Dyslexia REVIEW www.dyslexiaaction.org.uk | Autumn/Winter 2011

The Journal of The Dyslexia Guild Volume 22 Number 3

In this issue:

Reading Specific Language Aptitude Achievement Comprehension Impairment JOIN THE DYSLEXIA GUILD! The Professional Body of Dyslexia Action

Who is it for? For anyone with a general or professional interest in dyslexia. Members include teachers, SENCos, teaching assistants, FE and HE tutors, parents, assessors, and other advisory specialists. The Aim We aim to promote discussion, information and research as well as keeping members informed of developments in the field through publication and distribution. Group membership Benefits is also available to • Library membership of the National Training Resource Centre schools, library services, publishers • Dyslexia Review three times a year and other groups. • Conferences and events at reduced rates • Guild Gallery electronic newsletter You get two copies of the Dyslexia Review and • Preferential discounts on courses, suppliers and CPD events discounted rates for up to • Assessment Practising Certificate three delegates at our conference events. • Professional Indemnity Insurance at preferential rates for APC

For more information see our web page http://training.dyslexiaaction.org.uk Email [email protected] or call 01784 222342

02 Dyslexia ReviewDyslexia Autumn Review / Winter July 20112011 JOIN THE Contact us: Editors: Kathryn Benzine Janice Seabourne [email protected] Editorial DYSLEXIA Tel: 01784 222342 elcome to this edition of Dyslexia Review, which Autumn/Winter Issue November 2011 contains the keynote articles from our Summer Conference speakers as well as additional features. Download the Media Pack at: As autumn closes in around us and moves towards http://dyslexiareview.org.uk winter, it is often a time for reflection on the good things we have been part of during the year, (and those we need to Published by: Wimprove upon of course!) and an opportunity to look forward to new GUILD! Dyslexia Action initiatives in the coming year. Our next conference promises to be an Park House equally enjoyable event and will be held in Nottingham in June 2012; Wick Road diary dates can be found under Membership news. Our new look Egham, Surrey TW20 0HH magazine has received much positive feedback in terms of format The Professional Body and the direction in which we are travelling. We still have much to do Tel: 01784 222300 Website: www.dyslexiaaction.org.uk and welcome contributions that will help us to excel in the next series. Guild members who are inspired to write up their research or work of Dyslexia Action Designed and Printed by: experiences are most welcome to contribute to the magazine. Darwin Press Ltd Unit B, Pier Road In this issue, we hear from those at the cutting edge of research; an Feltham important strand of learning that helps to inform our everyday work Middlesex with those with dyslexia and specific learning difficulties. Dr Kate TW14 0TW Who is it for? Printed on Recycled Paper Cain’s article on Reading Comprehension and Dr Chloë Marshall’s article on Speech and Language Impairment highlight the excellent For anyone with a general or professional interest in dyslexia. Dyslexia Action Guild Membership and research currently being undertaken by our frontline university Members include teachers, SENCos, teaching assistants, FE Subscriptions researchers. There is both practical application and underpinning and HE tutors, parents, assessors, and other advisory specialists. Tel: 01784 222342 academic research to draw on in the field of dyslexia and specific Email: [email protected] learning difficulties and it is good to see this encapsulated in the The Aim journal. Dr Steve Chinn bangs the drum for a clearer understanding of Dyslexia Action Training Courses Dyscalculia. Lesley Burnett talking about Self Esteem has also proved We aim to promote discussion, information and research as well Tel: 01784 222304 to be a popular topic in the specialist education field and she provides Website: http://training.dyslexiaaction.org.uk/ as keeping members informed of developments in the field a thought-provoking piece for readers here. The assessment feature through publication and distribution. Cover Photo in this issue is provided by Dr Barry Johnson from Dyslexia Action Lesley Burnett presents to Dyslexia Action Assessment Services. Barry is a member of the SpLD Assessment Group membership Postgraduate students (see feature on Self Standards Committee, the standard setting body for the sector, which Benefits is also available to Esteem page 12) is also helping to shape the direction of assessment good practice. • Library membership of the National Training Resource Centre schools, library ISSN We are particularly pleased to welcome a guest feature in this issue on 0308-6275 • services, publishers The Village project in the USA, which provides an interesting insight Dyslexia Review three times a year and useful contrasting experience to the Dyslexia Action Partnership ©2011 Dyslexia Action and other groups. for Literacy Secondary Project also featured. The autumn harvest is • Conferences and events at reduced rates All rights reserved. Dyslexia Review is published by Dyslexia Action. Reproduction or transmission indeed bountiful and I hope all our readers will enjoy it. • Guild Gallery electronic newsletter You get two copies of the in part or whole of any item within this magazine Dyslexia Review and is not permitted until prior written agreement Kathryn Benzine • Preferential discounts on courses, suppliers and CPD events discounted rates for up to has been granted by the Editor. While every Editor effort has been made to ensure the accuracy of • Assessment Practising Certificate three delegates at our the information in this publication, the publisher conference events. accepts no responsibility for errors or omissions. • Professional Indemnity Insurance at preferential rates for APC The products and services advertised are those of individual suppliers and are not necessarily endorsed by or connected with Dyslexia Action. The editorial opinions expressed in this For more information see our web page http://training.dyslexiaaction.org.uk publication are those of individual authors and are not necessarily those of Dyslexia Action. Images Email [email protected] or call 01784 222342 have been reprinted with the permission of the publisher or copyright holder.

02 Dyslexia Review July 2011 Dyslexia Review Autumn / Winter 2011 03 Contents

05 Membership News 17

06 Dyslexia Action Centre Directory

07 Reading Comprehension Development and Difficulties Dyscalculia and Mathematics

10 Specific Language Impairment and Dyslexia 20

12 Dyslexia, self-esteem and motivation

14 Aptitude-Achievement Consistency Shape Coding Analysis: an Alternative to the Ability- Attainment Discrepancy Model 22 17 Dyscalculia and Mathematics Learning Difficulties

20 Using “Shape Coding” to teach grammar to children with language impairments Partnership For Literacy Secondary 22 Partnership for Literacy Secondary 2009-10 26

26 “It takes a village”- a unique reading methods approach in the USA

30 Book Reviews It takes a village

04 Dyslexia Review Autumn / Winter 2011 Membership News Looking forward to 2012

Jan Seabourne reports on forthcoming Dyslexia Guild events.

Summer Conference 2012 A CPD training day will also be offered to members on Following on from the very successful Summer Wednesday 27th June, at the same venue the day before Conference this year, we have been hard at work to find the conference and further details of this event will be made a venue with a larger capacity that still offers value for available shortly. We will make all the details about bookings, money to keep prices as low as possible for delegates. catering, accommodation and sessions available as soon as Our next conference will be on Thursday 28th June we can but remember to save those dates in your diary! at the University of Nottingham, Jubilee Campus. The conference will contain the usual mixture of key note Membership Rates 2011/12 speakers, seminar sessions plus the opportunity to It is important that the Dyslexia Guild remains a valuable network over lunch or visit our exhibition area. service and we have introduced a new pricing structure from the beginning of September that now includes a discounted A pre-Conference Dinner is also being made available rate of £35 for retired members and students. Just contact us to members travelling the day before and staying over on if you believe you are eligible for this new rate. Students on the Wednesday evening. This will provide an additional Dyslexia Action Postgraduate courses will continue to get free opportunity for you to meet and network with colleagues. membership for the duration of their course. Easily accessed via the M1 or Midland Mainline, Jubilee Campus includes a host of additional facilities as well as Contact us: The Dyslexia Guild, Dyslexia Action Training free parking and on-site accommodation. If you would and Education Dept., Park House, Wick Rd, Egham, like a preview of the facilities, please see: Surrey TW20 0HH. Email: [email protected] www.nottinghamconferences.co.uk/jubilee-campus/ Tel: 01784 222342 Fax: 01784 772512

Exchange Building, Jubilee campus, Nottingham University

Dyslexia Review Autumn / Winter 2011 05 Dyslexia Action Centre Directory

Cardiff Centre Staff: From the left: Fiona Sengpiel, Elizabeth Lloyd-Williams Chris Lacey, Ann Conway, Ros Williams, Sally Fowler, Diane Evans, Anne Rees, Janet Catrin James, Ann-Marie Coughlan-Allen.

National Training Office: Liverpool 0151 428 6987 Egham 01784 222304 London 0207 730 8890 Dyslexia Action Newcastle Upon Tyne 0191 281 8381 Park House, Wick Road, Egham, Surrey TW20 0HH Tel: 01784 222300 Fax: 01784 222333 Nottingham 0115 948 3849 Email: [email protected] Peterborough 01733 234956 Website: www.dyslexiaaction.org.uk Sheffield 0114 281 5905 Stone 01785 818783 Bath 01225 420554 Sutton Coldfield 0121 354 6855 Bolton 01204 395500 Tonbridge 01732 352762 Bristol 0117 923 9166 Wilmslow 01625 530158 Chelmsford 01245 259656 Winchester 01962 856195 Coventry 02476 257041 York 01904 328460 Darlington 01325 283580 Derby 01332 365359 Dyslexia Action Egham 01784 222325 Psychology Services 01904 634588 Harrogate 01423 522111 Scotland Hull 01482 329416 Glasgow 0141 334 4549 Leeds 0113 288 8144 Leicester 01162 511525 Wales Lincoln 01522 539267 Cardiff 02920 481122

06 Dyslexia Review Autumn / Winter 2011 Reading Comprehension Development and Difficulties

Dr Kate Cain, from Lancaster University Psychology Department provides an insight into the importance of reading comprehension and the difficulties that some learners experience.

uccessful reading skills are integrated. In the example above, the What does a poor comprehender essential for full engagement pronoun ‘she’ in sentence two refers look like? in today’s society because, back to Molly in sentence one. Thus, Good reading comprehension could not in addition to education and we understand that Molly was the take place without adequate word reading employment, a range of cultural and character who tripped on the step. Not skills. However, good word reading Ssocial activities – such as reading all of the links between sentences are is not sufficient to ensure adequate novels and newspapers, email and explicitly stated or cued by cohesive understanding of a text. Approximately use of social networking sites - rely on devices such as pronouns. An example 10% of school-aged children have the ability to efficiently and accurately of this is the motivation for Mum’s unexpectedly poor reading comprehension assimilate information from text. An action in the final sentence: why did despite developing age-appropriate independent and successful reader Mum fetch the mop? In narratives, word reading skill (Cain, 2010; Nation, must develop both adequate word things happen for a reason. There are 2005). Characteristics of good and poor reading and reading comprehension. clues that help us to make sense of comprehenders are shown in Figure 1. The focus here is to review current Mum’s action: Molly was carrying a Children with unexpectedly poor reading knowledge of reading comprehension glass of juice and she tripped. Thus comprehension experience similar development and difficulties. a plausible inference is that Molly problems with texts that are read aloud to spilled the juice. By engaging in these them, thus their comprehension difficulties What’s involved in reading processes of integration and inference, cannot be attributed to a subtle word comprehension? the skilled comprehender makes sense reading deficit. Comprehension difficulties For skilled readers it can be difficult 100 of the events described and constructs are not unique to this population: individuals to reflect on the processes involved in a coherent and accurate representation diagnosed with language and literacy reading, because it is a daily activity 90 of the situation described by the text, difficulties such as Specific Language that typically requires little effort. An 80 often referred to as a Mental Model or Impairment or Dyslexia, may also analysis of the following three sentence a Situation Model. experience problems comprehending text. text serves to illustrate some of the key 70 processes involved: 60Figure 1. Example of good and poor reading comprehender profiles (all ages in months). • Molly fetched the glass of juice. 50 • She tripped on the step. 100 good comprehenders

• age in months 40 poor comprehenders Mum fetched the mop. 90 To understand this text, the reader 30 80 must retrieve the meaning of each 20 word and combine these into 70 meaningful units: noun phrases, 10 clauses, and sentences. Beyond word 60 decoding, vocabulary retrieval, and 0 50 sentence understanding, additional chronological age word reading age reading good comprehenders comprehension age processes are critical for successful age in months 40 poor comprehenders comprehension. 30 To understand reading comprehension, we must be mindful that reading 20 typically concerns discourse: text 10 that is longer than a single sentence. The sentences in a text are not 0 simply understood and remembered chronological age word reading age reading in isolation: their meanings are comprehension age

Dyslexia Review Autumn / Winter 2011 100 07 90

80

70

60

50 100 good comprehenders

age in months 40 poor comprehenders 90 30 80 20 70 10 60 0 50 inference comprehension story structure good comprehenders monitoring age in months 40 poor comprehenders 30

20

10

0 inference comprehension story structure monitoring 100

90

80

70

60

50 good comprehenders

age in months 40 poor comprehenders 100 30 90 20 80 10 70 0 60chronological age word reading age reading comprehension age 50 good comprehenders

age in months 40 poor comprehenders 30

20

10

0 chronological age word reading age reading comprehension age 100

90

What aspects of reading does a 80Figure 2. Comparisons of good and poor comprehenders on experimental poor comprehender find hard? 70measures of inference, comprehension monitoring, and knowledge and use of In contrast to our extensive story structure. Performance calculated as percent correct. Adapted from data knowledge about word reading 60reported in Cain and Oakhill (2006). and dyslexia, the skills that support successful reading comprehension 50 good comprehenders and the underlying bases for reading

age in months 40 poor comprehenders comprehension difficulties are less 100 well understood. My colleagues and 30 I have been particularly interested 90 in the skills that help the reader to 20 construct a coherent and accurate 80 10 representation of a text’s meaning. 70 0 In addition to the processes of 60 inference comprehension story structure integration and inference described monitoring above, skilled comprehenders 50 good comprehenders monitor their understanding as the age in months 40 poor comprehenders text unfolds. Thus, they will notice when a miscomprehension occurs 30 – when something does not make sense - for example if they cannot 20 integrate the meaning of a sentence 10 with their representation of the text so far. The skilled comprehender 0 is then able to engage in strategic inference comprehension story structure reading, such as re-reading and/ monitoring or inference making, to make the events in the text cohere. Skilled comprehenders also use knowledge of text structure to guide their Consequences of poor assessment of reading, classroom understanding. For narratives, comprehension literacy instruction, and also literacy they are aware that there is a Children with reading comprehension interventions. beginning, a middle, and a end, difficulties do not ‘spontaneously’ and that there are motivations recover. In addition, their poor First, the existence of children underlying each character’s actions reading comprehension is related with unexpectedly poor reading (as in the example above). Skilled to poorer language outcomes. comprehension supports the Simple comprehenders will use this For example, our recent work has View of Reading (see Figure 3) and information to structure and support shown that poor comprehenders’ demonstrates the importance of their understanding. vocabulary growth between ages assessing both word reading and eight to eleven does not keep in line reading comprehension to gain a Poor comprehenders do more poorly with that of good comprehenders comprehensive profile of a child’s on experimental measures of these (Cain & Oakhill, 2011). This may well literacy ability. Second, just as word skills: inference and integration be because much new vocabulary reading builds on a foundation and inference, comprehension is acquired from texts, and poor of spoken language, so too does monitoring, and knowledge and comprehenders may engage in reading comprehension. The critical use of text structure, than same- less reading and may also choose skills that support making sense of age good comprehenders (Cain & to read less challenging books. In discourse – integration and inference, Oakhill, 2006). These differences addition, poor comprehenders may comprehension monitoring, and are illustrated in Figure 2. These lack the inferential skills that support knowledge and use of text structure - three skills are also critical to reading independent vocabulary learning. can be fostered through oral language comprehension development activities such as story telling and between eight and eleven years Implications for assessment, shared book reading, before reading of age, in addition to vocabulary teaching, and intervention instruction begins. Third, given the knowledge and IQ (Oakhill & Cain, We are now building up a picture critical importance of skills that in press). of the factors that support the support the processing of discourse, development of successful reading these skills should be included in any comprehension and the nature of comprehensive intervention designed reading comprehension difficulties. to help children with poor reading This knowledge can inform the comprehension.

08 Dyslexia Review Autumn / Winter 2011 Figure 3. Schematic of the Simple View good of Reading (Gough & Tunmer, 1986) to reading comprehension illustrate different reader profiles

dyslexic good readers readers poor good word word reading reading

poor word poor reading and poor comprehenders comprehension

poor reading comprehension

References: Cain, K. (2010). Reading development and reading difficulties. Oxford: Blackwell/Wiley.

Cain, K., & Oakhill, J. (2006). Profiles of children with specific reading comprehension difficulties. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 76, 683-696. Cain, K., & Oakhill, J. V. (2011). Matthew Effects in young readers: reading comprehension and reading experience aid vocabulary development. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 44, 431-443. Gough, P. B., & Tunmer, W. E. (1986). Decoding, reading and reading disability. Remedial and Special Education, 7, 6-10. Nation, K. (2005). Children’s reading comprehension difficulties. In M. J. Snowling & C. Hulme (Eds.), The science of reading: A handbook (pp. 248-265). Malden, MA, US: Blackwell Publishing. Oakhill, J. V., & Cain, K. (in press). The precursors of reading ability in young readers: Evidence from a four-year longitudinal study. Scientific Studies of Reading.

Dyslexia Review Autumn / Winter 2011 09 Specific Language Impairment and Dyslexia

Dr Chloë Marshall, Senior Lecturer in Psychology and Human Development at the Institute of Education, reviews the relationship between spoken language difficulties and dyslexia.

evelopmental dyslexia is identified in children who have significant difficulties with word Figure 1. Sample of a conversation between a boy reading (decoding and recognition) and aged 8;11 who has SLI, and his speech and language spelling despite adequate exposure to literacy therapist. instruction and no additional developmental disorder Dthat is likely to be the cause of their literacy impairment. SLT: What does your brother like to eat? Dyslexia is present in approximately 10% of school-aged CHILD: Pot noodle and chips. children, and for many its effects are lifelong. There SLT: And what about you? is mounting awareness of dyslexia and its impact on CHILD: And he’s like crisps. children’s academic achievements and life opportunities. SLT: He likes crisps. What about you? It is certainly much better recognised than ever before CHILD: I just like ice cream, not pot noodle. among teachers, parents and the general public, and is SLT: You don’t like pot noddle? now extensively researched. CHILD: I think it’s disgusting. SLT: I agree with you! There is a second developmental disorder that is parallel CHILD: Make me sick. Started to hurting to dyslexia in many ways, except that it affects spoken rather than written language. It occurs in children with normal intelligence, adequate exposure to language, Many children who have dyslexia also have SLI, and vice and no additional disability that could account for their versa. The extent of this co-occurrence depends on a language-learning problems (such as cerebral palsy or number of factors, including the age of the children and autism). This disorder is “specific language impairment”, the exact criteria that are used for diagnosis. This is not a frequently abbreviated to SLI. Its prevalence is similar peculiarity of SLI and dyslexia in English – the two disorders to that of dyslexia, and like dyslexia its impact can last a overlap in all other languages that have been investigated, lifetime. However, SLI is less well known than dyslexia, including French, Italian, Dutch, Greek and Chinese. and not nearly as extensively researched. The implication for specialist literacy and dyslexia teachers Although the exact profile of SLI differs from child to child is that many of the children that they work with will also have and changes with age, individuals with SLI share certain language difficulties. Meanwhile, teachers with children in characteristics. They are generally late to start talking, their class who are receiving speech and language therapy, and they have particular difficulty acquiring syntax or who have seen a speech and language therapist in the and morphology, i.e. the rules of language (Bishop, past, need to be aware that these children might well have 1997). Their language impairment encompasses both difficulties learning to read and spell. understanding and production. The language sample in Figure 1 is from an eight-year-old boy, and illustrates Current explanations for why dyslexia and SLI co-occur some of the characteristics of the spoken language of involve phonology (Messaoud-Galusi & Marshall, 2010). children with SLI. Look in particular at the underlined It is well known that children with dyslexia suffer a triad sentences. The subject has been omitted in the of phonological impairments, affecting phonological sentences “make me sick” and “started to hurting”. In working memory, phonological awareness and verbal “he’s like crisps” the expected agreement morpheme processing speed. Researchers have also found dyslexic- –s has been incorrectly added to the subject “he” rather type phonological deficits in children with SLI. These than to the verb “like”, while the –s that should have findings suggest that phonological impairments might be been added to “make” is missing altogether. There is a at least partly responsible for these children’s language further morphological error in “started to hurting” – the impairments, just as they play a major role in the reading -ing is ungrammatical in this particular syntactic context. deficits in dyslexia. One possibility is therefore that dyslexia and SLI both have the same underlying cause and can be conceptualised as different facets of the same disorder. As SLI is usually identified by speech and language therapists

10 Dyslexia Review Autumn / Winter 2011 in the preschool years; and because dyslexia is usually have difficulties understanding what they read. The child diagnosed by a different set of professionals in the school whose profile on a set of standardised assessments is years; their differences might be more superficial than real. presented in Table 1 is a case in point. The child’s difficulties lie not in single word reading, non-word reading, spelling, In a major review of the research literature up until the or phonology, but in reading comprehension and spoken early 2000s, Bishop and Snowling proposed a rather language, and specifically in understanding the meaning different explanation of the overlap between dyslexia and of words and in repeating orally presented sentences SLI. In their model, the phonological deficits that underlie accurately (a task that requires good grammar, vocabulary both disorders are indeed responsible for the difficulties and verbal memory). His expressive vocabulary (picture that children with dyslexia and SLI have with reading and naming) is also weak. His difficulty in reading comprehension spelling, but additional cognitive deficits are responsible for is not surprising when we consider the Simple View the language impairment in SLI (Bishop & Snowling, 2004). of Reading (Gough & Tunmer, 1986). Both decoding/ recognition skills at the word level and the comprehension Nevertheless, this “additional deficit” model is likely to be an of language are required for extracting meaning from text. A oversimplification. Not all children with SLI have difficulties child with language comprehension difficulties is likely to also with word recognition, decoding, or spelling, and yet do find reading comprehension challenging.

Table 1. Standard scores for a boy with SLI aged 12;11, on a variety of literacy, phonology and language tasks. For the sake of simplicity the actual names of the tasks are not given, just what they assess. Each has a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15. Cells where scores fall 1.5 standard deviations or more below the mean (i.e. ≤ 77) can be considered unusually low, and are highlighted in red. Cells where scores fall within one standard deviation of the mean are highlighted in green, and those where scores are between 1 and 1.5 standard deviation below the mean highlighted in orange.

TASK STANDARD SCORE Literacy single word reading 103 non-word reading 100 spelling 100 comprehension of sentences/ short paragraphs 72 Phonology rhyme detection 95 spoonerisms 98 rapid naming of digits 94 Language comprehension of sentences (picture-sentence matching) 88 comprehension of words (picture-word matching) 75 sentence repetition 65 naming pictures 83

There is much still to be discovered with respect to what causes Bishop, D. V. M. & Snowling, M. (2004). Developmental SLI and why it co-occurs to such a large extent with dyslexia. In dyslexia and specific language impairment: Same or the meantime, there is no doubt that many children with literacy different? Psychological Bulletin, 130, 858-886. difficulties also have difficulties with spoken language, and Gough, P. B. & Tunmer, W. E. (1986). Decoding, reading vice versa. Specialist literacy/dyslexia teachers, ideally working and reading disability. Remedial and Special Education, closely with speech and language therapists, have an important 7, 6-10. role to play in identifying these children and offering them the support that they need, as early as possible. Messaoud-Galusi, S. & Marshall, C. R. (Eds) (2010). The overlap between SLI and dyslexia: The role of phonology. References: Scientific Studies of Reading, 14, 1-110. Bishop, D. V. M. (1997). Uncommon understanding. Hove, East Sussex: Psychology Press.

Dyslexia Review Autumn / Winter 2011 11 Dyslexia, self-esteem and motivation

Lesley Burnett discusses the need for approaches to dyslexia that move beyond literacy outcomes, to focus on self-esteem and self-efficacy.

hile in recent years there journey that he has taken to reach they should be able to focus more has been a recognition where he is today. on specific strengths and interests, of the importance of the but their ability to do this will depend personal well-being of The term self-esteem is commonly on the support that they received in young people through Government used to describe feelings of self previous years. Winitiatives such as ‘Every Child Matters’ worth. Every individual has a concept So how can we ensure that we (2003), there has been relatively little of him/herself that is affected by their support dyslexic learners to develop a research into the social and emotional view of the perceptions of others and positive self-image and be motivated needs of those who experience their aspiration to be like them. If to achieve their full potential? Firstly, dyslexic difficulties. As an experienced there is a mismatch between self- we must ensure that learners develop teacher of dyslexic learners, I have concept (how the individual sees positive self-efficacy, which is the often witnessed the negative effect of him/herself) and self-image (how the confidence an individual brings to low self-esteem and this has given me individual would like to be) then low approaching and completing tasks. a particular interest in this subject. I am self-esteem can result. For a dyslexic No matter how good the intervention in agreement with Riddick (2010) that individual in school, this comparison programme or lesson plan, it will not more scientific and reliable research can become a negative force, be effective if the learner does not feel is needed into how dyslexia and particularly in a society such as ours able to understand and complete the other developmental difficulties affect where literacy achievement is highly tasks set. Fear of failure is powerful learners on a personal level. valued. and demotivating. This is why it is so important for dyslexic learners to Erikson (1959) suggested that our have some control over the learning Being told I was self-concept develops with age and is process through goal setting, self- “lazy made me work affected by biological, psychological evaluation and a repertoire of much harder than I and cultural influences. A key stage is effective study skills. Burden (2008) had been doing, but I from 6 to 12 years, when we are not suggests that dyslexic learners will could have gone the only capable of learning many new ask three questions when deciding other way, given up and skills, but are also most affected by whether to commit to a task: ‘Am I made the tag of laziness comparisons with peers, which can good enough to do this?’, ‘Do I have become a self-fulfilling affect competence and self-esteem. the skills I need?’ and ‘What’s in it for prophecy…Breakthrough At this stage, development of self- me?’ Motivation matters. moments, as a dyslexic, concept depends more on what is done to us than on what we do. It is also important that parents and are wonderful but the teachers show they have confidence hardship that goes This supports the necessity for early in the dyslexic learner. Lawrence before them can be hard intervention to avoid the vicious (2006) considers that the key people to deal with. circle of literacy failure. Certainly in in a dyslexic person’s life- parents, Theo Paphitis, my experience, if dyslexic difficulties teachers and peers- play a central entrepreneur and” TV celebrity, are not being addressed by Year 4 role in giving them a positive self- Daily Express, 12.4.2011 at school, negative self-esteem can image. As Theo Paphitis said, it result that affects motivation and is so easy for the tag of ‘lazy’ to achievement. Consider the dyslexic become a self-fulfilling prophecy and This quote will strike a chord with Year 5 pupil who tells his teacher for the dyslexic learner to give up anyone who works with dyslexic that he hates reading and refuses and take the easy route of ‘learned learners. Like many other individuals to read aloud. Poor motivation for helplessness’ as a response to who have spoken about their reading means less practice and continued failure. Sometimes dyslexic experiences of growing up with reading for pleasure, which in turn learners will attribute perceived failure dyslexia, Theo Paphitis focuses on negatively affects progress in reading. to themselves (their dyslexia for the emotional aspects of the condition Once dyslexic learners move into instance) or to others, as a means of and we get a sense of the difficult the later years of Secondary School, remaining in control. It is essential that

12 Dyslexia Review Autumn / Winter 2011 teachers and parents are sensitive DfES (2003) Every Child Matters. in helping dyslexic learners Norwich: TSO develop into independent learners Erikson, E, (1959) Identity and the and celebrate achievements, Life Cycle. New York: Norton however small. This is not to say that difficulties should be ignored Humphrey, N. (2003) ‘Facilitating a but that a positive approach must positive sense of self in pupils with be used. For example, saying: dyslexia: the role of teachers and ‘You’ve used some great words in peers’. Support for Learning, 18 (3), this piece of writing, can I help you 129 -36 work on them’, is more positive Lawrence, D. (2006) Enhancing Self than simply marking spelling errors. Esteem in the Classroom (3rd edn). While comparison with peers can London: Paul Chapman have a negative effect on self- esteem, it can also be beneficial. Riddick, B. (2010) Living with Research by Humphrey (2003) Dyslexia. (2nd edn.) Abingdon: has suggested that peer support Routledge. can be extremely effective if well managed. Successful dyslexic role models, whether teachers, celebrities or peers, can support the development of a positive ideal self. CReSTeD Finally, it is essential to listen to dyslexic learners, giving them a voice and taking their views into account. This will help raise awareness for both teacher and learner about strengths that can be used to overcome weaknesses. Structured interviews, counselling, mentoring or just a providing a listening ear are all useful for giving dyslexic learners more control over their lives which can improve self-esteem. How good is your provision

In conclusion, to meet the for dyslexic pupils? challenges presented by the social and emotional consequences of dyslexia, we need approaches that We exist to help you nd out, move beyond literacy outcomes, to focus on self-esteem and self- and then we tell parents. efficacy. Only through increased understanding of the need for W e o e r : engaging with dyslexic learners on a personal level and the • for your school a visit by a dyslexia expert development of effective strategies • for parents a free Register of schools for doing so, will their motivation and attainment be assured. approved for their dyslexia provision

References Burden, R. (2008) ‘Is dyslexia necessarily associated with Contact CReSTeD on 0845 601 5013 feelings of self-worth? A review and [email protected] www.crested.org.uk implications for further research’. Dyslexia, 14, 188 -96 Registered charity Number 1052103 Burden, R. (2005) Dyslexia and Council for the Registration of Schools Teaching Dyslexic Pupils Self-Concept. London: Whurr

Dyslexia Review Autumn / Winter 2011 13 Crested.indd 1 03/08/2010 12:29 Aptitude-Achievement Consistency Analysis: an Alternative to the Ability- Attainment Discrepancy Model

Dr Barry Johnson, Principal Educational Psychologist and Head of Assessment Services for Dyslexia Action.

he use of ability-attainment Student Finance England (SFE) in its discrepancy analysis advice at http://www.patoss-dyslexia. (comparing cognitive ability org/Special_interest_6.html, and academic attainment http://practitionersstudentfinance levels) continues to be prevalent england.co.uk/pls/portal/docs/ Twithin the fieldwork practices of PAGE/PPIPG001/PPIPS001/ psychologists and teachers who PPIPS036/PPIPS039/DISABLED%20 assess clients for specific learning STUDENTS’%20ALLOWANCES%20 difficulties. The reasons for this are 1112_0.DOC to key delivery partners probably many but it is important to states that assessment of dyslexia note that there are contemporary should contain, in part, …evidence of professional guidance directives a significant discrepancy between the of these developments with a view to that either require or encourage abilities in reading, writing, spelling improving assessment formats and psychologists and teachers to and numeracy and the level of those delivery to clients. provide such analysis as evidence of abilities expected of the student in specific learning difficulties. terms of their general intellectual The main criticism of ability- ability (Assessing Eligibility Guidance attainment discrepancy analysis is For example, the Revised SEN Code 2010-1011 Student Finance England). that it does not provide close and of Practice (DfES 2001) states … clear links between assessment academic attainment is not in itself It is therefore understandable and teaching. In addition, it uses sufficient for LEAs to conclude that UK fieldwork practices are arbitrary statistical cut-offs to judge that a statutory assessment is or seemingly not taking into account the degree of discrepancy and clinical is not necessary. An individual significant amount of (mainly USA) relevance. It is argued that ability- child’s attainment must always research and related opinion that attainment discrepancy analysis be understood in the context of is very critical of ability-attainment tends to reinforce use of tests such … expectations of the child’s discrepancy analysis and where this as the Wide Range Intelligence Test performance (para. 7.39). Also, the has led to alternative paradigms (Glutting J. et al. 2000) which employ DfES SpLD Working Group 2005/ being offered as more valid means out-of date models of intelligence that DfES Guidelines state that …although of assessing and thereby treating only provide measures of G, VIQ or a discrepancy between ability and specific learning difficulties (Flanagan PIQ. Lastly, some psychologists and attainment in literacy skills is not a et al. (2006)). Examples of the teachers seem to either ignore, or not diagnostic criterion… where such latter are the various Response to understand, a number of statistical discrepancies do exist, they provide Treatment Intervention programmes concepts and procedures in order to further supporting evidence…the that most USA states have now perform ability-attainment discrepancy effect of SpLD on a student’s learning employed.1 analysis with safety and sufficient can be evaluated more effectively validity. This is particularly so when when underlying ability is taken into Notwithstanding these new co-normed tests of cognitive ability account. Indeed, psychologists initiatives, the debate around the and attainment are not available and and teachers who do not consider claimed failings of ability-attainment where discrepancy tables are not the issue of ability-attainment discrepancy analysis has stimulated provided in the relevant test manuals. discrepancy in their assessment developments to create better formats run the risk of their reports for models in order to prevent the baby Over the last decade or so, there Disabled Students’ Allowance (DSA) being thrown out with the bathwater. has been increasing interest in, and being rejected. This is because It is therefore useful to keep abreast refinement of, aptitude-achievement

1 (see http://idea.ed.gov/explore/view/p/,root,dynamic,QaCorner,8 ).

14 Dyslexia Review Autumn / Winter 2011 consistency analysis (A-ACA) as as a necessary component of the Allowance. Two practical example an alternative to ability-attainment process of confirming the presence scenarios are now given to explain discrepancy analysis (Flanagan of a specific learning difficulty. this prediction. et al. (op.cit.)). The main features What would be the main implications of this approach are as follows. for UK psychologists and teachers Student A believes that he has Rather than attempt to compare who assess clients for specific slow handwriting and associated broad measures of intelligence learning difficulties if A-ACA was difficulties with expressing his with attainment levels, A-ACA is to become commonly accepted? thoughts onto paper. However, concerned to focus on aptitudes Most test companies would be application of A-ACA within an (‘narrow’ clusters of abilities) commercially stimulated to provide assessment framework concluded which can be seen as conceptual psychometric tests that were in that although his speed of bridges between broad cognitive tandem with C-H-C theory and which handwriting was indeed below abilities and academic skills. The provided assessors with a broad average as defined by A-ACA, there process is to determine the degree range of areas of intellectual and was no evidence of any associated to which a weakness in an area of academic functioning. Consistency weaknesses in aptitude areas academic achievement is consistent between narrow areas of ability known to be associated with the / positively correlates with known (aptitudes) and related attainments area of concern. A conclusion of related cognitive abilities / aptitudes. could be identified. In addition, confirming the presence of a specific In doing so, implications for teaching such tests would prevent assessors learning difficulty is therefore not are better identified. having to perform necessary possible. Having a slow handwriting statistical analyses across the speed does not necessarily mean This has led to test companies scores of separate tests and this that a specific learning difficulty is investing heavily in the design of would further make them attractive present. attainment and cognitive ability to the purchaser. Understandably, tests that are co-normed and which there would be resourcing and Student B is an intellectually reflect the contemporary C-H-C training implications for the sole bright student who has relative model of intelligence (McGrew, trader or organization dealing weaknesses in the areas of spelling K. S. (2005). The C-H-C model with assessments of clients for and speed of reading. Application of intelligence promotes the view specific learning difficulties; more of A-ACA within an assessment that rather than perceive cognitive so for teachers than psychologists framework found that the levels of abilities and academic attainments because the latter already have the skills in these attainment areas as qualitatively different and thus access to tests of cognitive ability of concern were at average levels. distinct from one another, it is that now have reasonably close Notwithstanding the intellectually better to perceive them as part of representation of the C-H-C model of high level of the student, a diagnosis a continuum ranging from broad to intelligence. of specific learning difficulty is not fine areas of abilities. A-ACA also given because of the absence of requires confirmation of average In cases where confirmatory any normative weakness. or above-average levels in ability evidence for specific learning and attainment areas that are difficulties is difficult and where this The reader may now be realising not associated with the identified difficulty is caused by a lack of either that there could be a dramatic shift specific learning difficulties in order co-normed tests or a sufficiently wide in her day-to-day practices if A-ACA to discount general slow learning. base range of reliable tests, then becomes established as mainstream It also logically demands that the assessor would probably have practice. Most certainly, the Student there should be sufficient analysis to rely heavily on their knowledge of B type of case would lead to a performed to exclude the impact research in the relevant field. This is significant reduction in the number of of any contextual factors that may because they would need to provide Higher Education students who were explain why the client appears to the evidence that certain attainment identified as having specific learning have low attainment levels. and aptitudes are indeed closely difficulties because of the normative associated in order to conclude an weakness requirement. Objections Lastly and importantly, A-ACA argument that a client does indeed to this could be buffered by counter- requires that for a specific learning have a specific learning difficulty. claims that claims for evidence difficulty to be confirmed, the of under-achievement often take competencies within the attainment There most certainly would be a no account of regression to the and related aptitude areas need significant impact for the assessment mean and standard error of the to be operating below the average of clients with above-average levels estimate when making such claims. range which is operationally defined of cognitive ability and who report In other words, too many students as less than one standard deviation having difficulties with learning. are probably being identified as below the mean. This latter The obvious example is that of the false-positives as a result of normal feature reflects the adoption of the university student who needs to be statistical phenomena and applying concept of a normative weakness assessed for Disabled Students’ ‘profile analysis’ in primitive/incorrect

Dyslexia Review Autumn / Winter 2011 15 ways particularly when the tests a hypothesis-testing approach to used have relatively low reliability their engagement with the client References coefficients and/or when these in order to identify needs for DfES ref. 0581 2001 (2001). tests have relatively low correlation diagnostic assessment. She would Special Educational Needs: Code coefficients between them. also need to be confident in being of Practice. able to apply certain statistical DfES. Report of Working Group The objection that the normative procedures such as those taught (2005). Assessment of Dyslexia, level may be pitched too low for within the British Psychological Dyspraxia, Dyscalculia and university students can also be Society’s CCET Level A courses. Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) challenged when one realises There would be some very practical in Higher Education. that approximately 20% or so of advantages of the adoption of the late-teenage population now evidence of a normative weakness Flanagan, D.P., Ortiz, S. O., attend university. Gone are the being required as a necessary Alfonzo, V.C., & Dynda, A. M. days when one would expect criterion for the presence of a (2006). Integration of response to the university population as a specific learning difficulty. Broad intervention and norm-referenced whole to have a high intellectual screening of attainment levels could tests in learning disability ability level. Also, the concept be employed quickly and cheaply identification: learning from the of normative weakness is now prior to referral for expensive Tower of Babel. Psychology in enshrined within UK regulations diagnostic assessment. Some the Schools, 43, 7. for assessment of access needs diagnostic assessments would be Glutting, J., Adams, W. & for GCSE and GCE and has been shortened via adherence to the null- Sheslow, D. (2000) Wide Range for some years (Joint Council hypothesis approach to assessment Intelligence Test (WRIT). Wide for Qualifications 2011). Thus, if the first tranche of assessments Range Inc.: Wilmington, DE. equivalent adoption for DSA could of attainment/ability within the be regarded to reflect consistency areas of reported concern did not Joint Council for Qualifications of practice across these closely clearly identify standardised scores (2011). Access Arrangements, related areas. Lastly, DSA needs below one standard deviation below Reasonable Adjustments to be posited within the legal the mean. Also, it is likely that full and Special Consideration: domain with regards to how administration of a test of general General and Vocational disability is perceived, measured intelligence need not be given as a Qualifications. http://www. and resourced, particularly as matter of routine. jcq.org.uk/attachments/ there are always significant published/538/22.%20 implications for central funding. In There is no doubt that the simple AARASC%201011.pdf . the health-care and employment ability-attainment discrepancy McGrew, K. S. (2005). The arenas, diagnosis of a disability approach needs to be critically Cattell-Horn-Carroll theory of tends to be only given to a very examined in its role as part cognitive abilities: Past, present, small proportion of the population of contemporary assessment and future. In D. P. Flanagan, – very approximately and in frameworks. USA research and J. L. Genshaft, & P. L. Harrison equivalent terms below two, not practice is finding that with revision (Eds.), Contemporary Intellectual one, standard deviation below the into the A-ACA model it still has a Assessment: Theories, Tests, mean. If DSA is to serve validly part to play and can be combined and Issues (pp.136-182). New the disabled population of clients with alternative intervention York: Guilford. with specific learning difficulties, and assessment models such then the adoption of A-ACA by as Response to Treatment http://www.patoss-dyslexia.org/ assessors could not be deemed to Intervention (Flanagan op. cit.). Special_interest_6.html be particularly severe. UK psychometric test companies http://practitionersstudentfinance and assessors’ professional bodies england.co.uk/pls/portal/docs/ Adoption of A-ACA for DSA would benefit from considering the PAGE/PPIPG001/PPIPS001/ assessment would, indirectly, strengths and advantages of A-ACA PPIPS036/PPIPS039/ promote moderation of borderline and the implications for service DISABLED%20STUDENTS’%20 and appealed cases in that it delivery. In doing so, the concept ALLOWANCES%201112_0.DOC would clarify and make more of disability as currently interpreted consistent the assessment within the domain of Disabled process as well as provide Students’ Allowance would be normative boundaries for re-visited and parity with cultural The views expressed in this decision making. Clearly, as with perceptions and resourcing of article are personal and do any framework of assessment, disability in other domains of living not reflect Dyslexia Action’s the good assessor would would be helped to be restored. operational policies. need to continue to adopt an inductive stance and maintain

16 Dyslexia Review Autumn / Winter 2011 Dyscalculia and Mathematics Learning Difficulties

Dr Steve Chinn is an authoritative writer and speaker on dyslexia, maths and dyscalculia. In this article, he on the problems that many learners face when presented with maths in the school curriculum.

yslexia is a specific learning I believe that the relatively recent find that telling, but not in that knee-jerk difficulty that affects English. research into effective teaching for pupils reaction way of some traditionalists, Dyscalculia is a specific with dyslexia has influenced mainstream ‘Well, give them more practice then.’ learning difficulty that affects teaching. When Ministers of Education It is far more complicated than that. mathematics. Both are significant are asked how they will improve reading Dfactors for pupils and students because they have an answer that is soundly English and mathematics are the two researched, ‘More phonics’. When it When I ask … core subjects in the school curriculum. comes to maths they slip back to the “‘At what age are enough Victorian era and say, ‘More learning children in a class giving There has been an awareness of times tables’, ‘More mental arithmetic’ up on maths for you dyslexia for over 100 years. Over or ‘Make it harder’. to notice?’; the most the past forty years there has been frequently occurring extensive research into dyslexia There is a problem with these reactions, answer is ‘Seven such that our level of understanding particularly for students with specific of its aetiology, manifestations and learning difficulties. After 24 years of years old’. educational intervention is reassuring. teaching students with dyslexia and ” Our understanding of dyscalculia lags some thirty years studying maths far behind. learning difficulties, lecturing and Maths learning difficulties often occur listening to teachers from around the alongside dyslexia. The prognosis It seems that around 5% of the world, I know that those interventions for individual learners is, of course, population may be dyscalculic, but if are pretty much as inappropriate as individual. In some 24 years of working we believe that there is a spectrum they could be for children and adults with significantly dyslexic students I of difficulties, as there is with many with maths learning difficulties. Until that have seen many A grades and a high learning difficulties, then some 25% is acknowledged we will continue to percentage of grades at C and above of the population have difficulties with have 25% of the population displaying in maths as the outcome of appropriate learning mathematics. learning difficulties in maths, a situation teaching. that has existed for decades. So, there will be some people at a very Memory is a key factor in learning low level of mathematics skills and Currently maths is compulsory until age maths. Just how key depends on the understanding who struggle to have any 16 (but in reality beyond that). It has way maths is taught. One characteristic concept of what a number means. This been suggested that problems could be that is common for specific learning lack of skill with even basic arithmetic will solved if it was compulsory for all up to difficulties (and many other learning have an enormous impact on their lives. 18 years. Let’s do the maths…. 5 years difficulties) is poor memories, that is, Students can also experience serious to 18 years is 13 years of 40 week long working memory, short term memory consequences with a less severe level of school years. Some 520 weeks are used and mathematical long term memory. maths difficulty, for example, the person to teach students maths. Maybe it’s not There are several implications, who cannot push a Grade D GCSE up the time that is the problem….. interactions and consequences here. to a Grade C. This may prevent them from obtaining a place at University, When I ask teachers, across the UK I like to link theories of education even though their A level grades in other and in many other countries, ‘At what and other fields of knowledge in the subjects are good. People may say that age are enough children in a class hope that the links will enhance my they don’t need maths, but they do. giving up on maths for you to notice?’; understanding of each the theories the most frequently occurring answer is involved in the link. For example, I ‘Seven years old’. I find that depressing admire Howard Gardner’s theory of People may say that and sad. It would be helpful to know multiple intelligences. I think a similar “they don’t need maths, why this is so. I also ask teachers what situation applies to long-term memories. but they do. percentage of children at age 10 or 11 So, for example, you may have a great years ‘do not know their times tables’. memory for faces, but a really poor one ” I rarely get an answer below 50%. I for numbers. Specific learning difficulties

Dyslexia Review Autumn / Winter 2011 17 can be linked and seen as, not just ‘a help develop concepts. Sadly we tend to understanding the relationship between difficulty’, not just ‘an intelligence’, not patronise learners by merely telling them 1 and 2, between 1 and 10 and 100, just ‘a memory’, but as specific strengths what to do without explaining why. what ‘add’ and ‘divide’ really mean. It and weaknesses. is our vulnerable learners who need Maths starts with counting, in ones. Most good, conceptual teaching, not just a If maths is largely taught as a matter of parents are comfortable with this level ‘Learn this’ approach. The clue is in the memorising facts and procedures, and and can help their child. If children stay label. Maths Learning Difficulties and there is credible evidence to suggest at that ‘counting in ones’ stage, then dyscalculia need appropriate teaching, that this has been the case for many they will not learn the concepts of maths. not just ‘good’ teaching. They need years, then students with poor long term Tallies are not a developmental strategy. an appropriate curriculum, not just a The 1st International Conference on mathematical memories will fail. curriculum that works for the 75% who Then there are the problems created get by in maths. Maths Learning Difficulties and A poor short-term memory has a by the introduction of new procedures pervasive impact on learning. It controls for doing maths. Every time educators References how many items you can hold in your change or tweak a maths procedure, Dyscalculia www.stevechinn.co.uk memory for a short time. For example, for example, the grid method for nd remembering oral instructions on how to multiplication, they disenfranchise many Steve Chinn, (2nd Ed. August 2011) The April 2 2012 do a calculation or copying information parents. Trouble with Maths: A Practical Guide from a board. Working memory is a to Helping Learners with Numeracy The Holiday Inn, Kensington, London vital skill for mental arithmetic and But old beliefs can be a problem, too. If Difficulties. RoutledgeFalmer, Oxford. mental arithmetic is often advocated as teachers insist that children have to rote Steve Chinn (Sept 2011) The Fear of a way to improve maths performance. learn facts and retrieve them, quickly’, Maths: How to Overcome It, (Sum Hope There would have to be empathetic from memory, they demotivate many 3), Souvenir Press Ltd. differentiation applied in the classroom children. to meet the potential problems that will Committee on Developments in the be created here, problems such as Both these are examples of unforeseen Science of Learning: How People Learn: frustration, over-experience of failure consequences. We should by now have Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: and demotivation. enough understanding of how people Expanded Edition (2000) learn to make them not unforeseen. John D.Bransford, Ann L.Brown, and SPEAKERS There is a book, ‘How People Learn’, Rodney R.Cocking, editors Commission based on extensive research in the Children have to understand maths on Behavioral and Social Sciences and Prof Brian Butterworth (UK) USA. It delivers its main message in in order to succeed. This is not about Education; National Academy Press, three succinct Key Findings. One of saying that they have to understand Washington, D.C. them emphasises the importance of algebra or fractions. That may be the Prof Egbert Harskamp (The Netherlands) Howard Gardner, (3rd Ed. 2011) using understanding to support memory. case eventually. What it does mean is Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple In maths we can use that advice, we that children have to understand maths Prof Ngan Hoe Lee (Singapore) Intelligences; Basic Books, New York can interrelate facts and procedures to from the very beginning, for example, Dr Steve Chinn (UK)

Conference theme: To highlight international innovations in mathematics education that have improved performance for the bottom quartile of math achievers, as well as innovations for higher achievers that have also had impact on that bottom quartile.

Two countries that consistently perform well in mathematics education are Singapore and the Netherlands. This conference brings in speakers from those countries to give a new perspective on how to address the mathematics learning difficulties of our lowest achievers.

Conference Fee £200. Further details and booking: [email protected]

All delegates will receive a 20% discount for Steve Chinn’s new book on diagnosing and assessing maths LD, publication date April 2012

A TwMaths Ltd Conference, which will also be held in Singapore and Dubai in 2012

18 Dyslexia Review Autumn / Winter 2011 The 1st International Conference on Maths Learning Difficulties and Dyscalculia April 2nd 2012 The Holiday Inn, Kensington, London

SPEAKERS Prof Brian Butterworth (UK) Prof Egbert Harskamp (The Netherlands) Prof Ngan Hoe Lee (Singapore) Dr Steve Chinn (UK)

Conference theme: To highlight international innovations in mathematics education that have improved performance for the bottom quartile of math achievers, as well as innovations for higher achievers that have also had impact on that bottom quartile.

Two countries that consistently perform well in mathematics education are Singapore and the Netherlands. This conference brings in speakers from those countries to give a new perspective on how to address the mathematics learning difficulties of our lowest achievers.

Conference Fee £200. Further details and booking: [email protected]

All delegates will receive a 20% discount for Steve Chinn’s new book on diagnosing and assessing maths LD, publication date April 2012

A TwMaths Ltd Conference, which will also be held in Singapore and Dubai in 2012

Dyslexia Review Autumn / Winter 2011 19 Using “Shape Coding” to teach grammar to children with language impairments

Dr Susan Ebbels, the developer of Shape Coding explains how it can be used to teach and explain the rules of English.

ver one million children and young people in the I originally developed the Shape Coding system for working UK today have some form of speech, language with older children (in Key Stages 2 to 3) with relatively and communication need. For some of these, their specific language impairments and I have evidence that it difficulties are fairly specific to language, but for many, can be effective with such children (Ebbels, 2007; Ebbels & their language difficulties overlap with other disorders, including van der Lely, 2001; Ebbels et al., 2007; 2011). However, it Odyslexia. Indeed, approximately 50% of children diagnosed with has also been used successfully with younger children and dyslexia have language impairments and vice versa (McArthur children with a range of accompanying diagnoses, such as et al, 2000). Language impairments affect many areas of those with hearing impairments (McAleer, 2011) or Autism language, but particularly the ability to understand and form Spectrum Disorders. grammatically correct or complex sentences. Shape Coding has three main features. It codes parts of Teachers and others working with school-aged children with speech with colours (by underlining words), phrases with language impairments are often looking for ways to explain shapes (drawn in black) and verb morphology (such as the rules of English, which make sense to the children, and verb tenses) with arrows. In theory, this should allow for enable them to improve their understanding or production of all grammatical features of English to be coded using the English, whether in the written or spoken form. Shape Coding system, enabling children with visual strengths to access the can fulfil this role. structure of English.

The basic shapes are each associated with; 1) a question such as Who / What, What doing, Where and What like / How feel; 2) a colour according to the part of speech which must occur in that phrase and 3) a symbol (Writing with symbols 2000, Widget Software, Cambridge) to represent the questions. Some examples are shown below:

What doing? What like? ? How feel? ? Where? ? Verb Phrase Prepositional Phrase Adjective Phrase

Noun Phrases have two different shapes according to the role they play in the sentence (regardless of whether they are animate or inanimate). The basic rule is that the subject of the sentence appears in an oval, while the object appears in a rectangle (however, phrases keep the same shape if a passive sentence is used, e.g., the boy was pushed by the girl, to show the link between the active and passive sentence). Thus the shapes for Noun Phrases are:

Who? ? Who? ? What? ? What? ?

Noun Phrase: Subject Noun Phrase: Object Aux or Modal

An additional shape (a diamond) is used for auxiliary (e.g., is, were, has) and modal verbs e.g., can, will), so that these can be moved to the front of a sentence to form a question, but these are underlined in the same colour as main verbs1. Thus, children can be taught to gradually build up sentences using shape templates such as:

20 Dyslexia Review Autumn / Winter 2011 The boy is sleeping The dog is chewing a bone

The apple is tasty The children are in the garden

An important feature of the Shape Coding system is that only those shapes, colours and arrows are used which are essential for highlighting the aspect of English that is currently being targeted. Thus, the system can be simplified so that only the important feature is coded. For example, if a teacher wants to highlight whether verbs are in the past or present tense, just the past versus present tense arrows could be placed on the verbs, e.g.:

My dog was fat, but now he is thin

If agreement between the subject and verb is important, double lines can be used for plurals and single lines for singulars, e.g.:

My sister is wearing a skirt. My brothers are wearing trousers

The Shape Coding system can be used to both introduce References new rules or sentence structures to the children, or to explain Ebbels, S.H. (2007). Teaching grammar to school-aged children what is wrong when children have made an error. Using the with Specific Language Impairment using Shape Coding. Child system, they can literally ‘see’ their mistakes and can see how Language Teaching and Therapy, 23, 67-93. to correct them. Thus, teachers can gradually increase their Ebbels, S.H., van der Lely, H.K.J., and Dockrell, J.E. (2007). ability to self-correct their own work. Intervention for verb argument structure in children with persistent SLI: a randomised control trial. Journal of Speech Language and A key feature of the Shape Coding system is that it is a tool Hearing Research, 50, 1330-1349. to be used to teach and explain the rules of English. It is not a programme which should be worked through. It is designed Ebbels, S. and van der Lely, H. (2001). Meta-syntactic therapy to be flexible and to meet the needs of the individual learner using visual coding for children with severe persistent SLI. and should be gradually withdrawn as the learner becomes International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders more familiar with a particular rule or structure, to enable 36(supplement), 345-350. independence from the system. Ebbels, S.H., Maric, N., Murphy, A., Turner, G. (2011) Can we improve comprehension of grammar in secondary-aged students As the Shape Coding system has become more widely with language impairments? A randomised control trial of therapy used, I have recently set up an online discussion forum to for coordinating conjunctions. Poster presented at “Lost for enable professionals to share ideas, questions or resources. Words: Lost for Life?” conference on SLCN in older children and New members are always welcome to the Shape Coding young people. 15-17 June 201, City University London, England. Discussion Forum via: http://groups.yahoo.com/group/ shapecoding/. McAleer, M. (2011) Shaping a sentence, British Association of Teachers of the Deaf Magazine, March 2011 issue, pg. 8-9 A detailed description of how the Shape Coding system works McArthur, G.M., Hogben, J.H., Edwards, V.T., Heath, S.M., can be found in Ebbels (2007) and a summary was presented & Mengler, E.D. (2000). On the ‘specifics’ of specific reading at the Dyslexia Guild Summer Conference in June, 2011 disability and specific language impairment. Journal of Child (slides available on the conference website). Psychology and Psychiatry, 41, 869-874. Links to articles examining the effectiveness of Shape Coding Dr Susan Ebbels works as Research and Development Co- can be found at www.moorhouseschool.co.uk/research-and- ordinator and Highly Specialist Speech and Language Therapist development at Moor House School in Hurst Green, near Oxted in Surrey. Moor House is a special school for children with primary language More information about Shape Coding can be found at impairments, aged 7-16 (hopefully extending to 19 years from www.moorhouseschool.co.uk/shape-coding-course Sept 2012) taking both residential and day pupils.

1 Please note that since the publications in 2007, I have swapped the colours for verbs and prepositions. Thus verbs are now blue and prepositions yellow, but the other way around in the publications. This is because it is usually more important to be able to highlight verbs and yellow did not show up well on whiteboards or paper.

Dyslexia Review Autumn / Winter 2011 21 Partnership for Literacy Secondary 2009-10

Margaret Rooms, Dyslexia Action Head of Educational Development (UofS) reviews Secondary P4L a project based on the use of apprenticeship training and which enables staff in the partner schools to use Dyslexia Action literacy development materials and methods in whole school literacy intervention.

Introduction Dyslexia Action embarked on a new phase for its Partnership for Literacy (P4L) interventions in 2009 by working in eight secondary schools. The content of the intervention was adapted for the secondary age range and we were again fortunate to have funders willing to support our work. This article outlines the aims and processes of the intervention and considers the lessons to be learnt from the exercise.

What we wanted to achieve There is a fairly broad consensus in primary schools that pupils with literacy deficits should be given extra support to close the gap. In secondary schools the picture is more complex. P4L teachers in action For children with very low literacy skills there is broad agreement that intervention of some kind is needed often get left out. This being for those Dyslexia Action’s main role was to but as you move up the literacy students who can read, or perhaps support the staff. spectrum there are less distinct areas. have recently improved their reading At what point do the needs of the but who have not got to grips with Project Overview curriculum, of being in the classroom, writing sentences and paragraphs. The P4L project is based on the use override literacy? When do we call a of apprenticeship training to enable literacy level okay? If this was our own Staff costs are the highest expense staff in the partner school to use teenage son or daughter would we be in running a school, and we wanted Dyslexia Action literacy development satisfied with the same level? We know to show that high quality literacy materials and methods in whole from Dyslexia Action’s own students intervention need not be expensive. school literacy intervention. As the that schools struggle to provide for By making good use of independent staff gain confidence in using their new these ‘mid-literate’ students; not strong work on the computer and teaching skills, it is expected that they will work enough to attain potential yet not in groups, and working with Teaching with more children in the school, thus weak enough to qualify for support. By Assistants (TAs) rather than specialist increasing the reach of the project and providing both an intensive and a ‘light teachers, intervention for everyone making the whole project sustainable. touch’ model of support we hoped to who can benefit should be affordable. The intervention is especially suited show schools that they could literally to tackling the literacy needs in support everyone in the school who Although the project was evaluated secondary schools because it includes: could benefit from literacy intervention and we wanted to demonstrate • A high degree of independent work without having to make a choice success in terms of literacy gains, our between curriculum or literacy. primary aim was to leave the school • Working in groups – not one to one In the Spelling and Writing course with resources and a team of staff • Making use of time outside of the we wanted to move on from Units skilled to sustain the intervention. So school day of Sound (UofS) with the aim again although the project was measured of providing support for those who by literacy gains made by students, • Using proven intervention resources

22 Dyslexia Review Autumn / Winter 2011 Project Literacy Materials • Spelling rules Action teacher’s time and the literacy Dyslexia Action’s technology based resources used in the project including • literacy intervention programme Units Writing exercises licences. The partner school was of Sound (UofS) formed the basis • Verbs and tenses exercises expected to fund the time of its own of the intervention. When students staff to participate in the project and to were working at home we provided Total 6 students provide access to computers. the program on a self-contained Outcome: students able to apply the USB memory stick. UofS has a high main spelling rules to their work; able The Challenges percentage of independent work to plan a piece of writing effectively; There are challenges specific to this making it suitable for group work improved sentence structure and project and others endemic to working and can be supported by Teaching punctuation. in schools. Those specific to P4L- Assistants. Further resources were Secondary were: used for the writing groups based on This programme of work should enable • Would the pupils and staff engage work developed by Walter Bramley1. the staff in the school to: with the resources as we hoped? • The Project Model Feel confident they can work on • Would we be able to work with the A Dyslexia Action specialist teacher literacy interventions with several technology on this scale? would work in the school one day a groups at a time • Would we be able to convince the week for approximately two thirds of a • Make good use of time outside schools to adopt a ‘light touch’ model year working with staff in the school on of lessons and school where it is of intervention? specific literacy intervention targeting difficult to find sufficient withdrawal year 7 and year 8 students. There are time in school. • Would the school have the capacity three main elements to the intervention. to accommodate the project fully? Evaluation • Would we have enough contact with 1. Two groups of six students each The Centre for Evaluation and Monitoring parents? working for one hour on UofS. (CEM) at the University of Durham These groups would use the evaluated the data independently and this • Would we have sufficient access programme at home as well (or in will be reported together with the 2010- to students given the complexity of school but outside of this lesson) 11 data. Each intervention group has a secondary school timetables? once they had progressed sufficiently parallel comparison group. Allocation to • Would we be able to show to be ready for this. both groups was done on a ‘blind’ basis measurable results? Total 12 students by CEM. The Partner Schools Outcome: students working Training and Consultation We started with two pilot schools in independently developing Reading Full training was given to all staff September 2009 which ran through and Spelling skills with weekly participating in the project and any until April 2010. The other six schools support from school staff. other staff wishing to attend were also started in January 2010 and finished welcome. We took the opportunity to in July. All went through an application 2. UofS using a USB memory invite neighbouring schools, feeder process where we considered the stick: Fifteen students to use this schools and the Local Authority support needs of the school, the community programme at home following set up team to attend the training days as a they serve, their capacity to fulfil the sessions where they are shown what way of increasing the impact of the project and their reasons for wanting to do. Monitoring in school to be on project. In addition there were three days to partner Dyslexia Action. Schools a ‘light touch’ basis – such as fifteen of the Dyslexia Action teacher’s time that were unsuccessful in their minutes every two weeks or a group available to the school to use as further applications were invited to attend the meeting once a week. consultancy. This could be used for resources training day free of charge. Total 15 students additional training but had to be focused We tried to get a range of school, from on the sustainability of the project. inner city e.g. Leeds, and semi-rural Outcome: students developing schools e.g. Tonbridge. Essential to all higher reading and spelling skills Commitment from the School was to find that commitment to making working independently with minimum Commitment from the Senior a difference. The schools ranged in disruption to the school timetable and Management Team is an essential part size from 450 to 1500 pupils. staffing. of the project. If the programme is to become sustainable, enough staff need Identifying the Students 3. Writing workshop: One group of six to be trained and time given for them to In the primary P4L project, we tested where they are at least two thirds of attend and participate in all appropriate all the pupils from year 2 through to the way through UofS or at that level intervention sessions. Our funding year 5 which was a major operation. for reading. Each group to receive covered the costs for the Dyslexia In the secondary phase we decided to ten weeks of:

1 Bramley, W. (1993) Developing Literacy for Study and Work, Dyslexia Institute (now out of print)

Dyslexia Review Autumn / Winter 2011 23 start with looking at the data already model of literacy intervention. To focus for the working at home aspects. held by the school to identify a cohort primarily on the results meant that you Overall the initial contact with parents of about a hundred students with had to micromanage the technology was disappointing with very few of standard scores (SS) in the 70-90 whereas a more relaxed approach them attending the events. This is range. Originally we thought we would would perhaps be more conducive to quite a marked contrast with the work just with year 7 and year 8 but achieve sustainability. P4L experience in primary schools it became clear very early on that we where parents were overwhelmingly would need to include year 9 as well Attendance supportive. Although initially as we would need fifty four students Given the students we were working disappointed with this response I for the UofS work and a further twelve with, it was perhaps inevitable that take heart from some more positive for the Writing Course inclusive of attendance was sometimes an issue. indicators since. For instance in one the comparison groups. Initial testing If the student isn’t in school on the P4L school where the initial attendance with year 9s showed that not only day they miss their lesson – although was very poor we ran a celebration were there plenty of students there in sometimes the TAs tried to make the event at the end of the project where our target range but they were often time up during the week. Sometimes many of the parents attended and relieved to be included as they had the student was in school but wanted took the opportunity to thank Dyslexia seen two successive year 7 cohorts to remain in class due to not wanting Action and the school for the support come into the school pushing them to miss something. Because we had their child had received. This school further back in the queue and they two intervention groups it was possible extended the reach of the intervention thought they had missed their chance. to accommodate this by letting them the following year and had excellent come to the parallel lesson but not response from parents when invited to We gave the cohort of a hundred always and time is wasted when a learn more about the work. Although students WRAT4 Reading and TA has to fetch students from the we tried to engage the parents at the Spelling tests and selected fifty four class. Curriculum staff sometimes beginning of the project, I suspect it of them. Those with the lower scores found it hard to accept absence from was easier to get their interest later were allocated either intervention or a lesson for literacy. These are all once their children were talking about comparison for the ‘school’ groups i.e. valid concerns and schools struggle to the intervention and some were the students who will receive a lesson balance them. noticing the results. a week throughout the intervention (twenty four per school). Those Home Group The Spelling and Writing Course with the higher scores were put into The primary aim we had in mind for the ‘home’ allocation list (thirty per this group was that after they had Overview school). been shown how to use the program This ten hour course is an adaptation they would work on it independently of some of the material developed by Units of Sound intervention: and so not have to miss a curriculum Walter Bramley 2. It starts at the single Practical issues lesson every week. Just where this sentence level and concludes with independent work took place was not planning and writing a timed paragraph. Technology Takes time important as long as it happened. Because of the timing involved in Working with technology presents its We knew from earlier research into getting the course development own challenges which are not always the use of UofS at home that this finished we made it optional for the predictable and which always take could be effective (Dyslexia Review schools to participate in this, resulting time to resolve. Laptops that lose Vol 19, No 2) but we also know that in six out of the eight taking part. their charge in the afternoon were a not all students are sufficiently self- The course is virtually scripted and constant irritation for instance. We disciplined to carry it through. Many so once the underlying principles intended to use USB memory sticks of the schools addressed this by are understood it is easy to deliver. for the home use of UofS (to bridge running after school clubs where the The students are introduced first to a the home / school divide) and for the ‘home group’ could access the school spelling rule and then given practice in students to bring them into school computers and thus UofS. Although using it. Some of these spelling words on the P4L day for checking. When the groups were supervised by school are then used in a dictation sentence students forgot to bring them in, we staff the students were not supported bridging the gap between spelling then had to rely on paper records. in their work and so still fulfilled the and writing. Then more of the same School technicians are busy people criteria for the group. spelling words are used in the writing and were not always available to task, which develops in complexity over address issues arising within the Contact with Parents the ten weeks. Emphasis is placed lesson. This was at the sharp end of There was provision within the project on checking. The paper based Verbs the convergence of the two aims; to for three meetings with parents. and Tenses exercises are used to produce literacy gains in students and This was to inform them about the complete the session, or can be used to equip the school with a sustainable intervention and to solicit their support for homework.

2 Bramley, W. (1993) Developing Literacy for Study and Work, Dyslexia Institute (now out of print)

24 Dyslexia Review Autumn / Winter 2011 In taking the course into schools we The Consultancy Phase wanted to find out: The consultation days allocated at Student Profile: the end of the intervention are used • If Teaching Assistants could deliver in different ways by the school but a the course P was in year 9, Reading pattern is emerging. and Spelling standard scores • If the level of the work was • Going back to setting up: staff in the mid - seventies. Like appropriate for secondary schools often want a revision of setting up so many people his age he today the students on UofS because the was reluctant to try a new • If the content would fit into one hour Dyslexia Action teacher usually did programme and desperately slots. a lot of that to begin with as it was at wanted to be left alone. the start of the intervention and not After a few weeks I tried Could Teaching Assistants deliver something you do every week. persuading him to ‘have the Spelling and Writing course? • Further UofS training for other a go’. His response was The apprenticeship model followed staff: schools often want more staff devastating: ‘Why should here was for the Dyslexia Action to receive the initial UofS training I believe this will make a teacher to deliver the whole of the knowing that they have staff already course in the early weeks and for difference when nothing in the school who can support them school staff to gradually take over else ever has?’ later. tasks as they felt confident to do so. We encouraged schools to involve the • Making fine adjustments: the But P kept turning up for English department as we felt it was Dyslexia Action teacher often made lessons, sometimes even a course that could be used by them. adjustments for individual students arriving early when the Some Teaching Assistants were not and staff often want to more about lesson was after break. confident enough in their own literacy how and when to do such things. Never keen, never skills to be able to run such a course • Introducing the Active Literacy Kit: enthusiastic he nonetheless but others were empowered by it. we deliberately didn’t put the Active recorded 8 SS progress in Literacy Kit (ALK) into the secondary WRAT Reading and 9 for Is the level of the work appropriate projects because we didn’t want Spelling. Staff reported he for secondary schools today? the focus to be on the students with I ask this question because the course was finding classwork easier. the very lowest literacy skills in the starts at a very basic writing level UofS had worked its magic school. ALK concentrates on the for students whose reading is quite even in these circumstances. skills below the level of cvc (cat, good. We found that it challenged the fat, mat) reading and spelling. This students and that the level was indeed phase however is a good time to appropriate for this type of student. It show them this material. opportunity to try flexible models of certainly wasn’t too easy for them. intervention which at the very least have • Planning meetings: the Dyslexia shown that there is always another way Does the content fit into one Action teacher is asked to contribute of doing things. As for Primary P4L we hour slots? to and comment on the planning actually count success when a school As anyone who works in a school for rolling out the intervention in comes up with an intervention model knows, theory and practice do not different ways across the school. of its own. We hope that teachers always match. It is easy to lose reading this will be inspired to try some precious minutes at the start of a Evaluation of these things themselves. Dyslexia lesson with latecomers and double The full evaluation results will be Action is embarking on P4L Intervention booking for instance. Some of the reported in 2012 covering the first 2 Packages, which are smaller versions of content was challenging to fit into years of the project across 18 schools. P4L without the demands of evaluation. an hour as was the pace of work What we can say for 2009-10 right Whatever we say about schools, from week to week. Outside of an now is that the school intervention teachers, materials or evaluation, in the evaluated project a school could be groups made progress in reading that end it comes down to ‘what happens for much more flexible and perhaps put is statistically significant i.e. it cannot an individual?’ in a few consolidation weeks to slow be explained by chance alone. down the rate of work. One school (not Contact Margaret Rooms for further in the 2009-10 cohort but useful to In Conclusion information at: report here) has deliberately targeted We were deliberately ambitious when Email: [email protected] the course at two different groups: designing this programme as we For Units of Sound information see: one where the pace is fast and they know secondary schools face great www.unitsofsound.net demand a lot whereas the second is challenges with literacy and that for gentler and more suited to a slower many students it is ‘ the last chance group. saloon’. We gave the schools an

Dyslexia Review Autumn / Winter 2011 25 “It takes a village”- a unique reading methods approach in the USA

Dr Jean Rattigan-Rohr, from Elon University and Dr Ye He from the University of North Carolina Greensboro present their study findings on ‘the village’: pre-service teachers, parents, pupils, professors and the public library working together for students who find reading daunting. Dr Jean Rattigan-Rohr

Abstract We believe this practice of excluding service teachers, struggling readers and Pre-service teacher in a reading parents desperately needs to be re- their parents in the project, all participants methods class came to realize that examined. As we have seen in our benefited from the learning experiences. knowing what to teach and how to own practice, parents and caregivers teach when working with students who can play significant roles in helping to Theoretical Framework struggle with reading is not enough improve their own children’s reading In education programs, reading instruction to ensure success. This study details skills (McAllister et al., 2005); (Epstein, geared at struggling readers generally a unique reading methods course, 2001). It is critical, therefore, to enhance highlights pre-service teachers’ knowledge which included parents and seventeen the parents and school relationship to of how to teach reading. Much has been students from several Title 11 schools provide better support for struggling written about what teachers need to know who find reading daunting. In this readers beyond classroom settings in order to be effective. More specifically, “village” environment which was held (Darling & Westberg, 2004); (Fullan, (Hammerness et al., 2005) wondered at the public library, all the participants 2001). if “particular bits of knowledge can – pre-service teachers, the school of necessarily help teachers simultaneously education, parents, tutors, and tutees Another important player in the social think about all of their areas of concern” and the library benefited from the reconstruction of the relationship (Kennedy, 2006, p. 208). However, from learning experiences. between parents and schools is Schools our work with pre-service teachers and of Education who are responsible for from their own reflection and self-analysis, Introduction preparing teachers. Pre-service teachers their knowledge of how to teach reading, Reading scores for children in high tend to take a dim view of the level of whether declarative or procedural, is not poverty schools continue to lag involvement of parents (Compton-Lilly, enough. significantly behind their middle class 2008); (Nieto, 1996); (Purcell-Gates, peers in more affluent school districts 1996) and generally do not feel that they Knowing what to teach and how to teach (Borman & Rachuba, 2001). Many of are prepared to involve such parents in when a child struggles with reading these children struggle with dyslexia, a their classrooms (Hiatt-Michael, 2001). requires moving theory into practice reading difficulty that is neurobiological They also struggle to implement the (praxis). Such praxis in education in origin (Vellutino et al., 1996). Not theories and knowledge they learn in programs are typically focused on surprisingly, reading difficulties in high- teacher education courses into the interaction between struggling readers poverty schools contribute to overall actual reading instruction with students, and pre-service teachers, which neglects academic difficulties for the children especially struggling readers. As teacher the critical stakeholders in this process: who populate them, resulting in an educators, we know this view of parents, parents. In the tutoring program described ever widening achievement gap. This and the perceived lack of preparedness in this study, we intend to create a “village” ubiquitous achievement gap seems must be addressed. where pre-service teachers can interact intractable despite governmental and with not only university instructors and nongovernmental efforts to eliminate it In this study, we described a unique reading supervisors, but also parents and (Borman & Rachuba, 2001). Generally, tutoring project implemented as part of classroom teachers to work collaboratively interventions aimed at improving the required reading curriculum for a in enhancing the reading levels of the the academic skills of children with group of elementary general education struggling readers. dyslexia and other reading struggles pre-service teachers who must be focus primarily on the instructional prepared to teach all the children in In order to effectively work with struggling knowledge of the teacher (Bos et al., their charge; those identified as having readers from various cultural and linguistic 2001); (Cunningham et al., 2004), at the “special reading needs” and those who backgrounds, pre-service teachers need to exclusion of parents and caregivers. are not. With active involvement of pre- be prepared to adopt culturally responsive

26 Dyslexia Review Autumn / Winter 2011 phonics, vocabulary, fluency and tutoring sessions. Descriptive statistics comprehension); how to successfully were used to document the trends teach each component; how to assess observed in the quantitative data, and student’s reading levels and weaknesses paired sample t-test was conducted using diagnostic tools such as Running to compare pre and post responses. Record. Additionally, as Fang (2008) Qualitative data was analysed using suggests, teacher candidates are taught constant comparative analysis (Glaser & to look beyond these five components and Strauss,. 1967) and major themes and examine the complexities associated with patterns are highlighted to substantiate reading expository texts. the quantitative findings.

Phase II starts during week 8 and involves Preliminary Findings seven supervised two-hour tutoring The impact of the tutoring project on sessions in a local library. Tutees are students was measured by both the drawn from four Title 1 schools in grades motivation survey and the result of the 3 and 42. These grades are selected Slosson Oral Reading Test. Based on the Dr Ye He because they are the early testing grades pre and post student motivation survey, in our state. Each tutoring session is we noted that students rated themselves teaching practices and obtain knowledge supervised by the university professor, highest (M > 3.5) on: item 3 (“Reading is of teaching beyond content, pedagogy who teaches the reading class and important for lots of things I want to learn and content pedagogy to work with both reading supervisors. On the first day of now and later when I grow up.”), and the students and their families (Gay the tutoring, teacher candidates conduct item 8 (“I feel like I belong in this tutoring. 2000); (Ladson-Billings, 1994); (Villegas a Slosson Oral Reading Test (SORT) Everybody works hard with me.”), and & Lucas 2002). Studies from Epstein, – a quick screening test to determine item 9 (“My tutor accepts me as a reader (2002) revealed that parents are not only student’s reading levels, assess progress and helps me improve.”). The lowest extremely interested in being involved and to determine if students need further ratings (M < 2) were found regarding item in their children’s education they also diagnostic assessment. 7 (“I read because I can see what books welcome any opportunity to do so. Pre- say about people who are like me.”), and service teachers and novice teachers, Methodology item 10 (“After I read I can explain what however, report a lack of preparedness to The following questions guided our study: the book says.”). No significant difference was observed between students’ pre include parents in their teaching practices. • What is the impact of this project on and post motivation survey responses. Goodlad & Lovitt, (1993), for example, student literacy development? posit that novice and pre-service teachers However, over half of the participants • are often quite intimidated by parents and How does this project influence pre- (N>9) increased their ratings on item 1 (“I generally do now know how to include service teachers’ perception of literacy can read even the biggest word if I try.”) them in children’s educational efforts instruction and family involvement? and item 4 (“Even if reading is hard I can learn to do it.”); item 7 (“I read because • How does this project affect parents’ I can see what books say about people The consideration for parental understanding of literacy and their who are like me.”), and item 10 (“After I involvement and interactions among involvement in student literacy read I can explain what the book says.”). tutees, parents tutors and pre-service development? teachers provide the foundation in Based on the pre-attitude survey the design of the tutoring project that Both quantitative and qualitative data responses, pre-service teachers rated intentionally moved beyond knowledge were collected from students, teachers, the highest on item 2 (“Parents are alone and to bring reading theory into and parents involved in the project. To mostly responsible for their children’s practice. identify the impact of the project on both struggles with reading”-reverse coding) the students’ academic development and indicating that they see children’s Project Context their motivation for reading, we collected struggles with reading not only as This project takes place within a reading students’ pre and post reading motivation parents’ responsibilities. They rated methods course titled Teaching Struggling inventory and SORT scores. From pre- the lowest on item 3 (“Schools are at a Readers. The course is taught in two service teachers, we collected the pre/ major disadvantage in teaching students phases - phase I covers reading theory, post attitude surveys and their tutoring to read if children do not see reading while phase II addresses praxis. reflections. In addition, we collected valued by their parents.”-reverse coding), Over a fifteen week semester course, evaluation feedback from parents to with 76% (thirteen out of seventeen) there are six weeks of instruction in examine the impact of the project from teachers agreed or strongly agreed Phase I, where pre-service teachers parents’ perspective. Finally, teacher with the statement and four teachers learn about the 5 essential components educators involved in the tutoring project indicated neutral. The pre and post of reading (phonemic awareness, also took field notes as they observed the

1 Title 1 funds: The U.S. Department of Education provides supplementary funding to local school districts to meet the needs of at-risk and low-income students.(Ed.) 2 Pre-school years in the USA. (Ed.)

Dyslexia Review Autumn / Winter 2011 27 and realities. Pre-service teachers’ journal reflections offered insights into important aspects of teaching and learning they came to learn from parents, students and about themselves. Overtime, the horizontal and vertical levels of learning began to intersect. It is our belief that it was at this intersection that the pre-service teachers in this Teaching Struggling Readers course gained the most knowledge. That is; it was at the intersection that they had the opportunities to stretch themselves and work through the fears and uncertainties they encountered. They also had the opportunity to learn from parents, ask questions of parents and, as the research suggests, address Natalie Sayag working in the “Village Project” with her tutee, Hannah their own anxieties about having to deal with parents, especially those whose children struggle. In addition, they had the survey response comparison, illustrated teachers. opportunity to witness firsthand the power pre-service teachers’ development in their At the end of the project, parents provided of the triangulation of teacher, student, and attitude towards parents and working with feedback through both survey and open- parent. struggling readers. Based on the paired ended responses. All parents strongly sample t-test results, statistical significant agreed that the pre-service teachers are In her reflections concerning her growth differences were noted on items 1, 4, 6, 7, respectful through the tutoring project after working with her tutee and his and 8 (α < .05). (item 3), they would participate in the parents, one pre-service teacher summed project again (item 9), and recommend it up this way: Pre-service teachers’ reflections it for other parents (item 10). Even demonstrated their growth in their though fifteen out of seventeen parents To explain my growth, I would like to use understanding of readers, the reading (88%) reported they practice the reading the analogy of making a pizza. Before instruction, and themselves as teachers. activities at home (item 8), twelve of them this semester, I only acquired the toppings Eleven out of seventeen teachers chose Agree rather than Strongly Agree. I need to create a pizza; now I have (65%) commented on their developed learned how to create the whole pizza. I understanding of readers, especially in Discussions had many pieces of knowledge about terms of the “different factors that affect a The results from this study provided literacy; I knew basic characteristics about child’s ability to read”, and “how to identify insight into the importance of creating different terms and concepts. I knew all the correct stage” of reading. Comparing opportunities for pre-service teachers about the phonological structure of words, their reflection on their understanding to work closely with parents and with phonemic awareness and all that. It of reading before and after the tutoring students who are struggling with was as if I had a lot of different toppings, experience; fourteen pre-service teachers reading. The pre-service teachers under such as pepperoni, sausage, and green (82%) revealed that they may know consideration came to realize that if they peppers. I could easily pick out each of what the elements of reading instruction are to truly understand how to teach the toppings that I had in front of me. All are before tutoring and have “designed children to read they must move beyond of my pieces of knowledge were separate activities for struggling readers without their content knowledge, reading theories, and distinct. I did not have something knowing what they were struggling with”. and pedagogical knowledge to a space to put the toppings on and bring all the However, it is the tutoring experiences where they are forced to work closely with toppings together. This semester, I have that allowed them to learn how to “analyse children who find reading daunting. They gained not only the knowledge, but the and identify the problem, and think of must also collaborate with others in the necessary ingredients to create the entire a way to address it”; and learn “what “village.” These others can be classroom pizza…everything has come together works and what does not” in their own teachers, parents, librarians and teacher and created a solid understanding of what reading instruction. It was evident in their educators. teaching reading really entails. reflections that the tutoring experience facilitated pre-service teachers’ growth By the conclusion of the course, pre- Conclusion from simple declarative knowledge of service teachers shifted their perspectives We are asking a new generation of what reading instruction should include about their own preparedness to involve teachers to ensure all the children in our to procedure understanding of how to such parents in their teaching practices. As classrooms learn to read proficiently. This work with struggling readers. Finally, they worked collaboratively with parents, new generation of teachers must leave pre-service teachers also reported the pre-service teachers began to notice the our teacher education programs knowing growing confidence and self-efficacy they human stories that emerged. They began more than their content knowledge, and gained through this experience as reading to understand the students’ backgrounds considerably more than pedagogical

28 Dyslexia Review Autumn / Winter 2011 knowledge. We are requiring that our (2002). School,family, Kennedy, M. (2006). Knowledge and new teachers become innovative in so Fang, Z (2008). Going beyond the fab vision in teaching. Journal of Teacher many ways as they try to reach students five: Helping students cope with the Education, 57, 20 211 who, after years of reading interventions unique linguistic challenges of expository Ladson-Billings, G. (1994). The continue to struggle in school. We are reading in intermediate grades. Journal of Dreamkeepers: Successful Teachers for suggesting a fresh new look at involving Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 51, 8and African-American Children. San parents in this effort as we encourage community partnerships: Your handbook Francisco: Jossey-Bass pre-service and novice teachers to ally for action (2nd ed.).Thousand Oaks, CA: themselves with parents in the education Corwin Press. McAllister, C. L., Wilson, P. C., Green, B. of children. We know parents are more L., & Baldwin, J. L. (2005). “Come and Fullan, M. (2001). The new meaning of than willing to seek assistance and take a walk”:Listening to Early Head Start educational change, New York, Teachers work with their children when given an parents on school-readiness as a matter College opportunity to do so. We see them at of child, family, and community health. the doorsteps of our practice week after Goodland J, & Lovitt, T. (1993). Integrating American Journal of Public Health, 95(4), week. Thanks to a grant from the Oak general and special education, New 617–625 Foundation, an International Philanthropic York,MacMillan. Nieto, S. (1996). Affirming diversity: The Organization based in Geneva, Gay, G. (2000). Culturally Responsive sociopolitical context of multicultural Switzerland, we have been able to extend Teaching: Theory, Research, & Practice. education. White Plains, NY: Longman. the “Village” project. Now parents are New York: Teachers College Press. telling each other about the work; as a Purcell-Gates, V. (1996). Stories, coupons, result, week after week there is a stream Glaser, B. G., & Strauss, A. L. (1967). The and the TV guide: Relationships between of parents showing up at the library, with Discovery of Grounded Theory: Strategies home literacy experiences and emergent children in tow. for Qualitative Research. New York: Aldine literacy knowledge. Reading Research Publishing Company Quarterly,31, 406-428. References Goodlad J., & Lovitt, T. (1993). Integrating Vellutino, F. R., Scanlon, D. M., Sipay, E. Borman, G.D., & Rachuba, L.T. ( general and special education. New York: R., Small, S. G., Pratt, A., Chen, R. et al. 2001). Academic success among poor Macmillian (1996). Cognitive profiles of difficult-to- and minority students: An Analysis of Hammerness, K., Darling-Hammond, L., remediate and readily remediated poor competing models of school effects. & Bransford. K. (with Berliner. D. Cochran- readers: Early intervention as a vehicle Report No. 52. Center for Research on Smith, M,McDonald, M. & Zeichner, K.) for distinguishing between cognitive and the Education of Students Placed at (2005). How teachers learn and develop. experiential deficits as basic causes Risk (CRESPAR). Baltimore, MD: Johns In L.Darling Hammond & J Bransford of specific reading disability. Journal of Hopkins University (Eds.). Preparing teachers for a changing Educational Psychology, 88, 601–638. Bos, C., Mather, N., Dickson, S., world (pp. 358-389). San Francisco: Villegas, A., & Lucas, T. (2002). Preparing Podhajski, B., & Chard, D. (2001). Jossey Bass. Culturally Responsive Teachers: Perceptions and knowledge of preservice Hiatt-Michael, D (2001) Preparing teachers Rethinking the Curriculum, Journal of and inservice educators about early to work with parents, ERIC Digest. Teacher Education, 53,20 reading instruction. Annals of Dyslexia, 51, (ED460123) 97–120. Compton-Lilly, C. (2008). Teaching Struggling Readers: Capitalizing on Diversity for Effective Learning. The Reading Teacher 67, 8. 668-672 Cunningham, A. E., Perry, K. E., Stanovich, K. E., & Stanovich, P. J. (2004). Disciplinary knowledge of K-3 teachers and their knowledge calibration in the domain of early literacy. Annals of Dyslexia, 54, 139–167. Darling, S., Westberg, L. (2004). Parent involvement in children’s acquisition of reading. The Reading Teacher, 57. Epstein, J. (2001). School, family, and community partnerships: Preparing educators and improving schools. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Epstein, J., Sanders, M., Simon, B., Salinas, K., Jansorn, N., & Van Voorhis, F. Tutor Drew Yee and her tutee discuss book choices at the book buy

Dyslexia Review Autumn / Winter 2011 29 Book Reviews

Reid, G. (2nd Ed. 2011). Dyslexia, A Complete Guide for Parents and Those Who Help Them. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-470-97373-8 RPR: £16.99 pbk Gavin Reid Product catalogue Reviewed by: Sylvia Fairclough, offers some general pointers for parents school’s performance indicators (p.149) Dyslexia Action Postgraduate Tutor. negotiating these hurdles. or professional development programme (p.148), before committing to a school. 2011/12 One of the key changes in this second The book itself is easy to navigate: edition of Gavin Reid’s book is the chapters are effectively summarised However, this book could be a useful first extension of the title to include not only and well sign-posted, the index is port of call for a professional wishing to Order products from our website parents, but also ‘those who help them’. comprehensive, and there is a useful become familiar with the issues faced by glossary. However, the text itself is less parents of a learner with dyslexia, or for a The opening chapters, describe what accessible and, not I suspect in the confident, articulate parent. www.dyslexiaaction.org.uk/shop is meant by the term dyslexia, (pointing comfort zone of most of the original target to a communality of definition amongst audience - parents of dyslexic learners. Attitudes and policies towards the English speaking nations) and explore I know few people who would not be assessment of, and support for, learners For enquiries and orders please phone: some of the theoretical underpinnings put off by phrases such as ‘culturally with dyslexia vary enormously - between of an understanding of dyslexia, and responsive pedagogies…” (p. 207). teachers, schools, and local authorities; 01784 222 337/339/351 associated interventions. The author Furthermore, most parents of learners Gavin Reid’s book offers the reader a continues by looking at the assessment with dyslexia, in the UK at least, do not glimpse of a gold standard, which, sadly, Post or fax the order form (found at the back of this catalogue) to: process; the acquisition of reading skills; have the degree of choice implied by the many parents will still not find, even in this co-occurring learning difficulties, and suggestion that they should ask to see a post-Rose Review environment. Dyslexia Action Shop Limited, Park House, Wick Road, Egham, Surrey, TW20 0HH Developing Language and Literacy: Effective Intervention in the Early Years by Carroll, Julia M., Bowyer-Crane, Claudine, Duff, Fiona Fax: 01784 770484 J., Hulme, Charles, & Snowling, Margaret J., (2011).Chichester : Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-4707-1185-9 RPR: £29.99 pbk. To stop a hidden disability being a Reviewed by: Jane Haysom, Specialist of professionals - specialist teachers, those theoretical basis of the programmes is Teacher. studying for a professional qualification, outlined, and detailed information on the hidden cause - you can make a psychologists, Headteachers, SENCOs, content of the support offered is given. donation by going to The foreword to this book was written classroom teachers and support staff. by Sir Jim Rose, who writes that: Many references for further study are A summary of the support staff training ”the book skilfully distils the findings included. Although a description of a is given, and there is sufficient material www.dyslexiaaction.org.uk of robust research and clearly sets research project, the book is very clearly here for the interested reader to replicate out the implications of those findings laid out for the reader to access, with some or all of the programmes used. Both for professional practice. It is a major numerous tables and figures clearly programmes are evaluated, and additional or to share your story go to contribution to the work of teachers and illustrating main points. A summary of each information is provided on how to adapt teaching assistants, and those who train chapter and glossary are also provided. the programmes for children with different them”. The authors are an internationally needs - for example, those who respond www.itsme.org.uk recognised team, mostly with links to The book describes a longitudinal study poorly to intervention, and pupils with the department of Psychology at York of young pupils, funded by the Nuffield Down’s Syndrome. University, led by Professor Margaret Foundation. The research aimed to Snowling. develop two programmes of intervention The book also helps teachers to develop for children who enter school with an understanding of the intervention and This is a clear and concise book which poor language development. These research process as a whole, supporting can be used by a wide variety of readers programmes were designed to promote colleagues who may wish to design and – those needing a general overview either phonological language skills or oral monitor their own small- scale projects. Dyslexia Action, Park House, of current research and best practice, language skills. Teaching assistants were In summary, this book provides excellent Wick Road, Egham, Surrey, TW20 0HH and those looking for detailed specific trained to deliver the programmes, with value for money, and through a wide T 01784 222300 information on how children learn to progress monitored at various stages. readership will play a major part in helping F 01784 770484 read, potential difficulties and how to Both programmes and the whole project to overcome difficulties faced by children E [email protected] overcome them. It supports a wide range were subsequently evaluated. The who struggle to learn to read. Dyslexia Action is the working name for Dyslexia Institute Limited, a charity registered in England and Wales (No. 268502) and Scotland (No. SC039177) and registered in England as company number 01179975. 30 Dyslexia Review Autumn / Winter 2011 Product catalogue 2011/12 Order products from our website www.dyslexiaaction.org.uk/shop

For enquiries and orders please phone: 01784 222 337/339/351 Post or fax the order form (found at the back of this catalogue) to: Dyslexia Action Shop Limited, Park House, Wick Road, Egham, Surrey, TW20 0HH Fax: 01784 770484

To stop a hidden disability being a hidden cause - you can make a donation by going to www.dyslexiaaction.org.uk

or to share your story go to www.itsme.org.uk

Dyslexia Action, Park House, Wick Road, Egham, Surrey, TW20 0HH T 01784 222300 F 01784 770484 E [email protected]

Dyslexia Action is the working name for Dyslexia Institute Limited, a charity registered in England and Wales (No. 268502) and Scotland (No. SC039177) and registered in England as company number 01179975.

Share your story and join Charley Boorman, Kenny Logan and ME!

Stop a hidden disability being a hidden cause! Dyslexia Action’s It’s ME! appeal is all about ‘My Education’. Join the cause and raise awareness by leaving a story about your education at: www.itsme.org.uk

It’s ME! is a Dyslexia Action Appeal E: [email protected] T: 01784 222300 W: www.itsme.org.uk Dyslexia Action, Park House, Wick Road, Egham, Surrey TW20 0HH Dyslexia Action is the working name for Dyslexia Institute Limited, a charity registered in England and Wales (No. 268502) and Scotland (No. SC039177) and registered in England as company number 01179975.