (Wildlife Action Plan Team, 2013). In 2010, surveyors found Great Plains toads at Upper Lake and Middle Marsh (SWCA Environmental Consultants, 2011). These same surveyors documented northern leopard frogs in springs around Lower Pahranagat Lake and Maynard Lake. Although Black Canyon contains potential wetland habitat for amphibians, neither of the species discussed above has been observed in Black Canyon.

No endangered or sensitive fish species inhabit the restored stream channel that runs through Black Canyon. Three species of endemic and endangered desert fish species occur in Pahranagat Valley: Hiko White River springfish (Crenichthys baileyi grandis), White River springfish (Crenichthys baileyi baileyi), and Pahranagat roundtail chub (Gila robusta jordani). These fish are confined to the northern end of the valley in Pahranagat Creek, and the springfish species only occur in thermal spring outflows. Pahranagat Creek flows through miles of concrete and earthen ditches before it reaches PNWR, providing little habitat for native fishes or a pathway for fish to enter Black Canyon. A refuge population of Pahranagat roundtail chub is being established on the refuge in Cottonwood Spring, but no surface connection exists between Cottonwood Spring and Black Canyon.

No listed mammals occur in Black Canyon, but NDOW delineates Pahranagat Valley as a migration corridor for mule deer, a managed big game species (Nevada Department of Wildlife, 2017). Deer migrating through the Pahranagat Valley, including Black Canyon and other parts of PNWR, summer in Utah and winter in Nevada. Deer migrate through Pahranagat Valley in

11 fall and spring, but the numbers of deer in this part of the state remain low (Nevada Department of Wildlife, 2013).

Several bats known to occur on PNWR and designated as Nevada WAP species include Townsend big-eared bat (Corynorhinus townsendii), spotted bat (Euderma maculatum), Allen’s big-eared bat (Idionycteris phyllotis), fringed myotis (Myotis thysanodes), and Mexican free- tailed bat (Tadarida brasiliensis); (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 2015). Habitats for these bat species include riparian woodlands, streams, and rock crevices, thus these species could occur in Black Canyon. Rock cliffs, crevices, and trees provide important daytime roost sites.

The Great Basin Bird Observatory (GBBO) has completed a few surveys of Black Canyon since the 2012 stream restoration. GBBO detected some conservation priority and stewardship species for Nevada (Great Basin Bird Observatory, 2010) in Black Canyon, including American avocet, Brewer’s sparrow, Gambel’s quail, gray flycatcher, Lucy’s warbler, olive-sided flycatcher, pinyon jay, white-faced ibis, and Wilson’s phalarope (Table 1). None of these species are listed as Federally Threatened or Endangered. Of these species, American avocet, Brewer’s sparrow, Gambel’s quail, and Lucy’s warbler nest locally (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 2011), but, based on nesting habitat requirements and the current successional status of woody trees in Black Canyon, this area does not likely support nesting habitat for these species. Most of the birds found in Black Canyon are protected by the Migratory Bird Treaty Act, which makes it illegal to take (kill) any migratory bird, or the parts, nests, or eggs of such a bird except under the terms of a valid permit. Table 1 lists birds recently sighted in Black Canyon.

A query of the Nevada Natural Heritage database revealed no records of threatened or endangered bird species in Black Canyon. A query of the NDOW database identified three threatened or endangered bird species within a four-mile radius of the canyon. These species include Ridgway’s rail (Rallus obsoletus – Endangered), western yellow-billed cuckoo (Coccyzus americanus – Threatened), and southwestern willow flycatcher (Empidonax traillii extimus – Endangered). Habitat for Ridgway’s rail (dense marsh vegetation) and the yellow-billed cuckoo (extensive multi-story tree canopy) does not currently exist in Black Canyon. Recent (2014) surveys for southwestern flycatcher detected this species breeding in the willows along the north side of Upper Lake and in younger cottonwood trees on the southwest side of this same lake (McLeod & Pelligrini, 2014). These surveys did not include Black Canyon, but no flycatchers were observed on the south side of Upper Lake, an area adjacent to Black Canyon. Vegetation in Black Canyon does not currently resemble potential flycatcher habitat, but this could change with time and plant growth.

Table 1. List of bird species observed in 2014 in Black Canyon, including flyover sightings.

*American Avocet Eurasian Collared-Dove *Pinyon Jay NAsh-throated Flycatcher *NGambel's Quail NRed-tailed Hawk Baird's Sandpiper *Gray Flycatcher NRed-winged Blackbird NBarn Swallow NGreat Blue Heron NSay's Phoebe Belted Kingfisher NGreater Roadrunner NSong Sparrow NBlack Phoebe Hammond's Flycatcher Spotted Sandpiper NBlack-crowned Night-Heron NHouse Finch NTree Swallow NBlack-throated Sparrow NKilldeer Turkey Vulture NBlue Grosbeak Lark Sparrow NVerdin *NBrewer's Sparrow Lazuli Bunting NVermilion Flycatcher NBrown-crested Flycatcher NLesser Goldfinch NWestern Kingbird NBrown-headed Cowbird Lincoln's Sparrow Western Tanager NBullock's Oriole *NLucy’s Warbler White-crowned Sparrow NCanada Goose NMallard *White-faced Ibis Chipping Sparrow NMourning Dove NWhite-tailed Kite Common Goldeneye NNorthern Mockingbird *Wilson's Phalarope NCommon Raven NNorthern Rough-winged Swallow Wilson's Warbler NCommon Yellowthroat *Olive-sided Flycatcher NYellow Warbler Cooper's Hawk Osprey NYellow-breasted Chat Dusky Flycatcher Phainopepla NYellow-headed Blackbird Yellow-rumped Warbler *Species of Conservation Priority (Great Basin Bird Observatory, 2010) NKnown local breeder in suitable habitat (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 2011)

4.6 Air Quality Data from air quality monitoring by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) or State of Nevada does not exist for Lincoln County. Las Vegas has been cited by the EPA for serious nonattainment of fugitive dust standards of which construction sites are a source (https://www3.epa.gov/region9/air/vegaspm/, Accessed 5/23/2007). The Department of Conservation and Natural Resources (NRCS) provides a wind erodibility index (WEI) to quantify soil susceptibility to erosion on a scale from one to eight, with one indicating the highest susceptibility to erosion. The soils in Black Canyon have a WEI of level 2 and 4 (Soil Survey Staff, 2017). The soil map unit with the level 2 WEI occurs in the southeast part of the canyon where the parking lots are proposed. This area and the access road along the east side of the canyon are currently unvegetated. Bare areas lacking vegetation within the canyon increase dust particles during high wind events and decrease air quality.

4.7 Noise Black Canyon is located next to U.S. Route 93. Fast-moving vehicles and semi-trucks passing along the highway contribute to noise heard within the canyon.

4.8 Cultural Resources Black Canyon is a culturally-significant landscape for seven tribes of Nuwuvi throughout four states. Many archeological findings have been surveyed within Black Canyon, all of which occur along canyon walls and on the butte bordering the west side of the canyon (The Mountain Institute, et al., 2015). A unique style of petroglyphs (i.e., Pahranagat-style) in the form of rock writings is abundant. The Black Canyon Petroglyphs Site was listed on the NRHP as an archeological site in 1975, and more recent surveys have resulted in creation of the Black Canyon Archaeological District which encompasses Black Canyon. Because of the cultural and spiritual significance of Black Canyon, the canyon is currently closed for recreation and is protected by three locked gates at the north, central, and south ends of the canyon.

The Nevada State Historic Preservation Office (SHPO) reviewed the Proposed Action and the three-acre area of potential effect (APE). A previous pedestrian survey of Black Canyon found one cultural resource within the APE and eight additional resources located in proximity, but outside of the APE. This site is a historical irrigation ditch complex, currently not in use in Black Canyon, and recommended as not eligible for listing in the NRHP under any of the Secretary’s Significance Criteria (Reed, 2017).

4.9 Community Facilities The town of Alamo is the closest community to PNWR and is located approximately nine miles north of the PNWR Visitor Center. Alamo has a population of over 1,000 people according to the 2015 estimate (U.S. Census Bureau, 2011-2015). The town contains community facilities including schools, churches, medical clinic, public library, volunteer fire department, Nevada Highway Patrol office, and sheriff’s department. The nearest hospital is located 55 miles to the northeast in Caliente. Representatives from State and Federal governments often rely on community facilities to support public meetings.

The maximum number of days visitors can camp at PNWR is 14 days (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 2015). Visitors to PNWR typically stay in the area for a few days and do not likely increase use of community facilities such as schools and churches. Refuge visitors may increase the use of police and medical facilities in the event of an injury.

4.10 Public Health and Safety The speed limit along U.S. Route 93 running past the entrances to the Visitor Center and Black Canyon is 70 mph. U.S. Route 93 is a popular and important travel corridor for trucks, military vehicles and RVs traveling to Las Vegas at high speeds. Visitors turning toward the Visitor Center from U.S. Route 93 must slow down on the highway to make the turn in high speed traffic, which creates a safety hazard. Currently no parking lot exists at the Black Canyon entrance. Visitors to Black Canyon often stop their vehicles on the highway shoulder or pull onto adjacent narrow two track dirt roads to park and observe petroglyphs and other resources. These types of unanticipated traffic movements create potentially dangerous

situations given the high speed limit and limited line of sight at Black Canyon due to a nearby highway curve.

Hunting and swimming are restricted in Black Canyon. Swimming is prohibited throughout PNWR, while hunting is allowed only in designated areas on the southern end of PNWR. Posted signs and refuge personnel inform visitors about the rules and regulations.

Because Black Canyon is closed to public use, trash has not been a public health concern. Occasional litter blows into the canyon from the surrounding roads but is not abundant.

5 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES OF NO ACTION

5.1 Land Use Land use of Black Canyon would not change. Although the area would remain closed to the public, unauthorized use of the canyon would likely continue.

5.2 Socioeconomics Trends in visitation and local economy would not change due to the No Action alternative. Existing attractions within PNWR and the surrounding areas would continue to bring tourists and travelers to Alamo and the adjacent communities. Based on recent trends, PNWR visitation from nearby communities, Clark County, and other states and countries will likely increase over time.

5.3 Environmental Justice Under the No Action Alternative Black Canyon would remain closed to the general public. Without interpretive kiosks and programs, visitors would not gain awareness of petroglyphs, artifacts, and the cultural significance of Black Canyon; visitors would not develop a sense of appreciation and stewardship.

5.4 Water Resources Although Black Canyon would remain closed to the public, increasing trends in population suggest a potential for increased visitation to PNWR and potential trespass into Black Canyon. Water quality could degrade over time with improperly disposed trash and lack of resource management. Unregulated parking and foot traffic would maintain or create bare patches of soil that can erode into Black Canyon wetlands during precipitation events, diminishing water quality. Water quantity in Black Canyon would not change, but the amount of water flowing through Black Canyon would remain dependent on local climate conditions, refuge water management, and supply limitations affected by upstream water usage, regional groundwater pumping, and global warming.

5.5 Biological Resources 5.5.1 Plants If the No Action alternative is selected, no new plantings will be initiated, and the road immediately west of the butte will not be restored and revegetated. Non-native, invasive plant control efforts (e.g., water management) would continue and, over time, native plant communities would dominate the canyon.

5.5.2 Fauna With No Action, wildlife communities would either remain or change as vegetation within the canyon matures or changes. Unauthorized visitation to the canyon would remain the same, and wildlife habitats would not experience increased disturbance from human visitors except for trespassers. Movements of trespassing visitors, however, would not be restricted to trails, and climbing on rocks adjacent to trees could potentially disturb bird nests located in higher tree branches or animals living in rock crevices. Without development of visitor facilities in Black Canyon, trespassing visitors could potentially degrade wildlife habitat with litter or unintentional spread of non-native, invasive species. As a result, a cumulative impact to wildlife would include reduced habitat quality due to potential invasive species infestation and the presence of litter over time.

5.6 Air Quality If the No Action alternative is selected, bare areas within Black Canyon will continue to contribute to air pollution in the form of fugitive dust during strong winds.

5.7 Noise No changes in noise pollution would occur with the No Action alternative. Over time, if visitation increases and other local attractions become developed, highway noise may increase or occur more frequently. Because Black Canyon would remain closed to the public, potential noise increases would not impact refuge visitation, but excess noise could disrupt local wildlife or the visitor experience.

5.8 Cultural Resources Black Canyon would remain closed to visitors, and the general public would not be able to appreciate the cultural and spiritual significance of the area. Over time, unauthorized visitors could degrade cultural resources. Potential trespass access could still occur through a gate near the southwest corner of the butte and along visible social trails that would not be restored with vegetation. Vandalism and damage of cultural and natural resources could occur.

5.9 Community Facilities The No Action alternative would not create an additional attraction for visitors at PNWR, and community facility use would not increase due to this action. Increased visitation to the Pahranagat Valley would likely occur if current population trends continue, potentially increasing public use of community facilities such as medical, fire, and law enforcement.

5.10 Public Health and Safety With the No Action alternative, no changes in the traffic pattern would occur and safety hazards would remain. Vehicles may still pull off the highway at elevated speeds and unregulated parking along the shoulder and the dirt road adjacent to Black Canyon could continue to degrade roadside vegetation. Visitors turning into the PNWR Visitor Center would still slow down or pull out on the highway within the main traffic lane in an area with poor distance visibility due to the highway curve. Cumulative impacts over time and with potential increased traffic from the nearby growing population of Las Vegas may include increased road accidents. Larger vehicles such as RVs and buses could not safely park nearby, limiting educational and recreational outreach opportunities.

Because Black Canyon would remain closed to public use, trash would not be a public health concern.

6 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES OF PROPOSED ACTION ALTERNATIVE

6.1 Land Use The Migratory Bird Conservation Act was established in 1929 and permitted the U.S. Secretary of Interior to lease or purchase land to provide sanctuary for migratory birds. This Act created the primary mandate of the National Wildlife Refuge System, to provide habitat for migratory birds and wildlife. As clarified within the National Wildlife Refuge Improvement Act of 1997, wildlife-dependent public use activities including wildlife observation, photography, environmental education, and interpretation are also compatible with the mission of the refuge system (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 2015). The Proposed Action would increase visitor use of Black Canyon while restricting use to designated areas, thus limiting vegetative damage and protecting important cultural resources and migratory bird habitat.

6.2 Socioeconomics The Proposed Action would create an added visitor attraction to PNWR, which could increase the number of tourists using facilities in Alamo and adjacent towns. The cumulative effect of the previously constructed Visitor Center in PNWR and addition of trails and interpretation of cultural resources in Black Canyon would boost the local economy, which already provides services, lodging, and facilities for travelers and tourists. The Proposed Action could provide an opportunity to expand public outreach and current educational programs to include cultural stewardship as well as field trips to Black Canyon.

6.3 Environmental Justice PNWR will continue to collaborate with the Nuwuvi Working Group on design, implementation, and management of the Proposed Action. The incorporation of educational material and exhibits within the trail system will increase visitor understanding and appreciation for cultural resources. The inclusion of bilingual signs and education material will also serve the Hispanic/Latino community and help increase the respectful use of the area by all visitors, thus minimizing vandalism and damage to cultural resources.

6.4 Water Resources Construction of visitor facilities in Black Canyon could cause erosion and degradation of water quality, but BMPs installed during construction would minimize potential impacts. Diverting water flow through the ditch west of U.S. Route 93 instead of through Black Canyon during construction would minimize direct impacts to water. Loose dirt created with construction disturbance could potentially erode into the stream channel in the event of a storm, however, scant rainfall conditions and timing of construction outside of the wet season would minimize or eliminate this potential impact. BMPs such as placement of straw wattles along streambanks to ensure against dirt migration into the streambed could be installed, if weather conditions make this action necessary.

Once installed, visitor facilities would direct visitor traffic along established trails, minimizing expansion of social trails and bare dirt areas that cause loose dirt, erosion, and potential sources of non-point source pollution to waterways. Water flow would not be affected by the Proposed Action because bridges along the trails would allow water to flow unimpeded. Opening Black Canyon to visitors and increased visitation could degrade water quality with litter; however, strategically placed trash cans at the Visitor Center coupled with trash management would minimize pollution. This action could become more important in the future, if current increasing visitation trends continue. Similar to the No Action alternative, water quantity flowing through Black Canyon would not change due to the Proposed Action.

6.5 Biological Resources 6.5.1 Plants If the public use plan is implemented, some vegetation would be cleared from the footprint of the trails, interpretive areas, and trailhead. The restoration area near the butte will be revegetated with native plants. Additional planting will occur within the rest, solitude, and Pahranagat Man viewing areas to provide shade. Revegetation and continued non-native, invasive plant control efforts would promote dominance of native plant communities more quickly than the No Action alternative.

6.5.2 Fauna Construction of visitor facilities in Black Canyon could temporarily disturb wildlife residing in the area. For migratory birds, which are protected under the Migratory Bird Treaty Act, impacts and potential incidental take of birds would likely only occur if construction took place during the nesting season (April 1 – July 1) when disturbance could flush birds off nests and increase chances of egg or chick mortality. Riparian habitat similar to that found in Black Canyon exists on other parts of PNWR, and as long as birds are not on nesting territories, they have the option to move to nearby habitats undisturbed by local construction. The addition of native plantings in the restoration area adjacent to the Pahranagat Man spotting scope in Black Canyon would enhance wildlife habitat, and additionally, shade trees added to rest areas along the walking trails would enhance a small amount of woody riparian habitat for birds and bats, which may use trees for roosting, nesting, and cover.

The trails would limit walking disturbance to set paths, minimizing unwanted trampling of plants and unintentional spread of non-native, invasive plants. Because the trail locations would occur mostly along existing disturbed areas, the trail system would not displace a significant amount of potential wildlife habitat. Increased visitation to the area could disturb wildlife, especially during the nesting season, but interpretive signs, programs, and trails could inform visitors about local wildlife and control traffic to minimize nest disturbance. Visitor disturbance to protected species, such as the desert tortoise and southwestern willow flycatcher, could occur if these species move into Black Canyon. Because these species currently do not inhabit Black Canyon, the Proposed Action has no impacts on these species; however, the trail management plan for Black Canyon could include protective actions (e.g. species monitoring and temporary trail closures) in case federally protected species occur in Black Canyon in the future.

6.6 Air Quality During project implementation, construction activities and equipment could disturb the soil and increase dust particulates. Appropriate BMPs would be applied if necessary, including the use of a water truck or some other watering method to reduce fugitive dust hazards. In the long term, the creation of permeable parking lots and stabilized trails would improve air quality.

6.7 Noise With the Proposed Action alternative, noise within the canyon would temporarily increase during project construction, potentially disturbing local wildlife. Timing construction outside of the breeding bird season, however, should avoid flushing birds off nests and increasing the potential for egg or chick mortality. During construction, noise may impact local wildlife by temporarily increasing wildlife movements away from construction noise and activity.

Increased visitation could minimally increase noise at the trailhead because larger RVs and buses would have access to this area. Over time, increased visitation associated with regional

population growth could increase highway noise, which may diminish the quality of visitor experiences in Black Canyon.

6.8 Cultural Resources SHPO reviewed the potential effects of the Proposed Action on the Black Canyon Archeological District and found the project to be compliant with Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA) of 1966 (Reed, 2017). The historical ditch that occurs within the project site is not eligible for listing in the NRHP, thus the Proposed Action would not impact any cultural resources. Other cultural resources are located in proximity to the Proposed Action, but these resources are outside of the APE. Many cultural resources have already been discovered in the canyon due to previous disturbance and plowing associated with agricultural practices. Ecological restoration activities in 2012 did not unearth any new artifacts. Should any significant artifacts, as determined by a FWS Archaeologist, be discovered during trail construction, proper reporting and investigation would follow in accordance with FWS Policy and the NHPA. Construction would temporarily cease, and the Nuwuvi Working Group and SHPO would be contacted for consultation before construction could resume.

Nuwuvi members would continue to visit Black Canyon, a sacred and culturally important place as described in Spoon et al. (2013), but Nuwuvi would also share their people’s respect for these resources to general visitors. Visitors to Black Canyon would be directed along a trail around the canyon floor and would not be allowed access to the butte and associated cultural resources. Measures to limit access to archaeological sites would be installed (e.g., native stone walls). This would encourage viewing of petroglyphs from a safe distance. Interpretive panels and signs would educate the public about the cultural and spiritual significance of the area and regulations enacted to protect cultural resources. Increased visitor use could potentially be beneficial and damaging. On the one hand, cultural education and preservation awareness would be gained, but vandalism could also increase. Refuge managers would carefully plan for protection of cultural resources in Black Canyon.

6.9 Community Facilities Increased visitation to PNWR because of the added attraction in Black Canyon would not notably extend the number of days visitors stay in the area; therefore, use of schools and churches would not likely increase with the Proposed Action. Larger numbers of visitors to PNWR and cumulative impacts from nearby attractions could increase public use of medical, fire, and law enforcement facilities and services.

6.10 Public Health and Safety With the Proposed Action, a parking lot constructed at the entrance to Black Canyon, and turn lanes added to U.S. Route 93 into and out of Black Canyon and the Visitor Center, would direct visitors and traffic to areas of interest. Parking vehicles in a parking lot located off the highway would reduce former road hazards caused by parked vehicles along the highway shoulder.

Pedestrians exiting and returning to their vehicles could walk to a safe parking lot, rather than navigating close to large vehicles passing along the highway at fast speeds. Turning lanes on U.S. Route 93 would create areas for vehicles to safely decelerate out of and accelerate back into traffic. Faster traffic flow could continue along the highway past the turning lanes, and traffic safety would improve. A cumulative effect of the parking lot and turning lanes includes reduced road accidents over time, as population growth in and near Las Vegas continues and traffic increases.

If the public is allowed to use Black Canyon under the Proposed Action alternative, litter could become a public safety concern, especially if broken glass becomes common. Trash cans located at the Visitor Center and trash management at the trailhead would minimize pollution from litter. When combined with the increased number of visitors expected with the new Visitor Center and trails, the likelihood of trash becoming more abundant increases. Frequent monitoring by FWS staff and volunteers would be needed to ensure that litter does not become a problem within Black Canyon.

7 ENVIRONMENTAL COMPLIANCE ACTIONS FOR IMPLEMENTATION

The Nevada Division of Environmental Protection requires a Construction Stormwater Permit for any construction project that will disturb more than one acre, and is intended to prevent uncontrolled stormwater runoff from the construction site from reaching local water bodies. Contractors applying for this permit need to develop a Stormwater Pollution Prevention Plan detailing BMP installation.

Any construction activities in Black Canyon must maintain compliance with the NHPA through Section 106 Consultation.

8 AGENCY COORDINATION

The FWS, Nuwuvi Working Group, key stakeholders, and consultants have actively coordinated on the Proposed Action. Comments provided by the Nuwuvi Working Group, Jeremy Spoon (Portland State University), and Richard Arnold (Pahrump Paiute Tribe) greatly improved this document. FWS coordinated with the NNHP, GBBO, and NDOW through exchanges of information and data on wildlife and plant species occurring in the Proposed Action area. The Nevada SHPO also reviewed cultural resource data for the Proposed Action in accordance with Section 106 of the NHPA.

9 LIST OF PREPARERS

Rob Vinson – U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Diane Wong-Kone – Otis Bay, Inc. Susan Mortenson – Otis Bay, Inc. Jessica Sáenz – Otis Bay, Inc.

10 REFERENCES

Gilreath, A. J., Bengston, G. & Patterson, B., 2011. Volume I: Report and Appendices A-F Ethnographic and Archaeological Inventory and Evaluation of Black Canyon, Lincoln County, Nevada, Portland, OR: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Great Basin Bird Observatory, 2010. Nevada Comprehensive Bird Conservation Plan Version 1.0. [Online] Available at: http://www.gbbo.org/bird-conservation-plan [Accessed 18 January 2016]. McLeod, M. A. & Pelligrini, A. P., 2014. Lower Colorado River Multi-Species Conservation Program Southwestern Willow Flycatcher Surveys, Demography, and Ecology along the Lower Colorado River and Tributaries, Boulder City, NV: Bureau of Reclamation. Nevada Department of Wildlife, 2013. Hunter Information Sheet Mule Deer Area 24, Units 241, 242, 243, 244, 245. Reno, NV: Nevada Department of Wildlife. Nevada Department of Wildlife, 2017. Black Canyon Data Request Response. Reno, NV: Nevada Department of Wildlife. Nevada Natural Heritage Program, 2017. Black Canyon Data Request Response. Carson City, NV: Nevada Natural Heritage Program. Reed, R. K., 2017. Black Canyon Interpretive and Public Use Project, Lincoln County, Nevada Undertaking #2017-4933, Carson City, NV: Nevada State Historic Preservation Office. Soil Survey Staff, 2017. Web Soil Survey. [Online] Available at: https://websoilsurvey.sc.egov.usda.gov/ [Accessed 24 January 2017]. Spoon, J. & Arnold, R., 2012. Collaborative research and co-learning: integrating Nuwuvi (Southern Paiute) ecological knowledge and spirituality to revitalize a fragmented land. Journal for the Study of Religion, Nature and Culture, 6(4), pp. 477-500. Spoon, J., Arnold, R. & Nuwuvi Working Group, 2013. The Voices of the Rocks Sing Through Us: Nuwuvi (Southern Paiute) and Black Canyon Draft, Alamo, NV: Pahranagat National Wildlife Refuge. SWCA Environmental Consultants, 2011. Pahranagat National Wildlife Refuge Baseline Inventories of Reptiles, Amphibians, and Vegetation. 2010 Summary Report, Alamo, NV: Pahranagat National Wildlife Refuge.

The Mountain Institute, Portland State University & Alta Planning + Design, 2015. Interpretive and Public Use Site Plan for the Black Canyon Archaeological District, Las Vegas, NV: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. U.S. Census Bureau, 2011-2015. United States Census Bureau. [Online] Available at: www.census.gov [Accessed 24 01 2017]. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 2011. Birds of Pahranagat National Wildlife Refuge, Las Vegas, NV: Desert National Wildlife Refuge Complex. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 2015. Pahranagat National Wildlife Refuge Visitor Services Plan, Portland, OR: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Southwest Region (Region 8). Wildlife Action Plan Team, 2013. Nevada Wildlife Action Plan, Reno, NV: Nevada Department of Wildlife.