Social Competence As a Developmental Construct

Reprinted from: Developmental Review (1983) 3, 79–97. Social Competence as a Developmental Construct EVERETT WATERS State University of New York L. ALAN SROUFE The concept of social competence presents problems for conceptualization and assessment. At times researchers have tried to circumvent these problems by defining competence in terms of specific capacities or skills, with the consequence that the integrative potential of the concept is lost. On the other hand, more molar definitions (e.g., "effectiveness"), while being true to the integrative nature of the construct, provide little guidance for assessment. In this paper a developmental perspective on competence is presented which is congruent with a molar definition of competence while still guiding assessment efforts. In addition to this developmental viewpoint, certain practical guidelines are presented for assessment of competence across ages. These include the use of broadband assessments, which are tied to real-life adaptational problems, call for the coordination of affect, cognition, and behavior, and tax the integrative capacities of the child. Initial validation of the developmental competence construct and this approach to assessment is presented. The concept of competence has been important cific skills (fine motor dexterity) to abstract in discussions of motivation (e.g., White, 1959, concepts such as consolidation of identity. 1965; Baumrind, 1972), intellect (e.g., McClelland, 1973), behavioral adjustment (e.g., Basically, there have been two general ap- Goldfried & D'Zurilla, 1969), and research with proaches, one emphasizing competence as a molar children at risk for psychopathology (e.g., Gar- concept and the other emphasizing more specific mezy, 1974, 1975). Despite (or perhaps because characteristics. Each of these approaches has ad- of) its usefulness in so many contexts, the do- vantages and problems. The molar definitions are main of competence has proven difficult to de- intuitively appealing and seem to be at an appropri- fine and the array of traits and skills associated ate level of abstraction. Competence is viewed as with the concept is now both extensive and dif- an integrative concept which refers broadly to an ficult to schematize. Our objective in this paper ability to generate and coordinate flexible, is to bring to bear a developmental perspective adaptive responses to demands and to generate on the definitional and assessment issues sur- and capitalize on opportunities in the environ- rounding this concept in the domain of social ment (i.e., effectiveness). As such, this would behavior. elude at least the following: (a) the individual's own contribution to situation or opportunity for re- The term "competence" has been applied in sponse, (b) recognition of opportunity or demand reference to many different domains of behav- for response, (c) prior acquisition of response alter- ior. Anderson and Messick (1974) have cata- natives, (d) selection from among response alterna- logued 29 diverse referents ranging from spe- tives, (e) motivation to respond, persisting or This paper was supported by a grant from the National Science Foundation (NSF/BNS1004572). Send reprint requests to Everett Waters, Department of Psychology. State University of New York, Stony Brook, NY 11790. Waters & Sroufe Competence Construct changing the response as required, and (g) modula- Since much of our own research has involved tion tuning) or response. Unfortunately, such molar longitudinal study of adaptation from early infancy definitions often seem lack specific implications for and now into childhood, a developmentally robust assessment. How does one begin to me effective- construct was needed. "Competence", if it could be ness — in what situations with what behaviors, us- used with equal relevance in descriptions of both ing what tasks? By what criterion does one deter- infants and children, could be just such a construct. mine an individual's effectiveness — without falling back on specific skills or else embracing a circularity DEFINING COMPETENCE (effectiveness being some predefined "competent" AS A CONSTRUCT way of functioning?). The competent individual is one who is able to On the other hand, defining competence as spe- make use of environmental and personal resources cific skills (competencies) solves measurement prob- to achieve a good developmental outcome. This lems at the expense of the construct itself. Specific simple statement is not unlike definitions of compe- skills are likely to be highly situation and age spe- tence proposed before, when psychologists have cific and likely, therefore, to be very relevant to un- referred to the advantages of possessing a particular derstanding ongoing individual adaptation. Assess- skill or ability. As Goldfried and D'Zurilla (1969) ing individuals as competent or incompetent should have pointed out, the notion of competence as the have implications beyond a specific situation, task, or ability to use resources can be traced in formal even age to be very useful in developmental re- statements at least back to Socrates, who viewed search. In addition, specific skills would be highly competent individuals as: "those who manage well related to intelligence or other individual traits, mak- the circumstances which they encounter daily, and ing the concept superfluous. who possess judgment which is accurate in meeting A developmental perspective is useful for main- occasions as they arise and rarely miss the expedi- taining an integral definition of competence while at ent course of action." This notion has no doubt ap- the same time generating some direction for meas- pealed to common sense for at least as long. The urement. First, formulating a definition of compe- primary contribution that we can offer is to make tence that appropriate across age spans immediately this same assertion but in the context of a develop- points up problems in relying on specific skills; for mental perspective and to add the qualification that example, few specific skills are available to both adaptation per se is not indicative of competence, as infant and the adolescent. Second, considering the we construe it, unless the adaptation bodes well for, salient issues within each development period pro- or at least does not foreclose on, developmental vides guidance concerning what to measure. This is change. As just one example, an infant may learn to at the heart of the research we will discuss. Finally, withdraw from human contact in the face of rejec- and most important, one can to some extent circum- tion or abuse (Egeland & Sroufe, 1981; George & vent the inherent circularity molar definitions with a Main, 1979), and this may indeed be an adaptive developmental approach. Competence in one devel- response in terms of survival. But to the extent that opmental period — effectiveness in drawing upon such withdrawal forecloses on contact with other personal and environmental resources — should adults and with peers it would not be consistent have consequences for subsequent development. If a with our criterion of competence. child is being effective in coordinating, organizing, Resources within the environment. By resources drawing upon resources he or she should be better within the environment we are not referring primar- prepared (by definition) to deal with future chal- ily to material or negotiable resources. We are more lenges and opportunities. One gains confidence in concerned with those things which can support or early assessments of competence (and the usefulness help develop the ability to coordinate affect, cogni- of the construct to the extent that they are in fact re- tion, and behavior in the service of short-term adap- lated to assessments at later developmental periods. tations or longer-term developmental progress. In The more clear the developmental relationships the infancy, adult social partners come to mind; later, more valid the construct. Some circularity remains, attachment figures and whatever in the world of and one can never be absolutely certain of the valid- playthings can engage both affect and cognition and ity of the assessments. This is always the case with enlist them in the service of exploration, play, shar- construct validation (Cronbach & Meehl, 1955). But ing. etc. From early childhood on, the range of po- the developmental perspective can provide an im- tential resources in the environment expands. It is portant heuristic for conducting research on the con- not clear whether for some children certain of these struct of competence. may at certain times be more important than others. 2 Waters & Sroufe Competence Construct But it is certain that interaction with individual of his actions and abilities than a stable causal same-age (and cross-age) peers and eventually inte- trait or executive homunculus. gration into the peer group as a whole must loom As with characteristics of the environment, large among the tasks that make demands on the few characteristics of individuals can be re- coordination of affect, cognition, and behavior lated unambiguously to successful adaptation while at the same time provide a wide range of without reference to a particular individual at a opportunities to consolidate personal resources particular point in development in the context of and eventually lead to what we have called a particular set of demands. Indeed, on close inspec- good developmental outcomes. tion from :a developmental point of view, individ- For three reasons, the present emphasis

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