The International Development Research Centre is a public corporation created by the Parliament of Canada in 1970 to support research designed to adapt science and technology to the needs of developing countries. The Centre's activity is concentrated in six sectors: agriculture, food and nutrition sciences; health sciences; information sciences; social sciences; earth and engineering sciences; and com munications. IDRC is financed solely by the Parliament of Canada; its policies, however, are set by an international Board of Governors. The Centre's headquarters are in Ottawa, Canada. Regional offices are located in Africa, Asia, Latin America, and the Middle East.
Le Centre de recherches pour le développement international, société publique créée en 1970 par une loi du Parlement canadien, a pour mission d'appuyer des recherches visant à adapter la science et la technologie aux besoins des pays en développement; il concentre son activité dans six secteurs : agriculture, alimenta tion et nutrition; information; santé; sciences sociales; sciences de la terre et du génie et communications. Le CROI est financé entièrement par le Parlement cana dien, mais c'est un Conseil des gouverneurs international qui en détermine l'orien tation et les politiques. Établi à Ottawa (Canada), il a des bureaux régionaux en Afrique, en Asie, en Amérique latine et au Moyen-Orient.
El Centro Internacional de Investigaciones para el Desarrollo es una corporaci6n publica creada en 1970 por el Parlamento de Canada con el objeto de apoyar la investigaci6n destinada a adaptar la ciencia y la tecnologia a las necesidades de los paises en desarrollo. Su actividad se concentra en seis sectores: ciencias agri colas, alimentos y nutrici6n; ciencias de la salud; ciencias de la informaci6n; ciencias sociales; ciencias de la tierra e ingenieria; y comunicaciones. El Centro es finan ciado exclusivamente por el Parlamento de Canada; sin embargo, sus politicas son trazadas por un Consejo de Gobernadores de caracter internacional. La sede del Centro esta en Ottawa, Canada, y sus oficinas regionales en América Latina, Africa, Asia y el Medio Oriente.
This series includes meeting documents, internai reports, and preliminary technical documents that may later form the basis of a formai publication. A Manuscript Report is given a small distribution to a highly specialized audience.
La présente série est réservée aux documents issus de colloques, aux rapports internes et aux documents techniques susceptibles d'être publiés plus tard dans une série de publi cations plus soignées. D'un tirage restreint, le rapport manuscrit est destiné à un public très spécialisé.
Esta serie incluye ponencias de reuniones, informes internos y documentos técnicos que pueden posteriormente conformar la base de una publicacion formai. El informe recibe distribucion limitada entre una audiencia altamente especializada. IDRC-MR271e November 1990
OIL CROPS: SESAME AND SUNFLOWER SUBNETWORKS
Proceedings of the Joint Second Workshop held in Cairo, Egypt, 9-12 September 1989
Edited by Abbas Omran Technical Adviser, Oil Crops Network
Organized by Agricultural Research Centre, MOA, Giza, Egypt and International Development Research Centre, Canada
Sponsors Food and Agriculture Organization, Industrial Crops and European Office, Rome International Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, Rome International Development Research Centre, Canada
Scientific and Organizing Committee Dr Abbas Omran Dr Badr A. El-Ahmar Dr Eglal Rashed Material contained in this report is produced as submitted and has not been subjected to peer review or editing by IDRC Communications Division staff. Unless otherwise stated, copyright for material in this report is held by the authors. Mention of proprietary names does not constitute endorsement of the product and is given only for information. iii
FO~RD
In September 1989, the Sunflower and Sesame subr.etworks held their bi-annual meetings in Cairo, Egypt. lhe meetings were well attended and papers, presented in these proceedings, provide a very informative overview of some of ~he cropping svstems, management practices, production cons trai nt.s and research highlights tor ooth crops in several ~ounrr1es.
Chronic edible oil deficit is a major problem facing many developing countries ln Africa and Asia where most countries are forced to import large quantities to satisfy the requirement~ ot their growing populations. With ~he present rates of population increase and the improvement of nutr-ition star.dards it i~ likely that. the consumpt.1on of edibJe 011 will rise ever t.hn vrars, increasingly drawing on scarce foreign exchange fo.- the impor~ation of thJs vital food stapl~. For this reason, ~everal countries have opted tc increase self-sufficiency in edible oil.
Production deficits are due to a number of factors. among which neglect in oilcrops research, in both developed and developing countries has be.en a major one. This 1s particularly true tor minor crops such as sesame. In the co~tCTxt ot the IDRC oilcrops net.wor~·;, initiated in 1981, the interchan;e 0t intormation and tne sharing of results between scientists have proved to be very usefu 1 and beneficial for the ge.nera t1on of sciPnt.i tic= knew i edgP. and the stimulation of research ir. this important. area. It i~ ~oped that connlusions and recommenaations of this meeting LJill stimulate further research and development in the future.
A second import.ant reason for l imi t.ed national production has bsen the exceptionally low levels of world prices tor oils and tats in the 19BU's and the comparativE aavan~age ot importbtion over production tor developing countries. The description ot a case study using a s ..,1stem's approach to analysis the VE'9etat:le Oil/Protein System of Kenya has stirred much interest durJng the C2i1-o meetings. and it :;s hoped that. snr.ilar wc.rk can be .-:;arr1cd out in other countriss in the future.
The Cairo meet.ings will also untor-t.ur.atel·; he remr-.mt1cred as the one wh1ct"• has wi t.ncssed the dia~no~;i;:, ct the fatzll d1saase o7 late Dr. Hi ruy 8t:l .'lyne:h, Chairman cf tt"1e Brass l ca Subnc two;-~.. LJe w1lJ all regret his aosence.
On tlehalf ot IDHC and of all participc.nts, I HOLld li~'e t.o :·.nan~' the Government of Egypt for its hospitality, the organizers for the excellent arrangements and all those who oontributed to the success of these meetings by their presentations ar.d discus~icns.
Eglal Hached, Senior Program Officer, lDRC, Cairo iv
CONTENTS PAGE Forward ...... iii List of Participants ...... vi Introduction ...... ix
Part ~- SESAME SUBNETWORK - II Sesame Genetic Resources: Collection, Evaluation and conservation. AMRAM ASHRI...... 2 Sesame Research in the Sudan. MOHAMED EL-HASSAN AHMED ...... 10 Progress in Sesame Research in Ethiopia. HIRUY BELAYNEH, BULCHA WEYESSA AND ELIAS URAGE ...... 13 A Brief Outline of Sesame (Sesamum Indicum L.) Research in Tanzania. J. Y CHAMBI AND E. M. KAFIRITI...... 1 7 Scope of Sesame (Sesamum IndicumL.) in Pakistan. MUHAMMAD ASLAM, MASOOD A. RANA AND M. SIDDIQUE MIRZA .. 21 Status of Sesame as Oilseed in Bangladesh. M.A. KHALEQUE AND HASINA BEGUM ...... 24 Problems and Progress of Sesame Production In india. S. THANGAVELU, G. KANDASAMY, M. SIVANADAM AND R.K. MUR..A.LI BASl Pa.rt 2- SUNFLOWER SUBNETWORK - II Use of Wild Species in Sunflower Breeding. DRAGON SKORIC...... 70 Sunflower Breeding: General Objectives and Recent Advances. JOSE FERNANDEZ MARTINEZ...... 95 Progress in Sunflower Research in Ethiopia. HI RUY BELAYNEH ...... 102 Sunflower Adaptation in Morocco. S. QUATTAR, T.E. AMEZIANE AND A. BAIDADA ...... 106 v Effect of Maturity Stages and Desiccant Application on Yield,Oil Content and Oil Quality of Sunflower. MASOOD A. RANA, CHAUDHRY A.OZAIR, M. AYUB KHAN AND SHAFI ULLAH ...... 114 Trends and Strategy of Sunflower Production in Pakistan. MASOOD A. RANA ...... 125 Sunflower Production in India - Problems and Prospects. M. RAI AND P.S. BHATRANGAR ...... 128 Twelfth International Sunflower Conference - A Report. MANGALA RAI ...... 1 35 Status of Sunflower as Oilseed in Bangladesh. M.A. KHALEQUE, AND S.H. MIRZA ...... 142 Some Aspects Towards Overcoming Vegetable Oils insufficiency in Egypt: Production of Sunflower and its Improvement in Suez Canal Region. ABDEL-FATTAH MOHMED ABDEL-WAHAB ...... 144 Response of Sunflower to Nitrogen Application and Plant Population Density Under Irrigation at Giza, Egypt. SALWA I. EL-MOHANDES ...... 1 55 Sunflower Research and Production in Egypt. BADR A. EL-AHMAR ...... 158 Performance of a New Synthetic Sunflower Stock Developed From Local and Introduced Germplasm and Further Improvement Via Population Improvement Method. R. SHABANA ...... 163 Response of Sunflower and Associated Weeds to Some single and Tank Mixed Herbicides. A.F. IBRAHIM, Z.R. YAHIA, H.R. EL-WEKIL AND E.D.ABUSTEIT ...... 167 Report on Sunflower Production In Dakahlia Governorate, Egypt. S.E. EL-KALLA ...... 168 Studies of Diallel Cross in Sunflower (He7ianthus. annuus L). KHALED HAMMAD ...... 1 71 Effect of Some Intercropping Patterns of Sunflower/Soybean on Yield, Yield Components and Land Usage in Egypt. M.A. MADKOUR ...... 1 7 5 Sunflower Diseases in Egypt. ARAFA A. HILAL ...... 180 Part 3- GENERAL The Vegetable Oil/Protein System Program:The Kenyan Experience. CARLOS ZULBERTI ...... 184 Microbial Control of Lepidopterous Pests of Oilseed Crops. H.S. SALAMA ...... 203 Sunflower and Sesame Research in the Philippines. NENITA M. TEPORA ...... 206 Part 4- DZSCUSSZONS AND RECOMMENDATZONS Discussions and Recommendations ...... 213 I . Sesame ...... 21 3 I I . Sunf 1 ower ...... 218 III.General ...... 223 vi LIST OF PARTICIPANTS AUSTRIA 1 • Dr. Amram Ashri 9. Dr. Nessim Riad Guirguis FAO/IAEA Division, Oilcrops Section, Field Crops International Atomic Energy Institute, Agricultural Agency, Wagramerstrasse 5, Research Center, 12619, Giza P.O. Box 100, A-1400 Vienna 10. Dr. Ahmed M. El-Wakil Oilcrops Section, Field Crops BANGLADESH Institute, Agricultural Research Center, 12619, Giza 2. Dr. M.A. Khaleque Project Director Oilseeds, 11. Dr.(Mrs) Salwa I. El-Mohandis Bangladesh Agricultural Oilcrops Section, Field Crops Research Institute, Institute, Agricultural Joydebpur, Gazipur Research Center, 12619, Giza 12. Dr. Mohamed Ali Madkour Oilcrops Section, Field Crops Institute, Agricultural 3. Dr. Tu Lichuan Research Center, 12619, Giza Henan Academy of Agric. Sciences, No. 1 Nongye Road, 13. Mr. Marzouk El-Emam Zhengzhou, Henan Oilcrops Research Section, (Sent paper but could not Agricultural Research Center attend) 12619, Giza 14. Mr. Mohamed El-Sofey Oilcrops Research Section, Agricultural Research Center, 4. Dr. Eglal Rashed 12619, Giza IDRC, P.O. Box 14, Orman, Giza 15. Mr. Wahid Abdel Aziz El-Sawy Oilcrops RPsearch Section, 5. Mr. I. Benard Agricultural Research Center, EEC, 9 Kamel Mohamed st., 12619, Giza Zamalek, Cairo 16. Dr. Mohii El-Din El-Mandouh 6. Mr. Etian Pilorg Oilcrops Research Section, EEC Consultant, 9 Kamel Agricultural Research Center, Mohamed St., Zamalek, Cairo 12619, Giza 7. Mr. Volker Loch 17. Mr. Mostafa El-Samanody GTZ Project, 4 Gezira Oilcrops Research Section, Street, Zamalek, Cairo Agricultural Research Center, 12619, Giza 8. Dr. Badr A. El-Ahmar Head, Oilcrops Section, 18. Dr. Said Tawfik Agricultural Research Center Field Crops Research 12619, Giza Institute, Agricultural Tlx: 20332 FCRI UN Research Center, 12619, Giza Fax: (2002) 722609 Tel: 723000 ext 39 vii 19. Dr. Arafa A. Hilal 29. Dr. Samir El-Kalla Plant Pathology Institute, Faculty of Agriculture, Agriculture Research Center, El-Mansoura University, 12619, Giza El-Mansoura 20. Dr. Abdel Rahman A. El-Deeb 30. Dr. El-Sayed A. Raouf Sadik, Plant Pathology Institute, Faculity of Agriculture, Agricultural Research El-Mansoura University, Center, 12619, Giza El-Mansura 21. Mr. Abdeen Ahmed El-Shimy, 31. Dr. Abdel Wahab Abdel-Fattah Agricultural Research Prof. of Agron., Vice Center, Shandaweel Research President, Suez Canal Station, Sohag University, Ismailia 22. Dr. Samy Attia 32. Dr. A.F. Ibrahim Agricultural Research Professor of Agronomy Center, Ismailia Research Faculty of Agriculture Station, Ismailia Cairo University, Giza (Sent paper but could not 23. Mr. Samir Taha El-Srogy attend) Agricultural Research Center, Mallawi Research 33. Dr. Reda Shabana Station , El-Minia Professor of Agronomy Faculty of Agriculture, 24. Dr. Khaled M. Hanvnad Cairo University, Giza Agricultural Research Tel: Off. 897677 Giza Center, Nubaria Research Res. 864106 Giza Station, El-Naser Post Office, Alexandria 34. Dr. H.S. Salama Director, National Research 25. Mr. Kamal Riad Demian Center, Dokki, Cairo Agricultural Research Center, Nubaria Research 35. Mr. Wageh Kadry Station, El-Naser Post Agricultural Research Center, Office, Alexandria Bahteem Research Station, Bahtim, Caird 26. Dr. Ahmed El-Kafory Agricultural Research Center, Nubaria Research ETHIOPIA Station, El-Naser Post Office, Alexandria 36. Dr. Hiruy Belayneh Holetta Research Center, 27. Mr. Maaty Kishta Institute of Agric. Research, Agricultural Research P.O.Box 2003, Addis Ababa Center, Serw Research Center, Demiat 37. Dr. Abbas Omran Coordinator, Oilcrops Network 28. Mr. Mohamed Abeu Gazala P.O. Box 23464, Addis Ababa Agricultural Research Tlx : 21548 IAR ET Center, Sakha Research Tel 513776 Station, Kafr El-Sheikh Cable : MERMIRU ADDIS viii PHILIPPINES 38. Dr. S. Thangavelu 44. Dr. The Oilcrops Network for East Africa and South Asia extended as far east as the Philippines. We are trying to coordinate the expanded activities through the four sub-networks (Brassica, Sesame, Sunflower, and Other Oilcrops). The sesame and sunflower subnetworks were established together during the fourth Oil crops Network workshop held in Kenya during January 1988. Again the two sub-networks were called to this second meeting in Cairo, Egypt, 9-12 September, 1989, extending to 15 September for a field trip to research stations and Pioneer research farm. The objectives of this meeting were: 1. To get together scientists working on sesame and/or sunflower from participating network countries to exchange ideas and experiences. 2. To discuss specific ways in which sesame and sunflower research could be strengthened through the exchange of information and genetic material, collaborative projects, training and scientific visits. The objectives were achieved by the aggregation of 15 foreign scientists from three continents: Europe, Africa and Asia in addition to 32 scientists from Egypt. The constructive discussions they were involved in and the recommendations they arrived at show the closeness of the individuals and the responsibilities they are assigned and ready to carry. The Government of A.R. Egypt allowed and hosted the workshop. His excellency Dr. Youssef Wali, Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Agriculture and Land Reclamation of A.R. Egypt, deputized Dr. Ahmed Mumtaz, Director of Agricultural Research Center to open the workshop. The Food and Agriculture Organization, FAO, generously supported the participation of Dr. C.R. Pineda, Dr. J. Maria. F. Martinez and Dr. D. Skoric (shared with IDRC), in addition to contributing to the core budget of the workshop. We really appreciate the way these scientists lead the discussions of the sunflower group. The International Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR) supported the participation of Dr. Amram Ashri. The editor/coordinator is grateful to Dr. Ashri for his constructive criticisms and for leading the sesame group towards global cooperation. The International Development Research Center ( IDRC-Canada) supported all other participants through the Oilcrops Network and Oilseed projects. Regional offices in New Delhi, Singapore, Nairobi and specially Cairo administered participant expenses x and made every effort to ensure a 1 00% participation. Loe a 1 expenses were born by the IDRC-supported oil seed project in Egypt. Dr. Fawzy Kishk, Regional Directory of IDRC Regional Office for the Middle East in Cairo represented I:)RC in the official opening of the workshop and hosted a dinner for the workshop participants. The Senior Program Officer for Crops and Animals, Dr. Eglal Rashed, was a vital force in organizing the workshop. The Oilcrops Network coordinator/editor is grateful to Dr. Badr El-Ahmar and all the staff of the Oilcrops Section for the~r assistance in coo rd i nat i ng and organizing the ·rJorksr:cp; Mr· Abdel-Aziz Yunus, ir, charge of the Agr~cultural Club, fer allowing us to use the meeting hall for the workshop sessions and the excellent catering facilities of the clut; Mr. Kavaleri Kibinad, Chief Ticket Agent of NTO (National Tour Opera~ions anj Travel Agency Corporation), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, for ~is efforts with Mr. Muna Abebe of the Ethiopian Airlines to rcLlte and re-ro~te the particpants to and from Cairo. Spec~al t~anks go to Mr. Seid Ahmed, Mr. Nigussie Alemayehu, Mrs. Seada Ali, Miss Elizabeth Baslyos and Miss Raei Melesse for their assistance in editing/proof-reading, t:;pi:-g :u~c retyping this manuscript. Abbas Omran Coordinator/Editor IDRC, Addis Ababa Pa.rt 1 SESAME SUBNETWORK II 2 SESAME GENETXC RESOURCES: COLLECTXON, EVALUATXON AND CONSERVATXON Amra.m Ashr"i ~ostract Sevs~al expert :~ns~!:!tjcns ar.d ;ari~us researchers dea!'~s wit~ sesa~s ISesam~~ ind·:~m L.: ::~:·J~e~ ~~at t~e ex'.s~ir; ;erm:~as~ co'.1ectlcns of sesame sho~ld be expanded. T~1s ~aper descr!bes :he ;er~plasm c~ 1 1ection c~ ato~t '.c:c a:cess'.or.s assembled ~Y :he a~thcr ur.cer tha :s 0 GR g~ar.t an~ the data bases :t:tairied f·:l'I c:~er 1r:vest';ators. The descr'.~tors and states adcp~e: are cescr:bed and severa 1 ne11 :nes we·e adjed. T~e ~in~;r;s were compute~':aj and :ne analysis cf the da:a bases wi:hin an~ oet~eer ~::atic~s ~s 1~ pr:gress. :ss~es '.~~c·\ej ~n the =~~~e:~~o~. eva~~atio~, Jti 1 ~:atian, reju~ena:ion, arj ::rse~~at·cn of :he sesame ge~m;'as~ :o~le:t~cns a~e d~s:usset. Germplasm resources constitute the Helena Mazzani). Sizable collections evolutionary library of the species of local and some introduced and are very important in plant materials have been established and breeding, evolutionary studies, studied in R. of Korea. A large botanical research, etc. amount of collections were assembled Introduction has played a significant and studied, mainly from evolutionary role in crop improvement since aspects by various workers (8,9,10). ancient times and still is; directly when introduced cultivars prove to be Two FAO expert consultations (2,3) successful in a new region and are and the IDRC Workshop in 1985 (4) released to the farmers, or identified a pressing need to make a indirectly by hybridizing the more comprehensive collection of introduced materials with local ones, sesame genetic resources, evaluate, transferring desired genes into the utilize and conserve them. They latter. This has been the case also recommended that the sesame germp l asm with sesame (5). collection, evaluation and exchange should be much enhanced, and Sesame germplasm collections have appropriate arrangements for their been assembled and studied over the long-term conservation be made. The yea rs in several locations. Some IBPGR and FAO have acted accordingly were more comprehensive while others and the IBPGR gave the author, in were more limited in scope. It 1986, a grant to assemble the should be noted that the first sesame germplasm collection of cultivated germplasm collection was established and wild sesame species. in India in 1925 (14). Shortly after, a large world collection was This paper is a progress report on assemb 1ed in the USSR ( 23). The very the project. In 1988, 1645 accessions large sesame germplasm collections in were sown in Rehovot (Israel) and India were described recently data were collected for ~4 traits. (22,19). The analyses of the Israel data in the computer are in progress. A very 1arge co 11 ect ion has been Additional data were obtained from studied and is maintained in the USA Dr. J. I. Lee on 600 lines for 38 (17, 24, personal communication - traits and some data were obtained G.A. White). Another very large from the USDA (Dr. J.D. Mowder). collection has been assembled in These bodies of data will be analyzed Venezuela and is now being evaluated separately and in comparison (personal communication - Ing. Agr. with each other when possib1e. Materials and Methods Table 1. Sources of the sesame ger1plas111 collections studied in 1988. Assembling the germplasm collection No. of A large collection of germplasm was Source Countr_r Accessions Hebrew Univ. Nos. assembled, mainly in 1987 through an R. of Korea 407 1-401, 1581-1586 extensive effort including personal Bulgaria 25 402-424, 15779-1580 contacts, written requests and the U.S.S.R. 5 425-429 assistance of investigators, national South Africa 5 430-434 bodies - especially the USDA and the Kenya 5 435-438, 1643 RDA of R. of Korea and India 6 439-444 international ones especially the Thailand 15 44~-450, 1628-1636 IBPGR, FAO and the IDRC Oi 1 Crops Sri Lanka 13 451-463 Network. The germplasm collection Egypt 60 464-523 was planted in the spring of 1988 at Turkey 15 524-538 Rehovot, Israel (34° s0 E, 31° 5 ° N). Philippines 12 539-550 The sources and numbers of the Namibia 2 551-552 accessions are presented in Table 1. Venezuela 22 553-568, 1637-1642 Bu~kina Faso 1 569 In some cases, the contributing Mexico B 570-575, 1602-1603 countries supplied only local Greece 32 576-607 materia~s. i:nproved cultivars, and/or USA 937 608-1542, 1577-1578 landraces and/or breeding lines. F.A.O.* 51 1543-1575, 1611-1627 Often though, the source countries Japan 15 1587-1601 sent both local materia 1 s and Burma 5 1604-1609 accessions introduced into them. Nepal 1 1644 Thus, certain cultivars appear Taiwan _2_ 1645-1646 several times, e.g. the well known Total 1645 Venezuela and the U.S. varieties were *Includes 11 superior selections (8 non obtained from their countries of shattering and 3 shattering) of Dr. D. Yer111anos origin as well as from several other of the Univ. of California, Riverside, Centra1 countries. All were maintained as America, and materials from at least 8 countries. separate entities and will be com pa red to see if they a re t ru 1y resources of the countries that are duplicate or if they have diverged poorly represented wi11 be made over the years due to genetic shift available for international research or local selection pressures, out cooperation soon. crossing and/or mixtures. Certain co:itributioris of germplasm An examination of Table 1 shows that were received too late for inclusion certain major sesame producing areas in the 1988 nursery, notably a large such as India, China, Burma and the collection from Dr. D.G. Langham and Sudan are poorly represented. Mr. R. Langham of the Sesaco Ccrp. Actually, much of the Indian and These are stored unt i 1 another Sudanese ge rmp 1asm was inc 1uded in germplasm nursery will be grown. the USDA collection, thus the representation of these gene-pools So far, only the following wild is better than that which appears in species were obtained: S. radiatum, Table 1. The materials from S. a lat um, Ceratotheca tri loba and mainland, China are poorly four unknown entries (collected by represented since not too many were contacts in Kenya and South West included in the collections from Africa). Much effort has been other countries. Repeated requests devoted to obtain wild species from for materials from other countries their natural areas of distribution, failed to secure shipments of mainly in West and East Africa. seeds. It is hoped that the genetic Unfortunately, the combination of 4 lack of detailed information about 2. Plant height (cm)- mean of 3 the wild species and their maturation measurements of typical plants time and distribution, and of per row. botanists, collectors, etc. made it very difficult to make progress. 3. Branching - a fourth state was added to those pub l i shed ( 1 ) : Nursery and harvest procedures 1= None, uniculm, 2 = Basal branching (lower part of plant), The materials were sown in the spring 3= Top branching (upper part of of 1988, One 5 meter row per plant) and 4= Basal and top accession. The rows we re spaced 1m branching (added). apart, and plants were thinned to 20/m. At times the spaces were larger 4. Exterior corolla color, as in due to poor germination. The nursery (1): 1 = White, 2 =White with was trickle irrigated throughout the violet I purple shading, 3 = season. Notes were taken as the White with deep violet I purple desired traits became visible and/or shading, 4 = Violet, and 5 = at the appropriate phases during the purple. season. The plants were let to flower and mature under open 5. Number of flowers/leaf axil, a po ll i nation cond it i ans. The extent third state was added to (1): 1 of cross pollination is not known. = One, 2 = Three, and 3 = More Branches with mature capsules were than three (added). harvested from all plants in each row, placed in large paper bags, 6. Capsule shape, as in ( 1 ) : 1 = allowed to dry and threshed. Seed Tapered, 2 = Narrow oblong, 3 = characters were recorded on the Broad oblong, and 4 = Square. cleaned seed samples. 7. Number of carpels/capsule, as Results and Discussion in (1): 1 =Two, 2 = MOre than two. General 8. Capsule hairiness, changed from The analysis of the data is in (1). It proved difficult to progress and the findings will be score separately the density and published when completed. Several the length of the capsule hair more general points will be discussed as in the above. The following here. states combining length and density were utilized: 1 = Descriptors and states Glabrous, 2 =Light, 3 =Medium, and 4 = Heavy. The descriptors and states developed under the auspices of the FAO and 9. Capsule length - Visual scores IBPGR (1) and the comments (7) served were used rather than as a basis for the characterization measurements as recommended by of the ge rmp l asm collection. (1) to reduce labor, as follows: However, in several cases, they 1 = Short, 2 = Medium, proved inadequate or too labor 3 = Long, and 4 = Very long. consuming. The descriptors and states utilized in the 1988 nursery 10. A7ternaria leaf spot: are described below; modifications 1 = Immune, no symptoms, are shown where such were made: 3 = Resist ant, very light infection, 5 = Medium, 1. Date of first flower - later 7 = Susceptible, and converted also to number of days 9 = Very susceptible. from planting to flowering. 5 11. Seed coat color - Examination locations' conditions, do the of the seed coat color of all different accessions retain their the accessions led to a revision relative ranking under different of the available descriptors and environments? states (1, 7). See Table 2. To investigate whether the oil 12. Seed coat texture, as in (1) content ranking is affected by the 1 = Smooth, and 2 = Rough. location, seeds of several hundred accessions from Korea, which were 13. Seed size - To reduce labor, produced in Israel in 1988 were sent visual scores were used rather to Dr. J.I. Lee in Suweon, R. of than weighing (1): 1 = Small, Korea, for oil and protein content as HU No. 446 (Montalang from analysis. They will be analyzed with Thai land) , 2 = Medi um, as HU No. the same equipment and procedures 700 (USDA PI No. 167343, origin that were used a few years ago to - Turkey), and 3 = Large, as determine these values for seeds of Ashri Line 1988-4127. the same accessions produced in Korea. 14. Seed lenght/width ratio, visually scored, as an Preliminary findings indicate that approximation of seed shape: 1 . O the ranking of the accessions with = Ratio of 1 . O, round, 1 . 5 = regard to the length of period from Ratio of 1.5, intermediate, and planting to flowering is very 2.0 = Ratio of 2.0, elliptic. location dependent, as would be expected. Therefore, evaluation Forecasting performance and ranking inane location apparently cannot serve to pre-select a certain groupof The traits studied can be divided "more promising" access i ans for into two groups regarding their testing in a different region. response to the environment and/or This point is being checked in detail the growing conditions: a) Unaffected for time of flowering, plant height - as carol la color or number of and branching. capsules/axil; b) Affected as flowering time and plant height For environmentally-affected affected by day length and characters, comparisons of data from temperature, or degree of branching, different locations and seasons could which is affected by stand density perhaps be aided by the establishment and season. of an internationally agreed list of accessions which could serve as For the characters which are not standards. The value of such affected by the environment, a single standards wi 11 be examined by entry in the data base should checking the data from Israel and s. suffice. However, for those affected Korea, and other data that may be by the environment, multiple entries available in relation to various are required, denoting also the reference groups of accessions. location, season, conditions, etc. These groups can vary in number and Still, for the latter characters it make up. is important to assess the forecasting value of the data from Naturally, the analysis will be more one location on the performance in valid if the data will be collected another. This could be very under the same conditions for all the important in breeding. For instance, accessions. It fol lows then, that can earliness or lateness in one test for characters which show environment location be used to forecast x access i ans interaction; the data flowering time in another? Or, if the should be obtained in one season for oil content is affected by the 6 Table 2. Descriptors and states for sesame seed coat color. Ashri Reference Accession Bartel &Goldberg** Code Color HU No. Origin* Source Name or No. Color Reference Ac. 10 White 22 ROK ROK Gaesa~ White T-85 Ye 11 ow 21 Very 1i ght 87 ROK ROK Su#eon 99 Very lig~t yellow Adi 22 Light 1258 Nepal USA PI 288854 Dark yel'ow 0-7-11-1 23 Medium 137 ROK ROK Yongan- 1 Medium yellow Zirra 24 Dark 107 Turkey ROK Anthalya-1 Very light brown ~argo short 25 Very dark 134 ROK ROK Gae um Light brown Exute Grey 31 'lery light 60 Japan RCK Japanese b1ack Mediu:n gray Oro 9/71 32 light 1587 Japan Japan No. 76, BON 33 Medium 618 Mexico USA PI 154 I 300 Dark grey Morada 67-11 34 Dark 648 China USA ;>I 158,056 1t "" Very dark 648 China USA PI 158,056 Brown 41 Very 1i ght 679 China USA PI 158,941 42 Light 700 Turkey USA PI 167,343 Medium brown A-1-10 43 Medium 390 Japan Japan Black Wasegoma-2 Dark brown A-5-13 44 Dark 633 China USA PI !Se,038 45 Very dark 631 India USA PI157,162 55 Black 239 HI ROK Tainan White 1-3-a Reddish-rust (anthoc~aninl 61 Very 1i ght 892 Burma USA PI 202,725 62 Light 902 Japan USA PI 223,411 Very dark brown X-30/46 63 Medium 64 Dark 65 Very dark 441 India India TMV 5 Anthocyanine Gcmi Green 81 Very light 82 Light 1232 Venezuela USA PI 280, 809 83 Mediu11 84 Dark 85 Very dark *Abbreviations, NI: Not indicated, ROK: Republic of Korea. **Their paper of 1985 (7). all accessions, since conditions vary This study, though , is made more from year to year. difficult by errors in recording the origins, mechanical admixtures or Differential geographical outcrossing. distribution of alleles Firmer answers to the above quest ions For breeding, it is important to can hopefully be obtained from identify geographical areas in which analysis of the Israel 1988 data and the frequel')cies of certain alleles the data collected elsewhere. are higher, e.g. alleles for resistance to a given disease. To Further collection needed this end, the frequencies of the different states of certain In a followup program to this descriptors will be related to the project, much effort should be areas of origin of the accessions. devoted to c 1ose the gaps in the 7 germplasm collection of the that sesame seeds retain their cultivated species. These should germinability for about 5 years if inc 1ude exp 1oration and collection kept in a well ventilated, dry room in poorly represented centers of with ambient temperatures (21). It diversity and obtain seeds from all was also found that with lower existing collections. At the same temperatures sesame seeds remain time, the duplications in the viable longer; however, freezing collection should be eliminated. temperatures were harmful. Research Thus, the collection could be on optima 1 sesame seed storage enriched and still kept within a conditions should be initiated manageable size. without delay. The obvious gap in the germplasm Rejuvenation of the collect ions collection is the lack of wild posses problems too. Cross species. There are 35 wild species pol l i nation in sesame can sometimes in the genus (6, 12), most of them reach 60% (6), depending mainly on in Africa. The work carried out in insect activity. Thus, in periodic Africa (20) concluded that it has plantings of the collections to limited genetic diversity in the produce fresh seed supplies, cultivated species but it can be a precautions should be taken. Since good source of wi 1d Sesamum insect elimination is impossible, germplasm. Special efforts should selfing may be advisable. However, be devoted to the exploration, selfing by bagging is laborious and collection, evaluation and expensive and sometimes the seed conservation of the wild Sesamum obtained are few in number and poor resources. This is important both in quality. Selfing may also from the breeding point of view and contribute to genetic shift in the for evolutionary systematic accessions, especially since many of studies. It has been shown even by them are not uniform and they should 1 imited research that the wild be kept that way. species contain usefu 1 genes ( 13) which can be used to breed improved Another possible avenue is to form cultivars. pools from accessions which are genetically close and originated from Long-term maintenance of the the same region. This would reduce collection the number of collections to be maintained. Thus, it will be easier Arrangements for the long-term to grow them in isolation. maintenance of the collect ion are being made by the IBPGR and the Still another approach to maintain author. The newly established and the genes and alleles would be to well equipped gene bank of the Rural create a few very large composite Deve 1opment Admi n i strati on, Suweon, cross gene pools, each adapted to R. of Korea (Dr. Wan-Sik Ahn, specific conditions. This would be Director) has been designated by the done by grouping many accessions, IBPGR as the f i rst base co 11 ect ion crossing them with a male sterile for sesame. The author sent 30 of line and growing the bulked mixture open-pollinated seeds ( 6000 - 7500 of the hybrids for successive seeds) of each of the accessions to generations under the desired the Korean gene bank. The IBPGR is environmental conditions allowing exploring other sites in order to them to i ntercross. This will be identify a suitable location for a supported by segregation of male second base collection. sterile plants. In this way, the alleles will be maintained and much The long-term maintenance of the new genetic variability will be seeds may be supported by the finding gene rated, many new gene combinations a wi 11 be formed. However, established workshop, Njoro, Kenya, January 1988. IDRC genotypic combinations excelling in MR205e. Ottawa: 152-164. their performance may be lost. 6. 1989. Sesa11e. In (Robbelen, G., Downey, R.K. and Ashri, A. ed.), Oil Crops of Acknowledgements the World. McGraw Hill Publishing Co., New York: 375-387. This research has been supported in 7. Bar-Tel, B. and Z. Goldberg, 1985. Descriptors part by a grant of the International for sesame -- a 11odififed approach. In: Sesame Board on Plant Genetic Resources and Safflower -- Status and Potentials. (A. (IBPGR). I would like to express my Ashri, ed.). FAO Plant Production and deep thanks to Dr. J. I. Lee Rural Protection Paper 66, Rome. 191-205. Development Administration of the 8. Bedigian, D. 1981. Origin, diversity, Republic of Korea and to Dr. G. A. exploration and collection of sesame. In, (A. White and Dr. J. D. Mowder of the USDA Ashri ed.), Sesame and Safflower: Status and who shared with us seed samples of Potentials. FAO Plant Production and their large collections and the data Protection Paper 66, Rome. 164-169. collected. I am deeply grateful to 9. Bedigian, D. 1984. Sem1u111 indicum L. : Crop the many cooperating investigators Origin, Diversity, Chemistry and Ethnobotany. who shipped the project seed samples; Ph.D. Dissert., Univ. of Illinois, Urbana they are too numerous to list here. Champa i gn, IL. I acknowledge with thanks the help of 10. and J.R. Harlan, 1986. Evidence the fol lowing col leagues, technicians for cultivation of sesame in the ancient world. and students whose enthusiastic Econ. Bot. 40: 137-154. support made the project possible: 11. Brar, G.S., and K.L. Ahuja, 1979. Sesame, its Mr. Y. Elber, Dr. c.w. Kang, Mr. M. culture, genetics, breeding and biochemistry. Keller, Mr. P. Manriquez, Ms. M. Ann. Rev. Pl. Sci. 1: 245-313. Kalyani Publ., Michael, Ms. Y. Racah, Dr. N.S. New De 1hi. Seong, Mr. M. Shimko and Ms. T. 12. Kobayashi, T. 1981. The wild and cultivated Teper. Last but not least, I wish to species in the genus Sesa111u111. In (A. Ashri thank (GIFRID) German - Israel Fund ed.), Sesame and Sa ff 1ow er: Status and for Research and International Potent i a1 s. FAO Pl ant Production and Development for covering the costs of Protection Paper 66, Rome: 157-163. shipping the seeds of all the 13. Kolte, S.J. 1985. Diseases of Annual Edible accessions to es tab l i sh the sesame Oilseed Crops. Vol. II. Rapeseed-Mustard and base collection in the R. of Korea. Sesame Diseases. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fla. 14. Joshi, A.B. 1961. Sesamum. Indian Central References Oilseeds Committee. Hyderabad-1, India. 15. Lee, J.l., and B.H. Choi, 1985a. Basic studies 1. Anon. 1981a. Descriptors for Sesa11e. AGP: on sesame plant growth in Korea. In (A. Ashri IBPGR/80/71. Intern. Board Plant Genet. ed.), Sesame and Sa ff 1ow er: Status and Resources Secretariat, Rome. Potent i a1 s. FAO Pl ant Production and 2. 1981 b. Cone 1us i ans and recommendat i ans. Protection Paper 66, Rome: 131-136. In, (A. Ashri ed.), Sesame and Safflower: 16. and 1985b. Progress Status and Potent i a1 s. FAO Pl ant Production and prospects of sesar1e breeding in Korea. In and Protection paper 29, Rome:192-195. (A. Ashri ed.), Sesame and Safflower: Status 3. 1985a. Conclusions and recommendations. and Potentials. FAO Plant Production and In, (A. Ashri ed.), Sesame and Safflower: Protection Paper 66, Rome: 137-144 Status and Potent i a1 s. FAO Pl ant Production 17. Massey, J.H. 1966. Preliminary Evaluations of and Protection Paper 66, Rome: 219-220. Sesame Plant Introductions. Bulletin N.S. 4. ~~ 1985b. Summary of Recommendations on the 181. Univ. Georgia, Col. Agric. Exp. Sta., Oi 1 Crops Network. In, (A. Omran ed.), Oi 1 Athens, GA. USA, 29 pp. Crops: Sesame and Safflower. IDRC-MR105e. 18. Osman, H.E. and D.M. Yermanos, 1982. Genetic Ottawa: 247-251. male sterility in sesame: reproductive 5. Ashri, A. 1988. Sesame breeding -- objectives characteristics and possible use in hybrid seed and approaches. In: Oil Crops -- Sunflower, production. Crop Sci. 22: 492-498. Linseed and Sesame. Proc. 4th Oilcrops Network 19. Paroda, R.S., R.K. Arora, S. Singh, and T.A. 9 Thomas, 1987. Genetic resources of oilseed Protection Paper 66, Rome: 173-175. crops in India. In (A. Omran ed.), Oi 1 Crops: 22. Thangavelu, S., C.S. Sridharan, V. Mural id- Niger and Rapeseed/Husta~d. IDRC-HR153e, haran, and M. Suresh, 1985. Sesame breeding Ottawa: 188-192 in the southern states of India and methods of 20. Rheenen, H.A. Van. 1981. Genetic resources of evaluating breeding materials. In (A. Omm sesame in Africa: collection and explcratbn, ed.), Oi 1 Crops: Sesame and Safflower. IlJRC In (A. Ashri ed.), Sesame and Safflower: Status ~R105e, Ottawa: 28-43. and Potentials. ~AO Plant Production and 23. Weiss, E.A. 1971. Castor, Sesame and Safflower. Protection Paper 66, Rome: 170-172. Leonard Hill, London: 311-525. 21. 1981. Lcngev i ty of sesame 24. Yermancs, O.M., S. ~emstreet, ~. Saleeb, and seed under different storage conditions. I~ (A. C.K. Huszar, 1972. Oil car.tent and ccmposition Ashri ed.), Sesame and Safflower: Stat~s and of the seed in the world collection of sesame Potentials. FAO Plant Produ:tian and introductions. J.Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 49: 20-23. 10 SESAME RESEARCH IN THE SUDAN Mohamed El-Hassan Ahmed The primary objective of the oil fertility. The trend is sorghum crops network is the improvement of monocropping. Sesame and other crops oil crops which could be achieved by are grown less extensively. improving the yield per unit area and Consequently sorghum, a shallow expanding the area under production. rooted crop planted in monocrcpping The yield per unit area can be pattern will result in continuous increased by both developing high depletion of nutrients from the top yield4ng varieties and improved soi 1 , thus reducing y i e 1 d cultural practices leading to better correspondingly. In addition to weed control, seed-bed preparation severe depletion of nutrients, the and good stand establishment. fields become heavily infested with noxious weeds. During his visit to the Sudan in October 1988, Dr. A. Omran, the 2. Poor cultural practices: Crop Network Coordinator advised to husbandry practices in these areas collect more information on the are generally poor, which adversely reported gap between the recorded affect crop yields. Most farmers research station's yields and the depend on hi red tractors for land farmers' yields. Accordingly, a preparation and usually miss the survey of the cent ra 1 ra i nfed 1ands optimum sowing dates. Broadcasting, of the Sudan including the most practiced by the majority, results important sesame producing areas such in uneven plant distribution, as Blue Nile and Kassala, was inefficient weed cont ro 1 and conducted during the period April consequently poor stand July 1989 to obtain information establishment. needed to describe the farming systems, methods used and production 3. Poor seed si.u:wlies: Although the constraints as well as local research centers have released germplasm. several improved varieties of sorghum and sesame, which possess many From the survey, it was fcund that desirable characters in addition to in all rainfed areas of the central their higher yielding ability, the rainlands of the Sudan, the farming majority of the farmers st i 11 use the systems are similar. In these areas old, familiar, and traditional types. sorghum and sesame are the two major The seeds used by most of the farmers crops cultivated by the farmers. The are usually selected from the survey and meetings with the farmers previous crop or purchased from the rev ea 1ed many con st ra i nts to local markets. These seeds are not production. However, the following pure, lack uniformity in size and are considered as the major ones colour, and may be damaged and have which formed the basis for the plan low viability. of work: 4. Other constraints: Erratic 1. Low soil fert i_lill: Soi 1s of the rainfall is another major factor central rainlands of the Sudan are detrimental to yield. Also severe inherently low in nitrogen which damage caused by diseases and pests severely limits the productivity of are often extremely high. At the cultivated crops. Since the two present time no effective control major crops; sorghum and sesame are measures are used against these non-leguminous, their production diseases and pests by the farmers. tends to further deplete the soi 1 From the information gathered by the 11 survey and group discussion with the The promising lines are tested under scientists at Abu Naama Research different sowing dates, inter-row Station and other centers, it was spacing and foliar fertilization. evident that the present farming systems practiced in the central The recommended cul tu ra l practices rain lands of the Sudan are similar such as optimum sowing date, use of which resulted in: healthy (treated) seeds, planting in rows to a 11 ow for inter-row depletion of soil fertility, cultivation and efficient weeding and severe infestation of fields by consequently improving stand noxious weeds, and establishment wi 11 be applied. The inefficient utilization of land experimental nursery can be used as due to cul tu ra l practices that demonstration plot for the farmers result in low plant population, around the research station. poor plant stand establishment and consequently low yield per Sesame Research unit area. In recent years, the pattern of These factors acting together have rainfall distribution has changed resulted in low yields of the dramatically. The annual rainfall cultivated crops. Therefore, in varies from season to season and from order to improve the yielding ability region to region in the same season of any crop, pressures from the above and the rainy season becomes shorter. constraints must be reduced. Consequently, area and production of Programs to develop and extend to the sesame fluctuated due to erratic farmers ways and means of overcoming rainfalls. some of the basic constraints should be formulated to cater for: lack of The present study was initiated in improved seeds, ineffective weeds, 1986/87 on the feasibility of diseases and pests control, low developing early maturing or drought maintenance of soil fertility levels, resistant high yielding varieties for poor stand establishment, uneven short and marginal rainfall distribution, and low plant conditions. population. The plan of work will be based on agronomy, breeding and The long-term objective of the study technical production package to be was to screen/breed varieties for the developed through experimentation and drought stricken areas and those with trials. Findings of the previous sufficient rainfall. research will be tested and applied. The techniques used include: In order to intensify the research efforts for more precision, the 1) Collect ion and evaluation of breeding and agronomic programs local and introduced sesame started earlier at Kenana Research germplasm. Station will be extended to the testing sites to test the breeding 2) Developing desirable genetic materials under the prevailing recombinants through single, conditions for adaptability across multiple and backc rosses among environments through multi-location the promising lines. trials as well as on-farm trials to 3) Induction and selection of identify the best suited lines for mutations for earliness and release to farmers. responsiveness in the imp roved local types, and The agronomic program aiming at the improvement of the traditional 4) Testing elite cultures for husbandry practices is al so extended. adaptability across environments 12 through multi-location trials during the wet rainy days of for initial release as September. The medium maturing varieties. varieties showed high yielding potential coupled with disease The genetical variability developed resistance and escaping the attack of by hybridization and irradiation sesame seed bug that appears at the using improved varieties showed good 1ast week of October attacking the recombinations and single plant late maturing local types. selection is practiced in F2 and M2 generations. When the lines were tested for adaptation or yield stability, the The collections (local and early maturing (from high latitudes) introduced) grown in observation showed low and consistant yields nurseries during 1986/87 showed wide indicating that they are poorly variability of duration to maturity, adapted to the preva i 1 ing plant height, branching and yielding environments. ability. The promising lines were selected and advanced to the The medium maturing lines (from preliminary variety trials conducted Africa or similar regions or at three testing sites over two latitudes) showed high yields of seasons, 1987 /83 and 1988/89. The considerable stability, indicating data on yield and its main that they could adapt to the components were ana 1 yzed to assess prevailing and/or improved the magnitude of variability. environments. This suggests that direct selection for yield should be The results showed that there was a practiced within introduced materials wide variation for yielding ability, of similar environments, temperature duration to maturity, plant height and day length. Eight varieties which and branching. :ombined relatively high yield (responsive varieties) ar.d Considering duration to maturity, cons i derab 1estabi1 i ty of performance there is a wide range of variation are selected and advanced for further and accordingly the varieties could yield testing (multi-location and on be classified into extra-early, farm trials) for initial release as early and medium maturing. The early commercial varieties. and extra-early maturing lines mature 13 PROGRESS IN SESAME RESEARCH IN ETHIOPIA Hiruy Belayneh, Bulcha Weyessa and Elias Urage Abstract Sesame is one of the oil crops in the lowlands of Ethiopia that fills the need for a cultivated crop with great tolerance to high te11perature and low demand for water. Though this labour- intensive :rop is likely to succeed as peasant crop under rainfed condition, it has also tremendous potential under irrigated conditions in the Awash Valley. As a result of multi-locational testing, five varieties have been released. The agronomic practices have also been worked out. Improved variety, sowing date and crop protection measures are ths cr it i ca 1 factors for increasing the yield of sesame. Fu tu re strategies of sesame research are described. Accurate stat i st i ca 1 data on area, during the growing peri ad. production and yield of sesame are Consequently, the sesame trial sites not generally available. The crop is were divided into irrigated, marginal found growing in many regions of the and high rainfall areas. The country notably in the northern, grouping was relevant to selection of north-western, western and eastern varieties to fit specific region. plains either as a mixed or sole crop. These traditional sesame In the past, more than 350 accessions growing areas are located at were characterized at Me 1ka Werer altitudes of 500- 1700 m.a.s. 1., (eastern zone). In addition, 64 having rainfall of 350-1200 mm during indigenous sesame collections were the growing period. The low average grown in 1988 and their morphological yield of sesame in most of these characteristics were studied. Most of regions is a result of uncertain the lines were characterized by weather and inadequate plant profuse branching, even maturity, one protection measures. to two capsules per leaf axil, broad leaves at the bottom, short internode In Ethiopia, selection of improved 1ength, etc. As a resu 1t of three varieties has been underway since the years multi-locational testing, SPS late 1960's and five varieties 111518 (Mechado-80) has been released (Kelafo 74, T-85, E, S and Mechado- in 1989 for the irrigated zone after 80) have been made available for fulfilling the pre-release cultivation. The optimum cultural requirements. Another selection, SPS practices for the varieties have also B/M sel. #2(81)(82) is a candidate been est ab 1 i shed. It is the intention for release in 1990. The latter of this presentation to focus on what selection is a· high yielding variety has been achieved during the last two primarily suited for those growers in years on the improvement of the the high rainfall regions. It is genetic potential of sesame, to give known to be tolerant to blight. Of a brief account of the results the varieties released earlier, E obtained on agronomy and crop showed a higher yielding potential protection studies and to develop and adaptability to the marginal breeding and selection strategies areas, Tables 1 and 2. that will allow an increase in sesame production. Agronomy Varietal Development Agronomic practices suitable for different regions have been worked Within the sesame growing areas, out. Sowing time varied in different three major zones were distinguished regions depending upon temperature on the basis of weather particularly and availability of soil moisture. the amount and duration of rain The fertilizer trials conducted, so 14 far showed no response to different since the vector (Jassids) was not levels of nitrogen and phosphorus. A uniformly distributed in the field. seed rate of 5 kg/ha has been reconvnended with row width of 40 cm Se s am e we b wo rm ( A n t i gas t r a and plant spacing of 10 cm. Result cata 7auna 7is) and the green peach of the harvesting stage study showed aphid (Nyzus persicae) are the main that sesame should be harvested when insect pests. A range of varieties 1/3 to 2/3 of the plant parts turn is being screened for their yellow. The irrigation studies at resistance to sesame webworm. Melka Werer and Gode indicated that the crop requires an irrigation Future Research Strategies regime of 10 cm applied every 10-15 days based on evaporation loss. Climate has an important influence on the type of sesame varieties that can be grown and the development of Crop Protection diseases and insect pests. Hence, identification of cultivars with As the crop is vulnerable to weed in specific adaptation to an agro the early stage of growth, weeding 4- ecological zone wi 11 be emphasized 5 weeks after sowing is very rather than searching for a wide critical. The result of the herbicide adaptation. Such grouping will help trial showed good control of both in the introduction of sesame to non broad leaves and grasses with the tradi ti ona 1 but potent i a 1 areas, application of Alachlor at 3.5 kg/ha. Table 3. Recent survey on the importance of Screening of the local collection and diseases in sesame growing areas introduction in preliminary screening indicated that bacteria 1 b 1 i ght and stage for the major diseases, pests Phyllody are the most prevalent and drought will be mandatory so as diseases. A range of sesame to eliminate the undesirable material varieties is being screened for their right at the beginning of the testing resistance to both diseases. Out of program. the entries screened in 1988, 25 showed considerable level of Keeping in view the success of the resistance against bacterial program on variety development, it b 1 i ght. On the other hand, no is proposed to extend the satisfactory results were obtained in hybridization work to develop non the screening effort against phyllody shattering, high yielding and disease resistant sesame lines. 15 Table 1. Summary of seed yield (kg/ha) of improved sesame varieties in the national variety trials grown at 13 sites. Agricultural Seed Area Development Site yield Zone (kg/ha) Irrigated Eastern Melka Werer (3)* 1990 Tendaho ( 3) 2230 Gode ( 2) 820 Mean 1680 Marginal Eastern Besidimo ( 3) 540 Mease ( 2) 270 North-eastern Har bu ( 2) 618 Koba ( 2) 590 Mean 505 High rainfall North western Pa we ( 2) 850 Bel es ( 3) 1250 Western Dedessa ( 3) 1550 Finch a ( 3) 1090 Ababa ( 3) 580 Cent ra 1 Tedelle ( 3) 720 Mean 1008 •Number of trials. Table 2. Crop environ1ent characteristics at sesm trial sites. Mean Te•~ c Soil Analysis Days to Altitude Rainfall Area Site Maturity of (11) (1) 1in Max. pH in N P2 05 (pp1) Improved H2o (S) Varieties Irrigated: Eastern Me 1ka Werer 98 750 269 18. 4 34.2 8. 00 0. 09 20. 0 Tendaho 103 380 80 Gode 315 146 22. 1 34.4 Mean 100. 5 481.7 165. 0 20. 2 34. 3 8.00 0. 09 20. 0 Marginal: Eastern Besidi10 113 1450 398 8.1 0. 06 13. 1 Measo 99 1320 45 7 North eastern Harbu 116 1540 7.4 0. 13 V.high Kobo 127 (?) 1470 438 12. 9 29.3 8. 2 0. 12 15. 0 Mean 113. 8 1445 431 12. 9 29.3 7.9 0.10 >14.0 High rainfall: Northwestern Pave 120 1200 1128 17. 0 35. 0 6.0 69.9 Beles 121 1200 1224 17.0 35.0 Western Fin cha 119 1660 762 5.9 10. 4 Dedessa 125 1280 1216 14. 9 29.3 4. 9 0. 19 46 .1 Abobo 113 500 1045 20. 3 33. 0 6.4 0. 15 22. 9 Central Tedelle 143 1670 865 Mean 123. 5 1251.7 1040 17. 3 33. 1 5.8 0. 17 37.3 .. 6 Table 3. Environmental requirements of sesame. Ra n g e 0 f s u i t a b i 1 i t ~ Environmental Highly Moderately Sensitivity to and soil suitable suitable Marginal hazard Altitude (m.a.s. ll 500-1250 350-500/1250-1600 0-350/1600-2000 Min. temp, for growing period (0cJ 16-21 13-16/21-22 Max. temp. for growing period (0cJ 30-35 27-30/35-38 Mean temp. for growing period (0cJ 23-28 20-23/28-30 30-32 Length of growing period (days) 120-180 100-120 70-100 Rainfall during sensitivie to growing period (mm) 500-700 400-500/700-1200 300-400/1200-1500 water logging Soil Type Sandy 1oam . Texture 1i ght Colour brown, red pH 6.0-7.3 5.5-6.0/7.3-8.0 17 A BRIEF OUTLINE OF SESAME (SESAMUM INDICUM L-} RESEARCH IN TANZANIA The traditional edible oil crops in In many cases, official policies such Tanzania include: sesame, groundnut, as low producer prices of oilcrops in sunflower, coconut and to a limited relation to other crops and 1ack of extent palm oil. In recent years, support from extension services have procurement of groundnut has limited also contributed to the poo: its use for crushing in oil mills performance of the oilcrops industry while a non-tr~ditional source, in Tanzania. cotton seed has attained prominence accounting for about 40% of the total Recognizing the limitations of the ins~al'!ed crushing capacity i.'l the annual oilcr~ps, the Tanzanian cc:.mtry. During the early 70's, government in collaboration with the Tanzania was a net exporter of United Kingdom through ODA initiated oilseeds after satisfying the the Oilseeds Research Pro3ram in domestic de~and. However, in the mid ~978. ODA's support ceased or. 80's there was an acute shortage of Decembar 198E. edible oils and fats partly because of increased demand in :he fJst The progra~ was set up with t~e growing urban centers and declining fellowing broad objectives: production of the traditional annual oi 1crcps. i) -o identify the major factors that 1 imi t t'ie production cf The mair, problems that account for oilseeds- (i.e. sunflower, the stagnation of the annua 1 oil seeds sesame, and groundnut~. i1dustry in the country may be summarized as follows: ii) To develop and re:ommend appropriate and improved i) Lack of high yield~ng varietfas product ion packages for oil seed farmers are still using crops. tradit~onal cultivars which are adapted to their cond it 1ens, iii) To develop high yi2lding but which are inherently low varieties of oilseeds with high yielding with poor response to oil contents and adapt them to improved management prac:ices . the main areas of production. . . ) l l , High incidence cf diseases and iv) To identify the major insect insect pests and 1ack of pests and disease problems and effective control methods. to develop effective control measures suitab1e for the iii) Poor husbandry practices such small-scale farmer, and as late sowing, sub-optimal plant populations and poor \o,'eed v) To invest•gate the role of control, and oilseeds in the existing (traditional) an~ improved iv) Poor post-harvest hand~ing and farm~ ng systems and to storage facilities leading to de te rm in e how i mp roved additional loss of yield, varieties of oilseeds can best quality and lack of good be fitted into these systems. quality seed for the following season. This report presents a brief outline of sesame research in Tanzania. 18 Agronomy either crop in pure stand, Table 1. Furthermore, the best intercropping Sesame ( Sesamum indicum L.) is combination was involving an improved predominantly grown by peasant sorghum cultivar with a high yielding farmers using complex traditional sesame genotype. Also, incase of crop systems of intercropping where more failure of one component crop, in than two crops may be found in the this case sorghum; intercropping with same field. In these systems, sesame a more branching sesame cultivar is broadcasted while the other crops could be beneficial because such a are sown at random, thus sesame is cultivar has a greater abi 1ity to rarely grown in pure stand. compensate for the space made available by producing a high number Because of the complexity of these of productive branches when there is systems which are difficult to no competition for space and light. simulate under experimental conditions, the oilseeds research Because of the importance of the program embarked on developing intercropping system, the breeding packages for the "conventional" sole program has attempted to develop crop system i norder to attract genotypes of sesame which fit in well medium-scale producers so as to speed in the intercropping system. Results up production of this crop. from a study designed to se 1ect a Therefore, a range of recommendations large number of genotypes suitable to based on the sole crop system have the intercropping system have shown been deve 1oped and compi 1ed in the that intercropped sesame yields were form of a booklet covering, land positively and significantly preparation, spacings, weed control, correlated to their corresponding time of sowing, varieties and pest sole crop yields which indicated that management. During the mid-60's, a selection for a large number of set of improved varieties, the first materials could be based on their ever for sesame in Tanzania were sole crop yields initially inorder to recommended and seed issues made (1). reduce work load. These varieties were significantly higher yielding than the traditional Crop Protection Problems varieties but they were not taken up by the farmers for long presumably Insects and diseases are among the because they were not easily adapted major factors that reduce yields of to the preva i 1i ng management sesame in Tanzania (2). Due to the conditions, such as described above. potentially low yields of sesame However, in recent years, the caused by various factors other than management practices of food crops insects and diseases; it is not which are intercropped with sesame pr act i ca 1 to recommend the use of have undergone radical changes pesticides for the control of these including sowing in rows, use of pests. Therefore, the on 1 y improved seeds and to a limited alternative, though difficult to extent use of fertilizer and develop is the use of natural methods pesticides. of control including tolerance/resistance to pest attacks, The oilseeds program has, therefore, cultural methods and integrated pest attempted to develop better management. This implies detailed methods of intercropping sesame and studies of the biology and ecology of sorghum, the main staple in the dry these pests. areas of the country. The results obtained so far have demonstrated The following is a list of the most that intercropping sesame with important insects and diseases of sorghum was superior to growing sesame and their status in Tanzania. 19 Table 1. Sesame - sorghum intercropping trial conducted at Naliendele, 1985-86. Yield Value of kg[ha Value of Inter crop Genotype Combination* Sesame Sorghum LER sys tell** Advantage*** (TShs) !TShs) Intercro~ Yields SSBS9(2) t Local 225 188 1.31 3812 902 Bora + Local 280 157 1.24 3988 772 SSBS9 (2) + Tegemeo 245 886 1.38 6484 1785 Bora + Tegemeo 316 1079 1.74 8108 3448 Sole era~ Yields SSBS 9 (2) 532 6384 Bora 510 6120 Local 227 908 Tegemeo 963 3852 * SSBS9 : High branching sesame genotype, Bora : Less branching sesame improved genotype, Local =Local sorghum cultivar, Tegemeo = Improved sorghum cu1tivar ** Assuming sorghum is valued at TSHS. 4.00 I kg of grain and sesame at Tshs. 12.00/ kg of seed. *** Advantage of intercropping compared to the same area devoted to separate sole crops to produce the same ratio of yields. Insects: Diseases: - Sesame flea beet le (A 7ocypha Cercoseptoria sesami wide bimacu7ataJacoby) (Ha7ticidae) is spread, causes substant i a 1 1oss of the most important insect pest in yield. SE Tanzania causing considerable Corynespora cass i ico 7a - status 1oss of stand and f i na 11 y seed not yet determined. yield. Root and stem rots-undetermined, cause rotting associated with - Sesame Worlworm (Antigastra heavy soils subject to water cata7auna7is) wide spread, logging. causes severe damage during dry - Seedling wilts and damping off - spells. causa 1 agents undetermined but mostly associated with water - Aphids, wide spread, cause severe logged conditions. The severity damage part i cul arl y on drought can be effectively reduced by the stressed crops. use of seed dressing. Powdery mildew Oidium sp? - Mostly - Spider mite (Hermitasonemus sp.) in NE Tanzania, status not yet status not yet determined but may confirmed. cause severe damage on certain Bacterial diseases genotypes. Bacterial blights caused by - White flies (Bemisia tabaci) wide Xanthomonas campestris patho spread, suspected to be vector of variate sesami and Pseudomonas Leaf Curl Virus (LCV). sesami cause infrequent damage on the crop. - Gall midge (Asphondy7ia sesami) - wide spread, but most severe on Leaf Curl Virus's (LCV) suspected late sown crops. vector is Bemisia tabaci. Source of inoculum is also suspected from 20 a semi-perenial weed, Sida sp. of this near forgotten crop, it has This is potentially dangerous but not been easy to expand the germplasm does not occur every season. collection. Furthermore, because of financial and transport limitations, Phyllody is sporadic, generally very few locally available land races less than 0.01% but considered as have been collected potentially dangerous. Table 2. Performance of cv. SPS 80.8 Under High Few sesame genotypes with Incidences of Bacterial Blight sesamil tolerance to Cercoseptoria sesami at Naliendele: Seed yield (kg/ha). have been identified but the genetic mechanism of this Year tolerance has not been Entrl 1985 1986 1987• determined. One genotype, SPS SPS 80.8 706 600 780 80.8 has been found to have some Bora 390 397 789 amount of tolerance to SSBS 7 188 187 426 Xanthomonas sesami., Table 2. Trial Means** 368 295 550 Range 129-706 62-600 206-1150 Germplasm •The disease was late in this season. The germplasm available for the ••Mean of 16 cultivars from 3 replications except sesame program at Naliendele is 1987 which was a mean of 78 cultivars with two st i 11 very inadequate to meet the replications. challenges of developing varieties with high and stable yields, which References are suitable for specific management requirements, ecological adaptatio~ 1. Acland J.D. 1971.East African Crops. and possessing resistances to the 2. Chambi J.Y. 1988. Sesame Research in Tanzania: wide range of insect pests and Prob 1ems and Research High 1i ghts. Proceedings diseases. Because of the past of the Fourth Oil Crops Network Workshop IDRC history MR-205e (A. Omran ed.):118-122. 21 SCOPE OF SESAME In Pakistan, sesame (Sesamum indicum practices are needed: L.) is grown as a minor oilseed crop. However, the growing area is Soil and seed bed preparation increasing, Table 1. During 1977-78, the area was 31,600 ha with the Sesame is adapted to a wide range of product ion of 12, 600 MT, while in soils but usually fertile and loamy 1986-87, it rose to 33,000 ha with soils are preferable. The crop grows the production of 12,500 MT, giving well in the regions of limited 40% increase in area and 0.8% rainfall on deep soils that store decrease in production compared to water in their profiles. 1977-78. About 53.3%, 37.3, 7.3%, and 2.1% of the total area under sesame As the sesame seed is small, it are located in the provinces of should be planted on a firm but punjab, Sind, Baluchistan and in mellow seed bed with good moisture North West Frontire province, condition. The land should be well respectively. prepared before sowing by 2-3 ploughings, fol lowed by planking Yield potential (sohaga). The yield potential of sesame Fertilizer varieties in Pakistan ranges between 1,850 and 1,899 kg/ha, but the The sesame crop responds to average yield obtained during 1986- fertilizers as the seed has high 87 was very low, 375 kg/ha. The contents of the elements supplied by yield potentials of the varieties fertilizers. Nitrogen and phosphorus progeny 19-9, S-17 and P37-40,for are the important elements to obtain example, are 1,899, 1,852 and 1,850 higher yields. About 57/23 kg/ha of kg/ha, respectively. N/P205 is sufficient to get good yield of sesame. The fertilizer Other sesame growing countries should be applied during seed bed obtain greater yields than Pakistan, preparation. the maximum average yield being 1,083 kg/ha in Saudi Arabia, followed by Iran, Peru, Egypt, Mexico and Sowing date and method of planting Colombia with average yields of 1,000, 938, 932, 632, and 563 kg/ha, The best sowing date of sesame is respectively. Sesame can be pl anted first to last weeks of July. Delay when the land is fa 11 ow, and does in sowing decreases yield and exposes not disturb any major crop like wheat to greater possibility of disease because it is planted during July attack. after the harvest of wheat and harvested before planting of wheat. Sesame seed should be sown about 2 Therefore, farmers can get extra cm deep in moist soil to foster rapid income from the same piece of land. germination. The row spacing should be 45 cm with plant to plant distance In pakistan, the occurrance of severe of 1O cm. A seed rate of 5 kg/ha attack of root rot and bacterial should be used, but if the soil is blight disease and nonadoption of heavy the rate might be increased to improved cultural practices by the get good germination. farmers are the main reasons which cause low yield. Therefore, to get Before sowing, the seed should be optimum yield from the existing treated with Vitavex or any other varieties, the following cultural fungicide to control the incidence 22 Tab 1e 1. Sesa111e area ( '000 ha), production ( '000 Disease tons) and yield (kg/ha). Root rot disease is very common in Year Punjab Sind NWFP Baluch- Pakistan sesame and causes wilting; as a istan result the yield decreases sub Area stantially. Sometimes the disease 1977-78 10.2 13.3 1.9 6.2 31.6 attack is so severe that the whole 1978-79 10.4 16.9 3.3 15.3 45.9 crop is wiped out. Root rot can be 1979-80 15. 1 17.5 0.9 12.7 46.2 controlled to some extent by changing 1980-81 22.6 8.2 1.2 12. 1 44.1 the sowing date as early planting 1981-82 23.8 11.8 1.6 5.6 42.8 reduces the disease incidence. 1982-83 14.7 10.7 0.7 2.4 28.5 1983-84 13.0 6. 1 0.9 2.4 22.4 Bacterial blight is also serious 1984-85 20.4 10.6 0.9 2.3 34.2 after rainy season. The attack of 1985-86 25.5 8.9 0.7 2.4 37. 5 this disease can be controlled by two 1986-87 17.7 12.4 0.7 2.4 33.2 methods: i) planting disease Production resistant varieties and ii) field 1977-78 3.9 5.0 0.6 3. 1 12. 6 sanitation. The latter includes crop 1978-79 4. 1 6. 1 0.9 7.6 18. 7 rotation i . e. sesame shou 1d not be 1979-80 6.2 6.5 0.2 6.4 19.3 grown on one field in successive 1980-81 9.1 2.7 0.4 6.1 18.3 seasons, and also the removal of all 1981-82 9.7 3.7 0.5 2.7 16. 6 crop residues after harvest is 1982-83 6.1 3.3 0.2 1.2 10.8 necessary as these nourish disease 1983-84 5.4 1.9 0.3 1.2 8.8 organism for the future. By this 1984-85 8.8 3.3 0.3 1.1 13. 5 practice, the crop can be saved from 1985-86 10. 7 2.8 0.3 1.1 14. 9 disease, thus, yield increases 1986-87 7.4 3.8 0.2 1.1 12. 5 considerably. Yield 1977-78 385 379 297 495 399 Insect pests 1978-79 389 365 279 498 409 1979-80 410 372 283 504 419 In general, sesame is not seriously 1980-81 405 326 302 503 414 attacked by insect pests. However, 1981-82 410 311 303 480 388 the two main insects which attack the 1982-83 418 307 337 483 379 crop are: 1983-84 416 312 327 501 394 1984-85 431 313 354 495 397 i) Leaf roller (Antigastra 1985-86 420 313 355 487 398 ca ta 7auna 7is): By the attack 1986-87 417 296 360 458 375 of this insect, the leaves start curling and ultimately of seed borne fungal diseases. rolled and the growth of the plant is stunted which causes Thinning, weeding and hoeing decrease in yield. To control the attack, spray of Dimecron Thinning should be done 10-15 days 100% @ 1.0 lb/ha should be after sowing, and the diseased plants applied. should be removed. i i ) Ti 11 hawk moth (Herse Like other crops, weeding is convo7v7ii L.): This insect is essential in sesame production as the of large size and eates leaves yield reduces because of competition of the sesame plants with a of weeds for soil moisture and great speed. In case of its nutrients. For this purpose, hoeing severe attack, all the leaves should be done with the help of are eaten up by the insect and tarpha 1i or rotary hoe when the weeds the plant dies due to non are small . Two hoe i ngs are availability of food material. sufficient. To curb this insect, spraying 23 should be done with Gusathion 2. Progeny 19-9: This variety has at @ 1 . O 1b/ha. been identified for cultivation in Sind province. It ~s white Harvesting and threshing seeded, medium-ta 11 , and medium in maturity taking about 110 Sesame matures in 100-120 days. days. It has a yteld potential Timely harvesting is very important, of 1,899 kg/ha and is also as delay causes shattering and the mode rate 1y resist ant to insect yield decreases considerably. pests and diseases. Harvesting should be started promptly as soon as the 1st pod 3. P 37-40: This is an improved (capsule) begins to burst. The variey selected at Oilseed plants have to be cut at ground Research Institute, Faisalabad, level, tied in bunches or sheaves for general cultivation in the and stacked upright for complete Punjab. The seed is white in drying. When all the pods burst open colour. The plant is medium at the tip, the bunches should be tall with profused branching inverted carefully over a canvas or habit. The capsules are bold threshing floor. Then, the seed is and matures in about 110-115 to be winnowed, c 1eaned and packed days. The yield potential of in bags. Care should be taken that this variety is about 1,850 seed may not contain more than 10% kg/ha. moisture. 4. Local Black: This variety is Varieties being grown in NWFP on large scale cultivation. The seed is 1. S-17: This improved variety black in colour, the plant is was recommended for irrigated erect with non-shattering areas of Sind during 1974. It capsules, resistant to insect is a white seeded variety, pest and diseases to some with medium-tal 1 stature, extent and the crop matures in matures in 100 days, high 110-120 days. The yield yielding and resistant to potent i a 1 is 594 kg/ha which insect-pest and diseases. The is very 1ow as comp a red to yield potential of S-17 is other improved varieties. 1,852 kg/ha. 24 STATUS OF SESAME AS OILSEED IN BANGLADESH M.A. Khaleque and Hasina Begum Table 1. Area, production and yield of sesame in Sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) is the Bangladesh, 1983-84 to 1987-88. second oilseed crop in Bangladesh after rapeseed and mustard, both in Area Production Seed yield area and production. It is an Year !ha} !MT} !kg[hal important crop, which is utilized in 1983-84 102,340 56,634 558 preparation of different palatable 1984-85 85,602 46,251 541 snacks and food recipes in addition 1985-86 92,039 53,716 583 to oil purposes. It is the major 1986-87 84,586 49,059 580 oilseed growing in summer (kharif) 1987-88 82,021 49,027 598 season, usually sown in spring (ea;ly Average 89,318. 50,937. 572 kharif) when the temperature is 25- 210c. It is grown in highland areas Table 2. Average area, production and yield of where rain water does not stand. It major sesame growing areas of greater is also grown in winter in some parts districts of Bangladesh (1983/84 - of the country. But when the 1987/88) temperature falls below 20°C the crop growth is delayed. Moreover, the Area Production Yield growth is checked at tempera~ure District ---1ha l !M. tons l !llihaJ Re11arks below 10°c (4). It is reasonably Barisal 11, 282 7,343 651 Coastal area drought resistant and grows well with Faridpur 9,727 4,919 506 average rainfall of 500-650mm, and ?abna 8,256 4,830 585 Drier region can stand extreme conditions of 300mm Rangamati 8,008 4,409 550 Hilly area or 1000mm (2). But the crop is highly Khulna 7I 776 4,780 614 Coastal area susceptible to water logging and Dhaka 6,735 4,004 594 Central acidic soil (3). region Total 51,784 30,285 583 Growing Area and Region Source: Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics. Based on the average of five years, the farmers. Cropping patterns are ending 1987-88, sesame growing area practiced as in Table 3 (1). was about 89,319 ha with production of about 50, 939 tons (@ 572 kg/ha Varietal develooment only), Table 1. Its area has been constantly declining, possibly due The local variety T-6, now under to lack of high yielding variety cultivation covers about 80% of the (HYV) and the priority given to total area. It is characterized by cereals. It is largely grown in the one pod/leaf axi 1. Pods are medium greater districts of Barisal, long and narrow in shape. It contains Faridpur, Pabna, Rangamati and Khulna black colored seeds with 43-44% oil. and covers more than 50% of the total It is highly susceptible to area and production, Table 2. In Nacrophomina phaseo7ina. This variety other districts it is grown with less cannot compete with 'Aus' rice and intensity. jute. Some other types having brown or red seeds are also grown in some Cropping Pattern localities. Several materials of different kinds from various sources Normally, sesame is grown as a sole like USA and India in addition to the crop. Mixed crop of sesame with local ones, are already Foxtail millet, Aus rice and even under study. Some of these with groundnut is also practiced by materials are now under advance 25 Table 3. Cropping patterns. Spring Autumn (Kharif I) (Kharif II) Region A. Sole crop (Sesame) Transplanted Aman rice Barisal, Khulna, Faridpur, and Dhaka. B. Mixed crop 1. Aus rice +sesame Transplanted A11an rice Pabna 2. Foxtai 1 mi 1let + sesa111e Transplanted Allan rice Tangai 1, Comi 1la and Pabna 3. Aus rice Groundnut + Sesame Gazipur C. Intercrop 1. sugarcane/sesame Sugarcane (Contd.) Northern district (early stage) 2. jute or Aus rice Cotton/sesame Gazipur. trials of selection, Table 4. Among Production of Oilcrops in Bangladesh. Ministry those' UCR 9 and UCR-7-1 of USA of Agriculture, Government of Bangladesh and origin are prominent. But none of FAO/UNDP Project BGD/79/034 'Strengthening the these are tolerant to water logging Agricultural Extension Service', Dhaka, pp 47. and stem rot (Macrophomina). 2. Kaul, A.K. and H.L. Das. 1986. Oilseeds in Moreover, adequate number of Bangladesh, Bangladesh-Canada Agriculture germplasms are not available. Sector Team, Ministry of Agriculture, Govern ment of the people's Republic of Bangladesh, So, it is highly essential to collect Dhaka, pp 67. some good materials from different 3. Hohanty, R.N. 1984. Strategies for Oilseed sources to test the suitabi 1ity under Production in India. Publications and Bangladesh condition inorder to Information Division. Indian Council of select high yielding varieties Agricultural Research, New Delhi, pp 136. capable to compete with Aus rice. 4. Salehuzzaman, H. and H.K. Pasha. 1979. Effects of high and low temperatures on the germination References of the seeds of flax and sesame. Ind. J. Agric. 49 (4); 260-261. 1. Khaleque, M.A. 1985. AGuide Book on 26 Table 4. 'Comparative performance of different sesame lines' at BARI, Joydebpur, Gazipur of Bangladesh. T-6 Characters !checkl UCR-9 UCR-7-1 local 1. Plant height (cm) 114 105 104 119 .4 2. Stem stiffness Narrow, weak Narrow, weak Narrow weak Narrow weak 3. Number of primary branches/plant 3 3 4 4 4. Number of pods/plant 44 40 40 33 5. Pod bearing habit Single, Double, Triplicate Single alternate opposit opposite alternate 6. Number of chambers/pod 4 4 6-8 6 7. Pod shape Medium long Long and Short and Medium long and narrow semi broad broad and narrow 8. Number of seeds/pod 56 74 86 83 9. Seed colour Black Grey Brown Redish 10. Tolerance to heavy shower/ Moderately Highly Highly Susceptible water logging tolerant susceptible susceptible 11. Disease reaction !stem rot) Moderately Susceptible Moderately Moderately susceptible resistant resistant 12. Maturity period (days) 86 80 88 90 13. Yield/plant (g) 2.7 2.7 3.5 3.0 14. Yield[ha !kg) 485 668 710 688 Source: Bangladesh Agric. Research Institute. 27 PROBLEMS AND PROGRESS OF SESAME PRODUCTXON ZN XNDXA S. Thangavelu, G. Kandasamy, M. Sivanandam and R.K. Murali Baskaran There is a wide gap between the Table 1. Average distribution of area and demand and supply of edible oils and production of oilseeds in India, fats in India. With a view to reduce 1980/81-1986/87. this gap, the Planning Commission set out a target of 18 mi 11 ion tons of Area Production o i1 seeds p reduction by the end of 7th Crops (%) m plan (1989-90)and 26 million tons by Edible oilseeds 89.9 93.4 turn of this century. To attain the a) Groundnut 40.8 54. 1 target level, an annual compound bl Rapeseed/Mustard 20.7 21.9 growth rate of 6.5% in production has c) Sesame 11.4 4.5 to be achieved to reduce the import d) Soybean 5.8 5.8 bi 11, which was 10 bi 11 ion rupees e) Safflower 4.3 3.9 during 1986-87. f) Sunflower 4.2 2. 1 g) Miger 2.7 1.1 Eventhough, area under oilseeds occupies a major share in India, Non-ed1ble oilseeds 10.1 6.6 p reduction remained i so 1ated from the a) Linseed 7.2 3.5 green revolution which made more b) Castor 2.9 3.1 impact in Indian agriculture in the Total (19264.13)* ( 12029.85)* late 60's and in early 70's. * Total area and production in thousand hectares and tons, respectively. Sesame is the most ancient o i 1seed crop of India. The crop covers the Table 2. Growth rate of sesame area, production 1argest cu 1ti vated area of 2. 5 and yield (l/year)in India. million ha with 0.5 million tons of production. Sesame ranks third among Period I Per1od II Periods I&II oilseeds in India after groundnut and Particulars 1956/57- 1966/67- 1956/57- rapeseed/mustard and occupies 11.4% 1965/66 1985/86 1985/86 of the total area under oilseeds, Area 0.48 -0.39 0.06 Table 1. The major sesame growing Production -1. 38 1. 43 0.4i states are: Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Yield -1. 90 1.68 0. 61 Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andra Pradesh, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat period, production and productivity and West Benga 1 . Among the states, have increased at the rate of O. 47 Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, and 0.61% per yer, respectively. The Rajasthan and Orissa account for productivity contributed more to about 65% of the area and 55% of the production than to area. production. The average productivity in India is 221 kg/ha. The analysis indicated that during phase I, the area under sesame The compound growth rates in area, increased at the rate of O. 4% per production and productivity for the year against the decreasing trend in periods 1956/57 - 1965/66 (phase I, the production and productivity of - pre-green revolution) and from 1. 38 and -1. 90% per annum, 1966/57 - 1985/86 phase II, (post respectively. In respect of phase II, green revolution) are presented in the trend was completely different. Table 2. The data show that the area The area decreased by 0.39% though under sesame increased the production and yield showed a negligibly with 0.06 every year good compound growth rate of 1.43 and during the entire period. In the same 1.68% per annum, respectively. It is 28 interesting to note that though area Crop Improvement was decreasing the production and productivity increased probably due In many places, research programs are to good production technology being carried out and one variety, RT developed and adopted during the 46, a white-seeded high yielding type post-green revolution period. has been identified for northern parts of India. This variety also At present, attempts are underway to displayed tolerance to macrophomina bridge the gap between the potential root rot. Another culture, "Improved and ave rage y i e 1ds obtained in the Selection 5" has also been identified farmers' field by actually as a high yielding one for different demonstrating in the farmers'field parts of the country. Two varieties, the viable technologies for ACV-1 and ACV-2 were released in increasing the production of sesame Kerala state. by scientists of the Agricultural Universities. This has been given At a number of places common co high priority in the transfer of ordinated trials were conducted with technology. a view to identify location- specific varieties for different agro-climatic To co-ordinate the different zones. The emphasis is a 1so p1 aced ministries to involve in the for developing varieties production of oilseeds from sowing resistant/tolerant to major pests and to oil extraction, the Oilseeds diseases of sesame. Attempts are also Technology Mission started being made to produce hybrid seeds functioning from 1986 onwards. To manually as the standard heterosis the sat i sfaction of every one, for yield was found to be about 50%. against the target of 18 mill ion tons The production techniques on by March 1990, 17. 8 mi 11 ion tons have commercial basis have been perfected been attained one year ahead by 30th and are being attempted in small June 1989. Now there is a great scale. Further more, the scope to exceed the target. breeders'seed production of improved varieties of sesame is also taken up The main objectives in sesame by different State Ag r i cu 1tu ra 1 production are: Universities to cover the entire area under improved varieties. 1) to increase the yield to 1000 kg/ha, Crop Management 2) to breed early maturing varieties of 70-75 days, In general, the sesame crop responded 3) to evolve varieties with high oil to 50 - 60 kg/ha of nitrogen at contnet (52%), different locations. 4) to develop varieties resistant to leaf roller, The intercropping studies conducted 5) to evolve varities resistant to at various centres have revealed that phyllody, the following intercrops were found 6) to evolve varieties with delayed to give highest monetary return: dehiscence, and 7) to develop nutrient management Madhya Pradesh Sesame+ Green gram 1:1 strategies to maximize yield. Ta111il Nadu = Sesame + Green gram 8:2 Gujarat = Sesame+ Pearl millet 2:1 The season and weather conditions Uttar Pradesh Sesame+ Pigeonpea 1:1 during the year 1988 were satisfactory for sesame in most parts The spacing trial at Vriddhachalam of India resulting in increased (Tamil Nadu) has indicated that yield. 220, ooo p1 ants per hectare is the optimum plant population to get the 29 maximum yield. Crop Protection Studies conducted at Vriddhachalam, The leaf webber (Antigastra revealed that Thiram treatment cataTaunaTis) incidence was found to followed by Azospirillum registered occur in most part of the country and highest yield of 435 kg/ha which is the dusting of Endosulfan 4% or 29% more than the control and 15.4% Methyl parathion 2% or BHC 10% I 25 more than Azospirillum treatment. kg/ha was found to control this pest. Azospirillum alone increased the The Neem oil@ 5 litres in 500 litres sesame yield by 11.9%, Table 3. of water (1%) was found to highly reduce shoot webber incidence upto Table 3. Combined effect of fungicides and 90% and this is the cheapest plant Azospirillum on the yield of sesame. product that can be used without any pesticide residue as well as Yield Percent environmental pollution problems. Treatments (kg[ha) of cont ro 1 Spraying of chemical at vegetative Captan + Azospirillum 377 111.9 phase as well as flowering period Thiram + AzospirilluM 435 129.0 will be highly useful to control this Carboxin + Azospirillum 382 113. 3 pest. Captan alone 337 Thiram alone 369 108. 15 The three genotypes viz., Es 12, Es Carboxin alone 364 108.0 22 and SI 250 were found to be Azospirillum alone 377 111. 9 moderately resistant to leaf webber Control 337 100.0 as per the trial conducted under SE 24.3 bombarded condition, Tables 4a and co 73.8 4b. This moderate resistance continues to be exhibited even upto For storing the sesame seeds upto 8- 90 days. So, these could be good 10 months, the moisture content donors for shoot webber resistance. should be reduced to 5-10% then dry The wild species S. a Tatum was also dressed with Bavi st in @ 2 g/kg of found to be highly resistant to this seeds and packed in HO polythene 700 pest both in the vegetative as well gauge thick bags and heat-sealed. as pod stages. Instead of Bavistin, treating the seeds with Thi ram 75% wettable powder The highest percentage of shoot 2g + activated clay 10 g/kg of seeds webber and phyllody was recorded in may also be done. kharif season as compared to other seasons. The yield loss due to shoot To overcome the decline in webber/pod borer was 41.8 - 58.9% germination during the early period depending on the genotypes and of storage the fol lowing procedure season. may be adapted. The seeds may be cleaned and soaked for two hours Table 4.a Screening for sesame shootwebber doubling the volume of Oisodium incidence. phosphate solution ( 3. 5 g for 100 litres of water). If this salt is Shoot webber damage !II not available, potable salt-free Entry 1985 1985 Mean water can be used. After removing the Summer Kharif floating seeds, the soaked seeds may SI 250 7.5 4-3 5.9 be spread over a clean gunny air ES 22 2.6 0.0 1.3 dried under shade & then in the ES 12 4.3 0.0 2.2 morning or evening sun until they are TMV 4 (Check) 21.4 34.0 27.7 dried to the original weight and then SEO 12.87±1.4 15.87±2.8 stored as usual. 30 Table 4b. Shoot webber incidence, 1988 Rabi. be high in the northern parts of India ranging from 35 to 95%. Trial I Trial II Phytopthora blight, bacterial leaf Shoot webber damage I Shoot Seed fed spot, Macrophomina, Alternaria and 40 60 90 webber by 1am Grade Rmrk Cercospora were also found to occur Entry DAS DAS DAS damage (I) in one or other parts of India. I ES 22 2.3 8.7 12.4 10.8 4.3 R Early sowing of sesame immediately SI 250 7.4 10.7 15.3 11.1 5.9 R at the onset of south west monsoon TMV 3 15.1 25.9 29.2 29.9 31.9 S was found to reduce the incidence of S.a1atu1 12.5 5.8 0.0 6.1 0.9 HR shoot webber as well as other a R: Resistant, S: Susceptible, HR: Highly resistant. diseases. DAS : Days after so11in9. In the screening for resistance to Sesame i ntercroppi ng with pearl powdery mildew, two genotypes viz., millet or groundnut reduces the SI 3315/11 and VS-112 were found to incidence of shoot webber/pod borer have low grades of incidence, Table resulting in increased grain yield 6. and land equivalent ratio (LER). The incidence of pest was high in pure Table 6. Powdery 111ildew incidence, 1988 Rabi, crop of sesame while the sesame (0-5 grade). intercropped with pearl millet or groundnut showed lower incidence, Natural Artificial Table 5. The LER was also high. In Entry condition condition Re111ark* the varietal screening for shoot SI 3315/11 1.67 1.90 MR webber/capsule borer, three more vs 112 1.47 1.83 MR entries PDK-31, 020-3-1 and SI-810 TMV 3 3.80 4.53 HS were moderately resistant even under TMV 4 4.17· 4.57 HS controlled conditions. TMV 5 4.23 4.37 HS TMV 6 3.97 4.40 HS Table 5. Influence of intercropping on Antigastra co 1 2.07 2.73 MS cata1auna1is infestation. * MR : Moderately resistant, HS : Highly susceptible, MS : Moderately susceptible. Rainy season '87 Rainy season '88 Cropping Inter- Shoot Shoot It is important to note that phyllody pattern crop webber LER webber LER symptoms were observed at Coimbatore ratio dmge (I) damage (ll on different crop plants besides Sesame + sesame: Sunhemp 22%, Parthenium 32%, Groundnut 4: 1 19. 2 1.60 5. 5 1.39 Pigeonpea 4%, Petunia hybrida 1%, Sesa11e + Green gram 5%, Bengal gram 5%, Pearl 11illet 4: 1 13. 1 1.49 3. 4 1.21 Fenugreek 3% and Sword bean 9%. It Seme alone 34.8 11.2 was also found that these crop plants act as host for the phyllody vector The survey of the diseases indicated Orocius a7bicintus under natural that the leaf curl virus was found to condition along with Alfalfa. 31 PESTS OF SESAME AND THEXR CONTROL1 S- Thangav•"'lu Common Sesame Pests I. Seed and Seedling Scientific name Common name Where found Agrot is spp. Cutworms Cosmopolitan Amsacta moorei Tigermoth India Aphthona sp. Flea beetles Africa Chrotogenus spp. Grasshoppers Asia Systena sp. Flea beetles S. America Zonocerus variegatus Grasshopper Africa II. Stem: Baris he 7leri Weevil Africa Oberea sesami Borer III. Foliage: Acheront ia styx Eastern Oeoth's Europe-Asia head hawk moth Far East. Aleyrodidae White flies Africa-Asia Amsacta moorei Tiger moth India Antigastra catalaunalis Sesame leaf-roller Cosmopolitan Aphis gossypi i Aphid Africa circulifer opacipennis Leafhopper Europe-Asia Crytopeltis tenuis Tomato bug Cosmopolitan Deltocephalus spp. Jass ids Africa-Asia Diacresia obliqua Tiger moth Asia, Far East Hyzus persicae Aphid Cosmopolitan Spodoptera spp. Leafworms Cosmopolitan Taylori lyqus vosse levi Cotton lygus Africa IV. Flower and Fruit: Acrosternum hi lare Green stink bug America Agonoscelis pubescens Andat bug Africa Aphanus sordidus Africa-Asia Asphondylia sesami Gall midge Africa-Asia Ca 7idea sp. Shield bug Africa Nezara viridula Shield bug Cosmopolitan V. Storage: Carpophilus obsoletus Dried fruit beetle Asia Corcyra cephalonica Rice moth Cosmopolitan 1 This paper is a response to recommendation No.10 of the first meeting (Oilcrops: Sunflower, Linseed and Sesame. IORC MR205e, A.Omran ed.1989:311). 32 Ephestia caute77a Tropical warehouse Cosmopolitan beetle Tribo7ium castaneum Red flour beetle Cosmopolitan Trogoderma granarium Khaprabeetle Cosmopolitan Important Pests of Sesamum in India: Convnon name Scientific Name Nature of damage Key Pests Shoot and leafwebber Antigastra cata7auna7is Leaves webbed and (Duponehel) eaten seed on flowers. Sesamum sphinx Acherontia styx (Estwood) Defoliation. Sesamum gallfly Asphondy7ia sesami (Felt)Larvae feed on flowers. Potential Pests Jass id Orosius a7bicinctus Distant Vector of phyllody Pod-Suking bug E7asmo1omus sordidus Fabr. Sucks pods. Green peachaphid Myzus persicae (Sulzer) Sucks Sap. Red hairy caterpillar Amsacta moorei (Butter) Defoliation. Bihar hairy caterpillar Diacrisia ob1iqua (Walker) Defoliation Tobacco caterpillar Spodoptera 7itura (Fabr.) Defoliation. Sesame is subject to attack by a wide instance, high seed rates can range of insect pests, but there is compensate for seed-bed losses, considerable variation in the branching varieties produce more relative importance of various flowers than non-branching types. insects in different countries. In Pl anting dates that avoid the main some, those species attacking flower outbreak of a major insect pest are heads and young fruit assume greatest established, and destruction of crop economic importance, while in others residues assists in reducing foliage eaters cause the major loss. succeeding infestations. Screening within local varieties and strains In East Africa for instance, list of can be very useful in selecting for some thirty species feeding on sesame resistance to a local pest (56). was found, but only half a dozen are of any importance. In other Insect attacks may influence countries longer 1 i st has been traditional planting and cultivation compiled, but the proportions are methods and their control requires a similar (45). Insects are major change in techniques. For instance, causes of yield reduction in sesame 1ate thinning may compensate for gaps and a world-wide average of 25% of caused by mole crickets or cut worms, the potent i a 1 y i e 1d can reason ab 1y be but if these pests are controlled, assumed. plant populations may be too high and early thinning or lower seed rates In general, chemical control of become necessary. Losses occur not sesame pests is uneconomical, but the only in the fields, but also during extent of potential yield loss must storages which are usually primitive be rea 1i zed and offset as far as and inefficient under peasant possible by cultural techniques. For conditions. 33 Foliage eaters are of major Campop7ex spp. and Tratha7a f7avo importance in the main sesame growing orbita 1is have been reported to regions, although the particular parasitise the larvae of this pest. species concerned may differ from area to area. Carbaryl 0.15% and Endosulfan 0.07% were reported to be economical and Shoot and leaf webber, Ant igastra effective insecticides against ca ta 7auna 7is: Ant igastra. It is a major pest in a 11 sesame More details about this pest appears growing areas in India. Newly in Appendix I. hatched larvae mine the young leaves and shoot tips and at a later stage Sesamum sphinx, Acherontia styx: they fasten leaves and shoots together with silk and feed inside. The Sesamum Sphinx is a major pest The caterpillars destroy tips of the in West Bengal and of minor plants, including flowers, pods and importance or occasionally becomes seeds. major in other areas. The pest is active f ram August to The Shining eggs are laid singly, on November. Early (June) sown Kharif the underside of the leaves and the crops are less infested than late larvae feed on the leaves and pods. sown kharif crops, but semi-rabi crop If te infestation is high, it may is more infested than the khari f crop completely defoliate the entire crop. (12). Fully grown caterpillars are 7mm long, green with oblique yellow body Antirrhinummajus and Duranta act as streaks, and with a recurved horn on alternate hosts. The moth lays small the posterior segment. Normally, the greenish eggs singly on the tip of pest is active from March to November the growing shoots and flowers and and the infestation is maximum in fecundity is 86-232 during September, caterpillars pupate in the oviposition period of 5 days. Egg soil in September-October and remain period lasts about 2 days, larval in pupal stage until March-April. period 10-15 days and pupal period 4- 19 days. Pupation takes place inside Ploughing of cropped fields after webbed leaves and in fallen leaves or harvest wi 11 expose the pupae and soil crevices. The pupa is green and reduce the incidence of the pest in is generally covered with whitish the following season. s i 1ken threads. The pest is reported to pass 14 generations in a year. A Braconid, Apante1es acherontiae The adult moth is with brownish parasitizing the larvae and an yellow forewings decorated with Eupelmid, Anastatus acherontiae indistinct zigzag 1 ines. The hind paras it is i ng eggs have been reported. wings are pale yellow almost transparent and the moth looks cream Carbaryl 0.15% or Endosulfan 0.07% colored. sprays are effective in controlling the pest. Destroying volunteer sesame plants and alternate hosts like Antirrhinum Sesamum gallfy, Asphondy7ia sesami: majus prevent early infestations. Sesamum gall fly is a major pest in Some tolerance in sesame lines B-67, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra. C-1036 and E-8 and moderate resistance in Sesamum prostratum, a The adult is a mosquito-like fly with wild species, has been reported. long antennae and the maggots are Inchneumon ids, Teme 7ucha bigut tu 7a, greyish cream. Eggs are inserted in 34 young fl ewer buds and maggots feed on storage for the following season's the floral parts, particularly ovary. seed. The extent of this loss can be The irritation caused by the feeding judged from official estimates of the of the larvae results in the Ministry of Agriculture, Pakistan, formation of gall like buds which do which quotes the amount of seed not develop into seed capsules. The stored from one season to the next as maggots pupate in the ga 11 s. The 1,200 tons or some 2.3% of the total adult emerges through an exit hole, production. Heavy loss can also leaving the pupal case protruding. occur in India (45). Avoiding late sewings and application The most common pests of sesame seed of Dimethoate or BHC at 15 days and cake are Tribo1ium castaneum interval during flowering period are Hbst. and Ephestia caute17a Lep. found to be effective in reducing the Both are cosmopolitan and attack a pest incidence. range of stored products. They are also the most frequently noted as Jassids, Orosivs albicinctus: infesting ship cargos. Other insects recorded on sesame seed and cake are The Jassid is the vector of phyllody Corcyra cepha1onica St. in India, which is a major disease of sesamum Africa and Braz i 1, Crypto Jestes caused by MLO. The jassid is pusi 77usSchon, Oryzcephi 7us mercator infective for life after latent F. in Africa, Carpophi7us spp., period of 10-11 days. Ephestia caute11a Wlk in India and Pakistan, Tribo7ium confusum Dun. in Time of planting may influence the Uganda and the Central African severity of attack. For instance, Republic. in Kanpur, mid-July sewings were found to greatly reduce the The effect of using the fumigant incidence. In Madras, early planting Phosphine on the viability of some is recommended, while in Uttar oil seeds including sesame, has been Pradesh, it is late planting. The investigated in India. The USA incidence of the disease and the official tolerance level for post jassid prevalence seem to be harvest fumigation of sesame seed correlated. Those varieties with hydrogen cyanide is 25 ppm. flowering in 41-50 days were less affected by phyllody. Breeding or The hygacid Spi7ostethus pandurus selection of strains resistant to the (seep) was reported as a pest os jassid within this group would appear sesame (48). Diacrisia oblique a to offer the greatest opportunities polyphagous pest was also found to of increasing resistance to phyllody. cause severe damage to sesamum (16, 55). Insecticidal control of the jassid with Dimethoate can substantially Sprays (0.1%) of Chloropyrifos, reduce the incidence of the disease. Monocrotophos, Leptophos, Methamidophos, Permethrin, Quinalphos Storage pests: and Endosulfan applied at a rate of 520 l/ha had a strong knock down The damage caused by insects effect on third-instar larvae (15). attacking sesame seed and cake is substantial, but there is little He1anagromyza azaw11 Spencer was published information on the actual reported to infest sesame for the degree or amount of damage in a first time (39). specific region. Almost ali official publications on the crop make Larvae of Ho1otrichia consanguinea reference to this loss and to the were found feeding on the sesamum necessity of providing insect-proof plants (6). 35 It was found that 3 applications of was found attacking sesame (36). BHC dust at 22 kg/ha at 35 (flowering stage) 50 and 65 days after sowing A study on the parasites of larvae reduced the incidence of gallfly of the noctuids Ac7iothis zea Boddie Asphondy 7i a sesam i to 7. 1% and and H. eliothis virescens F. increased seed yields to 283 kg/ha collected from cotton and inter compared with 12. 4% and 185 kg/ha planted sesame, showed that respectively for untreated control H.virescens was found more on sesame (30). than on cotton and more often parasitised (35). The braconid In pakistan, the leaf hopper Empoasca Apante 7es margin iventris Cress and sesame was reported as a new pest on the ichneumonid Camp7otis jonorensis sesame at Karachi (31). Cam were the most abundant parasite species reared for He 7iothis larvae Biological control of gingel ly on sesame (54.8%). blossom midge: It was reported that Lygaide Nysius The parasitization of Dasineura7 inconspicuus Distant severely damage sesami Grover & Prasad a common pest sesame in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and of sesame by the Pteromalid Kera la ( 47). It was further Pteroma 7us fasciatus (Thomas) was reported that Aerra tomentosa, studied (40). The results showed Amaranthus benga7ensis, A. viridis, that the second instar larvae were ce b o s i a a r gen t ea (A ge r a t um the most susceptible to parasitism, conyzoides), Euphorbia pi 7u 7 ifera and which ranged between 26. 66 and Mu77ugo sp. are alternate hosts for 45.55%. However, the average rates this pest. of parasitism of the third and fourth instar larvae were 20.57 and 2.36%, The following pests of sesame were respectively, and it was further reported in Tanganika (42): reported that P. fasciatus is a biological control agent of D. Pentatomid (Phrycodus hystrix sesami. Germ), Puncturs the seed capsules, - Halticid (Aphthona bimacu7ata Jae), Aphid: attacks the folliage, - Aphid (Myzus percicae Sulz), sucks Aphis croccivora Roch was reported the growing tips. as a pest of sesame (34). - Leafwebber (Antigastra cata7auna7is Dup), binds the growing tips and In Rajasthan, India, Amsacta moorei causes terminal distortion of the plants. 39 APPENDIX I Shoot and leaf webber (Antigastra cata!auna!is} Description and Biology The 1arvae inf est all the parts of the p1 ant and most da11age was caused by de st raying the buds, A. cata1auna1is is described as a leaf roller of f 1owe rs, seeds and immature seed capsu 1es and the sesame in a report to the government of Bengal (22). damage ranged from 10 to 30X. It was also reported as a major pest of sesame from Tmancore ( 38). A report f ram Rangoon described A. cata1auna1is was also recorded as injurious to this pest as rolling the top leaves and also boring sesame in Russia (13), New Delhi (23), and Turkey in the pods of sesame (14) . The PY ra 1id A. (58) where the larvae were found webbing the leaves cata1auna1 is which is a native of South Africa was or flowers which they feed lnd bore into the young recorded as a pest on sesame in Transvaal (18). The shoots and enter into the pods and feed on the caterpillar feed on the tender shoots and leaves in seeds. He further mentioned that infestation on pods a sort of nest made by webbing the leaves together can reach upto 87X (58). and also bore into the green pods of the plant, thus wholly or partly destroying the seeds for which this Seasonal fncidence crop is grown. 30X of the pod were observed to be damaged by this pest. In nature pupation probably A report from Cyprus (29) indicated that the larvae takes place in the soi 1. In May the moths emerge in of A. cata1auna1is severely damage the pods of 2-3 weeks and though no eggs were found it is Sesamum orienta!e during August and September. probable that they are laid on the tender parts of the sesame plant. The caterpillars were fairly Investigations on the effect of sowing time of heavily parasitised by two small Braconids. sesame on the occurrence of A. cata1auna1 is revealed that the incidence of the pest was highest (16.0- This pest was described as binding the growing tips 23. OX) in crops sown in February and September - and causing terminal distortion of the plants (42). November and 1ow est (ex) in those sown in June It was also indicated that the pyralid A. August in Tamil Nadu, India (1). cata!auna!is damages the tops including the pods of the plants (20, 44). The pest was recorded from two Effect of weather factors localities in the Belgian as injurious to sesame (44). It was also described that no external injury Studies on the effect of some climatic factors on is caused to the pods by the larvae suggesting that the fluctuation of population of Antigastra the eggs are laid on the flowers and that the larvae cata1auna1is revealed that the pest incidence was after hatching reach the ovary and grow with it (5). higher in dry sunny weather than in wet weather, and Each pod is usually seen to be fed by sing 1e 1arva. out-break occurred when a long dry spell had been On reaching maturity, the larvae bore out of the pod preceded by heavy rains (7). Further, the plants and pupate in the ground. Oviposition on sesame may kept .under artificial shade were always attacked perhaps be the result of infestation by aphids, the 1ess severe 1y than those kept open. There was a moths being attracted to plants by the aphids' positive correlation between the abundance of the honey-dew. moth and the number of hours of sunshine, a higher proportion of larvae died in the wet season than In an annual report (21), A. cata1auna1 is was under dry weather conditions and their activity was mentioned as a pest of si m-s i m (sesame) and the found high when the maximum and minimum temperatures first June-August sown crop was much more severely were high and the rainfall was low. infested than the second (Oct. -Dec) sown crop and thus, it was recommended that serious damage may be Chemical control avoided by sowing during the later rains. The indigenous Sesamum angust if o1 i um was found as an The relative toxicity of dried film of 10 alternate host of A. cata1auna1is. insecticides to full-grown larvae of A. cata1auna1 is under laboratory condition was investigated (46). Other reports a1 so st rang 1y stress that A. The results indicate that Leser after 24 hrs showed catalauna1 is is an injurious pest on sesame (10). 37 that Parathion was the most toxic, followed by Phenthoate, Chlorpyrifos and Methamidiphos were Malathion, Fenitrothion, Mevinphos, Diazinon, BHC relatively ineffective (17). (Lindance, the standard), Endrin, Carbaryl, Carbophonothion and Dimethoate. A spray containing O. 1S Carbary 1 or a dust containing 51 DOT was recommended against A. Sprays of Monocrotophos 0.51 applied 5 times at 10 cata1auna1is (51). It was also reported that day intervals starting fro111 21 days after sowing Monocrotophos at 200g ai/ha was most effective gave effective control of phyllody and shoot webber co111pound against the pest, followed by Carbaryl and ( 2). Endosulfan at 1.0kg and 350 g ai/ha, respectively (57). Spray applications were made on 45th and 60th It was also reported that 0.6 kg Furadan 3 g (31 days of crop growth. Carboforan) ai/ha applied to the soil in 2 split dressings at 30 days interval beginning 10 days Among the insecticides tried, O. 05% Monce rotophos, after sewing or 0.28 kg Metasystcx 25 EC 0.05% Chcrphyrifos, 0.05% Endosulfan, 0.05% (Methyldemeton) ai, 2.5 kg Ambithion 500 E Fenitrothion, and o. 15- Carbaryl, the Monocrotphos, (Malathion and Semitrothion in 1:1 ratio) ai or Chlorpyrifos and Endosulfan were the most effective Metasystox + Ambithion applied in 3 foliar sprays against A. cata1auna1is (37). The yield of sesame at 15 days intervals beginning 35 days after sowing from Monocrotophos treated plots was significantly gave effective control of Achrontia styx, A. greater than those plots treated with the other cata1auna1is and Cyrtope1tis tenuis and resulted in insecticides. The lowest incremental cost-benefit seed yields of 510, 840, 692 and 831 kg/ha, ratio was obtained in plots treated with respectivley, compared with 364 kg/ha without Monocrotophos (1:8.68) followed by Chlorphyrifos insecticides (38). It was further reported that (1:4.98) and Endosulfan (1:4.27) but all the application of Metasystox and Ambithion gave a wide insecticides were significantly superior to the spectrum of pest control. untreated control . .A chemical control trial against sesame pod borer Two spray applications (20 and 55 days after sowing) A. cata1auna1is was reported that Phosphamidon of 0.2% Carbaryl, 0.071 Endosulfan, 0.051 (0.00) followed by Endrin (0.00) and Carbaryl Quinalphos, 0.05% BPMC (Fenobucarb), 0.02% (O. 20%) gave the best resu 1t both in respect of Phosphami dan, O. 02% FMC (of unsaturated compound) lowering the pest infestation and giving higher or 0.051 Phasalone reduced infestation of sesame in yields (56). Further, it was reported that each of Maharashtra by A. catalaunalis (24). The best these chemicals can be applied as a spray. results were obtained with Carbaryl for which infestation averaged 3.58% as compared to 14.38% of Investigations on 4 field pests on sesame in Nigeria untreated check. in 1940-72 revealed that 0.2-0.81 suspensions of powdered seeds of Neem tree (Azadirachta indica) Bio-control applied in sprays at 250 lit/ha 6 times at weekly intervals acted as a feeding inhibitor against It was 111entioned that 8racon kitcheberi was reared larvae of A. cata1auna1is reducing infestation and from A. cata1auna1is (3). Camp1oth1ipsis antigastrae increasing the yield (7). The reulsts compared and reported on the pyralid A. cata1auna1is from favourably with those obtained when Carbaryl and a Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, (52) and the braconide 111ixture of BHC with DDT were used. Apante1es aethiopicus on the pyral id from Uganda and Sierraleone. Also, Apante1y aethiopicus was Investigations on the effectiveness of some reported fror. the pyralid A. cata1auna1is (53). insecticides against A. cata1auna1is on sesame showed that at a rate of 0.26 kg/ha Permethrin Hicrobracon hebetor was found parasitising the Quinalphos, Monocrotophos, Endosulfan and Leptophos caterpillars of A. cata1auna1is in large numers from reduced the 1arva1 popu 1at ion on the young sesame August till the end of November (4 91. This parasite plant by 97.9, 95.7, 90.0, 86.3 and 79.9%, is also found on the Lepidopteran which is respectively (17). At the advanced stage of the predaceous on the lae insect Laccifer 1acca. crop, Quinalphos an.d Endosulfan at 0.52 kg/ha The species of Microbracon parasitising larvae of reduced the larval population by 93. 9 and 89. 71 2 A. catalaunal is were identified in Delhi as H. days after spraying. Monocrotophos at 0.52 kg/ha hebetor Say and H. brevicornis (41). In the mass had a delayed action and reduced the larval breeding of Braconid, 8racon hebetor naturally population by 91.51 5 days after spraying. Phoxian, parasitises different lepidopheran pests including 38 A. cata1auna1is (33). ( 12.81) closely followed by Punjab Ti 11 No. 1 ( 15.41). Infestation of plants of the other The nematode Mermis sp was found for the first time cultivars varied between 25.9 and 42.21. However, attacking larvae of A. cata1auna1is in India (25). these differences were not significant. The rate The parasite appeared in late June or early July of pod infestation was lowest in P~njab Till No. 1. (the start of the monsoon period) and was present ( 11.81) and highest in TC 167 (24.9%). On the basis until October and the parasitisim reached a maximum of these results, t~e least infested cult~vars were of ass in 1970 and 781 (in the second half of TC 289 and Punjab Ti1 l No. 1 (9). August) in 1971. Investigations on nine varieties of sesame ;~ Irdia Four parasites namely, Euplectrus sp (Hym; showed that damage varied from 3.35% to 8.39% and Eulophidae), Bracon sp (Hym: Bracomidae), that 128, TMV 2, 814 and T4 were the le~st damaged Spi 1ochalas sp and Brachymaria sp (Hym: Chelcididae) ( 28). were reported from Co1oumbia ( 19). · References Nine natural enemies of the pyralid i.e., 8ra=on gelechiae Ashm, 8. rebetor Say, Agat~is sp., Abraharr, E.V. K. Natarajar, ar: ~aya•aj, S. Eriboros sp, ~iadegma sp (Nythobia sp), r:at~a 1977 a. Investigaticns c~ t~e insecticidal f)avoorbitalis (Corn) Cremastus flavo:rti~a'is) the cc~tr~ 1 c• the phy11c:ly d'sease ~f sesnum. ~ematcde Mermis sp anc t~e vedator Car.thaccr;ida Madras Agricultural JG~rnal 64'51 379-383. furceJ iata (Wo1~f) ws•e reported from :aba~pur, 2. , anj M. Mu·~;esa'.i, India (26). 197? b. Damage by Pests and P~yllody tc Sesa!!'um indicu.11 in •elati~~ t~ the tilr'e c• Varietal resistance sowing. Madras Agricu1tura1 Jcur~a1 6!(5) 293- 301. . Ea~ly !'latJring varieties havins relative~y sparse 3. Bhasin H.D. 1926. ~in~a1 repo•t o• tie branchir:g habit showed ~ower susceptibi1ity than Entom~lcgist to governme~t cf P~njat, lya 1 1pur. more prcfusly branching types (4). Hairy plants on F~r the year endi~g ~0th June, 1925-Pept. De~t. the whole were comparatively disease free, however, Agric. o~rjab, 1924-25, Part !, PP XX-XXVII, they were pro~en to be more susceptible to larvae of Lahcre. 1 A. catalaunalis than g1aboro~s pla~ts. 4. Bhattarcharjee, N.S., P. La • 1972. Studies on the varietal susceptibility of til :sesamum Sixty four d'.fferent varities cf sesame were sown orienta1e) to the attack of Antigastra in July during the rainy season of 1970-1971, in cata 1auna1is (Duponchel). India~ J .Ert. 24: india (27). Capsule infestatiGr: varied from 0.2 to 58-53. 3.9% in 1970 and from 6.1 to 24.4% in 19?1. The 5. Borg, P. 1930. ~ntcmo1ogi:al nctes, 9~p. type webbed plants amounted to 3.5 - 261 in 1971. No script. Ha1t3 Dept.Agric. Fide, Rev. App!. Ent. relationship was observed between the time of 19A p.262. flowering er seed ripening and the degree of 6. Bnr, K.S. and S.S. Sardhu. 1982. Fiel1 biology infestation. The varieties N 66-276 and N 66-250 of the white grub Ho1otrichia consanguinea had the fewest infested plants, while N 66-4 showed Blanchard (Scarabacidae: coleopteral in Punjab. the least capsula infestation. Journal of Soil Bi logy and Ecology 2(1) 32-35. 7. Chadha, S.S. 1974. Effect of some climatic Among a number of varieties screened, line 3-2 was factors on the fluctuation of population cf the least susceptible on the basis of percentage of Antigastra cata1auna1is Dup. (Lepedoptera, damaged capsules (54). It was also found that 13 purallidae) a pest of Sesamum indicum L. Samaru Indian varieties were identified as sources of Miscellaneous paper No: 48, 23pp. resistance to A. cata1auna1is and the breeding line 8. Chadhams, S. 1979. Use of Neem (Azordirachta X173 derived from ICA Pacande combined high yields indica) seed as a feeding inhibitor against with resistance to phaseolina (11). Antigastra cata1auna1is Dupon. (Lepidoptera: The comparative incidence of A. cata1auna1is in 11 pyrelidae) a sesame pest in Nigeria. East cultivars of sesame was studied (34). The lowest African Agricultural and Forestry Journal ( 1977 number of larvae was observed on TC 289, follwed by Publ. 1979): 42 (3) 257-267. Punjab Ti 11 No. 1, and the most susceptible 9. Cheema, J.S., Gurdip Singh, G.S. Grewal, and s~l:ivars were TC 103, TC 151, TC 160 and TC 135. Labana, K.S. 1982. Comparative incidence of re 2~: · · ' ~~e 1 ~west proportion of infested p1 ants Sesame shoot and leaf webber. Antigastra 39 cata1auna1is (Duponchel) in different cultivars 1919-20, Appdx. V.P. iii; pp-33-31. of Sesame. Punjab Agricultural University, 23. Isaac, P.V. 1946. Report of the Imperial Journal of Research: 19(2) 170-171. Entomologist, 1944-45. Sci. Rep. Agric. Res. 10. Chiaramonte, A. 1934. Considerazioni Inst. New Delhi 73-79. entomologiche sulla coltura della piante 24. Jagtrup, A.B., Ghule, B.D., Deokar, A.B. 1986. Oleaginose nella Somallia Italiana. Comparative efficacy of some insecticides (Entomological Notes on the cultivation of oil against capsule borer on sesamu111. Journal of producing plants in Italian Somai 1i land). Maharastra Agricultural University 11 (3) 360- Agric. Coltura Colon. 27 No. 1 pp. 38-43. 361. Flovence. 25. Jakhonola, S.S., and H.S. Yadav, 1973. Some 11. Cleves.V.B. 1980. Colombia, (Institute observations on Mermis sp. as a parasite of til Colombiano Agropecuraris) Management report, leafroller. Indian Journal of Entomology 35(2) 1980. In forine de gerenia Bogota, coloumbia, 170-172. ICA pp. 92. 26. Jakhmola, S.S. 1983. Natural enemies of ti 1 12. Desai, M. T and R.N. Patel, 1965. Studies on leaf roller and capsule borer, Antigastra Sesamum leafroller Antigastra cata1auna1is cata1auna1is (Dip.) Bulletin Entomology 24(2) (Dup) in Gujarat. Indian Oi 1 Seeds Journal 9 147-148. ( 2) : 10 9-112. 27. and 1974. Var ital 13. Ger as i mov, A. M. 1939. Diagnosis of Le pi doptera susceptibility of Sesamum (Sesamum indicum L.) of econo111ic importance (In Russian). Bul 1. to Antigastra cata1auna1is Dup. JNKVV Research Inst. Zool. Appl. Phytopath. 7pp. 15-33. Journal 8-285. Leningrad, Russia. 28. Krishi, J .N. Vishwa Vidyalaya, and R.R. 14. Ghosh, C.C. 1924. Reports by the Entomologist Deshpande, 1969. Assessment of damage to ti 1 Mandalya for yea.rs ended 30th June, 1922 and (Sesamum or i enta 1e L. ) bythe 1ea f and pod 1923-PP1 -14 R 1-19. Rangoon. Caterpillar, Antigastra catalaunalis 15. Grewal, G.S., Gurdip Singh and S.S. Sandhu. {Duponchel) JNKYV. Res. J. Jabalpur 57-58. 1978. Che111ical control of Bihar hairy 29. Morris, H.M. 1937. Annual Report of the caterpillar Diacr1sia ob1iqua Walker infesting Entomo 1og i st for 1936- Rep. Dep. Agr i c. Cyprus. sesame, Indian Journal of Agricultural pp 40-49. Nicosia. Sciences: 48 ( 10). 30. Mu hair.med, S. V., N. R. Chandrasekharan, N. 16. Gupta, B.M.; R.R. Dabi; H.C Gupta, and S.K. Srinivasalu, and P. Sivasubramanian, P. 968. Sharma 1979. Effect of host plants on the Note on the cont ro 1 of gall f 1y ( Asphondy 1i a larval development of Diacrisia ob!iqua Walker. sesami Felt) on sesame Indian J. agric. Sci. Journa1 of Entomological Research 3(2) 224-226. 38: 606-7. 17. Gurdip Singh, S.S. Sandhu, and G.S. Grewal. 31. Naheed, R., and Ahmed, M. 1980. Some new 1980. Evaluation of some insecticides for species of leaf hopper genus Empoasca chemical control of sesame leaf-webber !Typhlocybinae; cicadell idae) from Pakistan, Antigastra cata1auna1is (Diporchel) Pyralidae: Pakistan Journal of Zoology 12(1) 77-84. Lepidoptera). Punjab Agricultural University, 32. Nath, P.K., Pal S.R. 1975. Control of insect Journal of Research 17 (1) 45-47. pests of ti 1 ( Sesamum indicurr. L.) Science and 18. Hall, W.J.1926. A caterpillar pest of Sesame culture 41 (12) 598-599. Farming in S. Africa, I, No: 7 P.223. Pretoria, 33. Negi, P.S., T.V. Venkataraman, and K.C. S. Africa. Chattarjee, 1944. Mass breeding cf Braconid 19. Hallman, G.J., and G. Sanchez. 1982. Hicrobracon hebetor Say in India. Curr. Sci. Possibilities for biological control of 13( 5). Antigastra cata1auna1 is ( Lep. pyral idae) 34. Ortiz, M.S. 1980. Ahididae Homcptera. from the Entomcphaga. forest edge. Tinge Maria (Hauano-peru) Revista 20. Hargreaves, H. 1927. Annual report of the peruana de Entomologia 23(1) 119-120. Government Entomologist, Rep. Dept. Agric. 35. Pair, S.D. M.L., Laster, and D.E. Martin, 1982. Uganda. Parasitoids of Heliothis spp. (Lepidoptera 21. 1932. Annua 1 Report of the Woctuidae) larvae in Mississippi associated Government Entomologist. Ann. Rep. Dept, with sesame interplanting in cotton. Agric. pt ii pp. 43-47 Entebbe, Uganda. Environmental Entomology 11(2) 509-512. 22. Hector, G.P. 1921. Reports of the Economic 36. Parihar, D.R. 1979. Out break of Katra Amsacta Botanist to the Government of Bengal for the moorei pest in the Rajasthan desert. Annals of years 1919-1923. Reptis. Dept. Agric. Bengal Arid Zone 18: 140-141. 40 37. Patel, A.A., Bhalani, P.A. 1986. Chemical (Lygaidae: Heteroptera) Entomon 4(2) 137-141. control of sesamum leaf roller Antigastra 49. Ullah, G. 1939 Short Notes and Exhibits- Indian cata1auna1is Duponchel ( Lepidoptera pyral 1idae) J.Ent. 107-114. Pesticides 20 (4) 23-26. 50. Vasil'ev, I. 1935. (Bacurbebcu). Antigastra 38. Pillai, R.H. 1921. Short Notes on the Insect cata1auna1is Dup in the Turkman SSR pests of crops in Travancore, Travancore Dept. (Transcaspian Region) (In Russian) - Plant Agric. Trivandrum, 53 pp. Prof. 1935 Fasc. p. 150. 39. Pillai, K.B., H.J. Thomas, and N.R. Nair. 51. Vora, V.J., Bharodia, R.R. Kapadia, H.N. 1985. 1980. Helanagromyza Gzawii Spencer (Agromyzidae Pest of oi 1 seed crops and thr control. Diptera) as a pest of sesamum. Agricultural Sesamum. Pesticides 19 (2) 11-12. Research Journal of Kera la 18( 1) 144. 52. Wilkinson, D.S. 1931. Four new species of 40. Prakash, A., and P.P. Chaturvedi. 1978. Larval Ichneumenoiclea. Bu11. Ent. Res. 22 (3): 393- parasitiszation of the gingelly blossom midge 397. Dasineura sesami. Indian Journal of plant 53. . 1932. Braconidae: Notes and new protection 6 (2) 83. species. Bu11. Ent. Res. 22( 1): 75-82 41. Pruthi, H.S. 1940. Report of the Imperial 54. Yadava, R.P., La11, B.S. 1976. Field trial on Entomologist Sci. Rep. agric. Res. Inst. New re 1at i ve suscept i bi 1i ty of some important DE1hi 116-133. sesamum varieties to Antigastra catalaunalis 42. Ritchie, A.H. 1926. Entomological Report 1925- Duponchel) Oilseeds Journal 6( 1) 34-35. 26 Tanganyika Terr. Rept. Dept. Agric. 1925-26 55. , Singh R. 1977. Studies on the pp 33-36. larval development of Bihar hairy caterpillar 43. . 1929. Entomological Report, (Diacrisia obliQua, walkerl in relation to some 1925-26- Tanganyika Terr. Rept. Dept. Agric. host plants at Delhi. Science and culture 1925-26, pp. 33-36. Dar-es-Salaaam. 43(5) 233-234. 44. Schouteden, H. 1928. Un papillon parasite du 56. Yadav, K.P. and B.S. Lal, 1978. Studies on the sesame - Rev. Zool. Agric., XV, Fasc 4, p (107) Comparitive efficacy of some popular Brusse 1s, 15th February 1928. insecticides against Sesamum pod bcrer 45. Srivasta, A.S. (1970). Important insect pests Antigastra cata1auna1is (Dup). Agricultural of stored oilseeds in India. Int. Pest. Cont. Research Institute Dholi, Huzaffarpur. India 12(3), 18-20; 26. Volume 12( 10) : 25-26. 46. Teotia, T.P.S., Lal, B. 1973. Relative toxicity 57. Yadav, G.S, T.S. Kathpal, and Harvir Singh. of so11e insecticides to the 1arvae of ti 1 1eaf 1985. Efficacy of monocrotophos, Carbaryl and and pod borer, Antigastra catalaunalis endosulfan against Antigastra cata1auna1is Duponchel. Indian Journal of Ento11ology. 34(3) (Dup) and their persistence in soi 1 and sesamum 257-259. seeds. Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences 47. Thangavelu, K. 1978. First record of host plant 55 ( 6) 438-442. and additional distribution of Nysius 58. Zomreoglu, S. 1982. Investigations on the i nconspi cu us Distant ( Lyga i dae: Heteroptera) Sesame moth, Antigastra catalaunalis Dup. (Lep. current science 47(7) 249. pyralidae) which causes considerable damage in 48. . 1979. The pest status and sesame growing areas of the Aegean region. biology of Spilostethus Pandurus (Scopoli) Review of applied entomology 1983 p. 150-153. 41 REVXEW AND PROSPECTS ON ~ESAME PRODUCTXON XN CHXNA Tu L"ic::huan Review in sesame itself, the production has then turned to a recovery stage. In Sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) has been 1985, the sesame area again expanded cultivated in China for more than to 1,052,000 ha, almost equal to the 2,000 years, and it remains to be a area of 1955, Figure 1. The sesame major oilcrop in the country. Sesame production of that year was 691,000 is rich in oil and other nutrient MT, 32.6% higher than the historic ingredients. Its oil possesses a record in 1953. In the recent 1O pleasant flavor and is regarded as a years, from 1976 to 1985, sesame area superior grade vegetable oi 1. Besides increased by 87.5%, and the extracting oil, sesame is also production increased from 229 tc broadly used in food, confectionery, 691,000 MT, almost tripled. Figure 1 medicine, perfume and other light shows that the yield is very industries. In comparison with other unstable. This is because sesa~e is :najor oil crops, however, its yield very susceptible to any undesirable is lower and more unstable, and owing weather :onditions such as drought, to its shattering cha~acters it can toe much precipitation, low not be harvested by machine. temperature, etc., andthe irrigation and drainage facilities in fields are Sesame p reduction in China passed not sufficient. On a grand scale, ":.hrough the periods of decline (1956- however, the yield has improved 1977), recovery (1978-1984) and steadil:t in every decade: 370 kg/ha development (1985-) over the past in 1950s, 388 kg/ha in 1960s, 434 four decades. In 1955, the sesame kg/ha in 1970s and 502 kg/ha in area in China had reached as much as 1980s, Table 1. The average yield of 1,147,000 ha, b~t was reduced 1981-1987 was 49.2% higher than that con":.inuous1y afterwards. In 1975, it of the 1950s. In 1985, the sesame dropped to the lowest point, only production in China reached a record 534,000 ha. In the mean time, high of 660 kg/ha. This achievement production also dropped from 521,000 was made mainly due to: MT in 1953 to 151,000 MT in 1960. A reduction cf 70% occurred within this 1 . N e w v a r i e t i e s w i t h period. In more than 20 years, 1956- characteristics of high yield, 1977, the area and producticn of disease resistance and tolerance sesame in China remained rather in a to water-logging were bred and low level, Figure 1. This is because, released. China is a developing country with huge population, it has to give 2. Extension to the farmers, of priority to develop high yielding improved agronomic approaches, cereals and oilcrops to meet the such as optimum sowing date, demands of the people. proper rotation of crops, rational close planting and Since 1978, along with the growth of prevention and control of the nation's economy, and progress of diseases and pests, the scientific research 1 Paper sent but not presented...... *'·· • • • 11( . ··-... IUc: ..· _j( c: ..· •• 0 . QJ ~ ". u E ::I IU 1J ~-··· Ill IU 1J ·" QJ QJ 0 J!... t/) !... -~ <( a. >- •• ...... " 0 II II II .. ~ I 1 )( ...... ~ ..,, .. . ···x 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 r-.. ..r) --r- C""I N 0 "' (eq/~~) PT 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 r-.. lJ"\ --r- C""I N ...... "' (UO'.J 0001) uoJ:i::mpo.:xd 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ...... 0 0\ 00 r-.. lJ"\ ...... "' (eq 0001) ea.:xv 43 3. Improvement of basic conditions, higher. This indicates that great such as irrigation-drainage potentialities exist in sesame engineering and fertilizer production. Applying advanced application. agronomic approaches is an important way to raise the yield. 4. Encouraging policy of the government for developing oil 3. Using heterosis and male-sterile crops, and strains: Experiments showed that heterosis in sesame do exists. The 5. The international scientific yield of a hybrid can surpass the consultation and cooperation in best local variety by 50-60%. sesame research and production. Although it is not practicable at present it is very promising in the Prospects future. The recessive genetic male sterile strains in sesame have been Although we have made some progress se 1ected. If these strains can be in sesame production in recent years, turned into dominant, they will and have the confidence in its hopef u11 y be used in hybrid further development, we are still production. facing a series of tough tasks to be solved. As to our consideration, a 4. Improving the field construction, minimum yield of 900 kg/ha is especially the irrigation and required to make sesame competitive drainage systems. with other crops, and this target might be reached through: 5. Encouragement of government policies, and 1. Reinforcing the breeding orograms: It seems the most actua 1 6. International cooperation: FAO way to improve the sesame yield. If and the IDRC' s Oil Crops Network have the cooperation in exchange of done a series of admirable efforts to germplasm, breeding stocks and push forward the development of advanced breeding methods can be sesame research and production and strengthened, it wi 11 speed up the the cooperation among scientists breeding of new desirable and high around the world. These efforts are yielding varieties. effective and productive. They promote the improvement of sesame in 2. ImQroving agronomic approaches: many countries, and so also in China. Many demonstrations showed that We are looking forward to a close sesame yield in a small plot may be cooperation with our colleagues who as high as 1,500 kg/ha or even are interested in this field. Table 1. Average Area, Production and Yield of Sesame in China during 1950s, and 1980s. Area Production Yield Period 000 ha I of (1) 000 MT I of (1) Kg/ha I of ( 1l ( 1) 1951-60 959 100.0 354 100.0 370 100.0 (2) 1961-70 679 70.6 263 74.3 388 104.9 (3) 1971-80 622 64.9 270 76.3 434 117.3 (4) 1981-87 908 94. 7 502 141.8 552 149.2 44 SESAME XRRXGATXON XN EGYPT Abstract For best seed production, sesame should be irrigated when the available soil moisture depletion in root zone reach~s 50-60%. The differences in water quantities consumed by the same sesame entries (1550, 2276 and 2676 r/fed.) grown at Bahtim (South Delta), Fayoum (Middle Egypt) and Shandawi1 (Upper Egypt) mighf be attributed to variation in soil and meteorological factors~ Water use efficiency was 0.30-0.32 kg/m at Bahtim and Fayoum, while at Shandawi 1 it was 0. 10 kg/m• due to the more water consumption. No significant difference was found in water quantities consumed by sesame entries in all experiments. Sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) is one I. determine the best schedule of of the oldest crops known to man and irrigation application(2), might be the oldest cultivated II. determine the critical growth oilseed crop. The leading countries stage as affected by drought in the production of sesame are: (3), and India (2.5 million ha), China (one III. study the effect of two various million ha) and Burma (about 400,000 locations and three sesame ha). The Sudan ranks third as world varieties on water consumptive producer and first as exporter (1). use and water use efficiency (4). In Egypt, 30% of the present oil consumption comes from domestic raw Experiment I materials, mainly from cotton seed. The remaining is imported to Field work and laboratory techniques compensate the shortage of edible were carried out at Bahtim oils. To fill the gap, oil crops Agricultural Research Station during should be given great attention by 1980-1982 seasons. The first aim of research workers and crop growers. this study was to determine its In this respect, sesame is one of the consumptive use under four soil main promising crops. Its seed is a available moisture depletion (ASMD) rich source of oil and protein. viz., 30, 50, 70 and 90% ASMD, and the best schedule of irrigation Irrigation management is very application as well as water use important nowadays in Egyptian farms efficiency. The white seeded variety, due to the shortage in water Gi za-25 was used in the three resources and the expansion of seasons. The results, Table 1,could agriculture in the newly reclaimed be summarized as follows: areas. Further, too much or too little watering causes serious crop 1. Plant height was significantly damage. Therefore, it is necessary decreased with increasing ASMD to determine the optimum water before irrigation. requirement and to plan the best irrigation schedules for maximum crop 2. Height to first capsule decreased production. Studying with increasing ASMD level. evapotranspiration (consumptive use) either emperically or by developing 3. Branch number, capsule number, formulae has been given a great seed yield per plant, 1000-seed attention, to meet the above purpose weight and seed yield dee reased for all crops. In Egypt, little with increasing ASMD levels. information is available about sesame water requirements. Therefore, three 4. Oil content was significantly field experiments were conducted with decreased by increasing ASMD major objectives to: levels. 45 Table 1. Effec: of irrigation treatments on sesame characters, water consumptive use and water use efficiency at Bahtim. Height No. of Capsule Seed Seed Seed* Seed Water Water Irrigation Plant to 1st branches/ number/ yield/ index yield/ oil cons um- use treatments height capsule plant plant plant fed. content ptive effic (ASMD) use iern (cm) (cm) ( g) ( gl (ardab l (%) (m3LfEd.J (kglml) m 157.92 7~ . 66 4.83 87.31 10. 8i 3. 11 5. 14 52.86 1903 0.32 50% 133.42 65.50 4.47 60.88 9.C? 3. 51 4.79 52.31 16:1 0.34 70% 125. 75 63.67 3.88 43.96 7. 71 3.23 3.69 51. 24 1524 C.29 90% 125.25 64.25 3.79 41. 35 6.25 3.07 3.23 50.55 1334 0.27 Mean 135.59 66.27 4.24 59.63 8.45 3.23 4. 21 51.77 16CS 0.30 i L.S.D.( .05) i 3I 67 St r 6~ ' 34 0. '. ~ .. . : . 13 0.46 0.47 •One f ed:an (fed.)= 4200 m", OnE ardab: 120 kg. out at Bahtim Experiment Station 5. Water consumptive use (WCU) was during 1984 and 1985 crop seasons to increased as the ASMD decreased study the effect of drought at in the root zone. different growth stages, Table 2, on 6. The highest water use efficiency sesame characters, consumptive use ( WUE) WUE was obtained from and water use efficiency, Table 3. irrigation at 50% ASMD. The resuts could be summarized as follows: Experiment II 1. Seed yield and its components: Two field experiments were carried Table 3, indicates that treatment (d) Ta~1c 2. Irr'gation system :n different treatme~:s. ~ate :f I·r'."atior :r~igatic~ at at 15 days after 3e;inn!ng of 15 days af:er at :reatment p1 a"iti r,g 3erm:nat1cn 3erminatior. flower:ng f1owering maturity X. J. x x x gave the highest pl ant height, the two treatments were given height of the first capsule, different amounts of water. number of branches, capsule Therefore, it could be concluded number, seed yield/plant and seed that, treatment (a) was yield/feddan. The highest seed economical under water deficient index was obtained from the third conditions. treatment (c). Treatment (b) gave the lowest average of these 2. Oi l content dee reased with characters, indicating that, drought at flowering stage. drought during flowering stage was very dangerous, because drought in 3. WCU increased by increasing that ti me caused abrupt drop in number of irrigations. yield and its components. It was found that treatments (a) and (c) 4. The highest values of WUE were did not differ significantly in observed with treatment (d), yield and its components, although while the lowest were obtained 46 Table 3. Effect of drought on sesame growth stages on yield and its components, oil content, water consumptive use and water use efficiency at Bahtim. Height No. of Capsule Seed Seed Seed* 'Seed water Wa':.er Irrigation Plant to 1st branches/ number/ yield/ index yield/ oil cons um- use treatments height capsule plant plant plant fed. content ptive eff i:- use i ency ~ , (cm) (cm) ( g) ( ;) (Ardab) (l) (m"/"ed.) (k;/m•J a 135.4 55.0 4. 1 55.2 8.2 3.42 3.79 53 .10 1306 0.35 b 117.5 64.5 3.4 41.2 5.9 2.68 3.25 50.90 '. 420 C.27 c 135.2 55.0 4.1 57.2 8.2 3.32 4.49 53 .10 1533 0.35 d 155.8 72.4 4.3 53.C 9.5 2.88 5.38 53.80 1714 0.38 Mean 57 .o 4.0 54.2 8.0 3.08 4. 23 52.80 1493 0.34 LSD 0.05 10.5 5.~ - 7.0 1.0 0. 19 0.48 1.2 yield due to their superiority in with treatment (b). The data in number of capsules/plant. different treatments took the following order: d > c = a > b. Sesame consumptive use of water was positively affected by the available From economic point of view, it could soil moisture in the root zone. The be cone 1uded that the best i rri gat ion differences in water quantities schedule for WUE (saving irrigation consumed by the same entries grown at water as well as yield production) is both Fayoum and Shandawi 1 might be to irrigate plants every 15 days up attributed to variation in soil and to maturity, as in treatment (d). meteorological factors, Table 5. WUE was increased under drought Experiment III conditions at Shandawil and soil moisture at Fayoum. Mutant line 8 was Three sesame entries i.e., two mutant the most efficient entry in making lines (No. 8 and 48 and a local use of water. variety ("Giza-25") were examined References under three available soil moisture depletions (ASMD) 40, 60and 80% ASMD 1. Khicir, M.O. 1980. Major problems cf sesame at Fayoum (Middle Egypt) and growth in East Africa and Near East. F~O. Shandawil (Upper Egypt) during 1985 Expert Consultation on sesame imprcvment '.Rome and 1986 crop seasons. 8-12 Dec. 2. El-Wakil, A.M. 1984. Studies on water Data in Table 4 indicates that the reQJirements of sesame under different nitrogen first treatment of irrigation (40% fertilizer 1evels. Ph.D. Thesis, Fae. of Agric. ASMD) gave, in most cases, the Cairo Univ. Egypt. highest means for growth characters 3. El-Wa~il, A.M. and S.A. Gaafar. 1988. Effect as well as seed yield and its of water stress on sesame, Assiut Journal of components. Although Giza 25 produced Agricultural sciences, Vol. 19 l 1). higher number of branches/plnat, the 4. Ibrahim, A.F., A.M. EL-Wakil and Sharaan A.N. two mutant lines surpassed its seed 1987. Study on water requirements cf sesame in Middle and Upper Egypt. Egypt. J. Agron. Vol. 12 (1-2): 77-93. 47 Table 4. Effect of irrigation treat1ents and varieties on sesa1e characters, water consu1ptive use and water use efficiency at Shandawil. Length of No. of No. of No. of Seed Seed* Seed Water Water Plant fruiting branches/ capsule/ yield/ index yield/ oi 1 consu11- use Treat11ents height zone plant plant plant fed. content ptive effic- use ien~y ( Cll) (c11) (g) (g) (ardab) (I) 113/fed)(kg/11 ) Irrigation treat11ents !ASMD} 1. 401 228.25 121. 33 4.33 241. 08 42.60 3.45 2.28 56.03 3119 0.08 2' 601 188.08 121. 33 4.27 186.92 34.60 3.59 2' 12 53' 77 2629 0' 10 3' 801 178.92 114.33 3.97 156.92 32.70 3.05 1. 88 51. 90 2275 0' 11 LSD at I .05 l 29.21 8' 10 5.00 0.32 0.21 2' 11 Vari ties or lines 1. Giza-25 185.67 116.33 5' 47 154.92 28 '40 3.45 1.84 54.32 2622 0' 10 2' Mut. 8 195.42 122.42 2.97 190.83 39.50 3.38 2.20 53.98 2665 0' 10 3' Mut. 48 214. 17 144.58 4. 13 239' 17 41.90 3.25 2.25 53.40 2736 0.90 LSD I .05 l 16.29 10.29 0.55 52.28 8.75 0.33 Irrigation treat11ents !ASMDl 1. 401 162.80 131. 97 4.15 183.73 32.67 3.87 7.25 55.50 2473 0.35 2' 601 152.98 124. 15 4. 12 159.21 28.99 3.76 5' 90 55.25 2250 0.32 3' 801 133.95 98.68 3.61 102.29 16.92 3. 74 5.22 52.25 2097 0.30 LSD at 0.05 10.83 12 .81 43.33 7. 32 1.32 Varieties or 1ines 1. Giza 25 159.95 140.07 5'71 135.88 21. 54 3.97 5.45 55.42 2223 0.30 2' Mut. 8 143.33 105 .63 4.42 152.21 27. 42 3.68 6.43 54.08 2239 0.34 3' Mut. 48 146.45 109' 10 3.75 157.13 29.62 3.82 6.49 53.50 2361 0.33 LSD ! .OS) 4.56 1.~2 0.66 18.09 6.35 0.95 •One feddan (fed.) = 4200 11 , One ardab = 120 kg. Table 5. Mechanical analysis and some physical properties of the soil at Bahti11, Shandawil and Fayou11 experimental sites. Depth Sand Silt Clay Bulk Field Wilting Available !c11) Ill (I) (I) dens it~ CaRacit~ (I) water Bahti11 (Cla~ loam) 0-20 21. 99 29.95 40.71 1. 16 47. 76 25.95 21. 81 20-40 23' 74 28.80 41.22 1.29 35.48 19.28 16.20 40-60 22' 13 28.50 39.54 1. 33 34.49 18. 74 15.75 Shandawil (Sand~ loa11) 0-20 40.80 30.30 28.90 1.29 28130 11. 20 17. 10 20-40 33.30 39.20 27. 50 1. 32 24.50 9.30 15' 40 40-60 49' 40 30.70 19.90 1.60 22.80 8.40 14' 40 Fa~OUll (Cla~J 0-20 20.02 29.02 45.96 1.22 42' 75 20.05 22.70 20-40 29.28 28. 18 42.54 1.26 36' 15 17.20 18.75 40-60 34.69 28.36 38.95 1.28 35' 40 17.00 18.40 48 AGRONOMXC STUDXEB ON OR~H. VXELD AND VXELD COMPONENTS OF SESAME Two separate but related experiments 3) Hybrid-38 produced greater number were conducted during the summer of branches, capsu 1es and seed seasons of 1986 and 1987 at Mallawi, weight per plant than Giza-25. Agricultural Research Station, to Widening the spacing between study the effect of some cu 1tu ra 1 plants increased number of practices on growth, yield, yield branches and capsules and seed components and quality of sesame weight per plant. But increasing seeds. number of plants per hill decreased all the characters in Experiment I both seasons. This experiment was designed as a 4) The maximum seed yield split-split plot design with four (kg/feddan) was obtained from rep 1i cations to study the response Hybrid-38. Spacing of 20 cm of two different local varieties between hi 11 s gave the highest namely: Giza-25 and Hybrid-38, seed yield while the seed yield randomly assigned to the main plots decreased remarkably with in three plant spacings of 10, 20 and increasing number of plants/ 30 cm between hills, assigned hi 11. randomly to the sub-plots with plant distributions of one, two and three 5) Increasing the spacing between plants/ hill which were assigned hills resulted in increased 1000- random 1y at the sub-sub-p 1ots. The seed weight. The heaviest sub-sub-plot consisted of six ridges weight resulted from two plants/ of four meters in length and 50 cm in hi 11. width. The results obtained from this experiment, Tables 1 and 2, 6) Pl anting sesame at 20 and 30 cm could be summarized as follows: spacings increased protein and oi 1 contents, respective 1y. Hybrid 38 was taller than Giza- Number of plant per hill had no 25. Sowing sesame at a spacing significant effect on oil content of 20 cm between hills tended to but significantly affected produce the shortest pl ants protein content. compared to the other two spacings. Plant height was Experiment II increased remarkably with increasing number of plants per This experiment was designed to study hil 1. the effect of combinations of nitrogen (0, 20, 40 and 60 kg/feddan) 2) The narrowest space (10 cm) and phosphorus (O, 20 and 40 between plants gave the tallest kg/feddan) on the characters of height to first capsule while Hybrid-38. Ten NP treatment increasing number of plants/hill combinations were randomly assigned dee reased the height of the first in a randomized comp 1ete b1 ock design capsule. with four replications. The results obtained, Tables 3 and 4 could be summarized as follows: 49 Table 1. Effect of varieties, plant spacing and number of plants/ hill on growth characteristics of sesame, 1986 and 1987 seasons. Plant height Height of 1st No. of branches/ No. of capsules/ Treatments !cm) caQsule !c11) Qlant Qlant 1986 1987 1986 1987 1986 1987 1986 1987 A. Varieties a1 - Giza 25 155.92 166.08 67. 11 67.78 5.91 5.45 105.59 98.07 ~ - Hybrid 38 166.33 157.47 72.53 51. 50 6. 01 5. 61 109.86 112. 02 0 51 N.S.* 5.55 N. S. 7.06 N.S. N.S N. S. 2.37 a N. S. N. S. N. S. 12.86 N. S. N. S. N. S. 4.32 B. Plant SQacing between hills b1 - 1O cm 161.29 168.88 72.75 64.42 6.01 5.45 98.20 79.40 ~ - 20 cm 160.63 162.08 67. 79 59.50 5.85 5.55 107.81 111.43 ~ - 30 cm 161. 46 152.38 68.92 55.CO 6.02 5.58 117. 17 129. 3, 0 5% N. S. N. S. N. S. 7. 10 N.S. N.S 4.00 4.45 a N. S. N. S. N. S. N. S. N. S. N. S. 5. 6' 6.23 C. Number of glants[hill c1 - one p1 ant 154.58 149.38 75.50 55.04 7. 60 7.00 130.79 130.05 ~ - two p1 ants 161.63 162.29 70.00 56.96 5.79 5.34 101. 32 104.99 ~ - 3 plants 167. 17 173. 67 73.96 65.92 4.50 4.24 91. 07 80.09 ~o 5% 8.33 12.47 5.09 6. 12 0.33 0.24 3.09 4.62 a 11. 17 16. 76 6.82 8.32 0.45 0.32 4. 13 6.20 tN.S. : Not significant. Table 2. Effect cf varieties, plant spacing and number of plants/hi11 on yield characteristics of sesame in 1986-87 seasons. Seed yield/ Seed yie1d 1000 seed Qi 1 Protefr Treatments Qlant (g) (kg/fed.) weight (g) I% l (I) 1985 1987 1986 1987 1986 1987 1986 1987 1986 1987 A. Varieties a1 - Giza 25 8.79 8.20 399.40 411. 98 3.54 3.72 56.61 57. 26 14.44 12.79 ~ - Hybrid 38 9.49 8.34 428.93 422.04 3.52 3.34 58.43 58.90 14.02 13.62 0 51 N.S* N.S 9.03 N.S N.S 0.23 1.40 0.59 0.35 0.29 a N. S. N. S. 16.47 N. S. N. S. N. S. N. S. 1.08 N. S. 0.53 B. Plant sQacing between hills b1 - 10 Cll 8.05 7. 37 298.36 286.85 3.55 3.80 58.80 58. 18 13.78 12.85 ~ - 20 Clll 8.98 8.34 510.42 518.00 3.57 3.30 57.81 58.05 14.49 13.46 ~ - 30 cm 10.28 9. 10 453.70 447 .09 3.47 3.50 57. 94 58.01 14.42 13. 31 0 5l 1.50 1.36 12. 10 13. 15 N.S 0.20 0.58 N.S N.S 0.36 a 2. 11 N. S. 16.96 16.43 N. S. 0.29 0.82 N. S. N.S. 0.50 c. Number of Qlants[hil1 c1 - one p1 ant 10.85 10.22 474.78 491.70 3.53 3.41 57 .58 58.08 14.09 13.26 ~ - two p1 ants 9.27 7. 71 410.63 411.29 3. 51 3.67 57. 54 58.23 14.58 13.36 ~ - three plants 7.30 6.87 357.09 348.96 3.56 3. 51 57. 43 57. 49 14 .01 13.00 0 5l 1.42 0.76 16.43 N.S N.S N.S N.S N.S N.S N.S a 1.90 1.02 24.58 N. S. N. S. N. S. N. S. N. S. N.S. N. S. * N.S : Not significant. 50 Table 3. Effects of NP fertilization level on some sesame growth characteristics in 1986-87 growing seasons. Characteristics Plant height Height of 1st No. of branches/ No: of capsules/ Treatments lk!lf edl (cm) ca~sule (cm) ~lant ~lant N p2°s 1986 1987 1986 1987 1986 1987 1986 1987 0 0 129.50 108.25 75.75 53.25 2.83 2. 18 37.75 40.00 20 0 162.75 142.75 62.00 56.25 4. 10 4.73 105. 70 96.50 20 20 155.50 142.25 64.75 48.00 3.90 5.48 121.00 102.50 20 40 158.50 144.50 64.25 55.00 4.58 5. 13 93.75 100.08 40 0 175.50 160.00 58.50 55.75 4.70 6. 15 128.25 142.93 40 20 164.25 158. 13 56.50 46.25 4.95 4.93 129.50 149.25 40 40 135.50 168.00 56.25 54.50 4.78 4.77 184.00 158.48 60 0 175. 00 204.00 61.50 62.75 7. 55 6. 28 156.75 175. 75 60 20 186.25 200.33 62.00 56.00 6. 15 5.80 146.00 173.30 60 40 183.00 189.50 57. 25 53.75 6.55 6.40 134.25 138.00 LSD 51 42.49 17. 64 9.52 13.87 1.08 1. 18 49.33 43.25 a N. S. 23.82 12.85 N.S. 1.46 1.60 66.60 58.39 Table 4. Effect of NP fertilization level on yield characteristics of sesame in 1986-87 seasons. Seed yield/plant Seed yield 1000 seed Oil Protein Treatments !kg/fedl (g) (kg/fed) weight(g) m m N P 2o5 1986 1987 1986 1987 1986 1987 1986 1987 1986 1987 0 0 5.42 2.72 228.3 201.0 2.97 2. 91 57.46 55.58 13.34 13.41 20 0 13.96 8.39 370.2 411.8 3.28 3. 70 57.48 56.58 13.82 13.56 20 20 12.51 12.18 375.0 538. 72 3.16 3.87 57.11 57. 13 13.53 13.65 20 40 8.96 8.32 397.5 413.4 3.19 3.35 58.48 57.06 13.81 14.03 40 0 16.03 13.83 584.7 696.0 3.27 2.99 56.98 57.23 13.95 14.27 40 20 22.04 12. 77 647 .0 724.5 3.29 3.39 58. 73 57.87 14.25 14.46 40 40 18.95 16.19 669.6 665.1 3.39 3.38 57 .67 57.13 13.97 14.62 60 0 14. 73 13. 79 577.8 608.4 3.36 3.60 57.65 57.20 15.12 14. 73 60 20 8.00 11.26 563.4 229.8 3.34 3.98 57.54 58.07 14.83 15.29 60 40 10.42 12.14 491.1 532.2 3.32 3.70 58.59 57.40 15.34 15.30 LSD 51 3.66 3.86 133.98 142.97 0.43 0.415 1.62 1.55 0.54 0. 72 a 4.64 5.22 180.92 193.05 0.58 0.560 2.19 2.05 0.79 0.98 1) Pl ant height was increased the highest number of branches/ progressively with applying NP plant was obtained by the fertilizer. The application of N application of 60 kg N alone or at 60 kg/feddan alone or combined combined with 40 kg P2 0 5• with 40 or 20 kg/feddan of P2 0 5 tended to produce the heaviest 3) Height of the first capsule was 1000 seed weight and the tallest affected highly significantly by sesame plant. NP fertilizer. The minimum height was produced by the 2)Number of fruiting branches/plant application of 40 kg N combined was affected significantly by NP with 20 kg P2 05 • fert i1 i zer in both seasons, but 51 4)In both seasons, increasing NP plant, 1000 seed weight and seed fertilizer levels tended to yield/feddan in both seasons. increase number of capsules/ plant, the highest number being 6) No definite trend could be obtained from the application of observed with respect to oi 1 N and P2 05 combined at a rate of content. 40 kg/feddan each. 7) Protein content was affected 5)The application of 40 kg N highly significantly by NP combined with 20/40 kg of P2 05 fertilizer levels in the two gave the highest seed weight/ growing seasons. 52 SESAME RESEARCH AND PROGRESS ::CN EGYPT NEH:ss;m R. Gu"irgu"is Sesame is considered as one of the Fusarium oxysporum and important food crops because it is Phytophthora paras it ica. the main ingredient in preparing 1oca1 food, Halawa Tehenia, which is 3) The crop management (sowing, a good source of valuable protein for cultivating, harvesting, a large sector of Egyptians. The threshing, and cleaning) is total consumption is estimated to be labor intensive. about 45,000 tons annually, while, the national production fluctuated The principal goa1 of the sesame from year to year. However, it is breeding program is to maximize about 10,000 tons in the last five production through: release of high years depending on the area devoted yielding and disease· resistant to this crop, which is about 25,000 varieties, improvement of agronomic faddans, Table 1. practices and transferring recommended practices to the growers 7a:~: 1. Sssa!a a~ea\ yie1d a~1~ ~ro:~:t~:r !~ through on-farm trials. ~ ... ,.... ·~~o-:~ :.. ~.' t" .. l i... .. ;.. ... Breeding nurserl:'. ..Lr" ' .... :ee: i .e' 'J Y:a~ ~adda~;x.. '.ig,facdar.j... Breeding nurseries have been ~37: .'"' :, ~ cu1tivated in two sites, Giza and Table 3 shows that the non-branched •Control (commericial variety). varieties N. A 261-1, B-10 and H87- 12 outyielded the commercial variety Table 4. Yield of reco111ended practices compared vith Giza-32 by an average yield of 31-60 far11ers' technique, 1986-88. kg/faddan by (5-10%). Yield (kg/faddanl On-farm trials No. of far11ers' reco•ended Governorate Year trials technique practice kg l Sesame is planted on small holdings Ass iut 1986 581 784 109 19 of 1-5 faddans. Most of the farmers 1987 530 620 90 17 follow their own methods of 1988 315 497 185 59 production. To achieve higher yield, which is a major target, new Sohag 1986 3 503 553 50 10 techniques have been transferred to 1987 3 444 536 92 21 the farmers. In this regard, 12 on 1988 4 492 596 104 21 farm trials are conducted every year in upper Egypt, (Assuit, Sohag, and Quena 1986 552 66C 108 20 in Quena gove rne rates) which we re the 1987 636 715 79 12 most important sesame producing areas 1988 612 774 162 26 during 1986-1988, Table 4. Each trial was carried out in an area of Overa 11 11ean 518 637 129 25 1/2 faddan in two replications, with 1/4 faddan. for reco!Mlended and 1/4 faddan. for farmers techniques. The package included: 54 1 ) Variety Giza-32, The trial show that the recommended 2) Plant density (50 x 10 cm, two practices gave remarkable increases plants/hill = 168.000 in yield (129 kg/faddan) compared plants/faddan), with farmers technique. Consequently, 3) Fertilization (30 kg p2 05 + 30 it is possible to increase the kg N + 24 kg average seed yield'by 25% through K2 O/faddan), and tra1sferring recommended pract~ce to 4) Irrigation intervals (12-15 the farmers. days). 55 REPORT ON ROOT-ROT AND WILT DISEASES OF SESAME IN EGYPT A.A. El-Deeb Sesame is one of the oldest oil seed Seed treatments crops in Egypt and many countries of the world. It is attacked by root In general, seed dressing with some rot and wilt diseases, which are now tested fungicides decreased infection wide spread especially in Quena, percentage of sesame root-rot and Sohag, Sharkia and Ismaelia wilt diseases when compared with the Governorates. Root-rot caused by non-treated control, Table 1. Hae rophom 1na phaseo 7 ina and Sumisclex (5g/kg seed), Ben late (5 Rhizoctonia solani and wilt caused by g/kg seed) and Quinolate (6 g/kg Fusar1um oxysporum f. sp. sesami and seed) significantly reduced root-rot Vertici771um albo-atrum were and wi 1t of sesame compared to the recorded on sesame in different control and other treatments. countries. Also, seed yield was significantly Attempts were made to control root increased over the control when the rot and wi 1t diseases of sesame by tested fungicides were applied in two selecting disease resistant geno doses. The highest seed yield was types treating the seed and/or soil obtained with Sumisclex (5g/kg seed) with fungicides, and using different followed by Benlate (5 g/kg seed) and levels of NPK fertilizers. Quinolate 15 CTS (6 g/kg seed). Tab~e ~. Effect of seed dressing on infection percent of root-rot and wilt a~d on yield of sesame under f jeld :onditions. Schag* Sharkia* Dose 1984 1985 1994 1985 g/kg Fungicides seeds R w R+W y R w R+W y R w R+W y R w R+W y Ben late 2 8.3 7.5 16.3 567 6.4 9. 1 15. 0 436 6.2 7.9 17. 1 523 6.3 8.4 14.6 421 5 5.8 5.1 14.a 615 4.9 a.9 13.0 548 4.4 5.6 15. a 525 4.4 8.4 13.6 554 Sumisclex 3 i.5 6.7 15.0 576 6.6 9.0 15.6 491 6.2 6.8 15. 3 573 6.3 8.9 15.3 464 7 0 • , 1 5 5.0 5.8 14. 2 654 5.5 7.5 12.4 5as 4.2 5.8 15. 4 525 4.3 j ,.; lw1..i 615 Quninc:ate 15 CTS 3 7.1 7.1 14. s 5a1 7. 9 7.9 17.9 491 5.0 7. 5 14. 2 553 7. 5 8.5 18.0 440 ~ n 5 4.2 6.3 13. e 845 7. 0 5. 5 15. 7 540 .. ~ 5.0 14. 2 615 7. 3 7.6 14.3 509 V/captan 2 10.8 8.8 17. 5 495 9. 1 18.9 23.7 395 7. 1 5.6 17. 5 456 a.5 6.0 23.5 383 5.2 e.8 15. 8 509 7.1 15.0 20.4 405 5.8 9.2 17. 1 485 7. 5 7.3 21.4 393 Quin. V4x 12. 9 9.6 1a.a 440 10.6 20.6 23.6 3a1 10 .c 10. 4 17.1 438 10.3 '.3.6 23.0 37C 11.3 9.2 18. 8 486 9.9 18.1 21.5 369 a.a 10.4 17, 1 514 9.4 16.9 21.1 405 Vitox 12. 5 1c.8 18.8 503 12.a 21.9 23.9 359 1~. a 10 .a 17. 9 491 11.9 21.8 23.a 319 6 11.7 '.O. 4 18.3 521 11.1 19.1 ~1.3 376 ~.6 10.4 17. 5 516 11.3 19.a 21.8 335 Homi 3 14. 6 12. 9 19. 5 433 14.1 21.0 23.1 ...iH 12. 5 12. 5 2C.a 473 12.9 20.9 22.4 323 6 14.2 12. 5 19.2 534 11.9 17.9 21.C 3a4 1L7 12 .9 2C.4 525 12.3 19.8 20.e 371 Rcvral TMTD 3 16. 7 13. 3 19. 2 429 15.3 22.0 23.6 33'. 12. 9 13. 8 20.8 458 14.8 22.5 24.0 313 6 16. 3 12. 9 19. e 446 12.8 20.5 22.8 361 12. 5 13. 3 20.4 480 13.4 21.6 23.4 3!4 Rezolex 3 10.0 11. 3 16. 7 563 8.4 14.1 19.8 396 9.2 10.8 17. 1 586 7.5 15.4 19.S 395 5 9.6 7. 5 15. 4 573 7. 1 13. 3 16. 9 426 8.3 10.0 15.8 584 6.6 14.0 16.1 421 control 0 25.8 23.8 27. 9 359 23.9 22.0 30.5 260 23.3 20.3 3C.8 366 23.1 23.3 30.5 284 L.S.D. 51 1.4 1. 3 1.6 041 0.7 2.2 1.5 035 1.4 1.5 1.2 039 0.7 1.0 1.7 027 * R: Root rot, W=Wilt, Y=Yielding/plot. 58 Results in Table 2 indicate that different reactions. Benlate at 10 increasing the doses of Benlate, g/kg seed showed some phytotoxicity Sumisclex and Quinolate 15 CTS from effect, yellowed leaves and stunted 2 to 5 g/kg seed significantly plants. Generally, among the four reduced root-rot and wilt infections tested rates, 5 g/kg seed was the and increased seed yield. While the best in reducing root-rot and wilt increase to 7 or 10 g/kg seed diseases. resulted in Table 2. Effect of four rates of three fungicides as seed dressing on the infection percent of root-rot and wilt and on yield of sesame under field conditions. Sohag* Sharkia Dose 1985 1986 1985 1986 g/kg Fung1cides seeds R w R+W y R w R+W y R w R+W y R w R+W y Ben late 2 6.3 10.0 17.1 544 6.1 8.014.5 499 6.2 7.9 15. 6 519 6.4 8.4 14.8 500 5 4.2 7. 9 14. 6 630 4.1 7.513.5 549 4.2 6.7 12. 9 623 4.3 7.3 13.9 549 7 4.2 7. 9 15. 0 835 3.8 8.013.4 566 4.2 6.3 12. 5 850 4.2 6.7 13.3 557 10 3.8 8. 3 14. 6 846 0.9 7. 012. 8 582 4.6 6.7 15. 5 825 4.0 6.4 13.1 550 Sumisclex 2 5.8 9.8 17. 5 595 6.0 9.015.6 512 6.3 7.1 16.3 561 4.8 9.3 16.4 491 5 3.8 7. 5 15.0 670 4.5 7.814.5 574 4.3 6.5 14.2 859 4.0 7.3 13.2 532 7 4.2 7.9 14. 2 646 3.8 4. 713. 3 619 3.8 5.0 13.8 645 3.8 7.2 15.2 547 10 3.8 7. 9 14. 2 646 3.9 7.412.6 618 4.2 6.7 14. 2 625 3.7 6.8 15.4 545 Qu1nolage 15 CTS 2 6.7 10.4 17. 7 580 7.0 9. 217. 8 445 6.2 7. 9 14.2 574 7.2 8.3 17.4 448 5 4.2 6.3 15.0 674 6.2 6.314.5 509 4.2 7' 1 11.3 680 6.2 7.4 18.0 535 7 4.6 7. 5 15.4 674 6.6 7.8 13.0 518 4.2 7.1 11.3 676 6.0 7.3 13.5 554 10 4.6 8.3 14. 6 669 6.2 6. 9 12. 5 520 4.2 7.1 12. 1 660 6.2 7.3 13.5 554 Control 0 22.9 17 .1 22.5 341 23.5 23.0 24.6 355 24.6 23.9 24.2 305 22.2 22. 7 24.8 354 L.S.D. 5l 1. 6 2.2 1.7 197 0.7 0.8 0.9 41 1.9 1.9 1. 2 52 0.5 0.6 0.8 27 * R =Root rot, W=Wilt, Y=Yield g/plot. Soil treatments diseases followed by Giza-32 and Mutation- 8 as compared to other Sumisclex was the best in reducing cultivars. On the other hand, the root-rot and wilt diseases followed highest percentage of infection was by Daconil 2787 and Benlate as recorded on Gi za-25 and Mutation- compared to other treatments, Table 14. As regards to seed yield, 3. Generally, all the fungicides Mutation-48 gave the highest yield reduced infection and increased yield followed by Giza-32, while Giza-25 as compared to the control. When and Mutation-14 gave the lowest Sumi sc 1ex as a soil treatment is yield. combined with Benlate 5g/kg seed as a seed dressing, the lowest infection Fertilization and highest yield is obtained. Results in Table 5 indicate that Varietal reaction percentage of root-rot and wilt diseases of sesame differed for the The ten tested sesame cultivars different levels of fertilizers. varied in tr.eir reaction to root-rot The highest yield and the least and wilt diseases under naturally infection with the diseases were heavily infested field conditions, obtained with 30-30-48 followed by Table 4. Mutation-48 was the least 30-30-24 NPK 1eve1 s. On the infected with root-rot and wilt contrary, the highest infection and 57 the least yield levels were obtained 15 p only reduced percentage of when no fertilizers were added infection but yield remained low preceded by 15 unit N only. Adding compared with other treatments. Table 3. Effect of fungicidal soil treatment on the infection percent of root-rot anj wilt ard en yie'd of sesame under field conditions. Sohagu Sharkiau 1985 1985 1985 1985 Fungicides R w R+W y R w R+W y R w R+W y R w R+W y Daconil 2787 (5 kg*) 4.5 4.5 5.3 759 4.6 4.9 8.4 759 4.2 4.5 8.2 0.775 3.8 4.5 8.3 770 eenlate (2 kg) 4.2 5.C 5.8 754 4.5 5.3 7.4 755 4.6 4.8 7.5 0.750 3.9 4.5 7.5 ?57 Sumisclex ( 4 kg) 4.2 3.8 5.4 790 4. 1 5.0 7.3 779 3.8 4.2 7.5 0.775 3.4 4.5 6.9 ?85 Vitavax 3p ( 1.5 1it.) 4.9 5.0 ....~ 7, 743 4.4 5.3 8.6 689 4.2 E. 7 8.3 C.783 4.4 6.5 7. 5 ?59 R~n11an (4 kg) 5.0 "."t ~ 6. 7 ?34 5.0 6.111.1 677 5.4 5.5 7.5 0.772 5.3 6. 5 12. 1 640 aotm (5 kg: 5.4 9.2 11.3 655 5. 1 8. 812. 0 629 5.8 10.4 12.5 0.648 5.6 10.5 '.2.4 635 Ccntrol O 21.7 20.8 31.3 376 24.5 21.80. 8 320 22.5 21.3 31.3 o.366 22.5 22.0 3o.e ;35 ~ t L.S.J. 5% 1.5 1.4 1.9 40 2. 1 0.5 0.6 44 u 1.6 1.8 0.073 0. 4 "'""' 0.6 18 *FJrmulated material per faddan., ** R = Rao: rot, ~ = Wilt, Y : Yield g/plot. Table 4. Percentage of infe:tion w1th roc~-rot and w1lt diseases and yield of ten sesa~e cu1tivars under field cor.ditiJns. Sc has* ___1~9-~95 _____ ~19~86~--- 1985 1935 G~_lLva~~-----R ___w __ _lL+J__ y R w R+\i y ~ w R+W y R w R+W y Hagen 8S/10 10.7 !2.0 14.3 570 10.8 '.2.S 14.3 602 10.7 '2.3 14.3 455 1C.3 11.2 14.3 4gg Muta:ion 48 6.0 7.8 9.2 ~88 6.0 7.8 7.5 734 5.! 7.2 7.3 740 4.3 5.0 8.? ?13 12.0 12.2 15.3 520 12.2 11.2 12.3 525 '.0.8 12.2 14.2 423 11.3 13.0 14.7 475 G~za-32 5.8 ·c.s 12.7 734 5.5 9.D 10.: 7C7 5.8 '.:.o 1· .o 672 6.3 8.3 13.5 700 Local 36 13.5 13.2 16.0 SC4 13.2 ~3.5 '2.C 560 14.2 12.5 12.2 530 13.5 11.6 13.5 403 Giza-25 18.5 20.3 22.G 42~ 18.0 16.5 21.0 457 22.2 18.0 17.3 393 20.2 18.0 17.3 404 Mutat~cn 14 17.50 '.9.7 21.2 492 16.2 15.7 17.8 498 21.0 15.5 1~.e 335 18.C 15.2 21.8 412 Hage~ 01/10 9.0 11.7 17.8 595 10.8 1U 15.8 598 6.8 11.7 '.5.2 322 6.5 8.7 15.2 565 Mutation 8 7.5 12.5 17.3 522 8.3 !!.5 1€.3 540 8.0 17.3 17.3 520 6.7 15.3 16.3 554 Loca 1 270 13.2 28.3 18.7 537 '.4.3 18.0 17.8 343 12.2 16.5 17.8 442 10.3 12.3 16.7 494 L.S.D 5% 1.9 1.7 2.1 787 2.5 1.9 2.4 72 2.0 1.7 2.? 73 2.2 2.4 2.9 61 R = ~c:t rot, W: Wilt, Y: Yield g/plot. 58 Table 5. Effect of different levels of fertilizers (NPK) on the infection percer,t of root-rot and wilt and on yield of sesame under field conditions. Soha_g Sharkia 1985 1986 Treatments Root-rot Yield Root-rot Yield N p K Root-rot Wilt and wilt g/ 1O m 2 Root-rot Wilt and wilt g/ 10 m2 0.0 0.0 0.0 28.5 32.3 27. 2 296 28.3 24.8 28.8 286 15 0.0 0.0 23.2 24.3 22.3 363 22.3 24.2 23.5 335 30 0.0 0.0 24.2 22.8 24.C 400 23.0 23. 7 23.7 390 0.0 15 0.0 17. 5 21. 0 18. 5 371 1a.5 22.7 23.3 345 30 15 0.0 17. 5 20.0 19 .0 418 18. 8 18. 8 23.2 410 30 30 24 18. 7 20.3 19. 3 431 16.0 ~ 8. c 23.5 453 30 30 48 16.8 13. 3 17. 3 475 ~ 6. 3 15. 8 22.8 481 45 30 24 19. 7 22.3 21.8 460 19. 5 22.0 22.5 461 45 30 48 18. 7 21.2 20.5 471 18. 7 21.3 21.8 481 L.S.D. 5% 1.6 2.7 2. 1 29 1.5 1.8 LS 27 59 HIGHLIGHTS ON IMPROVING PRODUCTION OF SESAME IN EGVPT 1 A.F. Ibrah;m Sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) is an Table 1. Area, productivity and production of ancient oil crop in Egypt. The area, sesame in Egypt during 1979-87 productivity, and production over the last decade are presented in Table 1. Area Yield Production The regional distribution by Year (1000 ha) !kgLhal !MT) provinces is presented in Table 2. 1979/81 16.0 996.0 16.0 The crop drew the attention of 1985 9.0 974 .0 9.0 breeders and agronomists at Cairo ms 23.0 1043.0 24.0 University in the last decade for the 1987 19.0 1053.0 20.0 following reasons: Source: Year Book of production (FAO, 1988). 1) Local cultivars are low yielding, branched type, late maturing with Table 2. Regional distribution and productivity dehiscent capsules which cause cf sesame in Egypt in 1987 crop season. high seed loss during harvest. Area Seed Yield 2) Local cultivars are highly Gover no rate (ha) !kgLhal susceptible to wilt pathogens, Lower Eg~~t particularly under excess use of Behira 91. 1 468.9 irrigation and their growth is Kafr El-Sheik 23.6 825.0 suppressed by the accompanied Sharkia 132.0 705.0 weeds. Ismalia 1366.8 1029.0 Suez 67. 2 1050.0 3) Local cult ivars are not suited to mechanical harvesting and can Total 1680.7 x 969.0 not compete with other crops with relatively high cash return like Middle Egy~t vegetables and sugar cane. Giza 154.0 1~91.0 Beni Suef 564.4 888.0 Integrated research on sesa~e in the Fayoum 594.8 1323. 0 last 10 years Mini a 1208.4 1332.0 An integrated research work has been Total 2521.5 x 1221. 0 carried out mainly by the Agronomy Department in collaboration with of Ugger Egygt Plant Pathology Department and Assu1t 1284.8 1263.0 Central Laboratory of Biochemistry of So hag 680.0 1380.C Faculty of Agric., Cairo Univ., Giza, Quena 4702. 4 1164.:l and specialists of Field Crop Aswan 784.4 1014 .0 Research Institute and Soil Research and Water Management Institute, Total 7451.6 x 1185.0 Agricultural Research Center of Ministry of Agriculture. Grand Total 11553.9 x 1161.0 Source: Agricultural Statistics Year Book, Dept. of Agric. Economics, Ministry of Agric., Egypt, 1988. 60 This work includes: following characters: 1) Breeding program aimed at 1) Reduced stem height to the first selecting potential seed yield fruiting node, and better quality i.e. high 2) Non-branched type, seed oil and protein contents 3) Increased fruiting zone length through: on the main stem. a) Screening germplasm, 4) Increased no. of capsules/plant b) Induced mutations by seed (3 capsules/each leaf axil). irradiation of local 5) Increased seed yield/plant (more varieties, than 35 g/plant). c) Crossing exotic high yielding 6) Oi 1 + protein contents of seed lines with local varieties, (75% or more), and d) Crossing exotic high yielding 7) Semi-dehiscent capsules. lines with mutant lines, e) Back crossing of superior Table 3. Distribution and cu1tivation of superior mutant lines, lines of sesame, 1985-88. f) Selection of lin~s tolerant to wilt pathogens under Season artificial infection, and Discription 1985 '. 986 1987 1938 g) Crossing wilt tolerant lines Distributed seed (kg) 250 40C 600 600 with high yielding ones. No. of recipient farmers 26 42 52 54 2) Propagation of superior lines Cultivated that surpass the local cultivar, area (feddan)* 100 150 250 250 Giza-25. * 1 feddan : 4200 m2. 3) Yield trials, small- and large scale experiments and on-farm Based on the results obtained from trials conducted by the farmers on-farm trials for three successive are carried out in sesame growing seasons, the f o 11 owing package is governorates; Quena, Sohag, recommended to achieve potent i a 1 seed Ismalia, Sharkia, El-Fayoum, El yield: Tahrer and Behira. 1. Population density of 45 to 50 2 4) Cost-free distribution of seeds plants/m , (50 and 10 cm between of the best matching 1i nes in the rows and p1 ants, respective 1y) D-yield trials to sesame growers of non-branched type. at the rate of 2. 5 kg/f eddan. 2. Fertilization at the rate of 60, Farmers are also provided with 45 & 30 kg/fed. of N, P2 05 and K package recommendations to ensure 20, respectively. high seed yield. Farmers 3. Irrigation after depletion of 40 contribute to the project, twice or 60% of available water. the amount of seeds they receive 4. Elimination of weeds with one of to be redistributed to new the following pre-emergence farmers in the next season. herbicides : Table 3 shows the amount of seed distributed, number of farmers a) Linuron @0.75 kg/fed + Imex received and total area @1.5 1/fed. cultivated with superior lines. b) Stomp @1.5 1/fed. + Linuron @0.75 kg/fed. Selection was practiced for the c) Stomp @1.5 1/fed. + Diuron@ 0.5 kg/fed. 6 '1 EVALUATION OF SOME CULTIVARS AND PROMISING STRAINS OF SESAME Abstract Eva1uation of 25 sesame genotypes including three lo:al, three introduced c~ltivars and 19 pr~mising strains were carried out at three locations during 1984 and 1985 seasons. The resu 1ts showed ~hat: 1) The combined analysis revealed signif1car.t differences among genotypes for all traits except 1000 - seed weight, with 6, 13, 5 and 3 genctypes significantly e1.ceeding the check cultivar Giza-25 in plant height, height t~ the first capsule, capsule breadth and (eld/plot, respectively, 2) The years effect was significant for all the studied traits except for height to first capsu1e, ~umber cf branches/plant and seed oil content, whereas, t~e lccations effect was significant for all tra1ts, 3) The genotype x year interaction was significant for all traits exce~t 1000 - seed weight. The genotype x location was also significant fer all traits except capsule length and IOOO - seed weight. Moreover, the second order interaction was also significant for all traits except number of capsules/plant, capsule length and 1000 - seed weight, 4) Sesame genctypes responded differently with charges in environment for most of the studied traits, and 5) Capsule length, plant height and height to first capsule were pos'.tively correlated with seed yield. Evaluation is an important and investigators emphasized the necessary step in the development of importance of path analysis and improved sesame cultivars. Because of correlations. Seed yield was genotype x environment interaction, positively and significantly the evaluation of the promising correlated with number of capsules, breeding strains requires repeated primary branches, 1000- seed weight testing in both seasons and (24, 23, 20), plant height, capsule locations. The decision to release, length (4) and length of fruit a strain should usually depend on the bearing branch (11). basis of whether the strain performance is "satisfactory" in The objective of this work was to comparison with the performance of study the genetic variability and the one or more "standard" cultivars over performance cf three local and three a period of two or more years. introduced cultivars of sesame along with 19 promising strains at three After evaluating 40 sesame genotypes, locations for two seasons. se 1ect ion based on branches/p 1ant, Phenotypic and genotypic correlations capsules/plant and seed yield/plant among traits were also discussed. was recommended (22). Environmental effects of years and locations on Materials and Methods yield of sesame varieties and crosses were substantial (14). The highest This study was carried out at the yielding variety had largest number Agricultural Research Stations, of seeds/pod high seed weight and Shandaweel, Mallawi and Al-Tahreer possessed multilocular capsules (1). during 1984 and 1985 seasons as Lack of consistency in variation from follows: pl ant to pl ant in seed weight, oi 1 content and oil composition was Planting Soil reported (15). The maximum and Location date ~ minimum values for different traits were distributed in different 1. Shandaweel 20-5-84 Sandy loam varieties (5). 2. Shandaweel 20-5-85 3. Ma 11 awi 15-6-84 Clay The relationship between traits 4. Ma 11 awi 2-6-85 provides the basis for planning more 5. Al-Tahreer 25-6-84 Sandy efficient selection programs. Many 6. 20-6-85 62 The materials used in this study were was still larger at Shandaweel which obtained from the Oil Crop Research resulted in higher yields compared Section, Agric. Res. Center; MOA, to Mallawi and Al-Tahreer. This Egypt, composed of 25 cultivars and could be due to large differences in strains of sesame ( Sesamum indicum both edaphic and climatic conditions L.), Table 1. prevailing in these locations. A randomized complete block design With respect to the effect of was used with four replications plot location x year interaction pl ant size was 4, rows, 4m long and 50cm. height and height to the first apart. The recommended distances capsule showed significant between hi 11 s we re 20 cm far the differences. branched, 15 cm for rarely branched and 1O cm far the branched types. The genotypes differed significantly After full emergence, the seedlings in the three traits. Six genotypes were singled, and the recommended significantly exceeded the check cultural practices of sesame were cult i var Gi za-25 in pl ant height, and adopted throughout the growing 13 genotypes were significantly lower season. At maturity1 plant height, than the check cultivar in height to height to the first capsule, number the first capsule, Table 4. However, of branches/plant, and capsule the check cultivar was the best of length, and capsule breadth, were all genotypes in branching habit. recorded on 10 random guarded plants in each pl at. Where as, 1000-seed The first and second order weight, seed oil content which was interactions were significant for the determined by Carver Laboratory Press three traits indicating that sesame Instrument and seed yield/plot were genotypes responded differently when measured on plot mean basis (1 plot they are grown under different 2 = 8 m ). env i ronments. Consequently, it is essential to test sesame genotypes The combined analysis of variance, under a wide range of environments to genotypic and pheno-typic identify the best genotypes far correlationswere calculated (12,13). particular environment. These The genotypic and phenotypic results are in general agreement with coefficients of variation were those reported before (1,17,21). estimated (3). B. Yield components Results and Discussion The combined analysis of yield A. Morpholo_gj_cal traits components is presented in Table 2. Significant differences were obtained The combined analysis of variance is between 1984 and 1985 seasons. The presented in Table 2. The years main mean of number of capsules/plant, effect was significant for plant capsule length and capsule breadth of height. The three morphological 1985 crop season was higher than that traits were significantly affected by of 1984. While the reverse trend was locations. The average plant heights obtained for 1000- seed weight , were 204.2, 193.1 and 154.6 cm at Table 3. This could be due to Shandaweal, Mallawi and Al-Tahreer differences in edaphic and climatic locations, respectively, Table 3. conditions prevailing in these Eventhough, Al-Tahreer location years. showed the lowest height to the first capsule (29.89 cm) and the highest Significant differences among number of branches/plant compared to locations were observed; such as, the other two locations. However, Mallawi gave the highest number of the length of the reproductive zone capsules/plant, Shandaweel recorded 63 Table 1. Description of some varieties and strains of sesame. No. of Days to Code Variety or capsules Seed color Shattering maturity No. strain* [leaf axil 1 ~1 F10 single Yellow Shattering 120-125 2 ~4 F1 White 3 Brown 4 ~o ~28 Yell ow 5 ~ 2 F5 6 ~2 F8 Brown ~ 4 F16 7 0 9 Red-yell ow 8 ~o ~25 Waxy white 9 0 25 White creamy 10 Waxy white 125-128 11 ~1 ~1.1 Yellow-red 12 ~1 F15 White 13 ~2 F7 Waxy white 14 ~2 F14 ~4 F17 15 8 10 Yell ow-red semi-shatt. 130-135 16 ~9 ~26 three Yell ow 125-130 17 3 12 single White-creamy 18 white 19 ~~ 20 I 4 three creamy 130-135 21 Gm-m-2~-25 single brown shattering 110-115 22 Giza-23 . waxy white 120-125 23 Giza-24 white-yellow 24 Im-11-1 three white creamy semi-shatt. 125-130 25 I270 white * Hand B: Originated by hybridization and selections were selfed for more than five generations. I = Introduction. Tables 2. Combined analyses of variance for the studied traits in sesame after evaluation at three locations in 2 years. Mean Sguares Source of Height of No. of No. of No. of variation plant first branches capsules capsule capsule 100-seed Yield/ Yield/ Seed d.f height ca~sule L~lant L~lant length breadth weight ~lant ~lot oil I Years (Y) 1 119970** 85 12. 79 44572** 7. 27** 1.31** 7. 89** 238** 1.41** 50.9 Location (L) 2 125446** 732 28** 429.57** 272763** 118.87** 6.92** 15.37** 9635** 10.49** 614.3** Yx L 2 37292** 3484** 16 .41 33240** 0. 59** .24** .34 310** .18 50.9 Error (A) 18 1035 229** 5.04 2254 0. 12 .01 1. 74 35 .099 59.6 Genotypes(G)24 1734** 939** 41.99** 2500** . 94** . 28** 1.03 92** . 18 38. 6** Gx Y 24 648** 386 10.59** 2922** .18** .07 1.87 64** .10** 16.7** Gx L 48 297* 107** 2.95** 1814** . 10 .03** 1.57 75U .09** 19.6** Gx L x Y 48 351** 142** 3. 17** 1395 .11 .03** 1. 39 49** .12** 15. 1** Error (8) 432 190 62 1. 12 1104 0.08 .01 1.59 22 .04 5.8 * and **: Significant at .05 and .01 levels, respectively. 64 the highest mean capsule length and Table 4. The superiority of such 1000- seed weight. While Al-Tahreer genotypes could be due to their showed the highest capsule breadth, adaptation and high values of some Table 3. yield components. These results are in line with those reported before Highly significant differences among (5, 10, 16, 17). genotypes were obtained for number of capsules/plant, capsule length and The first and second order breadth. None of the studied interactions revealed that the genotypes significantly exceeded the genotypes responded differently from check cultivar in number of year to year and from location to capsules/plant, Table 4. The another. genotypes 8, 18 and 19 which were superior in capsule length and D. Seed oil percent capsule breadth were also superior in seed yield. These results are in The combined analysis of variance agreement with those reported before revealed significant differences (5,21). among locations, Table 2. However, the effects of year x location The first order interact ions interaction was not significant. Al indicated that the genotypes we re not Tahreer location gave the highest consistent under different locations while Shandaweel gave the lowest oil and years. The second order percent. interaction was significant only for capsule breadth, Table 2. Lack of Significant differences among significance of the second order genotypes in seed oil percent were interaction for the other yield observed , such as Genotype-24 which components may not actua 11 y mean that gave the lowest (48.79%). While there was no environmental Giza-25 recorded the highest. The interactions effect on the genotypes. five superior genotypes were: 11, 17, The reason could probably be due to 19, 20 and 21. It must be noted that less number of locations and few genotype 11 and 19 were also superior yea rs which a re needed to identify in seed yield. First and second statistical differences, in addition order interactions weresignificant, to the large experimental errors indicating differences in seed oil obtained for number of capsules and percent in different years and capsule length. locations. C. Seed yield/plot E. Estimates of variance components Seed yield/plot was significantly Estimates of the variance affected by growing season. The components, genotypic and phenotypic general mean of the 25 genotypes over coefficients of variability are locations was higher in 1985 than presented in Table 5. The relative 1984, Table 3. Significant magnitudes of these components differences among locations were also indicate the relative importance of observed. The highest seed yield/plot the corresponding sources of was obtained at Shandaweel location variation. The large magnitude of followed by Mallawi and Al-Tahreer, the second order interaction Table 4. indicated that the different The studied genotypes differed genotypes responded differently when significantly in yielding ability over the two seasons. Three grown under different environments. genotypes, 18, 13 and 19, The genotypic variance for number of significantly exceeded the check Giza branches/plant was large compared to -25 which yielded 0.678 kg/plot, 62 and s; reflecting the importance Table 3. Means of the studied agrononical yield traits at three locations in two seasons. Shanda Revised Trait we 11 Ma 11 awi Tahreer Mean L.S. D. Plant height, 1984 194.65 143.58 151.23 163. 15 (en) 1985 213.70 202.59 158.01 191.43 1. 14 Mean 204. 18 173.09 154.62 177. 29 5.05 Height to the 1984 65.79 58.35 30.66 51. 60 first capsule, 1985 59.59 68.35 29. 11 52.35 4. 15 (en) Mean 62.69 63.36 29.89 51. 98 2.83 Branches/ p1 ant 1984 3.25 4.14 5.59 4.32 1985 2.96 4.45 6.44 4.62 0.69 Mean 3. 10 4.29 e.02 4.47 0.42 Capsules/plant 1984 75.51 121.04 113. 73 103.43 1985 66. 12 163. 13 132.76 120.67 13.02 Mean 70.81 142.08 123.24 112.04 8.88 Capsule length 1984 3.51 2.80 1.72 2.57 {cm) 1985 3. 51 2.91 1.95 2.79 0. 10 Mean 3.51 2.86 1.83 2.68 0.06 Capsule breadth 1984 0.75 0.41 0.75 0.55 (cm) 1985 0.88 0.54 0.88 0.65 0.03 Mean 0.82 0.47 0.81 0.59 0.02 1000-seed 1984 4.00 3.63 3.54 3.73 weight (g) 1985 3.86 3.32 3.31 3.49 N.S Mean 3.93 3.47 3.43 3.61 0.27 Yield/plot 1984 0.76 0.66 0.31 0.58 {kg) 1985 0.89 0.69 0.44 0.68 0.11 Mean 0.83 0.67 0.38 0.63 0.56 Seed oi 1 1984 50. 17 52.26 52.51 51.65 (~) 1985 49.76 52.80 54. 13 52.23 2.04 Mean 49.97 52.53 53.72 52.07 1.49 of the genetic variability among the environments. These results are in tested genotypes. With respect to line with those reported before capsule length and capsule breadth, (5,9,10,14,17). the genotypic 62 and 6! were comparable and suflicient genotypic F. Genotypic and phenotypic coefficients of variability were correlation obtained. Genotypic correlations among traits Genera 11 y, it could be cone l uded that are listed in Table 6. The genotypic the sesame genotypes behaves correlation between seed yield/plot differently with changes in and each of the other traits environment. Therefore, it is indicated that the highest essential to evaluate sesame correlation (0.749) was between genotypes under a wide range of yield and capsule length followed by ee Table 4. Means of the studied agronomical yield traits of different genotypes of sesame at three locations in two seasons. Plant Height of No. of capsule capsule 100-seed Yield/ Geno- height first branches capsules length breadth weight plot Oi 1 type (cm) caDsule!cml /plant _Lplant (cm) (cml ( g) (kg) (X) 1 173.95 52.46 5. 15 98.45 2.64 0.58 3.66 0.502 52.95 2 176. 71 44.98 4.89 116. 47 2.46 0.59 3.39 0.714 51.60 3 161. 69 50.00 4. 75 102.33 2.59 0.53 3.5C 0.641 51. 56 4 180.00 50.48 5.52 107.36 2.68 0.58 3.54 0.696 50.68 5 172.52 60. 17 4.94 102.96 2.69 0.58 3.35 0.601 50.62 6 166.60 54.65 4.85 107.02 2.84 0.55 3. 51 0.544 5U5 7 175.79 59.04 3.79 104.45 2.59 0.64 3.56 o.51g 52.97 ~ ~~ 8 178.08 51. 29 5.75 127.09 2.77 0.81 "''"'"' 0.6€8 52.27 9 172.65 52. 19 5.04 104. 13 2.67 0.94 3. 61 0.523 51.53 10 179.63 61. 10 4.96 102.63 2.58 0.52 3.46 0.664 52. 14 11 177.83 52.38 4.30 116. 25 2. 61 0.54 3.49 o,5g3 53. 18 12 186.50 55.94 5.03 125.06 2.59 0.59 3.59 C.602 52.0~ 13 184.23 59.25 6.07 111.08 2.69 0.62 3.70 0. 750 52.59 14 Pl .42 53.02 4.29 102. 41 2. 61 0.49 3.52 0.518 51. 86 15 168.23 51. 56 4. 75 109.91 2.64 0.62 3. 51 0.562 50. 31 16 161.63 37. 77 5.51 106.93 2.70 0.56 3.55 0.507 52.73 17 ~79.49 50.54 5.99 125.C6 3.04 0. 51 3.58 0.604 53.08 18 189.27 54.63 3.03 99. 74 3.27 0.90 3.67 0.806 52.68 19 197. 75 56.04 3.42 113. 49 3.24 0.95 3.86 0.741 53.02 2C 1e5. 59 44.6C 2.44 128. 6~ 2.72 0. 61 3.38 0.591 53.C~ 21 175.50 57. 92 5.78 126.26 2.59 o.eo 3.62 0.678 54. 18 22 171. 50 53.79 4.68 97.64 2. 51 0.58 3. 70 0.559 52.33 23 182.92 55.08 4.!5 114.79 2.63 0.56 3.50 0.670 50.87 24 175.39 41.08 1.29 113. 99 2.50 0.76 3.54 0.443 48. 79 25 187.48 39.46 1.07 m.sg 2.37 0.57 3.26 0.599 49.35 Revised LSD(.05)7.61 4.15 0.54 18.80 0.16 0.05 N. S. 0.058 1.27 * Check variety Giza-25. plant height (0. 737) and height to breadth showed a large genotypic the first capsule (0.667). The other correlation with plant height traits exhibited low correlations (0.878), and slight nega~ive with seed yield/plot. Genotypic correlation with number of correlations were in general higher branches/plant (0.376). Number of than phenotypic ones reflecting the branches/plant gave intermediate relatively large error variances and correlations with height to the first covariances. If the environmental capsule and oil percent. error variance and covariance had been reduced to zero, the phenotypic These results indicated that the and genotypic correlation important traits which were coefficients could have been positively correlated with seed yield identical (7). were: capsule length, plant height and height to the first capsule. The correlations between capsule These traits should be considered in length and breadth were positive and any program for yield in such high, whereas, capsule length showed materials. These results are in line intermediate correlations with plant with those reported before (2,6,8,19, height and oil percent. Capsule and 20). 67 Table 5. Pertinent variance components, genotypic (GCV) and phenotypic (PCV) coefficients of variability and yield traits in sesame o 2 o 2 2 2 02 g G.C.V. p P.C.V o gy o gly e Trait I I Plant height 47.4826 2.89 72.2674 4.79 24.79 -8.88 40.04 190.42 Height of the first capsule24.4823 9.52 39.1100 12.03 20.34 -5.88 20. 11 51.79 Branches/plant 1.31766 25.68 1.74989 29.59 0.62 -0.04 0.51 1.12 Capsules/plant-35.023 104. 1771 9. 11 127.24 69.80 72.81 1103.87 Capsule length 0.03186 6.66 0.03904 7.37 0.01 -0.002 0.01 0.08 Capsule breadth 0.00901 15.79 0.01184 18. 11 0.003 0.00 0.01 0.01 1000-seed weigh~0.04206 0.048712 6. 11 0.04 0.03 -0.05 1.59 Yield/plant 0.021742 0.009 3.813449 11. 94 1. 31 4.44 6.53 22 .15 Yield/plot 0.00453 10.72 0.007345 13.65 -0.002 0.0 0.02 0.04 Oil (I) 0.75271 1.67 1.6081 2.44 ~.08 0.64 2.48 5.82 Table 6. Genotype 'upper" a~d phenotype 'lower' correlations as calculated from the combined analysis of variance for some agronomic and yield traits in sesame. Capsules Capsule Capsule Plant Branches Height Oil Trait /plant length breadth height /plant 1st. caps. % Yield/plot * 0.749 0.470 0.737 C.026 0.557 0.206 0. 157 0.472 0.429 0.513 0. 168 0.423 0.285 Capsules/plant * * *0.115 *0.059 *0.452 -0.059* -0.248 0.065 Capsule length 0.885 0.529 0.029 0.344 0.594 0.837 0.408 0.027 0.329 0.427 Capsule breadth 0.878 -0.375 0.100 0.012 0.589 -0.201 1.055 0.188 Plant height -0.403 -0.155 0.170 -0.356 0.017 0.106 Branches/plant 0.578 0.593 0.441 0.456 Height 1st capsule 0.676 0.380 *Negative genotypic variance was obtained for capsules/plant. References 51: 527-530. 5. Chandram:r.y, D. and N.K. Nayar. 1985. Genetic 1. Abd\Jl - Khader and V.G. Nair. 1984. An variability 1n Sesamum ;'ldicum L. Inidan J. evaluation of the productivity of certain Agric. Sci. 55: 759-770. sesamum genotypes. Agric. Pes. J. cf Keral 22: 5. Dapral, K.G. 1957. Variability and correlation 48-56. studies in sesame. JNKVV. Res. J.Jabalpur, 15: 2. Argarta, F. J. 1952. A study of correlation 3-39. between three factors in sesame. Agron. Trop. 7. Dewey, O.R. and K.H. Lu. 1959 ..~ correlation Ven. II; 201-208. and path coefficient analysis of components of 3. Burton, G.W. 1952. Quantitative inheritance in crested wheat grass product 1on. Agron. J. 51: grasses. Proc. 5th Int. Grassld Ccngr. I: r:~- 515-518. 283. 8. Oixit, R.K. 1977. Path analysis for some 4. Cham, G.V. and P.R. Chopde. 1981. Correlation quantitative traits of sessame. Plant Sci. and path analysis of seed yield and its (Lucknow) 7: 9-12. components in sesame. Indian J. Agric. Sci. 9. Gerakis, P.A. and C.Z. Tsangarakis. 1959. ea Sesame variety comparisons and breeding 16. Murugesan, M., K.P. Dhamu; and A. Arokia Raj. objectives on sandy soils of the central Sudan. 1979. Genetic variability in some quantitative Crop Sci. 9: 32-33. characters of sesamum. Madras Agric. J. 66:366- 10. Gupta, V.K. and Y.K. Gupta, 1977. Variability 396. interrelationships and path coefficient 17. Osman, H. E, and M.0. Khidir. 1974. Estimates ana 1ys is for some quantitative characters in of genetic and environmental variability in sesame ( sesamum ind icum L. ) . Indian J. Sesamum indicum L. Experimental. Agric. 10: 105- Heredity. 9:31-38. 112. 11. Gupta, T.R. and K.S. Labana. 1983. Correlation 18. Rai, R.S.V. Vekateswarant, T.K. Ramachandran in sesame. Indian J. Agric. Sci. 53: 96-100. and G. Srinivan. 1981. Genetic variability and 12. Miller, P.A., J.C. Williams, H.F, Robinson, and correlation studies in Sesa11um indicum L Indian F.E. Comstock, 1958. Estimates of genotypic and J. Agric. Res. 15: 119-122. environmental variances and covariances in 19. Serry, M.H. 1965. The effect of spacing and upland cotton and their implications in fertilization on sesame plant. M.Sc. Thesis, selection. Agan. J. 50: 126-131. Fae. of Agric., Cairo Univ., Egypt. 13. 1959. Variety x 20. Sharma, R.L. and B.P.S. Chauhan. 1984. Path environment interactions in cotton variety analysis in sesame (Sesamum indicum L.). J. tests and implications of testing. Agron. J. Maharashtra Agric. Univ. 9:158-160. 51: 132-134. 21. Solanki, Z.S. and R.V. Paliwal. 1981. Genetic 14. Moneim Babufatih, A. and M.A. Mahmoud. 1983. variability and heretability studies on yield Genotypic stability analysis of yield in sesame and its components in sesame. Indian J. Agric. (Sesamum oriental L.) in the central rainlands Sci. 51: 544-556. of the Sudan. More Food from better 22. Thangavelu, M.S. and S. Rajasekaran. 1982. technology. Rome. Italy FAO. 841-847. Studies on genetic variability in sesamum 15. Mosjidis, J.A. and D.M. Yermanos. 1985. Plant indicum L. Madras. Agric. J. 69:780-783. position effect on seed weight oil content and 23. 1983. oil co11position of sesame (Sesamum indicum L.). Correlation and path-coefficient analysis in Euphytica 34: 193-200. sesamum. Madras Agric. J. 70: 109-113. 24. Yadava, T.P.; P. Kumar and A.K. Yadav. 1980. Association of yield and its components on sesame. Indian J. Agric. Sci. 50:317-319. Part 2 SUNFLOWER SUBNETWORK II 70 USE OF WXLD SPECXES XN SUNFLOWER BREEDXNG Dragan Skor'ic The domesticated sunflower has narrow order to be able to set clear cut genetic variability, especially targets of interspecific regarding important agronomic hybridization which would ultimately characters. High-oil varietal ensure success in sunflower breeding. populations and hybrids are distinguished for the narrowness of The studies conducted so far on wild their genetic variability. The sunflowers, have not provided situation is similar with local sufficient information from the populations only, in addition, they aspect of breeding, especially for have inferior agronomic characters. certain important characters, e.g., resistance to diseases and pests. The large number of wild He7ianthus The job on the collecting of wild species and pronounced variability sunflower species from natural within them offer opportunities of popu lat i ans has not been completed increasing genetic variability of the yet. That work should be maximally domesticated sunflower by accelerated because, the rapidly interspecific hybridization. The spreading urbanization threatens the validity of this assumption is existing natural populations of wild confirmed by the fact that there sunflowers with extinction. exists a large number of natural interspecific hybrids among wild The use of wild sunflower species in sun fl owe rs. breeding programs has been insufficient and yet it invariably The inclusion of wild sunflower produced very good results, species in sunflower breeding especially in breeding for resistance programs is not a simple but complex to certain diseases ( P 7asmopa ra and long process. Differences in he7ianthi and Puccinia he7ianthi). chromosome number (tetraploid and It should be mentioned at this point hexaploid species) and that the domesticated sunflower is incompatibility render interspecific poorest in disease resistance. Wild hybridization difficult, if possible sunflowers were also invaluable as at all. Fortunately, these obstacles sources of cytop l asmi call y male have recently been made surmountable sterile (ems) and restorer (Rf) genes by the development of embryo culture which practically enabled the use of and other techniques of tissue heterosis in the development of culture. sunflower hybrids. Interspecific hybridization is The future uses of wild sunflowers further burdened by insufficient in breeding should be directed knowledge of the genomic character towards the discovery of sources of of He 7i an thus genus. Consequently, resistance to the major diseases and we may lose characters in the course insects, which are the dominant of hybridization. Furthermore, we limiting factors of sunflower introduce both desirable and product ion. The work on the undesirable characters into the discovery of new sources of ems and domesticated form in the process of Rf genes should be continued. hybridization, especially the linked characters. It is therefore a must to Furthermore, wild sunflowers are gain more knowledge about the irreplaceable in the programs of characters of the genus He 7 ianthus in breeding for resistance to drought 71 and high soil salinity. It may be have probably been enlarged by man. expected that the future breeding At least one f rem the densely programs for oil and protein contents pubescent race of H. nut ta 7 7ii subsp. and seed quality will largely depend parishii, has become extinct as the on certain wild sunflower species. result of man's activities and others The increase of heterosis for yield may have suffered a restrict ion in components is possible only if based range. Several species are on wild sunflowers. intentionally cultivated by man, either for ornamental purposes or for To successfully use wild sunflowers food as H. annuus and H. tuberosus in breeding programs, breeders should (21). be thoroughly acquainted with all their characters, problems related to He7ianthus genus is a polyploid interspecific hybridization and complex consisting of diploids, breeding techniques. tetraploids and hexaploids, all with the basic chromosome number of x=17 Basic Characters of Wild Sunflower (55). Species North American He7ianthus species He7ianthus, a genus of the family fall into three sections and a number compositae (Asteraceae) has a of series based on genetic and disjunct distribution, some 50 or so morphological characteristics. species being found in Canada, the United States, and northern Mexico, I. Section Annui and the remaining 17 species limited II. Section Ciliares to the Andes from southern Colombia A. Series Ciliares to Peru (20). B. Series Pumili III. Section Divaricati He7ianthus species fall into four A. Series Angustifolii sections and a number of series based B. Series Atrorubentes on genetic and morphological C. Series Divaricati characteristics. Section Fructicosi D. Series Gigantei contains 17 South American perennial E. Series Microcephali species that are only distantly related with North American I. Section Annui sunflowers. The South American species have been transferred to Section Annui contains 14 or 15 genus He7ianthopsis (53), and will species, nearly all of which are not be considered further here. annual species occurring in the western half of the United States The North American species of (21). Species of this sect ion are He 7ianthus occupied a variety of nearly always annual, or rarely, habitats (66). Several could be taprooted perennials. Except for H. classed as desert species and a few agrestis H.=(Viguiera) 7udens and somewhat pal udose at least in the H.=(Viguiera) simi7is, all species early stages of growth. Most species are closely related and may are found in fully open habitats and i ntercross to produce hybrids with a few will be grown in rather dense reduced fertility (51). shade, Table 1. A number of species can be classed as weeds. He7ianthus In most species the majority of the annuus which has the most extensive leaves are alternate, commonly ovate, distribution of any species and with few exceptions long apparently grows only in areas petiolate. Disks of this section are distributed by man. Many of the mostly flat. The disk flowers are other species both annual and mostly reddish or purplish, but some perennials, have distributions that species have yellow disk flowers. 72 Table 1. Collection and habitat information for helianthus species (Thompson et al., 1981)' Helianthus Number of Estimated annual Species Subspecies Collect i ans Where collected Genera 1 habitat rainfall (c111) 1 2 3 4 5 6 niveus niveu 1 Mexico Sand dunes ( 12 tephrodes 1 CA Sand dunes <12 canescns 6 TX, NM, AZ Sand 12-50 debi 1is debilis 15 FL Sandy coast 125 vestitus 1 FL Sandy 125 tardiflorus 1 FL Sandy coast 125-140 silvestris TX Sand 75-115 cucumeriflolius 2 TX, CA Sand 64-90 praecox praecox 2 TX Sand 120 runyoni i 5 Tx Coastal prairies 5D-10C hi rt us 4 TX Sand 50 petio1aris petiolaris 50 Central U.S. Sand 38-127 fall ax 15 South west U.S. Sand 25-80 neg1ectus 9 TX Sand 25-50 annuus 483 U.S. Mexico variable 25-100 argophy 11 us 18 TX Sand SHOO bo1anderi 1 CL Valleys 25-150 ex i 1i s 5 CL Rock outcrop areas 50 desertico1a 1 UT Sand 1H5 anoma1us UT Sand 25-50 paradoxus TX Wet places 25 agrestis FL Wet places 125 graci 1entus 2 CA Dry stopes 25-50 pumi1 us co Rocky soils 25-65 cusicki i OR,CA Dry hills 20-75 arizonensis AZ Light soils 25-50 1ociniatus NM Stopes 25-60 ci l iaris 5 TX, NM Variab1e 50-75 mo 11is 1~ TX, OK, KS,AL,MT Variable 90-140 occidenta!is occidental is 4 TX,HT,AR Dry sandy areas 65-14C p1antagineus 2 TX variable 100-125 divaricatus TX,OK, HT Dry areas 75-140 hirsutus 4 TX,OK Dry open areas 63-140 decapeta1us 4 TX,IN,IL Shaded woodlands 60-140 x mu1tif1arusa 1 IN Cultivated only Much eggertii 11 TN Barrens 127 strumosus 7 OK,NC,AL,TN Variable 65-140 tuberosus 11 TX,IA,IL,OK,SC.AL Variable 50-140 rigudus rigidus TX I OK' NC' Ic I co Prairies 63-100 subrhomboideus 1 co Dry prairies 38-90 x 1aefi1orus 8 6 TX,NE,KS,NC prairies 75-115 giganteus 1 MN Wet areas 50-140 grosseserratus 16 TX,KS,NE,IN,OK Prairies 50-127 nutta11ii nut tall ii 5 CO,UT Wet areas 12-76 rydbergii 1 ND Sand 50 parishii Swampy areas 25 11aximi1 iani 30 TX,NH,KS,NE,AL,AR Prairies 25-127 sa 1i cif o1 i us 5 TX, KS Alkaline soils 76-115 ca1ifornicus 2 CA Wet areas 25-127 resinosus 1 MS Variable 127-178 schweinitzii 2 NC Sand 115 73 Table 1 contd. 2 3 4 5 6 microcepha 1is 2 SC Variable 76-180 g1aucophy11us 1 NC Semi shade 115-152 1aevigatus 1 VA Shale-barrens 90-127 smithi i 1 NC DRy areas 127-200 1ongifo1ius 1 AL Variable 127-150 angustifo1ius 10 TX,AL,GA Wet areas 90-175 simu1ans 1 FL Variable 140-150 floridanus 2 FL SAnd 127 si1phioides 2 OK,FL Variable 11H40 atrorubens 6 MS,GA,SC,NC Variable 114-127 heterophy 11 us 1 MS Wet sand 127-152 radu 1a 3 FL Wet sand 127-152 carnosus 2 FL Wet sand 127 imbaburensis 1 Equador 0 a Hybrids common enough to be recognized. Annua 1 species of this section (serpentine) sunflower (n=17), usually occupy open habitats. 9. H. (=Viguiera) ludens Shinners, playing sunflower (n=17), Section Annui contains: 10. H. neg 7ectus Heiser, Neglected sunflower (n=17), 1. H. annuus L., common annual 11. H. niveus (Benth.) brandegee, sunflower (n=17), snowy sunflower (n=17), 2. H. agrestis Pollard, rural H. niveus (Benth.) Brandegee, sunflower (n=17), subsp. canescens Heiser, gray 3. H. anoma7us Blake, anomalous sunflower (n=17), sunflower (n=17), H. niveus (Benth.) Brandegee, 4. H. argophy77us Torrey and Gray, subsp. niveus (Benth.) silver-leaf sunflower (n= 17), Brandegee, snowy Sunflower 5. H. bo7anderi Gray, Bo landers ( n= 17), sunflower (n=17), H. niveus (Benth.) Brandegee, 6. H. debi7is Nuttall, weak subsp. tephrodes (Gray) sunflower (n=17), Heiser, ash-Colored sunflower - H. debi7is Nuttal subsp. (n=17), cucumarifo7ius (T. and G.) 12 . H. paradoxus Heiser, paradoxical ..ei ser, cucurrber- leaf sunf l ewer sunflower (n=17), (n=17), 13. H. petio7aris Nuttall, petioled - H. debi7is Nuttall subsp. (prairie) sunflower (n=17), debi7is Nuttall, beach - H. petio7aris Nuttall, subsp. sunflower (n=17), fa 7 7ax Heiser, deceptive - H. debi7is Nuttall subsp. sunflower (n=17), tradif7orus Heiser, s 1ow- - H. petio7aris Nuttall, subsp. fl oweri ng sunflower (n=17), petio7aris Nuttall, petioled - H. debi7is Nuttall subsp. sunflower (n=17), vest itus (Wutson) Heiser 14. H. praecox Engleman and Gray, clothed sunflower (n=17), premature sunflower (n=17), - H. debi7is Nuttall subsp. H. praecox Engleman and Gray si7vestris Heiser, forest subsp. hirtus Heiser, sunflower (n=17), premature rough sunflower 7. H. desertico7a Heiser, desert n= 17), inhabiting sunflower (n=17), H. praecox Engleman and Gray 8. H. exi7is Gray. Thin subsp. Praecox Engleman and 74 Gray, (n=17), mostly lance-to egg-shaped. Disk - H. praecox Engleman and Gray corollas with yellow lobes except for subsp. runyonii Heiser, seven species (21, 51). javelin sunflower (n=17), 15. H. (=Viguiera) simi1is A. Series Augustifolii (Brandegee) Blake, similar sunflower. Species of this series have resemble fibers or thick roots or well II. Section Ciliares developed rhizomes. Stems are hairy and have mostly alternate, linear to These are Western North American lance-shaped leaves with rel led-under perennials of low stature. Plants margins. Disks are small to medium 1ack rhizomes and deve 1op f ram tap sized, with yellow or purple-lobed roots or long lateral roots. Leaves corollas. Bracts are narrow. Seeds are mostly or all opposite (21,51). are from 2-3 mm long. Species are found primarily in south eastern A. Series Ciliares states ( 52). This series is composed of 3 species 1. H. angustifo1ius L., Narrow-leaf of western perennials. Plants sunflower (n=17), develop from long, abundant lateral 2. H. floridanus Gray ex Chapman, roots. Leaves are usually bluish or Florida sunflower (n=17), grayish nearly hairless, and either 3. H. similans Watson, Lmitative lack or have very short petioles sunflower, (n=17). (51). B. Series Atrorubentes 1. H. arizonensis R.Jackson, Arizona sunflower (n=17), Species of this series have fibrous 2. H. ci1iaris DC, Hair-lik or cordlike roots that usually lack sunflower (n=34), rhizomes. Basal rosette leaves are 3. H. 7aciniatus Gray, Jagged-edge well-developed, while stem leaves may sunflower (n=17), be few and small disk lobes are almost always purple. Seeds are from B. Series Pumili 3 to 5 mm long and are often black. Species occur mostly in south eastern Series Pumili is composed of 3 states, and all are perennial (51). western perennials, taprotted sunflower species. New plants grow 1. H. atrorubens L., Dark-head from buds at base of old stem. sunflower, (n=17), Leaves usu a 11 y have rough or stiff 2. H. carnosus Small, Fleshy hairs (21, 51). sunflower (n=17), 3. H. heterophy11us Nuttal 1, 1. H. cusickii Gray, Parsnip-root Different-Leaf sunflower, (n=17), sunflower (n=17), 4. H. radu1a (Purch) Torrey and 2. H. graci1entus Gray, Slender Gray, Scraper sunflower, (n=17), sunflower (n=17), 3. H. pumi1us Nuttall, Dwarfish C. Series Divaricati sunflower (n=17), Series Divaricati has roots fibrous III. Section Divaricati to coarse, with tubers mostly lacking. Rhizomes usually long and Species are perennials (except H. s 1 end e r, so met i mes b ec om i n g porteri), primarily from eastern and terminally enlarged. Leaves are central United States and Canada. usually lance-shaped to ovate, 3- New plants grow from rhizomes, veined, and mostly opposite. Stem tubers or crown buds. Leaves are leaves well developed except in H. 75 occident ia 7is and sometimes in H. except in H. sa7icifo7ius. Seeds are rigidus. Disk flowers are variable 4-5 mm long. All species of series in size and have yellow lobes, except Gigantei are perennial (21,51). in H. rigidus. Achenes are from 3-6 mm long (21, 51). 1. H. c7ifornicus DC., California sunflower, (n=51), 1. H. decapeta7us L. Ten-Petals 2. H. giganteus L., Gigant sunflower, (n=17 or n=34), sunflower (n=17), 2. H. mu7tif7orus L. Many-flowers 3. H. grosseserratus Martens, Thick sunflower (All plants are sterile tooth sunflower, (n=17), triploids), 4. H. max imil iani Schrader, 3. H. divaricatus L., Divergent Maximilian sunflower, (n=17), sunflower (n=17), 5. H. nutta77ii Torrey and Gray, 4. H. eggert ii Sma 11, Eggert' s Nuttall's sunflower, (n=17), sunflower (n=51), - H. nut ta 77 ii Torrey and Gray, 5. H. hirsutus Rafinesque, Rough subsp. nut ta 7 7ii Torrey and Gray, sunflower (n=34), Nuttall's sunflower (n=17), 6. H. mo77is Lambert, Soft - H. nut ta 77 ii Torey and Gray, sunflower, (n=17), subsp. parishi i (Gray) Heiser, 7. H. occidenta7is Riddel, Western Parish's sunflower, (n=17), sunflower, (n=17), - H. nut ta 77 ii Torrey and Gray, - H. occidenta 7is Riddell, subsp. subsp. rydbergii (Britton) Long, occidenta7is Riddell, Western Rydberg's sunflower (n=17), sunflower, (n=17), 6. H. resinosus Small, Resinosus - H. occidenta 7is Riddell, subsp. sunflower (n=51), p7antagineus (T. and G.) 7. H. sa 7i c i fo 7i us Di et r. , Wi ll ow- Heiser, branching Western 1eaf sunflower (n=17), sunflower (unknown), 8. H. schweinitzi i Torrey and Gray, 8. H. rigidus (Cass.) Desf., Stiff Schweinitz's sunflower, (n=51). Sunflower (n=51), - H. rigidus (Cass.) Desf., E. Series Microcephali Subsp. rigidus (Cass.) Desf., Stiff sunflower (n=51), This series contains 5 perennial and - H. rigidus (Cass.) Desf., 1 annual species of sunflower. Roots subsp. subrhomboideus (Rydb.) fibrous to coarse, not tuberous. Heiser, Nearly 4-sided Rhizomes lacking, poorly developed or sunflower, (n=51), short and thick. 9. H. x7actif7orus Pers., Cheerful Stems are usually glabrous, but sunflower (n=51?), sometimes they may be covered with a 10. H. strumosus L., Swollen whitish bloom. Stem leaves are well sunflower (n=34, N=51), developed except in H. 7ongifo7ius, 11. H. tuberosus L., Tuberosus sun becoming alternate above. Disks are flower (Jerusalem Artichoke), small. Lobes of disk corolla yellow. (n=51). Seeds are 2-4 mm long (21, 51). D. Series Gigantei 1. H. g7aucophy7 7us Smith, White leaf sunflower, (n=17), The tallest sunflowers occur among 2. H. 7aevigatus Torrey and Gray, species of this series. Roots usually Smooth sunflower, (n=34), become en 1arged, often tube r-1 i ke, 3. H. 7ongifo7ius Purch, Long-Leaf and produce short, stout rhizomes sunflower, (n=17), less than 15 cm long. Stem leaves are 4. H. microcepha 7us Toprrey and well developed. Leaves are mostly Gray, Small-headed sunflower, alternate, usually lanceolate and (n=17), single-veined. Disk small to large. 5. H. porteri (A. Gray) Heiser, Lobes of di sk-coro 11 a are ye 11 ow, Porter's sunflower. (n=17), 76 6. H. smith i i He i se r , Smith's visit He7ianthus only occasionally. sunflower, (n=17). Seed Germination of He7ianthus Hybridization and Cross Species Compatibi l ity Relationships The seeds of cultivated species Interspecific hybridization between usually germinate more readily and the cultivated sunflower (H. annuus) more evenly than those of the most and other He 7ianthus species has been nearly related wild type(21). The of considerable interest because of germination of seeds of the the potential for utilizing the cultivated strains of H. annuus immense diversity in the genus. The approaching 100%, and generally all great diversity of the interspecific of them germinate readily. Under the hybrid progenies with regard to same conditions, seeds of wild morphological, genetical, He7ianthus species usually do not physiological, biological, germinate or rarely do as much as immunobiologica l react ions, as well 20%. To secure better gemrination, as of other properties, represent a various methods have been attempted. most valuable source of germplasm to Successful method for annual species be used in the individual crop was to plant the seeds in pots which breeding (14). are then set outside for 3-4 weeks where they are exposed to varying Among the annuals, only H. annuus is temperatures, including alternate known to hybridize to a great extent freezing and thawing. Germination with other species. The reason is was still very irregular. This that, most of the other species are method has not proved very successful allopathic with each other. All of for the desert annuals (H. anoma Tus the artificial hybrids between annual and H. desertico7a). For them, species show reduction in fertility, various other methods including probably resulting from the wetting and drying, washing in structural differences in chromosomes several changes of water and soaking so that one might consider that for several days have been tried, but st r uct ura l re arrangement of germination has seldom reached 10%. chromosomes has played an important Germination of perennials shows role in the speciation. The reduced considerable variability. H. fertility is seen both in pollen grosseserratus and some other give stainability and seed set, with the rather high percentages after a three latter generally running lower than weeks cold treatment, but most of the that of the pollen stainability. other species give very low Pollen stainability is probably the percentages of germination (21). more direct indication of the degree of structural differences in the Pollination Biology chromosomes of the two parents. Pollen product ion directly fol lows With the except ion of H. agrest is, me i os i s ( 21) . one strain of H. argophy7 7us and certain cultivated strains of H. Sterility is not the only barrier to annuus, all species are self gene exchange in the annuals, since incompatible with obligate cross many species have their peak of pol lination (21). The method for blooming at different seasons and determining self-incompatibility was also show ecological differences (21, not discussed. From observations in 14). These two barriers are also the field and in the experimental prominent among many of the garden it is obvious that bees, perennials, but strong sterility including the honey bee, are the barriers are poorly developed in the principal pollinators. Butterflies perennials. 77 Obviously, in the annuals good seed tephrodes, H. petio1aris ssp. set would be a necessity, whereas in fa 77ax, H. strumosus, H. bo 1anderi, most perennials there would be less H. giganteus, and H. grosseserratus selective value of good seed set (5,6). since the rhizomes provide an efficient means of survival and Embryo culture system using two increase. modifications of Gamborg's 85 medium to produce interspecific He7ianthus Rel at ionshi ps of He 7ianthus species hybrids was deve 1oped ( 6, 7). Embryos based on crossing results were were successfully excised and reported (55), Fig. 1. cultured 3 to 7 days after pollination. Embryos initial 1y Many of the species in the genus, developed on a solid medium particularly the perennial species, containing inorganic components, have never been successfully vitamins, amino acids, and 12% hybridized with the cultivated sucrose. For embryo germination and sunflower. Abort ion of the hybrid seedling growth the cultured embryos embryos during early developmental were transferred to a liquid medium stages has been one of the important containing only the inorganic barriers preventing interspecific components and 1% sucrose. hybridization. Table 2. He1ianthus species successfully Cultivated H. annuus has been hybridized with cultural annuus. successfully hybridized with 12 annual species and more with 7 He 1ianthus subspecies (14,21,51,66). The 10 Species Subspecies Habit perennial species have been ni veus canescens a• hybridized with H. annuus, Table 2. debi I is debi l is a vestitus a Sunflower Interspecific Hybridiz tardiflorus a ation Using Embryo Culture silvestris a praecox praecox a The wild He7ianthus species are runyonii a potential sources of germplasm for hi rt us a improving the cultivated sunflower petio1aris petiolaris a (He 7i an thus annuus L. ) , but many have fa lax a never been art i fi ci ally hybridized neg1ectus a with the cultivated sunflower, annuus a particularly the perennials. argophy11us a Abort ion of the hybrid embryos during bo1anderi a early developmental stages is an exi 1is a important barrier. The classic desertico1a a solution to this problem is the use anoma1us a of embryo culture, excising the paradoxus a embryo before it has aborted and di var icatus p placing it on nutrient media to grow hi rsutus p "in-vitro" decapeta1us p strumosus p into a seedling capable of supporting tuberosus p itself. Using embryo culture giganteus p techniques hybrids have obtained maximi1iani p between the domestic sunflower as the angustifo1ius p pollen parent and H. angustifo7ius, grosseserratus p H. argophy77us, H. exi7is, H. rigidus p graci lent is, H. hirsutus, H. maximi7iani, H. niveus ssp. * a= annual, p : perennial 78 argophy lus annuus arizonensis neglectus laciniatus cusickii deserticola carnosus porteri atrorubehs floridanus radula heterophyllus angustifolius agrestis longifolius maximiliani silphioides salicifolius decapetalus nuttallii ca lifornicu s smith ii resinosus occidental is tuberosus schweinitzii hirsutus rigidus Figure 1: PRl1~ NETWORK SHOWING RELATIONSHIPS OF HELIANTHUS SPECIES BASED ON CROSSING RESULTS (SS). 79 Experiments have been done using Vegetative propagation of shoots tissue culture techniques on provides a means of rapid increase sunflower (18), Table 3. Formation of desired genotypes. Developing of callus seems feasible, and plants seeds have been cultured "in-vitro" have been regenerated from stem and embryo culture has greatly callus. facilitated interspecific hybridization. Table 3. Summary of ·progress in the tissue culture of Helainthus annuus L. (18). Author Source tissue Response White and Braun, 1931 Secondary grown gall Isolated bacteria free gall Callus Hildebrant et al., 1945 - do - Effect of temp., pH, and sugar Hildebrant et al., 1974 - do - Effect of growth hormones de Roop, 1947 - do - Stem Root from stem callus Rogers et a1, 1974 Stem Root from stem callus Sadhu, 1974 Stem Plants from stem callus Chandler and Beard, 1978 Embryo Culture to plants Georgieva et al., 1980 Stem Plants from stem callus Binding et al., 1981 Apex, leaf Protoplasts, callus, roots from apex Si Iver et al., 1981 Seed Pest-pollination seed culture Trifi et al., 1981 Apex, leaf node Rapid vegetative propagation The Chromosome Doubling in with most of the wild species. Sunflower Sterility is one obstacle to interspecific hybridization which is Wild He 7ianthus species have not easy to overcome (7). One contributed va 1uab1 e genes to the possible answer lies in artificially improvement of the cultivated doubling the number of chromosomes in sunflower (H. annuus). The large the hybrid, which would give each genetic variability preserved in them chromosome an exact copy to pair-with should continue to play an important so that meiosis can occur in an role in the future improvement of orderly fashion. this crop. Utilization of some of these species is very difficult Techniques for doubling chromosomes because of their low crossabil ity in sunflower were developed (27). with the cultivated sunflower and the These techniques for doubling high degree of F1 sterility when chromosomes can be beneficial in two hybrids are obtained. ways. First, daub 1 i ng the chromosomes of one or both parents All the interspecific hybrids that have imp roved i n t er s pe c i f i c have been produced have lower crossability. Second, chromosome fertility than their parents. The doubling of the hybrids is effective problem apparently revolves around in improving the fertility in hybrids differences in chromosome structure where sterility is associated with between the various species. This meiotic abnormalities (inter condition disrupts the orderly specifi c sunflower hybrids). The pairing and segregation of most effective technique is: young chromosomes during the cell division seedlings at two true- leaf stage process. The cultivated sunflower is were inverted, and their apical very different in chromosome meristems were submerged in a structure from most other species. It colchicine solution of either 0.25% has been explained (7) why fertility or 0.15% concentration at PH=5.4 with is so low in those hybrids produced 2% DMSO for five hours. Treated by crossing the cultivated sunflower seedlings were then washed and 80 p1 anted in pots in the greenhouse and sunflower in breeding for disease later transplated into the field. resistance should be considered as continual process. An i 11 ustrat ion Size of pollen is then best criterion of this is the occurrence of new for discriminating doubled from races of P7asmopara he 7ianthi and undoubled plants since pollen grains Puce in ia he 7ianthi and successful use from tetraploid heads are of wild sunflowers in discovering new substant i a 11 y 1arger than from the Pl and R genes. diploids. Meiotic chromosome exami nat i ans on side buds from Wild sunflowers are effectively used doubled branches have positively in breeding for resistance to confirmed chromosome doubling. Orobanche cumana which frequently develops new races. Using Wild He7ianthus Species in Breeding for Resistance to Diseases Although insects impose serious and Pests problems in sunflower production in North and South America and Africa, Diseases are limiting factors of the use of wild sunflower in breeding production in the majority of for insects resistance has been sunflower-growing countries. insufficient. Best results have been Different diseases are dominant in achieved in breeding for resistance different regions on account of to sunflower moth (Homeosoma various agro-ecological conditions. nebu77e77a). In recent years only The cultivated sunflower has a narrow American breeders have intensified genetic base and it is deficient in the use of wild sunflower in breeding resistance genes. So far, sources of for resistance to several insect resistance have been sought and found species. in wild sunflowers. Certain wild species have contributed genes of Breeding for Disease Resistance resistance to P7asmopara he7ianthi, Puccinia he7ianthi, Vertici77ium In the previous paragraphs we a 7bo-atrum, and Vert ici7 7ium dah 7iae. mentioned pathogens which have There is yet a large number of successfully been fought against by diseases for which resistance sources means of breeding based on wild remain to be found. Among those, the sunflowers. In this chapter, we most important ones are Sc7erotinia shall review several sunflower sc7erotiorum, Phomopsis-Diaporthe pathogens, the extent of wild he 7ianthi, Macrophomina phaseo 7i, sunflower use in breeding for Phomopa sp., A 7ternaria he 7ianthi, resistance to them, and further Botrytis cinerea, Rhizopus spp., etc. p respect i ves in breeding opened up The diversity of He 7ianthus offers by wild sunflowers. pass i b il i ties of d i sc ave ring resistance sources to all diseases. P7asmopara he7ianthi: A great break thorough in the breeding for To accomplish that, breeders should resistance was the discovery of Pl include all available wild species genes which bring genetic resistance in their programs of sunflower to downy mildew. The line AD-66 was breeding for resistance to pathogenic the first source of Pl 1 genes. The fungi. This is the only solution to 1 i ne was derived f ram Canadian the problem of sunflower diseases material (Advent) which had been since the cultivated sunflower lacks developed on the basis of wild genetic sources of disease sunflowers(69). The sources of Pl 2 resistance. It has been noticed that gene were also wild sunflowers (81), pathogenic populations undergo as well as the sources of Pl 3 and Pl 4 genetic change developing new races. genes (71,74). It means that the use of wild 81 A possibility of developing new which displays a tendency of rapid varietal populations on the basis of spreading in a large number of H. tuberosus, which are resistant to sunflower-growing countries, downy mil dew (Pl 2 and Pl 5 ? ) was threatening to jeopardize the found (42). The new varieties sunflower production as a whole. (Yubilejnaya 50, Progress and Only few years ago, the pathogen has October), developed by interspecific been outside the scope of interest hybridization, enlarged the genetic and work of sunflower breeders. It variability of the domesticated perhaps explains why the entire sunflower. assortment of presently grown sunflower varieties and hybrids lack A new race of downy mildew discovered sources of resistance to stem canker. in the U.S. in 1980 was found to be It was reported that the cultivated widespread (11). Selected lines with sunflower does not possess res 1stance known genes for world in-breeding to stem canker (63). resistant cultivars were all susceptible to the new race. Three Sources of resistance to the pathogen sources of resistance were identified should be searched for in wild among more than 400 diverse sources sunflowers. A study of Cuk, which is of germplasm. These sources still in due course, showed that stem originated from the Soviet cultivar canker was not found in the f o 11 owing Progress, an NS hybrid from Romania wild species: H. tuberosus, H. and a cross of an ornamental resinosus, H. decapeta7us, H. sunflower possessing red ray flowers divaricatus, H. eggert ii, H. and ligulate disk flowers (12). giganteus, H. grosseserratus, H. hirsutus, H. mo71is, H. sa7icifo7ius, Progress and NS hybrids, which are H. nutta77ii, H. radu7a, etc. downy mildew resistant have been derived from H. tuberosus. There are some indications that sources of resistance to stem canker Puccinia he7ianthi: Rust is the most may be expected to be found in H. extensively studied sunflower tuberosus. disease. Breeding for resistance has been successful in spite of the A 7ternaria he 7ian thi: Studies changes in the pathogen's population. conducted so far have indicated the Sunflower resistance to the 1ack of genetic sources of resistance discovered four races of rust is to this pathogen in the cu 1ti vated controlled by four independent sunflower. Resistance should thus be dominant genes (R 1' R2 , R3 and R4 • searched for in wild sunflowers. A It was reported that all lines having total of 21 annual and 37 perennial resistance to rust have been derived He 7ianthus species and subspecies and form wild sunflowers (28,39). A large a c 1ose1 y re 1ated annua 1 taxon number of wild species possesses Tithon ia rotundifo 7ia have been genes of resistance to rust ( 41 ) • tested for resistance to A. he 7ianthi These species are diploid, in the greenhouse ( 32). A11 the tetraploid, or hexaploid. Although annual species were susceptible. The seve ra 1 genetic sources of resistance perennial He7ianthus spp. were to rust are available, the disease suscept i b1 e except for H. hi rsutus inflicts considerable damages in Ref., H. ri gi dus subsp. North and South America, Africa, and Subrhomboideus Heiser, and H. Australia because of genetic changes tuberosus L. which were moderately in the pathogen popu 1at ion and the resist ant. This resistance is appearance of new races. transferable to the cultivated Phomopsis (Diaporthe) helianthi: Stem sunflower (H. annuus) by backcrossing canker is a new sunflower disease of inbred lines with the resistant 82 perenial species. C u k arrived at controlled by three dominant genes. similar results which have not been published yet. It is evident that, of all sunflower diseases Sclerotinia rot will be the The testing of wild sunflowers, most difficult to find genetic especially perennial ones, for sources of resistance. genetic sources of resistance to A. he 7ianthi should be accelerated, Vertici17ium wilt: The first source making use of the largest possible of genetic resistance deve 1oped to genetic variability within each wild Vertici77ium a7bo-atrum, discovered species. Besides determining sources in the 1 i ne CM-144, came from an of resistance to A. he1ianthi, it is interspecific hybrid (37). The a 1so necessary to design the most ex i stance of sources of resistance suitable methods of incorporating to Vertici77ium dah7iae in H. resistance genes in the cultivated tomentosus was reported (42). sunflower since the resistance genes appear to be present in wild Phoma sp.: It was reported that the hexaploids. resistance to Phoma sp. appears to exist in the following wild Sc7erotinia sc7erotiorum: Sclerotinia sunflowers: H. gigantheus, stem-and head-rot is one of the most H. a r g i a 7 i s, H. t omen to s us , widespread and destructive diseases H. tuberosus, H. macrophy7 7us, H. of vegetable and field crops. It has rigidus, and H. subcanescens, a very wide host range including ( 41 , 42 ) , Tab 1e 4. The new 1y Brassicas, legumes, and many developed variety, Yubi lejnaya-60 was vegetable and weed species. reported to be resistant to Phoma sp (42). According to unpublished data The currently grown sunflower of Skoric, only certain genotypes varieties and hybrids are not within the variety Yubilejnaya-60 genetically resistant to S. display resistance to Phoma sp. sc1erotiorum. Nevertheless, a number of reports has appeared in recent Resistance to Phoma sp. in wild years indicating the existance of sunflower has been insufficiently differences in the degree of studied. Studies carried out susceptibility among the varieties presently in several countries should and hybrids. give a more complete picture on the resistance of wild sunflowers to The variety Yubilejnaya 60 should be Phoma sp. and on the possibilities of resistant to S. sc1erotiorum (42). wild sunflowers use in the However, the variety performs development of resistant varieties otherwise when grown in field. The and hybrids. same authors reported the following wild species as suitable materials Rhizopus head-rot: It is one of the for breeding for resistance to most important sunflower diseases, Sc1erotinia stem- and head-rot: H. especially in arid regions. The tomentosus, H. 7actif7orus, H. pathogens of Rhizopus head-rot are R. scaberimus, H. divaricatus, H. arrhizus Fischer, R. oryzae Went. and tuberosus, H. macrophy 77 us and H. R. sto 7onifer Vui 11. Rhizopus rigidus. arrhizus is more prevalent and virulent than R. oryzae or R. Dr. C.A. Thomas (USDA-ARS, sto 7on ifer. Beltsville, MD) informed the author of these pages in personal contact The cultivated sunflower genotypes to have found a source of resistance do not possess genetic resistance to to S. sc7erotiorum (basla stem Rh i zopus head- rot. Resistance of infection) in H. tuberosus, wi 1d He 7i an thus species to Rh i zopus 83 spp. has not been sufficiently sunflower were resistant to E. studied. It was found that four of cichoracearum which causes powdery 32 tested wi l d species and subspecies mildew of sunflower in file and were resistant when inoculated greenhouse tests (56). H. grosses separately with R. arrhizus and R. serratus and H. maximi 7iani collected oryzae (H. divaricatus, H. hirsutus, from some location were resistant but H. 7aet iflorus, and H. res inosus) from other locations were susceptible (80). Studies of wild sunflower to E. cichoracearum. resistance to Rh i zopus head-rot should be continued in order to find Obviously, there exist several sources of resistance to this group sources of resistance in annual and of pathogens. perennial wild species. In breeding for resistance to powdery mildew, Erysiphecichoracearum: Although the however, preference should be given disease caused by this pathogen, to the annual species because they powdery mildew does not bring are more easily crossed with the economic damages to sunflower at cultivated sunflower. present, it is nevertheless desirable to work on the determination of We have limited knowledge of the resistance genes in wild sunflowers genetic base of resistance to powdery and their introduction in the mildew in wild sunflowers. We know cultivated sunflower. that we deal with dominant genes but we do not know their number. Three annual species or subspecies (H. bolanderi, H. debilis subs. Orobanche cumana: The genetic sources si 7vestris, H. praecox subsp. of resistance to O. cumana were praecox) and 14 perennial species of derived mostly from wild sun flowers. Tab1e 4. Phytopathological estimates of wild He1ianthus species (41). P1asmopara Puccini a O.robarche Armour Species 2n he1iar.thi he! ianthi Phoma sp. cumana layer (%) (') (%) (I) (%) ~. debilis Nu~t. 34 100 100 90 ~00 100 H. renticularis Doug. 34 100 100 70 10C 100 H. arhophy1 lus T.et C. 34 100 100 90 100 100 H. petio1aris Nutt. 34 100 100 20 ~00 100 H.. 'rlo11 is Lam. 34 0 0 30 0 100 H. giganteus 34 16.60 0 c 100 H. grosseserratus Mart. 34 35.70 :o C.45 100 H. maxi mi 1iani Schard 34 0 0 50 0.5 100 n 0.4 100 H. nutta11i :.e G. 34 ' 0 1C H. trache1 iof1orus 34 0 0 100 100 Mi 11 er H. ca1ifornicus D.C. 34 0 400 100 H. mu1tif1orus Hook. 34 0 30 0 100 H. arhia1is D.C. 34 14.20 0 0 100 H. divaricatus 34 11 0 10 0 100 H. tomentosus Mich. 68 15.50 0 1.9 100 H. !eatif1orus Pers. 68 25 0 10 1. 3 100 H. scaberimus Elt. 68 22 0 20 0 100 H. tuberosus L. 102 0 0 0 0 100 H. macrophy11us Wild 102 0 0 0 0.56 100 H. rigidus (Coss) Desv .102 0 a 0 c 100 H. subcanescens Gray 102 0 0 0 0 100 84 Several varieties were developed (42) resistance mechanism. on the basis of H. tuberosus which It was shown ( 51) that 20% of the were resistant to the new larvae (H. electel lum) were recovered population of broomrape, after 5 days on H. arizonens is, H. Yubilejnaja-60 being the most c i 7iaris, H. decapeta 1us, H. prominent among those varieties. Five grosseserratus, H. maximiliani, different genes which bring H.microcephalus, H. pumilus, H. resistance to the popua 1ti on of O. resinosus, H. rigidus x laetiflorus, cumana which are presnet in Romania H. s i lphioides and H. smithi i than we re determined ( 68) . Some of the on hybrid 896. Also, larval growth genes originated from interspecific was more significantly reduced on H. hybrids. arezonens is, H. ci 1 iaris, H. decapeta lus, H. grosseserratus, H. Breeding for Insect Resistance maximiliani, H. pumilus, H. resinosus, H. rigidus x laetiforus, Severa 1 hundreds of insect species H. s i lphioides and H. smithi i than are associated with sunflower. Only on hybrid 896. Floral injury was a few insect species are economically s i gn if i cant 1 y 1 owe r on H. important as pest to the cultivated arizonensis, H. ciliaris, H. sunflower (61). Although host decapetalus, H. divaricatus, H. resistance has played a major role in grosseserratus, H. maximiliani, H. the management of diseases in mo71is, H. nutta77ii, H. occidentalis sunflower (83), there has been 1 ittle subsp. Plantagineus, H. pumilus, H. emphasis on resistance as a rigidus x laet if lorus, H. management tactic for insect pests. silphioides, H. smithii and H. Homeosoma species are serious pests strumosus than on hybrid 896. of cultivated sunflower in four continents. Homeosoma nebu 1e1 1a Two annual and 10 perennial (Hubner) attacks sunflower in Europe Helianthusspecies were significantly and Asia. Sunflower in South America more resistant to the aphid is damaged by H. heinrichi Masonaphis masoni (Knowlton), (Pastrana). In Mexico, the U.S. and (47,50). These were the other species Canada, H. e1ecte71um (Hulst) is a or the hybrid 896-control (43,46). major pest nearly everywhere the crop After 1 month, mortality of M. masoni is grown. was 100% on H. carnosus Small, H.exilisGray, H. floridanus Gray ex Resistance of sunflower varieties to Champan, and H. radula Torrey and the European sunflower moth (H. Gray. nebulel la) was obtained 40-45 years ago in the USSR by i nte rspec if i c Adults of the carrot beetle (Bothynus hybridization of H. annuus cultivars gibbosus, Dr. Gear) did with H. tuberosus var. purpure 1 lus, significantly more damage to roots Cockerell. The resistance mechanism of hybrid 896 than to roots of H. g1v1ng protection against H. tuberosus, H. maximiliani, H. niveus, nebu1e11a is a phytomelanin (armor) H. x laetiflorus, H. salicifolius, H. 1ayer in the wa 11 of the achenes. mo 11 is, H. grosseserratus, H. This resistance is controlled by a argophy77us or H. ciliaris (47). single dominant gene. Wild sunflowers may successfully be The North American sunflower moth, used for the determination of sources H. e lecte 1 lum appears to be more of resistance to pests, Tables 5 virulent toward cultivated sunflower and 6 (44,45,47). The results than H. nebu1e11a, and American indicate some wild species to be sunflower breeders have largely resistant to Zygogramma exclamations, discounted the importance of the Bothynus gibbosus, Masonaphis masoni phytome 1an in 1ayer as an effective and Empoasca abrupta. H. tuberosus 85 Table 5. Re 1at i ve resistance of He1ianthus species, Section Oivaricati to four species of insects in laboratory feeding tests (45). Insect s~ecies•• Helianthus species Cross compatible Zigogramma Bothynus Hasonaphis Empoasca wLannuus exclamation gibbosus masoni abru~ta Angust i fo 1ii angustifolius no ++ 0 ++ + f loridanus no +++ 0 +++ ++ simulans no +++ + ++ + Atrorubentes atrorubens L. no +++ + +++ + carnosus no +++ + +++ + heterophyll us nut ta 11 no +++ ++ ++ radula no +++ + +++ ++ silphioides no +++ + Divaricati divaricatus L. no +++ ++ + 111olis no +++ ++ ++ + occidental is occidental is no ++ ++ ++ occidental is plantagineus no + ++ rigidus + laetiflorus no +++ +++ stru11osus yes +++ tuberosus yes +++ + +++ + Gigante I californicus no 0 giganteus yes 0 grosseserratus no +++ ++ ++ + 11ax.imi 1iani yes +++ ++ + ++ nuttallii nuttallii no ++ ++ ++ + risnosus no +++ ++ sa 1i ci fa 1i us no +++ ++ ++ Hicrocepha 1i glaucophyllus no + longifolius no +++ +++ + porteri• no +++ ++ ++ Hybrid 896 (check) 0 0 0 0 Annual, all other species are perennial; *** +++ Plants immune to attack or caused 1001 mortality to insect; ++ Plants significantly mar resistant than the hybrid check at 1X level; + Plants significantly more resistant than the hybrid check at 5~ level; OPlants no more resistant than the hybrid check. and H. maximi7iani displayed the Utilization of Wild Sunflower widest spectrum of resistance to the Species for Discovering New above pests of all wild sunflower Sources of Cytoplasmic Male which may be crossed with Sterility and Restorer Genes (Rf) domesticated sunflower. Compared with corn, the practical utilization of heterosis in sunflower started much later because of its bisexual flowers. First CMS hybrids 86 were developed by using population of wild H. annuus, and H. interspecific hybridization. The petio7aris were found (10). major contribution in this field was the discovery of the first source of Different sources of restorer genes cytoplasmic male sterility in a cross were discussed (70), and restorer of H. petio7arisand the domesticated lines derived from H. tuberosus were sunflower (29). All sunflower mentioned. H. tuberosus-based hybrids available have been developed restorer lines resist ant to downy on the basis of this CMS source. More mildew (pl 2 gene) were developed recently another CMS source was (64). discovered coming from H. 7enticu7aris (3). A comparative Restorer genes were found in wild H. study of these two CMS sources was exi7isand H. argophy77us (8), and in undertaken and confirmed that those H. argophy7 7us, H. rigidus and H. were two separate CMS sources (31). bo 7anderi (54). Having succeeded in discovering CMS The work on the determination of sources on the basis of interspecific restorer genes in wild sunflower hybridization, attention was turned species is in due course in a number to the discovery of Rf genes in wild of research centers around the world. sunflowers. The existance of It may be expected that restorer restorer genes in H. pet io 7aris was genes will be found in a large number reported (30). The restorer genes in of wild sunflower. Table 6. Relative resistance of He!ianthus species, Section Annui, to four species of insects in laboratory feeding tests (45). Insert scecies*** Zigogramma Bothynus Hasonaphis Empoasca Helianthus species* exclamation gibbosus masoni abrupta agrestis Pollard +++O 0 0 annuus ++ 0 0 0 argophy 11 us ++ + bolanderi +++O ++ debilis debilis nut ta 11 deb ii is si lvestris 0 + 0 deserticola Heiser exil is +++O +++ + neglectus ++ + + ni veus canescens +++++ O ni veus tephorodesu ++ + paradox us ++ O petiolaris fa11ax Heiser o o petiolaris petiolaris ++ o praecox hi rsutus ++ o + praecox praecox praecox ranyon ii + Hybrid 896 (check) O o o o * All these species are cross compatible with annuus cultivars ** Perennial all other species and subspecies are annuals. *** +++ Plants immune to attack or cause 1001 mortality to insects; ++ Plants significantly more resistant than the hybrid check at 11 level; + Plants significantly more resistant than the hybrid check at 5~ level; OPlants no more resistant than the hybrid check. 87 A new source of male-sterile of H. annuus subsp. 7enticu7aris and cytoplasm in a cross of H. giganteus H. annuus L. cv. Commander was and H. annuus was found (77). reported (22). Crosses of the male Crosses between an inbred tester sterile plants to HA 89, known to be 1 i ne without genes for pollen a maintainer of Leclercq's fertility restoration as the pollen cytoplasmic male sterile sunflower parent and the existing source of restored pollen production. Crosses male-sterile cytoplasm or four with RHA 265, known to be a restorer putative male-sterile backcross 1 i nes of Leclercq's CMS sunflower gave an as the female parents, failed to F1 male sterile plants. In addition restore pollen shed in 15 F1 families to RHA 265, RHA 266 also serves as evaluated. In similar crosses, using a maintainer of the line, designated three pollen fertility restorer indiana-1. Genes for pollen sources as the pollen parents, pollen restoration are found in Hopi, shed was restored in male-sterile Outlook, Perecovic, P.1. 176576, backc ross 1 i nes by on 1y one of the Record and Seneca, as well as in HA three pollen restorer sources, 89 and the original wild type. A suggesting that the backcross suggestion was given for the use of substitution lines from H. giganteus CMS 1 to designate Leclercq' s 1 i ne and are a new source of male-sterile CMS 2 and CMS 3 to designate the lines cytoplasm which has been designated developed by him; accordingly, as CMS 3 • Indiana-1 may be tentatively designated CMS4 (77). Another new source of cytoplasmic male sterility from H. petio7aris was The determination of new CMS sources obtained (80). Crosses between seven is very important, because all sources of pollen fertility restorer institutions engaged in the and the existing source of CMS, development of sunflower hybrids use resulted in a high frequency of the same source. There exists a plants with normal pollen shed in all possibility of mutual dependence F1 progenies. However, no normal between sterile cytoplasm and genes pollen shed was evident in F1 carrying susceptibility to a disease. progenies for similar crosses between Since all hybrids grown have the same BC 5 male-steri les and three of the CMS source. The pathogen's population seven restorer sources, nor for the may increase and cause devastating simple wild H. annuus evaluated. The yield reductions. It is therefore a foregoing suggests that the backcross must to intensify the work on the substitution lines are a new source determination of new CMS sources and of CMS. The inheritance of new sources of restorer genes in wild restoration of pollen shed was sunflower species. complex and not fully elucidated. Some data suggested that two Utilization of Wild Sunflowers in independent, complementary, dominant Changing the Ideotype of Cultivated genes were required, but others Sunflower indicated two to three independent, The previous chapter discussed the dominant genes. use of wild sunflowers in breeding for resistance to diseases and Another source of cytoplasmic male insects, which are limiting factors sterility from H. maximi7iani was in sunflower production. The existing obtained (76), while new sources of variability within the cultivated CMS from H. petio7aris, H. giganteus sunflower does not allow the and H. maximi7iani, as germplasm development of ideotypes for composite crosses CMG-1, CMG-2, and different agro-ecological conditions. CMG-3 were registered (78). Fortunately, the variability observed in wild sunflowers opens new ways to Another new source of CMS from cross designing different sunflower 88 ideotypes. resistance is a complex character including resistance to soil and air The existing variability within the drought. Breeding for drought cultivated sunflower allows the resistance implies improvements in development of inbred lines with the efficiency of the root system, insufficient heterotic effect for architecture of the basic plant grain yield. Analyzing results of parts, time of maturation, resistance the long-term FAO trial on sunflower to Sc 7erot in ia batat ico 7a (M. varieties and hybrids, it was noticed phaseo7i), water uptake from the that there were no cultivars which soil, and utilization of taken-up would significantly outyield the nutrients. conventional varieties, e.g., Peredovic. The problem revolves Wild sunflower species have recently around narrow genetic variability for been included in a number of research grain yield in the cultivated programs dealing with the sunflower. A breakthrough can be determination of sources of drought made only by increasing genetic resistance in sunflower. The use of variability of the cultivated forms H. argophy77us in sunflower breeding by means of wild He7ianthus species. for drought resistance was recommended (54). H. argophu17us One of the principal targets in and H. desertico7a are also used by sunflower breeding is a change in the Spanish and Romanian breeders as architecture of the photosynthetic sources of resistance to drought. apparatus. It is desirable to shorten the period of attaining the Sunflower crop spreads also in saline maximum leaf area in parent lines and soils. Wild sunflowers could again hybrids alike, to prolong leaf area be used to increase resistance, to duration (LAD), and to increase the high PH, of the cultivated sunflower. efficiency of net assimilation rate A study conducted presently in the US (NAR). It is necessary to optimize has indicated H. pa radoxus as the the foliar orientation towards the most resistant to increased salinity. sun, CO 2 uptake from the air, and There are several wild sunflower aeration of the crop by altering the species that still remain to be number and position of leaves on the tested for this character. stem. High genetic variability in wild sunflowers warrants the desired It is well-known that a system of changes of the photosynthetic self-incompatibility contributes to apparatus feasible. If we consider the high level of cross-pollination the differences in the photosynthetic in open-pollinated cultivars of apparatus of H. mo77is, H. sunflower ( H. an nu us L. ) . It was argophy17us, H. sa7icifo7ius, reported that a sporophytic H.radu7a, H. maximi7iani, etc., we i ncompat i bil i ty system was present may get an idea of the extent of in the cultivated sunflower (19) with genetic manipulations with leaf the conclusion that at least two number, form, activity, and other multi-allelic loci governed self characters. incompatibility and expression was influenced by physiological factors. Sunflower crop spreads rapidly in It was concluded that self arid regions. The cultivated incompatibi l ity in the cultivated sunflower does not ensure sunflower is complex in both profitability of such production in expression and inheritance (67). all cases. There are, however, wild sunflowers which grow in extremely Crosses and reciprocals were made dry conditions and which could be between wild sunflower (H. annuus l. used to step up drought resistance in and the cultivated line P-21 which is the cultivated sunflower. Drought se 1f-compatib1 e and consists of equa 1 89 numbers of the genotypes msms and be valuable genetic resources to Msms ( 34) . Resu 1ts indicated that increase linoleic acid content, while the self-incompatibility is lowering oleic. H. paradoxus, H. determined sporophytically, and that argophy17us, H. annuus and all at least five different "S" alleles subspecies of H. praecox appear to be were involved. Dominance of allels good sources of genetic variability was expressed in the poll en and in to increase the level of palmitic dependent action in the style. acid if desired. Taking into account the foregoing A current study conducted in results and the fact that sunflower Yugoslavia indicated that H. anoma1us production in a number of countries has the largest achenes and the shifts to stress regions, attempts highest oil content. H. porteri has should be made to reduce self the highest content of linoleic acid ; ncompat i bi 1i ty and increase se 1f and H. arizonensis, of oleic acid. compat i bi l i ty in future sunflower A detailed analysis of wild sunflower hybrids and varieties by including species revealed significant wild sunflowers in breeding programs. differences in oil content, oil quality, and higher content of fatty Severa 1 authors indicated that H. acids among them (51) were found agrestis, H. radu7a and some other (40). High protein contents in seeds wild species should be used for of H. tuberosus and H. macrophy7 7us introducing high degree to self were found (40). These two species compat i bi 1 i ty in the cultivated should be used in breeding. Several sunflower (21). authors have found differences in amino acid composition among wild The cultivated sunflower is an open sunflower species. po 11 i nated c rep and insects, primarily bees, play an important Utilization of Wild Helianthus role as pollinators. Wild sunflowers Species in Breeding for Whole Plant may help in increasing the nectar Utilization of Sunflower content and attractiveness of the cultivated sunflower. They may also The diversity of wild sunflower be used for increasing the resistance species and genetic differences in of pollen to stress conditions. For the composition of their seeds, the later purpose we may use wild heads, leaves, stems, rhizomes, and sunflowers from dry regions which are tubers offer chances of improving well adapted to a variety of genetic variability of the cultivated stresses. sunflower for a number of characters, turning to better use of all parts of Wild sunflower species may also play the plant. part in increasing oil and protein contents and qualities in the Interspecific hybridization allows cultivated sunflower. the transfer of favorable characters for different plant parts from wild It had been reported that H. niveus into the cultivated sunflower. In and H. sa7icifo7ius are potential that way, sunflower plant would be so sources of genetic variability to improved that the whole plant could increase oi 1 content in the be turned into economically cultivated sunflower (65,66). Also, profitable products. The sunflower the wi 1d annua 1 species may be the stands chances of being not only an best sources of genes to utilize in oil and protein crop but a versatile a breeding program to alter fatty crop used for the production of a acid composition of sunflower oil line of products. The following (66). Some entries of both concise and incomplete review of the subspecies of H. petio7aris appear to diversity of wild sunflowers 90 regarding their chemical composition Phytochemicals gives an insight in the possibilities of enriching the cultivated sunflower Phytochemical studies on He7ianthus by means of inte rspeci fi c species to date have led to the hybridization. isolation and characterization of acetylenes, flovonoids, sesqiter Natural rubber from sunflower penoids and diterpendoids. Six new sesquiterpene lactones based on the Rubber production from sunflower en desman ol ide, tran sgermacr ad i could be an economic bonus. The enol ide and hel iangol ide skeletons residue from the plant extraction from H. grosseserratus Martens were might also be a useful commodity, reported (23,24). The diterpenes since residues of sunflower plants grandifloric, 17-hydroxy-ent-isokaur- are ranked near the top for btu 15-enic and ciliaric acid and the value. Thus, a facility for flavones hispidulin and processing rubber from sunflower pectolinarigenin were also found in might also be an ideal site for H. grosseserratus. They have al so energy production from biomass. found four known and the new germacradien-olides and one known It was reported that H. hi rsutus heliangolide from H. pumi1us. The contains natural rubber with a isolation of tifruticin, molecular weight of 2. 79 x 10 5 and acetylfructicin, deaxytifruticin, polydispersity factor (3.1) which acetyldeoxytifruticin and orizabin indicates a potential as a source of analogue and three hel iangol ides from natural rubber (57), while two wild H. maximi7iani was also reported species, H. agrest is and H. (23). occidenta7is contain 1.6% rubber in their foliar parts (58). Also, H. Chloroform extract or H. rigidus was radu7a, H.ca1ifornicus, H. resinosus found to give ciliaris acid and 16- and H. annuus gave the highest rubber hydroxy-11-kuren-19-oic acid of H. contents by the gravimetric method sa7icifo7ius (25). It was also (1.45-1.93%), (60). This result reported that sesquiterpene 1actones indicates that there is a high and diterpenoids were found in H. potential for increasing the rubber argophy77us (73). Three content of cultivated sunflower on germacranolide sesquiterpene the basis of wild species. lactones, three diterpenoids, and one flavonoid were isolated and Special carbohydrates characterized from a chloroform extract of H. argophy7 7us. The sunflower may be a promising source of commercial pectin. Several Two diterpene carboxylic acids, one wild sunflower species are promising new kaurenoid deribative and one as sources of commercial pectin. previously characterized l abdane, (-)cis-ozic acid, as well as a known H. tuberosus and its hybrids with H. heliengolide, budlein A, and a known annuus are used, world wide, as a flavonoid hymenoxin from extract of source of food. The tubers are rich H. angustifo1ius were found (35). in starch and sugars, and are being The new kanrenoid-type carboxylic investigated as a biomass crop for acid has been isolated from H. ethanol production. They al so ci 7iaris and H. sa 7 ic ifo 7 ius. contain insulin, which is converted in the body to fructose, a sugar Two diterpenoids were isolated from which is suitable for use by the wild sunflower species H. diabetics. occidenta7is (59). H. occidenta7is 91 is resistant to sunflower insect Davis, CA. pests and various diterpenoid acid 7. , 1982. Chromosome Structural have shown antibiotic activity to Differentiation Among the Annual He 1ianthus several insect species (59). The Species. Univ. of California (Thesis for degree presence of cis- and trans- ozic acid of Doctor of Philosophy), Davis, pp. 1-79. contributes perhaps to host pl ant 8. Dominguez, J., J.M. Fernandez and V. Gimenez. resistance. 1980. Helianthus exilis (Gray) y Helianthus arhophyllus (Gray) fuentes de restauracion de Structurally related sesquiterpene la endroesterilidad citoplasmica en girasol. lactones from phylogenetically Proc. 9th Inter. Sunfl. Conference, pp. 306- related taxa have been shown to 316, Torremolinos. exhibit antimicrobial activity 9. Fick, G.N., M.L. Kinman, and O.E. Zim111er. 1975. against Gram-positive bacteria. Registration of RHA-273 and RHA-274 sunflower parental lines. Crop Science, vol. 15, p. 106. Livestock feed 10. , D.E. Zimmer, G.J. Dominguez, and D. A. Rehder. 1974. Fertility restoration and In addition to phytochemicals, variability for plant and seed characteristics natural rubber and special carbo in wild sunflowers. Proc. of the 6th Inter. hydrates, the extracted residue may Sunflower Conference Bucharest, 333-339. be utilized as animal feed. Sunflower 11. , and G.E. Auwarter. 1981. Anew race silage was compared with alfalfa of downy mildew affecting sunflower. Proc. haylage, and found that dairy steers Sunflower Form and Research Workshop, Fargo, gained as much weight when fed on pp. 15-16. sunflower silage, as with alfalfa 12. 198 2. haylage (33). A feed with a protein Resistance to a new race of sunflower downy content of 16% is normally required mildew. Proc. 10th Inter. Sunfl. Conference for dairy cattle feed. Several Surfers Paradise (Aust.) pp. 175-177. samples (H. arizonensis, H. simu1ans, 13. Georgieva-Todorova, J. 1972. Mezduvidovi H. grosseserratus, H. pet io 7aris, and otnosenia V roda Helianthus (Avtoreferat), H. neg7ecuts) had greater than 16% Sofia. protein. They should be included in 14. • 19 76 . Interspecies future breeding programs. Relationships in the genus He1ianthus. Publishing house of the Bulgarian Acade11y of BiblioQ.rachy Sciences. Sofia (Summary):162-168. 15. , and N.E. Bohorova, 1. Anascenko, A.B., 1979. Filogeneticekia svijazi 1980. Interspecific hybridization in sunflower v rode Helianthus L. Trudi po prikladnoi breeding. Pree. of 9th Int. Sunf l. Conference botanika, genetike i selekcii, tom 64 vipusk 2, (101-106), Torremolinos. Leningrad. 16. 2. Anascenko, A.V., 1981. Gene-pool of sunflwoer 1981 . Application of the method of tissue and its utilization in breeding, Eucarpia culture in the interspecific hybridization in Meeting, Prague 26-30 October. the genus Helianthus. Eucarpia, Symposium 3. , I. V. Mihaeva, and V. T. "Sunflower Breeding", 26-30 October. Rozhkova. 1974. Sources of male sterility in 17. ~~~~~~-~~~~~~~~-· sunflower. Trudy po prikladnoi botanike, and A. Atanasov. mo. Utilization of the genetike i selekcii 53-3; 242-254. method of tissue cultures in the interspecific 4. Bo ho r av a-11 ie v a, H. , 19 77 . I zu cav ane hybrids of He 1ianthus L. Pree. of the 9th reodostvenite vzakotnosenija mezdu razlicno International Sunflower Conference (122-128), ploidni vidove Helianthus i citogeneticna Torremolinos. heroiteristike na hibridite v F1. Avtoreferat. 18. Heaton, T. 1983. Multiple plants from embryo 5. Chandler, J.M. and B.H. Beard. 1978. Sunflower culture of sunflower, H. annuus L., Proc.: Sun interspecific hybridization using embryo flower Research Workshop. January 26, pp-11-12. culture. Proc. of the 8th Int. Sunflower 19. Habura, E.C.H., 1957. Parasterilitat bei Conference (510-516), Minneapolis. sonnenb lumen, Pf l anzenzucht. 37. 280-298. 6. , 1979. Sunflower interspecific 20. Heiser, C.B., 1957. A Revision for the South hybridization using embryo culture, pp. 1-58, American Species of He1ianthus. Britania. Vol. 92 8, No. 4: 284-295. J. Pl. Sci., 38, 380-381. 21. Heiser, C.B., et al., 1969. The North A11erican 38. . 1975. Studies on Sunflower (Helianthus) Mell. Torrey Bot. Club., sunflower rust. Canad. Journal of Plant V. 22, N.3, p 218. Science, 37 (43-54). 22. , 1982. Registration of Indiana-1 CMS 39. . 1963. Studies on sunflower ger11plas11. Crop Science. sunflower rust. IV. Two genes, R1 and R2 for 23. Herz, W., and N. Kumar. 1981. Sesquiterpene resistance in the host. Can. J. Plant Sci. 43: lactones fro11 Helianthus grosseserratus. 490-496. Phytoche11istry, Vol. 20, pp. 99-104. 40. Pustavoit, G.V., 1975, Podsolnecnik. (182-210). 24. , 1981a. Minor sesquiterpene Kolas, Moskva. lactones of Helianthus pumilus. Phytochemistry, 41. and O.N. Krasnokutskaya. 1976. Vol. 20, No. 6, pp-1339-1341. Dikie vidi Helianthus kak ishodnie for11i daja 25. , S.V. Govindan, and K. Watanable. selekci i podsolnecnika na i111munitet. Proc. of 1982. Diterpenses of Helianthus regidus and H. VII Int. Sunf. Conf. Krasnodar: 202-205. salicifolius. Phytochemistry, Vol. 21, No. 42. Pustavoit, G.V., and Z. Skuronet. 1978. 4' pp. 946-94 7. Imunitet u dikih vidov Helianthus. Vrediteli i 26. Iuoras, M., 1981. Uti 1ization of wild species bolezni maslicnih kultur. Sbornik VNIIMK, in sunflower breeding. Eucarpia Symposium Krasnodar. 'Sunflower Breeding' 26-30 October, Prague. 43. Rogers, C.E. 1978: Cerambycid Pests of 27. Jan, C.C., J.M. Chandler, and B.H. Beard. 1983. Sunflower: Distribution and Behaviour in the A practical method of chromosome doubling in Southern Plains. Envir. Entomology. Vol. 6, No. sunflower. Proc. Sunflower Res. Workshop, 6: pp, 833-836. January 26, pp. 12-13. 44. 1980. Biology and breeding 28. Jabbar, M.A., and W.E. Sackston. 1970. Genetics for insect and disease resistance in oilseed of pathogenicity in sunflower rust. crops. M.K. Harris (edited). Bi logy and 29. Leclercq, P. 1969. Une sterile male Breeding for resistance to Arthropods and cytoplasmique chez le tournesol. Ann. Amelior. Pathogens in Agricultural Plants. Proc. Plantes, 19 (2) 99-106. International Short Course in Host Plant 30. Leclercq, p 1971. La sterilite male Resistance. cytoplasmique du tournesol. Premieres etudes 45. Rogers, C.E. 1981. Resistance of Sunflower sur la restauration da la fertilite. Ann. Species to the Western Potato Ceafhopper. Amelior. Plant, 21: 45-54. Environ. Ento11ol. 10: 697-700. 31. . 1981. Study on different types of 46. . 1981. Breeding sunflower for cytoplasmic male sterility. Eucarpia, Symposium resistance to insects and diseases in the on Sunflower Breeding, Prague, 26-30 October. United States. Eucarpia, Symposium: Sunflower 32. Morris, J.B., S.M. Yang, and L. Wilson. 1983. Breeding, Prague, pp. 175-213. Reaction of He 1i anthus Species to A1 ternar ia 47. Rogers, C.E., and T.E. Thompson. 1978. helianthi. Plant Disease, Vol. 67, No. 5: 539- Resistance of wild He 1ianthus species to an 540. Aphid, Masonaphi s masoni. Journa 1 of Economic 33. Marx, G.D., 1977. Uti 1ization of sunflower Entomology, Vol. 71, No. 2, pp 221-222. silage, sunflower hulls with poultry litter and 48. 1978. sunflower hulls mixed with corn silage for Helianthus resistance to the carrot beetle. J. growing dairy animals. 72nd Annual Meeting of Econ. Entomol. 71: 760-761. the A111erican Dairy Science Association, Iowa 49. 1980: State University, Ames. Helianthus Resistance to the sunflower Beetle. 34. Martinez, F.J., and P.F. Knowles. 1978. J. of the Kansas Entomological Society, 53 (4), Inheritance of self-incompatibility in wild pp, 727-730. sunf 1ow er. Pree. 8th Inter. Sunf 1. Conf. Minn., 50. , and R. J. pp, 484-490. Gagne. 1979. Cecidomyiidae of Helianthus: 35. Ohno, N., J. Gershenzon, P. Neu111an, and I. Taxonomy, Hosts and Distribution. Ann. Entomol. Mabry. 1981. Diterpene carboxylic acids and a Soc. Am. 72: 109-113. heliangolide from Helianthus angustifolius. 51. , and G.J. Phytochemistry, Vol. 20, No. 10, pp. 2393-2396. Seiler. 1982. Sunflower Species of the United 36. Putt, E.D. 1957. Sunflower seed production, States. Published by the NSA, P.O. Box 2533, CDA, Publ. 1019, Ottawa. Bismarck, ND 37. and W.E. Sackston. 1958. Canadian. 52. Rogers, C.E., and T.E. Thompson, and M.J. 93 Well i k. 1980: Surv i va 1 of Bothynus gi bbosus Fi ld crops Research, 4: 333-343. (Coleoptera: Scarabacidae) on Helianthus 67. Vranceanu, V.A. et al., 1974. El girasol (in Species. J. of the Kansas Entomological Ru11anian) Editado, por la Acad. de Ciencias Society. 53(3), pp. 490-494. Ru11ania. 321 p. 53. Robinson, H. 1979. Studies in the Heliantheae 68. , V.A. Tudor, F.M. Stoenescu, (AsteraceaeJ. XVIII A new genus Helianthopsis. and N. Pirvu. 1980. Virulence groups of Phytologia 44: 257-259. Orobanche cumana, Wallr., differential hosts 54. Serieys, H., 1980. Utilization desespeces and resistance sources and genes in sunflower. sauvages d'Helianthus pour l'amelioration due Proc. of the 9th International Sunflower Conf. Tournesol culture. Proc. of the 9th Int. Sunfl. 74-83, Torremol inos. Conf. 107-122, Torremolinos. 69. , and F. Stoenescu 1970. Immunity 55. Schilling, E.E. and C.B. Heiser. 1981. to Sunflower downy mildew due to a simple Infrageneric classification of Helianthus dominant gene. Probleme Agric. 22. 34-40. (compositae) Taxon. 30(2): 393-403. 70. Vranceanu, V.A. and F. Stoenescu. 1976. 56. Saliman, M., S.M. Yang, and L. Wilson. 1982. Breeding for pollen fertility restoration in Reaction of Helianthus species to Erysiphe sunflowers. Proc. of 7th Inter. Sunflower cichoracearum. Plant Disease. Vol. 66, No.7: Conference (287-295), Krasnodar. 572-573. 71. ,and F. Stoenescu. 1974. Studies 57. Swanson, C. L., R. A. Buchanan, and F. H. Otey. on resistance to downy mildew in sunflowers. 1979. Molecular weights of natural rubbers from Proc. of the 5th Inter. Sunflower Conf. ( 297- se 1ected temperature zone p1 ants. J. App J. 302), Bucharest. Polym. Sci. 23: 743-748. 72. Vear, F. and P. Leclercq. 1971. Deux nouveaux 58. Stipanovic, R. et al., 1980. Natural Rubber de resistance an mi ldion du tournesol. Ann. from Sunflower. J. Agric. Food Chem. 28, 1322- Ame1 ior. Pl antes, 21: 251-255. 1323. 73. Watanabe, K., N. Ohno, H.V. Yoshioka, J. 59. , 0. O'Brien, Ch. Rogers, and T. Gershenzcn, and T. Mabry. 1982. Sesquiterpene Thompson. 1979: Oiterpenoid Acids (-)-cis- and 1actones and di terpenoi ds from He 1i an thus (-)-trans-ozic acid, in wild sunflower H. argophyllus. Phytochemistry, Vol. 21, No. 3, occidenta1is. J. Agric. Food Chem., Vol. 27, pp, 709-713. ~o. 2: 458-459. 74. Whelan, E.O.P., 1978. Hybridization between 60. , G. Seiler, and Ch. Rogers. 1982: annual and perennial diploid species of Natural Rubber from Sunflower. Helianthus. Can.J. Genet. Cytol. 20: 523-530. 61. Schulz, J. T., 1978. Insect pests, pages 169- 75. 1979. Interspecific hybrids 223. In J.F.Carter (Ed.), Sunflower Science and between H. petio1aris Nutt. and H. annuus L. : Technology. Agron. Soc. Am. Agron. Monog. 19- Effect of backcrossing on meiosis. Euphytica 505 p, 28: 297-308. 62. . 1981. Collection, evaluation, and 76. 1980. A new source of conservation of wild species and their use in cytoplasmic male sterility in sunflower sunflower breeding programs (Progress report), Euphytica, 29: 33-46. Hel ia, No. 4: 66-77. 77. 1981. Cytoplasmic Male 63. . 1983. Possibilities of overcoming Steri 1ity in He1 ianthus giganteus L. x H. current problems in sunflower production by annuus L. Interspecific hybrids. Crop. developing new hybrids. Uljarstvo 1: 25-33, Science. Vol. 21: 855-858. Beograd. 78. and W. Dedic. 1980. 64. Skoric, O., L. Cuk, M. Mihaljcevic, and R. Registration of sunflower germplasm composite Marinkovic. 1978. New Sources of fertility crosses CMG1, CMG2 and CMG3. Crop Science 20: restoration (RF genes) and downy mildew 832. resistance (Pl genes) in sunflower. Proc. 8th 79. , and O.G. Dorrell. 1980. Internat i ona 1 Sunf 1ow er Conference (423-426), Interspecific Hybrids Between H. maximi1iani Minneapolis. Schrad. and H. annuus L., Effect of 65. Thompson, T.E., et al. 1978. Evlaution of Backcrossing on Meiosis, Anther Morphology, and Hel ianthus species for disease resistance and Seed Characteristics. Crop Science, Vol. 20: oil content and quality. Proc. 8th Inter. 29-34. Sunflower Conf. Minn., No. 497-501. 80. Yang, S.M., J.B. Morris and T.E. Thompson. ~~. , D.C. Zimmerman, and Rogers C.E. 1980. Evalution of He1ianthus spp., for 1981. Wild Helianthus as a genetic resource. resistance to Rhizopus head rot. Proc. Int. 94 Sunf., Torremol inos: 147-150. North Central United States. Phytopatho1ogy, 81. Zimmer, O.E., and M.L. Kinman. 1972. Downy 66: 208-211. 11ildew resistance in cultivated sunflower and 83. and J.A. Hoes. 1978: Diseases, its inheritance. Crop Sci., Vol. 12: 749-751. pages 225-262. In J.F. Carter (Ed.). Sunflower 82. , and 0. Rehder. 1976. Rust Species and Technology, Agron. Soc. Am. Agron. resistacne of wild Helianthus species of the Monog., 19, 505p. 95 SUNFLOWER BREEDXNO: GENERAL OBJECTXVES AND RECENT ADVANCES Jo_.. Fernandez Ma.rt1naz Abstract In many countries, sunflower breeding in terms of generation of cultivars, is movng from public to the private sector. However, sunflower improvement has important limitations, most of which are related to the narrow genetic bases of cultivated materials due to the extensive use of oil-rich germplasm and development of hybrid cultivars. This problem makes it difficult to achieve important objectives as yield improvement and development of resistance against major pests and diseases. For that reason, there is a need of long-term projects in basic plant breeding aimed at: a) collection, preservation and evaluation of germplasm, b) development of germplasm with special characteristics (drought, disease resistance, new sources of ems, etc.) and c) basic studies in genetic and breeding methods. Two examples of different approaches of basic breeding research have been described. Enhancing cooperation and exchange of information and breeding material between public institutions will increase the possibilities of quicker results in sunflower breeding and cultivation. Sunflower is an important plant among limiting yield as drought, diseases, the oil crops, Table 1. At present, etc., or specific needs as oil it ranks third at the world level quality. For example, in Europe there after soybean and oilpalm. are two main sunflower areas with Historically, the improvement of different problems: In the rainfed sunflower breeding has made two cropping system of Mediterranean important leaps with the development climate, sunflower yield was low (0.5 of high oil germplasm by Russian - 1.5 tons/ha) caused by drought and researchers, between 1930 and 1960, high temperatures. In France and and in the last twenty years after Eastern Europe, with high the discovery, in 1969 of the precipitation and humidity; sunflower cytoplasmic male sterility (13) and yields are over 2 tons/ha; the main restorer genes of fertility. Since limiting factor being the increasing then, it was possible to develop incidence of diseases. hybrids taking advantage of heterosis which made possible the increase of In the areas covered by IDRC Network yield up to 25% over the open (Eastern Africa and South Asia), both pollinated cultivars. Obviously, situations are present. Therefore, I yield increases were due in part to shall refere to research programs improved cultural practices, although with both types of situations, the availability of hybrid cultivars especially the program of the has played a major role. Other Research Center in Cordoba, Sapin, improvements were made with hybrids, the main objective of which is such as disease resistance, to 1e ranee breeding for drought resistance, and to stress, improvement of se 1f to the FAO Sunflower Network which compatibility and adaptation. The covers a more general spectrum of high oil content of Russian germplasm objectives. has also been increased in the recent cultivars and a great deal of advance General objectives in sunflower has been made in oil quality. breeding In this presentation, I shall cover mainly major objectives and As in other oil crops, genera 1 strategies in sunflower breeding, breeding objectives in sunflwoer emphasising on major problems breeding can be grouped under: 96 Table 1. World production (MT) of main oil crops, mo-s7. Years Oi 1 crop e1100 86/87 85/66 84/85 83/84 82/83 81/82 80/81 Soybean 15350 14585 14132 1Z730 13270 13930 1~1 ;7 13027 Cotton 3120 3253 3558 3864 211 e 3064 3234 2969 Peanut 3260 3296 3038 3137 3065 2806 325 7 2442 Sunf 1ower 7100 71?7 6986 6339 6010 5242 4991 5129 Rapeseed 7070 6609 6267 5783 5055 4960 4486 41C6 Coconut 3200 3191 3292 2373 2212 2668 2795 2776 Palm (seed) 1160 1C97 1055 912 ?70 768 673 608 Palm 8410 7912 7728 5512 5853 5594 5535 4711 High seed yield. to winter planting are made, High oil content and improved oil especially selecting for tolerance to quality. low temperatures. Improved prate in quantity and quality of the meal. In other environmental conditions where the growing period is limited As seed yield is influenced by the by low temperatures at planting and local environment, most of the harvesting time, genetic adjustments efforts of research carried out by are directed to reduce the period of agronomists and breeders are directed cultivation by selecting for to improve adaptation as a means of earliness. enhancing yield. The following modifications of adjustments are open Depending on the environment, the to: development of optimum production practices related with date of Improving seasonal adaptation. seeding, plant population, etc., has Developing optimum production to be taken into account by the practices. breeder to increase yield. For . Tolerance to adverse environmental example, if moisture stress is not conditions. very severe; higher densities in . Protection f ram pests and diseases. sunflower can increase yield even under rainfed conditions. Genetic A strategy to improve seasonal adjustments are neccessary s i nee some adaptation of sunflower in the genotypes has been found more Meditranean areas can be achieved suitable for high densities (4). extending the growing season by winter planting within the limits Tolerance to adverse environmental imposed by the environmental conditions conditions. This extension of the Adverse environmental conditions as growing period has been found to drought, high or low temperature are increase the total biomass and defects of climate that prevent the harvest index, and hence, the seed realization of potential yield yield. Yield increases achieved by this strategy has been shown highly Table 2. Grain yield (kg/ha) of sur:flower planted in winter and spring, 1982-86. significant, Table 2 in winter planting experiments carried out Planting Year* during four years using three date 1982 1983 1984 1986 commercial varieties which had not 15 Dec. 2059+254 2709+488 2357+475 2507+233 been previously selected for these 15 Feb. 1854+226 2077+331 1832+375 1980+306 conditions. This improvement is 15 March 1653+235 1288+144 1574+503 1684+114 expected to be even higher if genetic *Data indicates the average of the three hybryds i adjustments improving the adaptation the calculated standard deviation. 97 in crops. Spring crops, like sun Resistance to pests and diseases flower, grown in dry conditions in Meditranean climates are affected by Sunflower, native of North America, drought and high temperatures which shows more problems of pests in this are the main causes of low yields. area, in Europe and Asia also Breeding for drought resistance is an Homoesoma species is a serious pest. alternative to increase yields under In genera 1, losses from pests are these environments. Several breeding less important than diseases. strategies are open to breeders. Drought escape is a mechanism that Diseases are major limiting factors has been used in the semi-arid of production in many sunflower conditions of Southern Spain (11) by countries, especially in those agro developing early hybrids. Earliness ecological regions with more continues to be a valuable strategy favorable conditions for higher for sunflower breeding. Another way yields which usually favor most of of escape, in conditions with mild the important diseases. The main temperatures in winter, is winter strategy to control diseases in planting which also al lows earlier sunflower, as in other crops, is flowering when sti 11 there are genetic resistance which is a major moisture reserves in the soil. This feature in breeding programs. The technique, on the other hand, permits cultivated sunflower has a narrow the use of longer cycle hybrids with genetic base and it is deficient in higher accumulation of biomass and resistance genes for pests and seed yield (10). diseases. Most of the sources of resistance have been found in wild Other mechanisms of drought tole ranee species. Resistance to European moth are less understood although there (Homeosoma nebu7e7 7a) was found in exists genetic variation within Russia in the 40's by interspecific sunflower genotypes in the capacity hybridization of cultivated sunflower to withstand water stress (3) and with H. tuberosus. Wild species ·seem some characters have been shown to to be al so a good source of confer adaptation to drought as root resistance to pests in North America. development (2). In relation to diseases, wild species have rendered major genes of Besides adaptative mechanisms, the resistance to P7asmopara he7ianthi, ratio between yield under dryland and Puccinia he7ianthi, Vertici77ium potential yield has been adopted as a 7bo-atrum, V. dah7 iae and Orobanche a measure of resistance to drought. Kumana (1). There are still a large This index is not correlated with number of important and destructive yield potential ( 8) which indicates diseses, as Sc7erotinia sc7erotiorum, that the best strategy in breeding Phom ops is/Di aporthe he 7 ianthi, for drought tolerance is to Hacrophom i na phaseo 7i. Phoma spp. , incorporate relevant drought A7ternaria he7ianthi, Botritis tolerance factors to high yielding cinerca, Rizopus spp. etc., for which genotypes. there are no good sources of resistance. Wild species offer Other factors as high temperatures possibilities to discover sources of are closely associated with drought resistance for these diseases and for although differences exist in new races of diseases with known sunflower genotypes for tolerance to resistance. The FAO subnetwork in high temperatures. Genetic wild species maintain a working group differences to germination under low to evaluate them for disease temperatures and tolerance to frosts resistance. have been also found (9). 98 Oil content and oil Quality emphasized. The following points should be considered in relation to In oil crops, an obvious way of breeding strategies: increasing oil yield per hectare is increasing oil content. In sunflower, Germplasm collection and this can be achieved by reducing the evaluation. amount of hull and raising the oil Hybrid cultivars as open content of the embryo. Most of the pollinated varieties. progress made in the past by the Population management. Russian workers was achieved by Use of mutagens. reducing the proportion of hull from Use of wide crosses. 41% to 20%, although oil content of the embryo was also increased. It Germplasm collection and evaluation permitted to increase the oil from 32% to 50%. The progress in selection In sunflower breeding programs, the after using high oil germplasm in extensive use of germplasm with high crossing programs is rapid because oil content directly or to develop of the high heritability of this inbred lines to make hybrids, has character. Although, it is narrowed the genetic base of biologically possible to raise the populations. Many local populations oil content of cultivars by selection which decreased the possibility of to very high limits, it may not be improving seed yield were replaced. suitable from technological point of However, sunflower is rich in view because of the exccessive variability. The genus He7ianthus reduction in hull. has about fifty species being found in Canada, United States and Northern In relation to oil quality, high Mexico, and the remaining 17 are oleic mutants were obtained by limited to South America (15). In mutagenesis (17) and the studies of countries where modern high oil inheritance revealed that the high cultivars have not yet been oleic character was control led by introduced widely, land races with several demi nant genes ( 5, 14) . The low oil content still remain. It is introduction of the character is very imperative that this germplasm and easily made by backcrossing (5) and related wild species be collected and higholeic hybrids have been obtained preserved. Since 1984, the IBPGR and elsewhere. FAQ have been assembling important collections of cultivated and wild Increasing protein auantity species. The selection of high protein in the embryo maintaining low hull content Hybrid cultivars vs open pollinated has permitted the release of lines varieties with about 35% protein, but decreasing the oil to 35%, compared The discovery of cytoplasmic male to the normal values of 20% and 50%, sterility provided the basis for respectively (12). This could open a hybrid cultivars in sunflower with a new type of sunflower with high capacity to provide much of the protein. production in Europe, USA and almost elsewhere. However, open pollinated Breeding Strategies cultivars may be of interest to some countries. There is scarce activity The strategies used to achieve the in breeding for open pollinated breeding objectives in sunflower are cultivars. Some research institutions not unique although depending on the have recurrent selection programs for approaches of the breeding programs population improvement. Although, the some strategies have to be main objective of these programs is 99 to extract inbred lines from improved oleic levels of higher than 90% are populations some of them could be being grown in Europe and USA. used as open pollinated cultivars. Mutation breeding has produced other However, these populations have the useful mutations as early ripening inconveniency of being self and short stature (7). compatible because, most of the material used to form them were Use of wide crosses selected for self-compatibility. Other recently released popualtions, Many desirable traits are found in improved for drought tolerace in the wild species of the genus Cordoba (6) were derived from old He7ianthus especially resistance to Russian open pollinated cultivars, pests/deseases, drought and salinity and could be of interest for programs (16). More than eight new sources of interested. male sterility have been also found in the wild species (16) in addition Population management to the Petio7aris source actually used in the commercial production of The immediate objective of a breeding hybrids. program is either to release a variety for production or to develop A great activity in the field has improved germplasm used to extract been carried out by the genetics and inbred lines for hybrid development. breeding subnetwork on collation and Recurrent selction methods used in evaluation of He7ianthuswild species sunflower in many breeding programs of and ther use in breeding programs are the same as those used in corn. within the FAO sunflower network. Improvements for one cycle selection Specific working groups within this are built depend upon in subsequent subnetwork study the cytogenetics of cycles of hybridization and wild species and interspecific selection. Recurrent selection has hybrids and the evaluation for pests, been successfully used in Cordoba to diseases, drought and biochemcial increase oil content in early characters. Another working group material. In three cycles of deals with the use of biotechnology selection, oil content was increased in interspecific hybridization. from 42.3 to 47.9% in a maintainer populaiton and from 43.3 to 48.5% in Research Approches in Spain and FAO a restorer population (1). Two cycles Sunflower Network of reciprocal recurrent selection for The biggest effort in sunflower drought resistance increased the breeding in Spain in terms of yield of hybrids derived from generation of cultivars is carried improved populations in 11% compared out by the private seed companies with the ones derived from original which commercialize either cultivars populations. released by public institutions or developed in their own breeding Use of mutagens programs and provide the seed to the farmers. When the natural sources of genetic variation are not sufficient to meet In the public sector, with a a given objective, mutagenesis may declining involvement in cultivar come into cons i de ration. Some development, emphasis is given to valuable mutants have been produced basic plant breeding directed to in sunflower using irradiation and germplasm collection, evaluation and chemical mutagens. The most relevant p rese rv at ion, development of basic for its extensive use in breeding germplasm with special programs has been the high-oleic characteristics (drought, pest and mutant control led by dominant genes disease resistance, changed fatty obtained in Russia (17). Hybrids with acid composition, development of new 100 ems sources, etc., as well as the use Research subnetworks have changed of breeding methods and strategies. since 1975, although with different A conventional breeding program aimed approaches. The topics of diseases at the release of inbred lines with and their control, plant physiology, the characteristics mentioned is breeding/genetics and experimentation maintained. These lines are of cultivars have been maintained. In transferred to the private sector. the last consultation in Szeged The sunflower cultivation in Spain (Hungary) four subnetworks were (one million ha) is characterized by established: low yield caused mainly by drought. So, the main effort of public 1. Experimentation of cultivars. sunflower breeding research is the 2. Sunflower genetics and breeding. development of drought resistant 3. Sunflower diseases. populations to be used in the 4. Ecophysiology of sunflower development of drought resistant production. hybrid cultivars. Each sub-network has several working The program is based on a multi groups. disciplinary approach using a recurrent selection as the main frame In the last consultation this year for breeding base populations for in Istanbul, it was decided to give improved yield potential and drought more emphasis to the sunflower resistance. Winter planting is a genetics and breeding subnetwork. strategy for increasing yield, while This subnetwork comprises five avoiding drought is taken into working groups, whose main general account as a selection criteria for objectives are genetic studies of improving adaptation. An important important agronomic, physiological, physiological component is included and biochemical traits as self leading to the i dent if i cation and incompatibility, drought tolerance, screening for specific adaptive fatty acid composition and evaluation characters to drought, which is of wild species for morphological and incorporated to improved populations. agronomic characters, and for Biotechnologies are used to identify resistance to diseases. This wide and accelerate the i nte rmed i ate array of objectives directed to breeding processes. The released different situations and problems improved germplasm and the obtained should be applicable to research information may be of interest for problems and production of IDRC sunflower growing areas of some IDRC network countries. network countries under arid conditions. References The FAQ Sunflower Network was 1.. Dominguez, J., J. Fernandez Martinez, V. established in October, 1975 within Gimeno, F. Marquez and J. Ortiz. 1978. the framework of FAO, European Resu 1tados y evo 1uc ion de t res an cs de Regional Programs, and important seleccion en girasol en condiciones de cl ima number of institutions from Meditranean. Proc. VIII Int. Sunf. Conf. developing countries joined the Minneapolis, Minnesota, 412-417. multilateral cooperation. The main 2. Fereres, E., C. Gimenez, J. Berengena, J. purpose of the research network is Fernandez Martinez and J. Dominguez. 1984. to undertake joint applied research Genetic variability -0f sunflower cultivars in in sunflower with division of tasks response to drought. He 1i a 6: 17-21. and adequate methodology. An 3. and J. Fernandez additional task is to undertake an Martinez. 1986. Genetic variability in exchange of experience, information sunflower cultivars under drought. I. Yield and germplasm among participating relationships. Aust. J. of Agric. Res. 37: 573- institutions. 582. 101 4. Fernandez Martinez J., J. Dominguez, V. Gimeno, 10. . 1989. Estudio fenologico del girasol and Y.F. Marquez. 1980. Utilizacion de altas con enfasis en siembras invernales. Ph.D densidades en el cultivo de girasol en Thesis. University of Cordoba. 210 pp. condiciones aridas. Proc. IX Int. Sunf. Conf. 11. , J. Fernandez-Martinez, and E. Torremo 1i nos, Spain. 365-374. Fereres. 1989. Winter planting as a means of 5. ______,A. Jimenez, J. Dominguez, drought scape in sunflower. Field Crop Res. (in J.M. Garcia, R. Garces and M. Mancha. 1989. press) . Genetic analysis of the high oleic acid content 12. Jimenez, A., J. Fernandez Martinez, J. in cultivated sunflower (He1ianthus annuus Dominguez, and V. Gimeno. Considerations in L.)Euphytica, 41: 39-51. breeding for protein yield in sunflower. Proc. 6. J. Dominguez. E. Fereres, 6th. Meeting Eucarpia, Cordoba, Spain 46-60. and C. Gimenez. Release of three high oil non 13. Leclercq, P. 1969. Une sterilite male restorer populations. Crop Sci. (In press). cytoplasmique chez le tournesol. Ann. Amelior. 7. Fick, G.N. 1978. Breeding and Genetics. Plantes. 19 (2) : 99-106. Sunflower science and technology. ASA J.F. 14. Miller, J.F, D.C. Zimmerman and B.A. Vick. Carter, Ed., 279-338. 1987. Genetic control of high oleic acid 8. Gimenez, C. 1985. Resistencia a sequia de content in sunflower. Crop Sci. 27; 923-926. cultivares de girasol bajo condiciones de 15. Rogers, C.E., T.E. Thomposon, and G.J. Seiler. campo. Ph.O Thesis. University of Cordoba. 190 1982. Sunflower species of the United States. pp. Published by the NSA Biskmark, NO. 9. Gimeno, V. 1975. Variation in rate of 16. Skoric, D. and J. Vanozzi. 1985. Genetic germination at low temperature as a basis for resources in He1ianthus genus. Pree. Int. Symp. selection in sunflowers. Proc. VI Int. on Science and Biotechnology, 37-73. Sunflower Conf. Bucharest. 471-472. 17. Scldatcv, K. 1976. Chemical mutagenesis for sunflower breeding. Proc. VII Int. Sunf. Conf. Krasnodar, USSR: 352-357. 102 PROGRESS XN SUNFLOWER RESEARCH XN ETHXOPXA H"iruy B•"'layn•h Abstract Sunflower is a non-traditional oil crop which seems to be adapted in Ethiopia from below SOC to over 2400 m.a.s. 1. Fairly large tracts of this crop have been grown in recent years in three state farms. Out of the three late maturing varieties recommended for commercial production, only 'Russian Black' is under production at present time. Two short and early maturing types are considered fer release in the nea• future. The cultural practices and crop protection measures have been perfected and made available to users. Future trends of sunflower production are described. Sunflower has become the third most In recent years, efforts have been important annual oil crop in the made to select early and intermediate world due in large part to the varieties. From the mass and efforts of plant breeders in recurrent selection program, two improving seed yield, seed oil early synthetics (Synth-NSH-2 and content and the adaptability of the Synth-NSH-25) have been identified as crop to a wide range of climatic better performing varieties and conditions. The crop seems to be advanced to verification trial for adapted in Ethiopia from below re 1ease. Two other i nte rmed i ate types 800 to 2400m.a.s.1. At present, it (Argentario and improved Russian is the most important oleaginous crop Black) are also candidates for in Awassa (southern) region. It is release in 1989/90. also showing a sign of positive trend in growth rate of productivity in Agronomy Beles and Dedessa (north-west) state farms. At several sites, the best time of Though the crop has the potential to sowing, plant density, weed control become an important crop in some measures , etc. , have been identified. parts of Ethiopia, the breeding The time of sowing varied in programme which is undermanned in different regions depending on high calibre staff is struggling to variety, availability of moisture and survive. As a result, the sunflower temperature. In sowing date trials group failed to show as much progress conducted at Awassa, the highest as the other highland and lowland oil yields from early, medium and late crops groups. It is the purpose of cultivars were obtained when sown in this paper to give a brief account of June than in July or August. The June the research results obtained and the sowing reduced the incidence of downy future production trends on this mildew resulting in better yield. crop. The studies on pl ant density have Variety development shown that 44, 000-53, 000 p1 ants/ha i.e. 75 x 25 cm spacing, was optimum In Ethiopia, improvement of sunflower for long cycle cultivars. On the started in the late 1960's. At other hand, the highest seed yields present time, three varieties with short cycle cultivars were (Russian Back, Hesa and Pop-158) are obtained at population densities of recommended for general cultivation 53,000 - 88,000 plants/ha i.e. 60 - at national level. These varieties 75 X 25 cm. are tall, late maturing types which often run out of moisture or are The national variety trials (NVT) and damaged by frost before they mature. extension yield trials (EYT) were 103 conducted both with and without Table 1. Su1111ary of seed yield (kg/ha) of sunflower fertilizer. Higher response to varieties in the national and extension trial fertilizer was obtained at Tefki grown at 24 sites in 5 Agricultural Develop11net (central) and Woldya (north Zones (ADZ) with 41/46 kg/ha N/P2 o5 (F1l and eastern). Most of the trials showed with out fertilizer (F0) 1982-1985 crop season. little or no response to nitrogen and phosphorous fertilizers, Table 1. In Hean seed yield in kg/ha the fertilizer trials conducted at (ADZ) Site Fo F, Hean Awassa, response of Herero and ..,..Ce-nt~r~al--0,....,eb,--r-e-Ze..,..it....,("'"'3),--*--,1868 1779 1824 Sheneka to added nutrients was also Tefki (4) 1710 2210 1960 not large. Tede lie (4 J 1605 1531 1568 Shashmne (1) 2331 2569 2450 Crop protection Hean 1379 2022 1951 Two hand weed i ngs, with mo re emphasis Southeastern Kulma (4) 1835 2222 2C29 at seedling stage, were found to be He re ro (3) 142 3 1432 1430 optimum. Two herbicides, namely, Sheneka (3) 764 1010 887 Alachlor at 5 kg pro/ha and Robe (2) 127~ 1348 1312 Pendimethal in at 3 kg pro/ha were Sinanna (1) 3198 3552 3375 tested for their efficiacy as well as Harawa (1) 2327 2447 2389 appropriacy under large-scale Assasa (2) 810 1003 907 conditions at Awassa. Both herbicides Hean 1652 1859 1761 gave good control of weeds in sunflower and are recommended for Morthwestern Mota (4) 2992 32~8 3135 release. Burie (4) 2308 2291 2300 Upper Birr (3) 2572 2933 2753 Downy mildew, stem and head rot, rust Mean 2624 2834 2729 and leaf blight are the most prevalent diseases of sunflower in Northeastern Harbu (3! 2729 2412 1571 Ethiopia. A part of the local Woldya {2) 1795 2248 2022 collections and introductions has ~ean 2263 2330 2297 been screened for downy mildew resistance on a developed sick plot Western Bako (4) 1544 1m 1552 and some of the introductions Ji1111a (3) 1928 2069 1999 appeared to possess high levels of Huru11u (1) 2124 me 2281 resistance. However, the disease Anger Gutin (2) 1365 1078 1222 incidence at Awassa was low in 1988 Assosa (3) 1451 1451 ~451 and failed to provide a good base for Dedesa Oi11utu (4) 1570 1554 1562 further screening. Metalaxyl at the Hean 1664 1725 1695 rate of 2. 19 a i /kg seed was found effective in controlling downy Eastern Wacho (2) 3462 3899 3681 mildew. Melka Werer (3) 3035 3035 Mean 3249 3358 African bollworm is the most serious insect pest of sunflower in Ethiopia. Southern Awassa (3) 2119 1996 2058 In 1987 and 1988, a range of * Number of trials. varieties have been screened for their resistance to this insect pest. the staff position in the other The variety, "Eliodoro" showed important oil seeds research programs. tolerance to this pest. It is hoped that the future manpower situation would improve and help as Future trends a means for increasing sunflower production in the shortest time Sunflower research in Ethiopia has possible. been limited, primarily due to the lack of trained manpower compared to Sunflower did not find its way into 104 the traditional agriculture of zones, provided that varieties suited Ethiopia. On the other hand, there for mechanization as we 11 as for are state farms where agriculture is traditional farming practices are practiced in an extensive scale and available. In fact, sunflower there is a need for oil crops suited production has been increasing in to large-scale production such as three of the state farms (Awassa, sunflower and rapeseed. The multi Beles and Dedessa) over the past locational trials have indicated three years. It could be stated that that sunflower has very high the future research efforts and the potential in different agro- national agricultural development ecological zones, Tables 1, 2 & 3. goals will help to increase sunflower Therefore, areas under this crop are production and alleviate the shortage expected to increase in different of edible oil in the country. Table 2. Crop-environ11ent characteristics at sunflower trial sites. Agricultural Mean tm. 0c Soil Analysis Oeve lop11ent Site Days to Altitude Rainfall Zone maturity (11) (1111) Min. Max. Central Tefki 169 2050 655 9.3 23.7 6.6 0.40 20.9 Shasheme 2020 Oebre Zeit 1900 598 9.3 24.9 6.8 0.13 64.5 South eastern Robe 2480 482 6.7 21.0 5.6 0. 16 27.5 Sinana 2400 Herero 2390 430 6.3 Sheneka 2350 397 1.0 C.13 14.9 Asma 2300 6. 0 0.19 42.4 Ku lum 2200 527 10. 2 22. 1 5.8 0.16 48.7 Harawa 153 2000 North western Mota 2400 1100 9.6 23.6 4.9 0. 16 6. 5 Burie 2150 845 5.4 0. 19 10. 7 Upper Birr 1690 5. 1 0. 21 18. 5 North eastern Woldya 1720 707 9.3 25.6 6.5 0. 09 7.5 Harbu 1542 u 0.13 V.high Western HurUllU 1840 Jill! 1750 1000 11.3 25.4 5.3 0. 16 7.7 Bako 1650 922 12. 2 25.8 6.6 0. 15 5. 0 Assosa 142 1550 935 14.9 25.9 5.9 0. 34 Anger cutin 1400 Oidessa Oimutu 1280 1216 14. 9 29.3 4.9 0. 19 46. 1 Eastern Wac ho 1750 Melka Werer 750 269 18. 4 34.2 8.0 0.09 20.0 Southern Allam 1700 617 11.6 25.4 6.0 0.21 103.9 105 Table 3. Crop environmental require1ents for sunflower. Ra n g e o f S u i t a b i 1 i t y Highly Moderately Sensitivity to Suitable Suitable Marginal ---"H=az=ar....._d __ Altitude 1300-2400 750-1300 0-750 & 2400-2600 & 2600-2800 Min. te1p. for growing period (°C) 10,5-18.0 U-10.S & 18.0-20.0 Max. te1p. for growing period (°C) 22.5-32.0 18.5-22.5 & 32.0-34.0 Mean te11p. for growing period (0c) 16.5-25.0 12.5-16.5 & 25. 0-21.0 27-30 Length of growing periods (days) 130-169 100-130 80-100 Rainfall during growing period (1111) 500-750 400-500 Sensitive to water & 750-1200 logging and fairly drought tolerant. Soi. 1 Type clay lou Texture med iU11 . Co lour brown, red . pH 6.0-7.3 5.5-6.C & 7.3-8.0 106 SUNFLOWER ADAPTATXON XN MOROCCO In Morocco, oi lcrops are important strategies on the crop water deficit. sources of humanfood and animal feed. Three sowing dates and three The main oil crops that are genotypes differing in maturity currently cultivated on more than period were then tested. The 160,000 ha, include sunflower, rape Genotypes had 1300, 1600, and 1900 seed, safflower, groundnuts, cotton growing degree days (GOD) from sowing and soybean. to physiological maturity. Date of sowing was 20 November for the autumn Soybean was int reduced in 1981 and planting, 20 February and 20 March is grown under irrigation. The cotton for spring plantings. The latter seed, mainly grown for fibre, is also sowing date is most commonly used by used in oil seed industry. The other farmers. crops are cultivated under rainfed conditions where annual rainfall Results and Discussion ranges between 300 and 600 mm. Part one : Success and limitations Sunflower is one of the main oil of sunflower production in Morocco crops and is undergoing tremendous development. In 1988, 110,000 ha were Sunflower is grown mostly in the pl anted to sunflower by sma 11 and North Western part of the country large scale farmers, using both where it was introduced in the traditional and modern cultural sixties. The development of the crop practices. Yields obtained were acreage shows two distinct periods, generally low and variable, due to Fig. 1. From 1960 to 1980, the total socio-economic, environmental and area devoted to sunflower (2000- management constraints (5). Adequate 40,000 ha) remained fairly low and research is also lacking. In the highly variable. After 1980, the first and second parts of this paper, acreage dramatically increased to we wi 11 discuss some of these issues, reach the cur rent level . It is taking sunflower as a case study, and projected that some 300,000 ha will ways of adjusting the crop to its be planted to sunflower in the next environment, using simulation models. 10 years. Seed yields basically followed a similar pattern. Materials and Methods The recent success of sunflower is In part one, the success of explained by a shift in the role and sunflower was analyzed using field function it has in the cropping data and statistics. In part two, as systems. The crop evolved from an water deficit is the main limiting insurance crop to a cash crop. Up to factor to sunflower crop production, 1980, the observed erratic we have used the modelling approach variability in acreage is related to to address the problem of crop the extent of failures in winter adaptation to drought prone crop. The sunflower crop is then environments. planted in spring to insure a minimum income. After 1980, sunflower became The modelling approach was carried a cash crop, as a result of changes out based on the principles developed in government policies and farmer's earlier by different scientists attitude. Policy changes included (8,9,2,7,4), also as described loans to sunflower producers for elsewhere (10,6). We have developed input acquisition, reasonable prices a model to simulate the effects of and guaranted public market, Fig. 2. contrasting crap management In spite of these progresses, 107 environmental constraints and poor This severe water deficit could be management practices still limit detrimental to seed formation and production. yield. Part two: CroD adaptation to This became evident by exploring the environment research work executed with 23 genotypes to compare autumn and Sunflower is grown under rainfed spring plantings, Fig. 5. The conditions in the North Western results clearly indicated that region. The climatic conditions matching the crop cycle with the including rainfall (P), evapo rainy season by early planting transpiration (ETP) and water increased yield by 33%. Further, deficit, (P-ETP) of this area are comparing the four water regimes to shown in Figures 3. The data in a rainfed control, as means of Figure 6 represent a typical correcting the effect of late water Mediterranean climate having a rainy deficits, the seed yield was greatly winter season with low ETP followed increased by irrigating the crop at by a spring period with a rapid various growth stages, part i cul arl y increase in ETP and a decrease in P. at 1ate f1 owe r i ng , Tab l e 1 . I n Since sunflower is traditionally addition, a single irrigation applied planted in spring, most of its cycle at flowering stage yielded as much as is out of the rainy season. the fully irrigated crop which Therefore, sunflower usually suffers produced 2.8 against 1.4 tons/ha for from severe water stress conditions the rainfed control. as the season progresses towards crop maturity. The following simulations Similarly, three genotypes of illustrate the environmental rapeseed were compared at five constraints to sunflower production planting dates. As a result, early and the possibilities that sowing yielded 3.2 against 0.4 agronomists and breeders may have to tons/ha with delayed sowing, Fig. 6. adjust the crop to its environment. Therefore, choosing the appropriate sowing date, is critical to fit as 1. Analysis of sowing date effects much as possible the crop to 3 favourable environment. This is also The effects of early, intermediate a key factor to improve crop yields and late plantings on crop water use without increasing the levels of are shown in Fig. 4. The results inputs. indicate that the severity of water deficit increased as the planting 2. Analysis of genotype effects date was delayed. Actual water deficit reached a maximum of 10, 55 The model was also used to test the and 70 mm per decade for early, effects of three genotypes differing intermediate and late sowings, in maturity, with autumn and spring respectively, Fig. 4a. The plantings. For autumn sowing, early corresponding cumulative water and intermediate genotypes were able deficit followed a similar pattern to grow under favorable conditions. and was 40, 200 and 240 mm, Fig. 4b. In contrast, the late genotypes For the early sowing, the crop water experienced increasing water deficit deficit index never exceeded 40%, as the season progressed. This is i.e. at least 60% of the crop water illustrated by the data in Fig. 7. requirements were met at any given For spring planting, all genotypes time during the growing season, Fig. we re exposed to water deficit, but 4c. By contrast, for the intermediate early maturing cultivar was least and late sowings, the crop water affected, Fig. 8. deficit indices were above 40~~ during most parts cf the grnwi ng season. 108 Fig. 1: Variations in sunflower acreages from 100 10 .-.. 1961 to 1989 • .c:<1l 0 0 80 .....0 60 6 .- 0 40 4 e 20 i 2 i 60 62 6·1 66 68 70 72 74 76 78 00 B2 64 86 BB 90 Yf'Rr! Fig. 2: Variations in sale prices for sun flower seed (1970-89) 400 300 oc .;.: 0 0...... 200 :"I: Q Q) u -.-I p.."" 100 o, ...... __.~.._ ...... __.~.._ ...... 1...... 1.---1~.1.-..r...... 1...... 1...... 1 70 72 74 76 78 82 84 BG 88 I Oil Fig. 3: Mean Evapotranspiration and Rainfall at Saiss. (1957-87) 80 Evapotran::;piration Rainfall 01 NI DI JI fl Ml Al Ml JI JLI Al Time (Decades) 109 70 ...... 60 • November sowing ...... m .... 50 ~ cJ + February sowing ~ IM 40 QI '1' ::ft March sowing 30 ....""CIJ Ill ) 20 a. 0 10 u"" 0 NI I'll JI fl Ml Al Ml .II JI.I (a) ---·- - Time (Decades) 200 • November sowing 150 + February sowing a. o lOu ------.- March --sowing- ---- · ""cJ QI > ~ 50 Ill .-4 ~ 8 O L...L~""-.i.....t....i....i...... -*=::s::;;"'""'ll._.dliia::iL.L..J...J....L...J...L..J....J....J NI DI JI fl Ml Al Ml JI JLI (h ) Thnr! f l>ecade11 ~ ·--- - ~ --·-- ·-- -·· ·---· ------100 ,...., N ...... • November sowing >< CIJ I '1' February s.owing f I c:: + ~ 6 March sc:iwing .... ~ • u ~ .. ifrl IM 4 CIJ '1' ....""CIJ Ill 20 ) ~\ -1 \f \ a. /- i\ ' 0 I -~ \ u 0- l \' "" NI DI JI n Ml Al Ml JI JLI (c) Tin11• fl>ec11de11) Fig. ~; Effect o.f three sowing dates on the simulated crop water deficit, cumulative and index during the growing season for three geno~ypes differing in u;iaturity. · Saiss.(1957-87) 110 :,r, Fig. 5: Sunflower Automn yields.. _Y!?. SP.ring yields ~10 23 genotypes planted on Nov. 27th and ,..... March 17th (Boujghag, 1986) 0 .. • ·--·-- 0 25 ...... )( 0 '-' 211 ._..c:'° ¢ USSR Cl() a France ....: Ir, t/l .,, Moro co .-I 0 <1J • ...... Ill 0 >. A Hungaria i:: • <> e CJ • •t;:,. • 0 · ~ao· 4J u •• ;:3 ¢ -0 < fl 0 5 Ill l!"1 20 25 :rn :iri Spring yields kg/ha (xlOO) :Ill II Location Alla! Tazi 1989 25 t/l 'ti .-I <1J >! 5 10/15 10/21 10/3G 11/14 12/.06 12/15 1 /OS 1/03 2/04 . 7./03 Planting .lJates Fig. 6: Effects of planting dates on grain yield of rape seed (mean of 3 genotypes) planted at Meknes location. (Fezzaz, 1989) 111 Table 1. Effects of four water regir.s~ :n Rached, and Dr. Abbas O. Omran, IDRC, sunflower bio~ass pr:duct1on, seed yield for their invitation to attend this and water use in the Gharb, 1989. meeting. Crop yield [tons/hal Water ~se References Water regimes Biomass Srain imml 1. Rainfed control 47. 13c• 13.Eeb -~ ..~ ~ ...... f'r.,... _ 1. Boujghagh, M. 1987. Travaux de recherche 2. Fully irrigated 95.'0at 2S. ~ 3a HO .sea agronomique en matiere de selection genetique (4 app1i:a~ions) des cultures oleagineuses. Bilan et 3. One irrigation 65.84b 17.8Sb 35l.9Cb perspectives. INRA, Meknes. at early bud 2. Doorenbos, J. and W.0. Pruitt. 1977. Crop water 4. One irrigation at 82.58a 2S.40a 33:.2~b requirements. FAO. Irrigation and Drainage ear1y f1c~e~ir:; paper No. 24. Rome, Italy. 5. Cne lr•;gat:on a~ 54.21b 2C.C5t 339.62bc 3. Fezzaz, M. 1989. Essais Tournesol a la CCMAPRA, 1ate f1owerin; Rabat. 4. Hazel C. Harris, W. Guebel, and P.J.M.Cooper, t Ya1ues ir a ::~~mr ~:~ !:11o~s~ t~ ~he sa~a 1987. Crop genotype-environment interact\on in 1etter ara s~;n~fic3n~ 1 : j~Ffa~ent a: 5~ ,evel. drought tolerance in winter Cereals. Proceedings of an international workshop 27-31 These results suggest that with an October 1985, Capri, Italy, John wi 1ey and Sons autumn planting, the intermediate ed. genotype (1600 GOD) is preferable to 5. MARA. 1989. Pol itique des fi 1ieres Agro the early and late ones. It offers industrie11es. Seminaire maghrebin. A1ger 2S- higher yield potential (longer cycle) 29 Juin, 1989. and experiences an acceptable level 6. Quattar, s., T.E. Ameziane, A. aaidada a:id c. of water deficit. However, the early Leger. 1989. Quantification des risques maturing cultivar should be preferred cl imatiques sub is par les cereal es ctans le in the case of spring sowing. Salss et la Chaouia. Direction de la Production Vegetale, MARA, Rabat. Cone l us ion 7. Raes, D., P.V. Aelst and J. Wyseure. !986. Computer package for cal cu 1at i ng crop water Based on these preliminary results, requi remer:ts. Laboratory of soi 1 and water it is important to match the crop to engineering K.U. Leuven. its environment through breeding and B. Ritchie, J.T. 1972. Model for predicting adequate crop management. Such evaporation from a row crop with incomplete strategy is more effective in cover. Wat. Res. Research, 8: 1204-1213. improving crop production, while 9. 1974. Evaluating irrigation needs keeping inputs at reasonable levels. for south-eastern. U.S.A. In: Contribution of The modelling approach is useful to irrigation and drainage to world food sup~ly. identify environmental constraints Symposium of Am. Soc. C. and to define ways of cropping with Eng., August 1974, Biloxi, Mississippi. them. Further model testing using the 10. Tayaa, M., S. Quattar, and T.E. Ameziane. 1988. experimental data is in progress. Amodelling approach to agro-eco~cgical z~ning in relation to land ard water resources Acknowledgement management. In: IFS Workshop on Management of water and Natural Resources to Increase Food The authors wish to thank Dr. Eglal Production in Africa, March 9-14 1987, Niamey, Niger. 112 2 -.ft- Early genotype 20 -0- Intermidate genotype .µ •r-1 u -r-1 ~ Late genotype ~ 15 (I) "'d ~ (I) .µ t1l 10 ) p.. 11owi11i !fate 0 ~ u 5 + 0 Nt f) I Jl ft Ml At Mt JI Time (Decades) 's.i,.vO s '-' .µ +Early genotype -r-1 .~ 80 ~ -a-Intermediate genotype (I) "'d ~ "'*"Late genotype (I) 60 .µ t1l ) p.. 2 10 u (I) nwinr rt11t P :> •r-1 .µ 20 t1l .-l s;::l + ;::l u 0 NI ll I JI rt Ml At Ml Time (Decades) Fig. 7: Effect of Sunflower genotype on the variations of Simulated Crop Water Deficit during the growing season. November planting at Saiss. (1957-87) 113 300------Sowing date February 20 ....,. Early genotype .+Intermediate genotype ..... Late genotype 11owinir rht.e • I Ml Al Ml JI JI.I Time (Decades) 80 Sowing dat~ 70 February 20 ~Early genotype ~ 60 ·.-l (.) T Intermediate -I genotyp~ -I 5 ll :j +Late ee11otype M 4 QI ~ :ll ~ 30 CJ.. 0 '-I 20 11owlnir: rtale u \ 0 Jll Fig. 8: Effect of Sunflower genotype on the variations of simulated crop water deficit during the growing season. February planting at Saiss. (1957-87) 114 EFFECT OF MATURZTV STAGES AND DESZCCANT APPLZCATZON ON VZELD. OZL CONTENT AND OZL QUALZTV OF SUNFLOWER Maaac>c>d A- Rana. Chaudhry A- oza;r. M- Ayub Khan and Sha~1u~~-h Abstract The effect of stages of maturity and desiccant applications on the sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) seed yield, oil content and oil quality were studied during 1988 and 1989. Stages of maturity were maintained by five dates of harvest with 5 days interval at 25, 30, 35, 40 and 45 days after flower comple~ion (OFC). Four desiccant treatments (Paraquat at 0.50 kg ai/ha; Paraquat at 0.25 kg ai/ha + Agral-90 at 0.02 v/v) and one control treatment (without desiccant) were studied. The desiccants -ere applied seven days before each date of harvest. By delaying harvest from 25 to 35 OFC the seed yield increased significantly from 1980 to 2391 ~g/ha, and from 2629 to 3279 kg/ha in 1988 and 1989, respectively. No significant increase in seed yield was obtained after 35 OFC in both years. 100-seed weight increased significantly from 25 to 40 OFC in 1988, and from 25 to 30 DFC in 1989. Between 25 and 45 OFC the seed moisture reduction was 38. 11 (51.2 to 13.11) in 1988, and 34.81 (43.1 to 8.31) in 1989. The seed oil content significantly increased from 36.51 to 4~. 1% between 25 and 4C OFC in 1988, and from 43.8 to 49.01 between 25 to 45 OFC in 1989. Oleic acid cor:tents reduced significantly from 56.9 to 49. 11 in 1988 but no si;nificant change was observed during the same period in 1989. In 1988, linoleic acid car.tents increased significantly from 35.01 to 43.31 bet-aen 25 and 35 OFC, and in 1989 from 41 .2 to 45.0% between 30 and 45 OFC. The effect of desic:ant treatments on seed yield and other characters were not very pronounced. In 1988, ParaqJat at 0.5 kg ai/ha with Surfactant increased the seed yield by 103 kg/ha over the control which was 2283 kg/ha. Fomesafen, in 1988, at 1.0 kg/ha increased 100-seed weight significantly and reduced the seed moisture content, but the reductions were not much. Paraquat at higher dose reduced the oil contents during both years over the control. In 1989, Paraquat at both concentrations reduced the oleic acid by 4.5-5.0% and increased the linoleic acid by 4.4-4.51. Key words: Sunflower, Helianthus ar.nuus, maturity stages, date of harvest, desiccant applicatic~, oil q~ality, seed yield. In irrigated regions, attempts are retu ms from the crops involved in being made to realize high field the intensive cultivation systems. efficiency for making more income per unit area per annum. In order to Use of desiccants is an established achieve this, growers are frequently practice in some crops where dragged into a situation where mechanical harvesting and uniform harvesting of the existing crop and ripening is a prime desire. In planting of the next crop overlap situation as stated above, it has with each other. Consequently, it become rather more important to results in yield losses of the harvest the crop at the earliest preceding crop due to early possible date, but without taxing the harvesting, and following crop due to yield, to allow timely planting of the delayed planting. Manipulation following crop. Such decisions would of appropriate crop production be based on the knowledge of crop technology and execution of high maturity time coupled with the use of management skills are therefore, appropriate desiccants. In USA, required to handle such situations. different doses of Dimethipin (1,2,3- Planting of short duration varieties, dihydro-5, 6-dimethyl-1, 4-dithin-1, use of desiccants, mechanized 1,4, 4-tetraoxide) were used as harvesting and planting strategies desiccant on sunflower and found that are imperative for receiving high crop maturity was enhanced (1,2) 1 1 5 without the loss of yield, oil precipitation from May 1 to June 20, content and quality. Similar results during 1988 and 1989 (as recorded by were reported from France (9). the Meteorology Department of NARC) along with the date of flower Diquat (6, 7-dihydrodiphyrido [1,2- initiation (DFI), date of flower a:2,1-c] pyrazinediium ion) has also completion (DFC), date of first been used successfully as harvest aid harvest (DFH) and date of last in sunflower (8). It has been harvest (DLH) are given in Fig. 1. reported that physiological maturity in sunflower was attained when seed The trials were maintained according moisture content ranged between 36- to the local production 40% (3,7), and required 35 days after recommendations. Fertilizer was flower initiation (7) or 25 days applied at the rate of 120 kg N + 60 after flower completion (6). kg P2 05/ha at the time of seed bed preparation. The plots were In Pakistan, such registered irrigated twice, first at head chemicals are not available in the initiation stage and later at the market, except the "Bipyridinium", time of flower completion. Paraquat, which is mainly used as non-selective herbicide in potatoes. Stages of maturity were maintained Fomesafen is another post-emergence by different dates of harvest, nonselective broad-leaf sensitive keeping DFC as reference point. Five herbicide, which has a contact type dates of harvest treatments were mode of action and has more or less super imposed with two desiccant disiccation property. Fomesafen is an applications each with two rates and ICI product submitted to the Pl ant one control treatment (without Protection Dept. for registration as desiccant app 1i cation) in a split post emergence herbicide. It is plot design in which dates of harvest likely to be marketed some time in were arranged as main plots and 1990. It was therefore, decided to desiccant application in subplots. initially include these two chemicals The experiment was replicated four in our present study. Cost ti mes. Desiccant treatments we re efficiency of the desiccants was al so applied in 5-days interval at 18, 23, considered by reducing the rate of 28, 33 and 38 days after DFC, Table the chemical to half strength, and 1 . simultaneously increasing their uptake and subsequent activity by Calibrated doses of the desiccants adding low cost non-ionic surfactant, were thoroughly mixed into a known Agral-90. Objectives of this study volume of water, used as diluent. were to find out the earliest stage The desiccants were sprayed on of maturity where sunflower could be sunflower foliage using aluminum harvested without considerable loss ladder for a uniform coverage. Solid of yield, and to test the desiccants cone type brass nozzle was mounted on available in the 1ocal market for a knap-sack type manual sprayer to their effect to enhance the maturity, achieve complete wetting of the yield, oil content and quality. foliage. Harvesting was done seven days after each desiccant Materials and Methods application, i.e. at 25, 30, 35, 40 and 45 DFC, Table 2. The DFC was The study was conducted at the standardized when about 95% of the National Agricultural Research Centre floral buds/plot were opened to (NARC), Islamabad (33° 40N 73° 08E) initiate anthesis. Pakistan. The field trials were planted on February 7 and 10, in 1988 Drying and burning effects of the and 1989, respectively. The daily desiccant treatments were recorded maximum and minimum temperatures and daily by visual observations after 116 40 u 0 30 ri:i z II'. 50 0 ::i H 8 20 ..c 8..c II'. I ri:i I 30 ~ n. ,:i:: n. 1: 10 1...:l H ri:i ,o u 8 I ~ I 10 0 n. 40 § u 0 30 z 0 ri:i so H II'. 20 8 ::i ~ 8 8 ..c H II'. 30 n. ri:i 10 H n. u 1: ri:i ri:i 10 II'. 8 n. 0 Mayl Jun el GROWTH PERIOD FROM DFI TO DLH Fig. 1. Daily minimum and maximum temperature and precipitation from Mayl to June30, showing date of flower initiation (DFI), date of flower completion (DFC), date of first harvest (DFH) and date of last harvest (DLH) during 1988 and 1989. 11 7 Table 1. Desiccaticn treatments, applicaton rates, common and chemical names of the desiccants followed by their formulated activity. Rate used Common Formulation Treatment (kg ai/hal name Chemical name (kg ai/hal Paraquat 0.50 Gramaxone 1: 1-Dimethyl-4,4- Bipyridinium (cation) dich13ride Paraquat + S* 0.25 Fomesafen 1.00 Flex 5-[2-chloro-4-!trif1uorJ~ethyl) 21% EC Phenoxy] -N- (meth~l-sulfonyl) -2- nitrobenzamide Fomesaf er: + S* 0.50 Control Ne desi:cant was applied Note: Adjuvant Agral-90 [90C g/1 alkyl phenol 87% W/W (surfactant) ethylene oxide condensate; 2t V/V * Herbicides used as disicant, mixed with the non-ionic surfactant 'Agral-9C" ~o anhance the efficacy of the product. Source: 1. Thomson, W.T. 1984. Agric. Chemicals-Book II. Thompson o":~·cations, ~rssno, ca 93791. 2. Agra1. 90, Tee~. bulletin, ICI, P1a~~ Pratecticn Unit, ~erh~rst :asemere surve~, England. Table 2. Average of t~c years affect of maturity stages on yield, seed test ~eight, mJlst~re :~ntents and oil ~uality of sunflower. Days after • % flower Yield 100seed Seed % Oil % Pa1111itic gain(+) Ole'c gain Lii~~eic Comp let ion (kg/ha) gain ve ight gain 11oisture loss content gain acid 1css(-) acid 1oss acid gain {~\ (g) (%) (%) (%) (i; 1 ·•; 25 2305 6.22 47. 1 40.2 5.8 51.5 39. 5 30 2645 14. 8 7. 12 1U 35.3 25. 5 43. 1 7.2 5.8 0.0 50.:: 2.: 4U :.a 35 2838 23. 1 ?• 57 23.3 24.1 48.8 43. 7 8.7 5.6 -~... ' 4U 5.0 43.4 9.9 40 2813 22.0 7.90 21.C 16.2 65. 6 H.2 ~ 0. 0 6.: •5. 2 48. 7 5.4 43.2 ...C I 45 2850 23.2 7.91 2?.2 1~. 7 77.3 44. 8 11.4 5. 7 -i. 7 48. 0 6.8 43.S ! 0. 4 LSD (0.05) 81 0.2~ 0.8 0.6 0.3 o.g ~.9 CV (%) 5.85 6. 46 7.1 2.9 10. 6 u ....IC each application upto the day of obtained as an average of three harvest of each treatment. samples/plot from each of the four replications. Moisture content of The size of the sub-p 1at was 3x5 m the seed at the time of harvest was (4 rows, each 5 m long and 0. 75 m determined by the formula (A-B)/A apart). Sunflower hybrid NK-212 was where A= fresh weight of seed sample planted, and the plants were spaced drawn from each plot at harvest, and 25-30 cm apart within the rows. Two B = dry seed weight obtained by centra 1 rows were harvested to assess drying the same sample in a forced the seed yield. The plots were air oven at 70° C for 120 hours. harvested and threshed manually and seeds were sun-dried for 12 days The oi 1 content was reported as an before the weights were recorded for average of two seed samples per plot yield measuren.ents on plot basis. from each of the 4 replications. It The seed yields were converted and was measured by a Nuc 1ear Magnetic reported in kg/ha and adjusted at 9% Resonance (4). A Newport NMR, model: moisture content by using a moisture Oxford 4000 was used and oil contents meter. The 100-seed weight was were reported at zero percent 118 moisture content. The fatty acid harvest (45 DFC), Fig 2c. In 1988, composition was measured by a the moisture content of seed on 25 Shimadzo Gas Liquid Chromatograph DFC was 51. 2% which was reduced to (GLC), Model GC-9A. A 2.1 m x 3.2 mm 13.1% on 45 DFC, registering a 38.1% glass column packed with 3% SP reduction during these 20 days. 2310/2% SP 2300 coated chromosorb WAW Similarly, in 1989, the moisture on 100/120 mesh was used for the content of seed on 25 DFC was 43.1% analyses. The column oven was which was reduced to 8.3% on 45 DFC, operated at 230°C. Methylating registering a 34.8% reduction in seed so 1ut ion of 4g meta 11 i c sodium moisture was obtained during this prepared in 500 ml methanol was used period. On the average of both for preparing methyl-esters of oil. years, the seed moisture contents reduced by 23% during the first 10 Results days (25to 35 DFC), about 8% between 35 and 40 DFC and 6% between 40 and Stages of maturity 45 DFC. Mean moisture content of 30. 7% in 1988 was 8.0% higher than The effect of stages of maturity on that of 22.6% in 1989. the seed yield was highly significant during both the years. Seed yield During 1988, the oil content of seed increased significant 1y from 25 to 35 significantly increased from 36.5% to DFC, Table 2 and Fig 2a. The increase 41.1% between 25 and 40 DFC, and of 417 kg/ha (from 1980 to 2397 thereafter reduced non-significantly, kg/ha) in 1988, and 650 kg/ha (from In 1989, the oi 1 content increased 2629 to 3279 kg/ha) in 1989 were rapidly and significantly from 43.8% obtained within these 10 days. In to 47.4% between 25 and 30 DFC, and 1988, seed yield steadily increased thereafter, almost no change was upto 45 DFC but the increase after 35 observed until 40 DFC. However, DFC was small and non-significant. during the last 5 days (from 40 to On the contrary, during 1989, the 45 DFC), once again, a significant seed yield slightly decreased after increase in oil content was obtained, 35 DFC but it was non-significant. Fig. 3a. Mean oil content of 39.4% The mean seed yield of 3080 kg/ha for in 1988 was significantly less than 1989 was significant 1y higher than that of 46.9% in 1989. the mean seed yield of 2300 kg/ha for 1988. Palmitic acid concentration changed significant 1y due to stages of In 1988, the 100-seed weight maturity during both the years, Fig. increased significantly and rapidly 3b. However, the changes were minor from 6.37 to 8.53 g between 25 and and there existed no definite trend 40 DFC but the increase in seed or di re ct ion in accordance to the weight after 40 DFC was slow and non stages of maturity from 25 to 45 DFC. s i gnif i cant. On the contrary, in Oleic acid contents reduced 1989, seed development was rapid significantly from 56.9 to 49.1 (from 6.08g to 6.96g) between 25 and between 25 and 45 DFC in 1988, 30 DFC, gradual (from 6.96 g to 7.20 whereas no significant change was g) between 30 and 35 DFC and observed in 1989 during the same plateaued thereafter, Fig. 2b. The period, Fig. 3c. In 1988, linoleic 100-seed weight of 7.79g was acid content increased significantly significantly more in 1988 than that from 35.0 to 43.3% between 25 and 35 of 6.94 g in 1989. DFC, and reduced to 41.5% between 35 to 40 DFC and, once again, increased Seed moisture reduced significantly, to 42. 2% between 40 and 45 DFC. In during both years and the moisture 1989, linoleic acid reduced reduction was steady and continuous significantly between 25 and 30 DFC, from 25 DFC to the 1ast date of and thereafter, it increased 1 1 9 continuously until 45 DFC but In 1988, Fomesafen applied at 1.0 kg linoleic acid content of 45.0% at 45 ai/ha, significantly increased the DFC was not significantly different 100-seed weight over the cont ro 1 . from that of 43. 5% at 35 DFC, Fig. However, all other desiccant 3d. treatments during the same year were not significantly different from the Desiccant application check. Paraquat at both con cent rations burnt Desiccant applications remained non the sunflower leaves within 2-3 days significant to affect the 100-seed after its application, whereas weight in 1989, Table 3. Fomesafen did not dry the leaves. In 1989, the desiccant treatments did However, yellow speckles, leaf not reduce the seed moisture contents chlorosis and leaf brittleness was significantly. On the contrary, evident and such desiccating effects during 1988, Fomesafen applied at 1.0 were unique and different from the kg a i /ha reduced the seed moisture usual plant senescence. contents significantly over the control . The 1 . 3% reduction, Desiccant treatments did not dry the however, was negligible, Table 3. plant stem or capitulum and no obvious signs of induced drying The desiccant treatments affected the (desiccation) appeared on them. oil contents and fatty acids very These plant parts were identical in little though the changes in both color and appearance to the untreated years were significant, Table 4. In check. The effect of desiccant 1988, Fomesafen at the rate of 1.0 kg applications on the seed yield was ai/ha increased the oil contents by not pronounced. The desiccant 0.9% while Paraquat at the rate of treatments did not significantly 0. 5 kg ai/ha reduced the oil contents influence the seed yield in 1989. In by 0.9%. During 1989, Fomesafen did 1988, Paraquat when applied with not afect the oil contents Surfactant (0.5 kg ai/ha + Agral-90 significantly but Paraquat at both 0.02 v/v) increased the seed yield concentrations, irrespective of the significantly over the check, while added Surfactant, reduced the oil the seed yields obtained from all contents. Paraquat at higher con other treatments, during the same centration reduced the oil content year were not significantly different by 2.2% and at lower concentration by from that of the control, Table 3. 0.9% as compared to the control. Table 3. Effect of desiccant application on yield, 100-seed weight and moisture contents of sunflower. Disccant Yield (kg/ha! 100 seed wt.lg! Seed moisture (SI treatment 1988 1989 Avg. 1988 1989 Avg. 1988 1989 Avg. ------(kg/haJ------(g)------(S)------Paraquat 2270 3019 2645 7.67 6.64 7. 16 30. 6 22.8 26.7 Paraquat + S* 2386 3185 2785 7.65 6.91 7.28 31.7 22.9 27.3 Fomesaf en 2334 3125 2729 8.07 7.03 7.55 29.7 22.6 26.2 Fomesaf en + S• 2226 2997 2611 7.75 7. 13 7.44 30.5 22.5 26.5 Control 2283 3074 2678 7.81 6.99 7.40 31.0 22.4 26.7 LSD (0.05) 66 N.S 81 0.25 N.S 0.21 0.8 N. S N.S Year mean 2300 3080 7.79 6.94 30.7 22.6 LSD (0.05) for year mean 88.7 0.32 0.8 * Agral-90 was used as Surfactant. 120 d 44 0 42 H u I( 40 u H rzl 38 c ,.:a 0 dP 46.5 ~ 36 ,.:a rzl ~ 36.5 E-t 25 35 45 Cl) H 0 26.5 x c 56 ~ 16.5 rzl Cl) dP 54 0 52 25 35 45 H u I( 50 (.!) b u H 48 rzl 8.3 ,.:a E-t 0 46 13 1.0 H rzl 3: 7. 3 25 35 45 0 fj 6 .8 Cl) b dP 1.5 g 6.3 ...... 0 7.0 H u 25 35 45 I( 6.5 u H 6.0 E-t 3.3 a H 1989 x 5.5 ,.:a I( p., 5.0 2.8 ~ 25 35 45 1988 2.3 50 a dP E-tz 45 25 35 45 rzl E-t DAYS AFTER FLOWER COMPLETION z 0 u 40 1988 ,.:a Fig. 2. Effect of stages of maturity on H seed yield, 100 seed weight and 0 seed moisture content of sunflower 35 during 1988 and 1989. 25 35 45 DAYS AFTER FLOWER COMPLETION Fig. 3. Effect of stages of maturity on oil content and fatty acid composi tion (palmitic, oleic and linoleic) of sunflower during 1988 and 1989. 121 Fomesafen at the rate of 1.0 kg ai/ha compared to the check ( 1. 3-1. 0% in reduced the palmitic acid 1988, and 4.5-5.0% in 1989). On the significantly over the check and the contrary, both treatments of rema1n1ng treatments reflected Fomesafen significantly increased the similar palmitic acid contents as oleic acid contents (0.9 and 1.3%) expressed in the check, Table 4. over the check in 1988 while no Both the treatments of Paraquat significant increase was obtained in significantly reduced the oleic acid 1989, Table 4. Paraquat treatments contents during both years as increased 1 i no 1e i c acid contents Table 4. Effect of desiccant application on oil contents and quality of sunflower during 1988-1989. Disccant Oi 1 content Palmitic acid 01eic acid Lino1eic acid treat11ent 1988 1989 Avg, 1988 1989 Avg. 1988 1989 Avg. 1988 1989 Avg. ------1------Paraquat 38.5 45.4 41.9 5.3 6.7 6.0 50.7 43.8 47. 2 41.8 46.2 44.0 Paraquat + S* 39.6 46.7 43.2 5.2 6.6 5.9 51.0 44.3 47. 6 41.4 46.3 43.9 Fo11esaf en 40.3 47.5 43.9 4.9 6.2 5.6 52.9 48.5 50.7 39.4 42.5 41. 1 Fomesaf en + S* 39.4 47.4 43.4 5. 1 6.4 5.7 53.3 49.7 51.5 39. 1 41.7 40.4 Control 39.4 47.6 43.5 5.2 6.5 5.9 52.0 48.8 50.4 40.0 41.8 ~~v." 0 LSD (0.05) 0.7 0. 9 0. 6 0.2 N.S 0. 3 0.8 1.5 0. 9 0.7 1.5 0.9 ~ ... '! Year mean 39.4 46.9 5.2 6.5 52.0 47.0 40.4 ~j.' LSD (0. 05) for year mean 0.8 0.3 0. 9 1. 1 * Agral-90 was used as Surfactant. significantly over the check during physiological maturity of sunflower. both years ( 1. 4-1. 8% in 1988, and Cont r a ry to ou r res u 1 ts , 4.4-4.5% in 1889). Fomesafen at 0.5 physiological maturity was reported kg ai/ha with Agra 1-90 reduced the (7) at 35 days after flower linoleic acid contents (0.9%) over initiation when moisture contents of the check during 1988 but no evident the seed was about 36%. effect of both treatments of fomesafen was observed during 1989, The 100-seed weight increased signi Table 4. ficantly upto 40 DFC. Our results are in contrary to those of (3) who Discussion obtained highest dry seed weight at 35 days after flower initiation. Delaying the harvest for 10 days from 25 to 35 DFC has significantly Increase in seed yield, in general, increased the seed yield. The seed corresponded to the trends of yield gains during this period were increase in 100-seed weight during 21.1 and 24.7% in 1988 and 1989, both years. However, 100-seed weight respectively. However, no in 1988 was higher than that of 1989 significant increase in seed yie 1d which was a reverse situation for was obtained after 35 DFC during both seed yield. Lower seed yield, in years, indicating the stage of 1988, having bigger seed size can be physiological maturity as defined by explained by the lower seed set per Anderson (3). Whereas physiological capitulum. As such, it resulted in maturity was reported (6) just at 25 lower competition for the allocation DFC. The seed moisture contents on of photosynthates per seed per 35 DFC were 28.9% in 1988 and 19.4% capitulum. In turn, the seeds gained in 1989. Suggestively, seed moisture larger size. For the same reason, content range of 30 to 20% can be during 1988, the seed growth was more used as a good indicator of the steep and it continued to gain weight 122 till the last date of harvest. were also higher in 1988 and varied However, it failed to influence the from 17 to 23 °C during anthesis seed yield with the same magnitude period, Whereas in 1989, the maximum and steepness because of lower total temperature was 32 °C on the day of number of seeds per head. It was flower initiation, and it gradually also reported (5) a negative increased to 35 °C during the flower correlations between 1000-seed weight completion period, Fig. 1. During the and seed yield in two different same period the minimum temperatures seasons. were between 11 °C and 18 °C which were considerably lower than those of The lower seed set, in 1988, was the previous year. Growing degree expected due to the high temperature days (GOD) received within the during the anthesis period. The experimental years also seemed to maximum temperature on the day of influence the seed yield. GOD is flower initiation was 26°C which calculated as: [(Max.-Min. temp)/2]- immediately rose to 34°C on the 3.1 °C] Total GOD received from following day and it went upto 35 and planting to flower initiation and 36°C, and prevailed up until flower onwards to last harvest were more in completion. The minimum temperatures 1988 than in 1989, Table 5. Table 5. Dates of desiccant application and harvesting, growing degree days (GOD) from flower initiation (FI) to date of last harvest (DLH) and precipitation received from date of planting (DP) to last harvest. Date cf desiccant Date of Growing Degree Days Precipitation Year application harvest DP to FI FI to DLH Total PD to LOH (mm) 1988 May 27 June 3 1189 1529 2718 236 June 1 June 8 June 6 June 13 June 1l June 18 June 16 June 23 1989 June 1 June 8 1112 1382 2494 187 June 6 June 13 June 11 June 18 June 16 June 23 June 27 June 28 Most of the oil-filling (upto 40%) reverse order of oleic acid, i.e., it took place by 25 DFC, and the increased with the enhanced maturity. remaining 3-4% of oil was filled Similar results were reported, (7). between 25-30 DFC and thereafter the increase in oil content was Drying of the leaves due to Paraquat negligible. Our results are in application is considered as an aid agreement to (7) who obtained about for the mechanical harvesting of 50% oil in 28 days after flower sunflower. But, green stem and head initiation (OAF) and 53% oil at 35 pith at 35 DFC could still offer a OAF. considerable problem for proper threshing and cleaning of the crop Among the fatty acids, oleic acid during combine harvesting. Desiccant contents changed app rec i ably at treatments d 1d not cons i de rab l y different stages of maturity in 1988, reduce the seed moisture contents and did not change much during 1989. either. These results are contrary Oleic acid contents reduced by to those of (2) who reported about 7% enhanced maturity whereas the reduction in seed moisture contents linoleic acid contents changed in the as compared to the untreated check 123 even after 10 days rJf des i cc at fon burning cf the leaves at both with Harvade 5F. concentrations within 2-3 days of its application. Fomesafen did not Although the effect cf desiccation induce drying or burning of the on seed yield, 100-seed weight and leaves. Both the desiccants failed oil contents at some treatments were to reduce the seed moisture contents, significant, but they were small and even when they were applied at later unpronounced. Increase in yield due stages of maturity within seven days to desiccant application as compared of their application. It is to the control ranged from 51 to 117 therefore, suggested that desiccants kg/ha. Decrease in oil content should be applied more than seven ranged from 0.9 to 2.2% and decrease days before the crop is harvested. in 100-seed weight ranged from 0.08 to 0.35 g. These results are in References agreement with (2) who reported that desiccant application at higher 1. Ames 1 R. 8., A. R. 81em, J .\L Pryzby1ek, A.W. doses reduced the oil content from Walz, and D. Jackscri. :982. Dimethip~n: A 0. 9 to 1. 2% without any effect en unique plant maturity regulator for rice and seed weight. sunf 1ow er. Pree. British Crop Product i :in Conf. 2:563-568. The effect of desiccant en oil 2. and A. W. Wal:. 1988. The use of content seems to be influenced by the Dimethipin as a plan: mat~rity regulator en moisture content of seed during its sunf~ower 1n the USA. Proc. 12th Int. development and maturity process. In Sunf~ower Conf. International Sunflower 1988, when seed moisture content was Association, Novi Sad Yugoslavia. 2: 236-239. 6-9% higher than that of 1989, the 3. Anderson, W.K. 1975. Maturation of Sunflower. desiccant treatments either slightly Aust. J. Exp. Agri. Ani. Husb. 15:833-838. increased the o i l content or when 4. Granlund, M., and D. C. Zimmerman. 1975. reduced, the reduction was not much. Effect of drying conditions on oil content of On the contrary, in 1989, when the sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) seeds as seed moisture content was relatively determined by wide line nuclear magnetic lower, all the desiccant treatments resonance (NMR). North Dakota Acad. Sci. Pree. reduced the oil content and the 27 (Part 2):128-132. significant reduction values were 5. Marjanac, D. 1988. Direct and indirect more than those of 1988. effects of variables on grain yield of some Novi Sad sunflower hybrids. Proc. 12th Int. Conclusion Sunflower Conf. International Sunflower Association, Novi Sad, Yugos1avia. 1:410-411. There was no significant increase in 6. Ortegon, M., and A. S. 1980. Etapa de madurez seed yield after 35 DFC. And since fisiologica del girasol (Helia~thus a~~uus ~.). desiccant application did not reduce Agricultura Tecnica en Mexico. 6:29-34. the seed yield, the induced maturity 7. Robertson, J.A., J.K. Thomas a~d D. B~rdick. before 35 DFC rather than after, may 1978. Relationship of days after flowering to help early harvest without yield :hemical composition and physiological maturity loss. Harvesting at 35 DFC may of sunflower seed. JAOCS. 55:256-269. reduce the oil contents by about 1. 0% 8. The1well, N., and M.J. J. Be~nett. 1988. which could otherwise be gained by Preharvest desiccation of sunflower with delaying the harvesting upto 45 DFC. Diquat, recent development in drift reduction. But vacating the fields 10 days Proc. 12th Int. Sunflower Conf. International earlier is of greater interest and is Sunflojjer Association, Novi Sad, Yugoslavia. desirable than harvesting the last 2:231-235. 1.0% of the oil. No loss of oil 9. Tombu, B. 1988. Five years of development with quality was found beyond 35 DFC. (Harvade) 25F on sunflower in France. Proc. 12th Int. Sunflower Conf. International Paraqquat is a better desiccant than Sunflower Association, Novi Sad, Yugcslavia. Fomesafen as it helped drying and 2:240. 124 TRENDS AND STRATEGY OF SUNFLOWER PRODUCTZON ::CN PAK::CSTAN Ma&C>C>d A. Rana As an oil crop, sunflower was Realizing the increasing edible oil introduced in Pakistan during the deficit in the country, the early 1960's and its commercial Government of Pakistan established a cultivation began in 1965. It Seed Division in the Ghee Corporation persisted on a negligible area till of Pakistan (GCP) in 1979, with a 1970. For the first time, in 1971, clear cut mandate of promotion and its area exceeded 500 ha. As an procurement of non-traditional oil average of 10 years (1970/71- crops (sunflower, soybean and 1979/80), area under sunflower was safflower). As a result, a quick only 312 ha and showed a negative increase in the area of sun fl ewer growth rate of -1.26% per annum, took place upto 1987-88 and attained Table 1. a high annual growth rate of 36.6%. However, in 1988-89 the area suddenly Table 1. Area, production and average yield of sunflom dropped to 33,980 ha as compared to in Pakistan, 1970/71-1988/89. 56,850 ha of 1987-88 and registered 40.2% decrease. Area Product ion Average Vie ld Year ('OOO ha) ( '000 tone) (kg[ha) At present, as an average of the last 1970-71 670 482 719 5 years, about 76.9% of the total 1971-72 1250 873 698 area under sunflower is cultivated in 1972-73 776 486 626 Punjab, 23.2% in Sind and 0.9% in 1973-H 516 246 477 NWFP, Table 2. In 1984/85, about 197H5 569 259 455 51.1% of the total area was planted in Punjab and increased to 771 in 1975-76 483 228 472 1988/89 showing a more rapid growth 1976-77 389 188 483 of sunflower cultivation in Punjab 1977-78 37 35 946 than other provinces. Area in Punjab 1978-79 479 311 649 and Sind is nearly equally 1979-80 592 355 600 distributed in the cotton and rice growing regions. 1980-81 4679 3492 746 1981-82 7235 5855 809 About 3,490 tons of sunflower were 1982-83 8132 6313 776 produced in 1980/81. It increased 1983-84 8459 6803 804 rapidly and reached to about 37,800 1984-85 9592 7789 812 tons in 1986/87, with an annual growth rate of 40.5 %. It is expected 1985-86 19800 17600 889 to obtain about 12,000 tons of 1986-87 moo moo m refined sunflower oil from the 1987-88 56850 42570 749 produce of 1988/89 (assuming 33% oil 1988-89 33387 36378 1071 recovery) and thus, sharing 3.7% of Annua 1 grovth the total national production of rate (AGR)t 36.6 29.9 0.05 edible vegetable oil. AGRtt 24.6 36.7 4.28 t Calculated on the basis of eight years, 1980/81 - The growth rate of o. 05% upto 1987 /88. 1987/88, Table 1, indicates that the ucalculated on the basis of nine year, 1980/81 - 1988/89. average yield of sunflower has Source:Agricultural Statistics of Pakistan, (1987) and remained vi rtua 11 y stagnant. But, personal co1111unication with the Ministry of Industries. due to favorable climatic conditions and small acreage, the 125 Table 2. Province-wise area and production of sunflower, 1980/81 - 1988/89. Area (ha! Production (tons) Baluc- Baluc- Year Punjab Sind NWFP histan Total Punjab Sind NWFP histan Total 1980-81 2634 1961 84 4679 1701 1777 14 3492 1981-82 4314 3655 66 7235 2522 3321 12 5855 1982-83 4324 3734 74 8132 2916 3382 15 6313 1983-84 4448 3941 70 8459 3214 3576 13 6803 1984-85 4908 4621 63 9592 3572 4204 13 7789 1985-86 13819 5911 10 19800 12191 5394 15 17600 1986-87 40575 7800 125 48500 30777 6942 81 37800 1987-88 42490 13760 600 56850 36153 5917 420 425 70 1988-89 25900 6880 607 33387 31940 3892 546 36378 Source: Agricultural Statistics of Pakistan, ( 1987l and personal co~munication with the Ministry of Industries. average yield of the country during thinning, hoeing, earthing up, etc. 1989, reached to 1071 kg/ha which probably will drop down again if the The reasons for sudden drop in area area increases next year. Like a 11 of sunflower during 1988/89 were: other oilseed crops, average yield of sunflower is also much lower in most 1. Absence/scarcity of private of the countries. It is mainly due sector in the market for the to: procurement of sunflower crop. i) lack of high yielding 2. Farmers had problems in selling varieties for different agro their produce to GCP due to ecological zones, strict procurement standards and ii) Inadequate adoption of improved insufficient field staff. Mode of agronomic practices, payment was also defective which iii) lack of application of delayed getting of cash against necessary inputs, the cheques issued to the farmers iv) damage by insect, disease and by GCP. birds, and v) lack of suitable machinery for 3. High temperature (41-47° C) at planting, harvesting and the time of blooming results in threshing which accounts a lot low yield and disease spread for obtaining high yields by which discouraged the farmers incurring least cost of (our existing commercially grown production. hybrids are not high temperature tolerant). Nevertheless, the future of sunflower in Pakistan.seems to be very bright. 4. Floods during September 1988 The results of experiments indicated damaged the cotton and paddy that average yield as high as 4,000 crops in areas which were ideal kg/ha could be obtained under optimum for sunflower. Due to early management cond it i ens. Comme re i a 1 removal of the damaged crops, the p1 anting, where farmers were provided flooded areas became available proper inputs and practiced for planting wheat in October. interculturing, got yields upto 3,500 Wheat was planted on larger areas kg/ha. This cofirmed the possibility which squeezed the sunflower that high yields of sunflower could crop. be obtained by applying proper inputs 5. Sunflower growers opted to grow and timely field operations such as maize because of the increase in 126 maize procurement price from Rs. deficit situation in the country 85 to 120 per 40 kgs. and identified oilseed production as priority area, which needs 6. Other crops such as moong, mash, immediate attention for melons and tobacco gave a tough improvement. competition to sunflower because - NCA set targets of 772,000 and of its poor performance in the 1,075,000 ha to increase area previous year, 1987/88. under oil seed crops in the 7th Five-Year Plan, 1988/92 and the 7. In most of the cotton tract, year 1999/2000, respectively, canal water was not available at Table 3. the time of seed bed preparation A seven-year ( 1989/90-1996/97) due to which some wi 11 i ng project on oilseed, "National farmers also failed to plant Oilseed Development Project sunflower. and (NODP)" has been approved by the GOP to achieve a substantial 8. Decline of traditional dealing 1ncrease in the production of of selling the sunflower seed on oilseeds (particularly non credit, GCP sold the seed to the traditional oilseed crops) and farmers on cash payment. reduce import of edible oil. Under NODP, areas of thrust would Strategy for the year 1990 to be to improve research, seed increase area production and extension services for oil seeds. 1. An area target of 95,000 ha has Credit facilities will be provided been set. to the farmers to grow more oilseeds, and 2. Seed will be sold on credit. Existing oil extraction efficiency wi 11 be increased by 3. Support price of sunflower has rehabilitation of crushing plants. been increased from Rs. 177 to Rs. 205 per 40 kg. Table 3. Oilseed targets for area1 average yield, edible oil production and i1port. 4. Short- and medium-term loans wi 11 be provided to farmers to Area Ta_mL Growth f"ill__(JJ purchase logistics, and Yield Bench1ark 7th 1999/ 7th 1999/ Production 1987-88 plan 200 plan 2000 5. Private sector will be Area ('000 ha} encouraged to operate in the Total oilseeds 565 722 1075 6.4 5.6 market for the procurement of Non-tradition a1 farmers' produce. Thus, an oilseeds 70 227 450 26.5 16.6 incentive of Rs. 5.0/ 40 kg has Average yield (kg/ha) been announced for delivering Non-traditional 900 1100 1620 4.1 5.0 the produce from the farm gate Product ion of oi 1 to the Government procurement incl. cotton seed centers. ( '000 tonne) 440 660 1020 8.5 7.3 Inport Long-term strategy Self-sufficiency ratio (l) 37 45 51 1.6 2.1 - National Commission for Agricul Source: Report of the National C01111ssion on Agriculture, ture (NCA) studied the oilseed MINFAC, March, 1988. 127 SUNFLOWER PRODUCTXON XN XNDXA -PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS M. Ra; and P.S. Bhatnagar India is probably the only country The acreage in other states of Bi har, in the world where as many as nine Orissa, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, annual oilseeds are under cultivation Punjab and West Bengal is marginal. in different regions and seasons, with diverse soil conditions and Existing Research Infrastructure varying cropping systems. The total area under oil seeds is around 20 Sunflower research was initiated with million ha with annual production of the estab l i shment of five research about 13 million tons. During 1988- centers at Coimbatore (Tamil Nadu), 89, production of nearly 17.5 million Bangalore (Karnataka), Akola and tons is estimated from 22 million ha Di graj (Maharashtra) and Kota under nine annual oilseeds. (Rajasthan) in 1972. The importance of maintaining seed yield stability The edible oil demand-supply and oil content in open pollinated estimates indicate that by the end varieties was soon recognized and of the century the production of 26 five seed production centers million tons of oilseeds would be exclusively for production of quality required to maintain the parity. This seeds were established at amounts to doubling of the production Bhavanisagar (Tamil Nadu), Bangalore in a decade or so. This appears to be (Karnataka), Hyderabad (Andhra stupendous task. But, cons i de ring the Pradesh), Akola (Maharashtra) and production potential of available Kanpur (Uttar Pradesh) in 1978. In technology on a realistic basis, the formative years, researches were there is hardly a room for scepticism quite broad- based covering many in achieving the targets. Researches facets in a multi-disciplinary on o i l seeds have cove red many approach. Both basic and applied mil es tones in the last two decades researches were carried out on a to come out with fairly well variety of problems to gain a deep established farm-worthy technology insight into the genetic architecture capable of doubling the yields of of the crop. The importance of cultivated annual oilseeds. Recent hetercsis breeding was recognized research results on real-farm early and a number of experimental situations have established the hybrids were developed and put to merits of the new technology test as early as 1975. The work substantiating its capabilities in carried out at seed production boosting oilseeds production. In this centers helped in understanding background, sunflower has a great different factors i nfl uenci ng seed pot~nt i al in years to come in quantity and quality. Since the area bridging the gap between demand and under sunflower did not come up as supply to a significant extent. expected in Maharashtra and Rajasthan, research centers at Di graj Sunflower cultivation in India and Kota were phased out. Presently started in 1972. By 1975-76 sunflower sunflower research is being carried area rose to 0.34 million ha from a aut at multi-disciplinary centers at base level of 500 ha in 1972-73. It Bangalore and Raichur in Karnataka, is steadily increasing and has Coimbatore and Bhavanisagar in Tamil exceeded 1.6 million ha with a record Nadu, Akola and Latur in Maharashtra, production of 0.61 million tons in Hyderabad in Andhra Pradesh and 1987-88. The important sunflower Kanpur in Uttar Pradesh, Fig. 1. growing states are Karnataka, Tamil However, varietal evaluation is Nadu, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh. carried out over 35 locations across 128 the country in almost all agro the hybrids under irrigated and well ecological zones utilizing the managed conditions range between 25- existing resources of All-India 30 q/ha. Cultivation of hybrids under Coordinated Oilseeds Research well managed conditions in Punjab has Centers, depicted in Fig. 1. demonstrated the worth of the crop with an average productivity of 20 Varietal Development q/ha as against the national average of 5 q/ha. Initially, five open-pollinated varieties namely, VNIIMK - 8931 (EC- Production Constraints 68413), Peredovick (EC-68414), Armavirskij-3497 (EC-68415), A number of factors are responsible Armaverts (EC-69874) and Sunrise were for low productivity and the major introduced from USSR. Among these, ones are enumerated below: two varieties, EC-68414 and EC-68415 showed wider adaptability and are 1. Low or poor management in rainfed still under cultivation in different conditions: Sunflower is a choice parts of the country. The initial crop for rainfed agriculture, as it screening and evaluation during 1972- has a fair level of drought tolerance 78 resulted in the identification of and rapid revival capacity after the early maturing variety, "Morden" prolonged drought. In view of the suitable for both mixed- and uncertainties, production is multiple- cropping systems. Among associated with low level management different open-pollinated varieties, under such situations. Sunflower "Surya" was evolved by mass select ion being an energy demanding crop with using "Latur bulk" as the base nearly 45% oi 1 and 25% protein in material and released for Maharashtra seed requires larger inputs and high state in 1980; "Co-1", early maturing level of management. Unfortunately, and "Co-2", medium duration varieties energy- rich crop is cultivated under were developed for Tamil Nadu state energy-starved conditions resulting in 1986; "SS-56", super early in poor productivity. However, under maturing variety was released for vertisols with limited irrigations Maharashtra state in 1988. Importance sunflower has proved to be much of heterosis-breeding was recognized rewarding as compared to wheat and as early as 1975 with the development chickpea (Table 2). of experimental hybrids at Bangalore. After multi-locational evaluation, 2. Poor seed filling_ and seed set: the first sunflower hybrid, BSH-1, Low test-weight (around 4 g/100 was released in 1980 for general seeds) in sunflower as a result of cultivation in the entire country. partial seed fi 11 i ng affects not only The hybrid base was further widened seed yield but quality of the produce with the development of three more in the form of reduced oil content. hybrids, "APSH-11", in 1987 for One of the irm1ediate Andhra Pradesh and "LDMRSH-1" and repercussions of poor crop management "LDMRSH-3'' in 1988 for Maharashtra is lower test-weight due to poor seed state. The latter two hybrids are filling. Hand pollination can resistant to downy mildew. In the considerably increase seed yield and private sector, three prom1 sing net monetary returns, Table 3. hybrids "MSFH-1", "MSFH-8" and "MSFH- 11" have been developed and released 3. Lack of uniformity: Lack of for general cultivation after uniformity in open pollinated evaluation under coordinated research varieties like Morden, EC-68415 and network system. Salient features of EC-68414 has made them more varieties and hybrids are presented vulnerable to production instability in Table-1. The yield potential of and erratic performance. 129 Legend Sunflower & Oilseeds Res. Network Oilseeds Res. Network Figure 1. OILSEEDS RESEARCH NETWORK IN INDIA 130 Table 1. Sailent features of varieties/hybrids Maturity Plant Head Seed yield (kg/ha) Oi 1 duration height diameter under rainfed content variety (days) (cm) (cml conditions* (%) Salient features Morden 75-80 80-100 12-15 600-800 40-44 Highly self-fertile, suitable for all states particularly Maharashtra, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. EC-68414 100-110 150-200 15-20 800-1000 42-46 Suitable for late planting, drought tolerant performs well in Andhra Pradesh, suitable for Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. EC-68415 100-110 150-200 15-20 800-1000 42-45 Drought tolerant, suitable for Karnataka, and Ta1il Nadu. Surya 90-95 150-200 15-20 800-1000 30-35 Seeds black with white stripes suitable for Maharashtra. Co-1 60-65 60-80 8-10 500-700 38-40 Suitable for Tamil Nadu, selection from Morden fro1 Coimbatore. Co-2 85-90 130-160 15-20 800-1000 38-42 Suitable for Tamil Nadu. SS-56 60-70 80-100 12-15 500-700 40-42 Super early in maturity suitable for Maharashtra. BSH-1 90-95 130-150 12-15 1000-1500 42-45 Highly self-fertile, rust resistant, tolerant to Alternaria leaf spot, drought tolerant, highly adaptive to wide agro-climatic zones. APSH-11 90-95 120-150 15-20 1000-1500 40-42 Suitable for Andhra Pradesh. MSFH-1 95-100 120-150 15-20 1000-1500 38-42 Suitable for all states. MSFH-8 95-100 130-160 15-20 1000-1500 38-42 Suitable for all states. MSFH-17 100-105 150-200 15-20 1000-1500 38-42 Situable for all states. LDMRSH-1 95-100 120-150 12-15 1000-1500 40-42 Resistant to Downey Mildew and suitable for Maharashtra. LDMRSH-3 95-105 125-150 12-15 1000-1500 40-42 Resistant to Downey Mildew and suittble for Maharashtra. *Under irrigated conditions yield may be otained more than two tons. Table 2. Economics of Sunflower Vs Wheat and Chickpea under irrigation in vertisols. No. of irrigations Mean Mean returns !Rs/hal Benefit-cost Crop/variety received yield GroiL___ Net Ratio Wheat (H 2189) 5 2436 5237 2089 1. 7 Chickpea (Chaffs) 3 1114 4458 2324 2' 1 Sunflower !Morden) 3 1200 5400 2948 2.2 4. Suscept i b 11 ity to diseases and incidence of Alternar1a leaf spot in pests: Most varieties are susceptible the last 4-5 years is responsible for to a large number of foliar diseases unremunerative yields in Kharif like rust, Alternaria leaf spot, root (rainy) season. Losses due to various and head rots. Si nee 1985, recent diseases and pests in different parts appearance of downy mildew in parts of the country are presented in Table of Maharashtra has added to the 4. complexity of the situation. High 131 Table 3. Effect of hand pollination on seed yield (kg/ha) of sunflower Centre Treatment Ako la Digraj Bangalore Coimbatore Mean 1. Open pollination 1230 1036 1460 750 1119 2. Open +hand pollination• 1400 1357 1725 1000 1370 Extra yields (kg/ha) of (2) over (1) 170 321 265 250 251 Extra net returns (Rs./hal fro11 (2) over (1) 700 1455 1175 1100 1107 * Hand pollination carried out on alternate days for a fortnight with Rs. 150 as additional cost due to hand pollination. Table 4. Major diseases and pests causing yield losses in Sunflower in India. Disease[ Pest Occurrence Yield loss !Xl 1. Alternaria blight Entire country 27-80 2. Rust Entire country Upto 20 3. Charcoal rot Entire country 30-46 4. Downy mildew Maharashtra and 2-60 Adjoining Karnataka 5. Head borer Karnataka 28-33 and Jassids 5. Absence of crop rotation: to birds for they especially like the Remunerative price structure prompted crop. Lack of resistant varieties is many farmers for continuous and a serious bottleneck in taking the successive cropping of sunflower in crop to new areas. Hence, cultivation the same fields. It has resulted in in large contiguous blocks is poor yield and disease build up. desirable. Researches have amply demonstrated that cereals, pulses and millets are 8. Susceptibility to abiotic ideal groups of crops for rotation. stresses: Frequent onslaught of Two-years' rotation has proved drought results in poor productivity. desirable. The situation is compounded with the prevalence of salinity/sodicity in 6. Genetic deterioration of different regions. Here it may be var i ~ti es: Sudden increase in acreage worth mentioning that in India over resulted in the increased demand for 7.0 million ha of land is salt seed thereby leading to the supply of affected. sub-standard seed. Extra care and full attention is needed for open 9. Non-exploitation of ~ pollinated crops like sunflower where potential: Sunflower in India, is deterioration in seed quality and oil cultivated primarily for its oil content is tremendous, if varietal yield. Protein-rich cake and other renovation programes are not persued valuable products are not properly vigorously. utilized and many times going as waste due to the lack of diversified 7. Prone to bird damage: Small usages as value added products. All holdings and fragmented cultivation these add up to the poor returns and lead to more pronounced damage due a disincentive to the farmer to 132 afford/risk inputs required for and more extensively, disease and higher yields per unit area. pest problems are becom1ng more intense. Resistance breeding should, 1O. Sowing at improper time: There therefore, form an integral part of is wide belief that sunflower being the breeding program. Diseases like photo-insensitive crop, can be rust, Alternaria leaf spot and downy cultivated round the year. Sowing mil dew need immediate attention. Root sunflower at a time when flower and rot caused by Hacrophomina phaseo 1 ina head development coincides with heavy is becoming severe in parts of Tamil precipitation during rainy season Nadu. Rust and downy mildew leads to considerable yield losses. resistances are controlled by one or Adoption of we 11 tested and widely two dominant genes ( o l i go-genes). The acknowledged planting schedule(s) for selection and fixing of lines with different regions and seasons is(are) resistance to these diseases is recommended for harnessing full relatively easier compared to potential of the crop. Alternaria leaf spot, which is poly genical ly inherited. Research Thrusts 4. Development of high yieldi_o.g_ 1. Development of superior hybrids: populations: Sunflower cultivation Thirty CMS lines and 20 restorer under input starvation and rainfed lines are available at the Germplasm situations, may continue in India in Management Unit and 600 hybrids are the foreseable future. Presently, being synthesized by crossing these hybrids are under commercial lines and their evaluation may result cultivation in about 30-35% in identification of superior of the total area. It may go upto a hybrids. maximum of 60-70% in the near future. 2. Diversification of hybrid base: Thus, open pollinated The hybrids developed so far in the varieties/populations may continue country have been largely based on to cover the remaining 30% of the the introduced CMS and restorer area under marginal and sub-marginal lines. There is a need for a strong soil conditions during rainy (Kharif) program to develop large number of season. Intensified efforts to step inbred lines, their evaluation for up the tempo of population nicking ability and converting the improvement program are required promising ones into CMS and through public research set up. restorers. Hybrids from parental lines developed indigenously will 5. Breeding for high oil content: have better adaptability to varying In sunflower, lines containing 60% agro-climatic conditions. Steps are oil in the seed are available. Hence, under way to establish strong gene there is a great scope for increasing pools or composites to derive inbred oil yield per se. It is hoped that lines and separate gene pools for with sustained breeding efforts, 10% maintainer and restorer lines. increase in oil content can be Inbreeding may be done in the gene achieved conveniently. pools to develop inbred lines and their subsequent conversion into CMS- 6. Breeding for earliness: Varying and R-lines. B-line and R line agro-ecological conditions provide composites ~ave been constituted and ample opportunity for the cultivation are being distributed to sunflower of a variety of crops in different breeders to develop CMS and restorer regions and situations. Sunflower lines. being a photo-insensitive crop, its cultivation as a main crop, catch 3. Breeding for resistance to crop, sequential crop, inter crop and diseases: As the crop is grown more relay crop is of paramount 133 significance. Particularly under Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu rainfed situations where the crop is offer immense potential of Rabi frequently encountered with the (Wi nter)/Spring/Summer hybrid onslaught of drought, earliness sunflower cultivation. Under such provides better opportunity for a system, it is hoped that hybrids may bumper harvest. occupy 90% of the sunflower area. 7. Quality seed production: Cross During rainy season, sunfl ewer may pollination and the very basic nature replace some of the unremunerative of pollination in sunflower demands crops like small millets/minor intensified research efforts for millets, upland rice, horse gram, varietal renovation and quality etc., in central and peninsular hybrid seed production under India. During rainy season, hybrids diversified Indian situations. would dominate under assured Identification of regions, seasons, rainfall/irrigated situations in the situations and cropping systems for years to come, while populations may sustained quality seed production continue to be cultivated in half the demands well demarkated regionalized area under Kharif (rainy) season. seed production efforts. Matching With the concerted research back-up agro-production and protection support, sunflower cultivation in technologies for the production of Kharif (main) season may spread to healthy and cost effective seed the states of Ori ssa, Madhya Pradesh, required atmost attention. Rajas than, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and parts of Haryana and West Future projections Bengal. The future of sunflower lies in the Sunflower may also fit into a number popularization of hybrids under of intercropping systems with irrigated North Indian conditions groundnut, cotton, finger millets, from Punjab to West Bengal through potato, sugarcane, etc., in different Haryana, Uttar Pradesh and Bi har. The regions and seasons. most potent i a 1 cropping system in this region is likely to be Sunfl ewer has a great potent i a 1 in potato/rapeseed-mustard/sugarcane / India. By 2000 AD the sunflower area field pea, etc. based on spring may go up to around 2. 5 mi 11 ion ha sunflower, The command areas of with national average productivity of Rajas than, Madhya Pradesh, 1O q/ha and rea 1i zat ion of ave rage Maharashtra, Gujarat, Orissa, Andhra productivity of 20 q/ha in some of the states. 134 TWELFTH XNTERNATXONAL SUNFLOWER CONFERENCE - A REPORT Ma.nga."la. Ra.-i My participation in the 12th categories. International Sunflower Conference at Navi Sad, Yugoslavia during July The first category was the use of 25-29, 1988, was fully funded by IDRC wild sunflower as a source of genetic as Chairman of the International variability. The Conference began Sunflower Sub-Network to get with the plenary paper discussing the acquainted with: ( i) the la test contribution of wild species to research informations available in research today, providing us with a the world on sunflower, (ii) wide range of cytoplasmic and male germplasm status and its utility for sterility, disease and insect Asian and African countries, and resistance, oil and seed quality, and (iii) identification of potential useful agronomic traits. It was felt institutions and resource personnel that exp l oration must continue for for training and consultancies in adding new accessions to the various disciplines for the collection. Subsequent papers development of sunflower in Asia and described cytological studies on Africa. This mandate was vested in interspecific crosses, techniques to pursuance of the recommendations of facilitate these crosses such as the International Oilcrops Research embryo culture and chromosome Network meeting held at Kenya during doubling, and the report on new January 25-29, 1988. restorer genes for sources of cytoplasmic male sterility. Participation, Deliberations and Observations The second category was in the field of biotechnology. This appeared as a Over 500 delegates participated in relatively new research area for the conference. The five days sunflower and a very interesting deliberations were directed to wide addition to the conference reports. ranging topics varying from Papers discussed anther culture, the collection, conservation and application of tissue and protoplast evaluation of germp l asm to the culture, somatic embryogenesis, and understanding of genetic basis of the use of biotechnology for resistance to various biotic and improvement of sunflower in the area abiotic stresses, quality and other of industrial and edible oils. economic considerations leading to Regeneration of whole plants from the development of improved varieties cell culture appeared positive, with and hybrids with in-built resistance transfer of genes through recombinant to various diseases and pests and DNA technology, showing feasibility higher oil content in the seed. Most to add diversity in resistance to of the topics were addressed for insects, diseases, and also for hybrid development with limited herbicide tolerance. efforts for the development of populations which were confined to The third category described the USSR, India and certain other Asian variability of oil quality in and African countries. sunflower and the use of breeding to develop high linoleic, high palmitic Genetics and breeding and high oleic sunflower hybrids and cultivars. These useful variations Forty five papers were presented in appeared to have potential to create the genetics and breeding section. alternative markets for sunflower These papers may be grouped into four world wide. 135 The fourth category covered genetic the field than ever before but a analyses and breeding methodologies. similar progress in the area of Genetic studies gave new information assimilates partitioning probably on the inheritance of earliness, both dependent on enzymes and branching pattern and morphological hormones was not visible. The traits such as short petioles and mechanism of stress resistance was head position. Also, studies on the another area where 1 itt le research combining ability for yield work was observed. The water stress components, genetic architecture of effects, drought to 1 erance, traits of economic significance, temperature tolerance and various genetic distances, and recurrent other important fields were probably selection provided adequate ground not well covered. for contemplating further improvement of the crop. In the field of agronomy, the most important way appeared to adopt Three papers described the genetic location specific technologies to progress and improvement of sunfl ewer meet yield expectations depending on over the past few decades in the prevailing price structure. In Argentina, Romania and the United view of the prevailing priorities and States. These papers were encouraging price structure, it was felt that in that they documented their efforts both high physiological performances in research, leading to increases in of sunflower and its robustness al low product ion through genetics, a large scale of expected yields. It breeding, and new cultura 1 was explained that although quality applications. is important the main character wi 11 continue to be the yield. It was Crop management and Production observed that shorter stem prevents lodging and directs more assimilates In this section physiology, to the head and further permits environmental effects on yield and greater plant population per unit quality, nutrition, agronomy and area reflecting higher net monetary mechanization was deliberated. The returns. Among C3 crop plants, main objective was to understand sunflower has the highest plant functioning, by itself, and physic logica 1 performance but also in various environments in probably they are not skillfully conjunction with varying cultural exploited. One of the weaknesses practices. Greater emphasis was appears to be the partitioning of the accorded to bi o-synthes is, setting assimilates for the best advantages. and filling of grains and other fundamental approaches all aiming at Crop protection greater plant efficiency and better harvest. A critical analysis of There were 73 papers in total and 3 adaptation in varying climate, soil, newly reported pathogens on and water conditions and cultural sunflower: Conie77ia in Nigeria, practices viz. plant population, Stemphy77ium and Vertici77ium fertilization etc, was presented 7ateritium in Yugoslavia. Eleven indicating tremendous scope for articles described the distribution enhanced productivity and production. of diseases already known on In crop physiology, growth analysis, sunflower in new growing areas and leaf area development and light special mention was made of interception were presented and it Sc 7erot inia and A 7ternaria in China, was felt that leaf area index of Phomopsis in Iran, downy mildew in about 2.5 is sufficient for light India and A7ternaria a7ternata in interception. The enzymatic aspects Greece. of photosynthesis were more clearly understood showing net progress in Sclerotinia: There is continued 136 world wide interest in this pathogen, work with Phomopsis has been the with increasing attacks in many inability to produce perithecia of countries, including Argentina and the Diaporthe stage, away from China. After studies in recent years sunflower tissue. Workers in France in France and Yugoslavia, there were and a combined Yu gos 1av-American team some reports of epidemiological have produced mature perithecia on studies in Hungary and Argentina. The several types of media. This reports described the modified achievement wi 11 facilitate screening techniques for producing inoculum and germplasm for resistance because only testing plants for resistance. It can ascospores can infect sunflower. now be cone 1uded that most of the prob 1ems regarding i nocu 1at ion and From an exhaustive study of 60 testing procedures have been different Phomopsis isolates of re so 1ved and se 1ect ion for resistance different hosts, it appears that is on but with relatively slow pace Oiaporthe helianthii is a distinct concerning head rot due to the species. No definitive study has problems of negative carrel at ion with assessed whether the European oil content. Search for improved and isolates and those from North America more rapid screening methods has led are the same species. French and American teams to work on phenol contents induced by Inoculation procedures to infect Sc7erotinia infection. Phenols could plants through the leaf petiole and provide both resistance markers and stem have been deve 1oped. Each method a better understanding of the has its advantages and correct physiology of resistance. It appears i dent if i cation of resistant p1 ants that phenolic finger prints are quite may require use of more than one characteristic of each genotype. method. Screening of calli cultures Another new deve 1opment in resistance with a culture filtrate was studies is the use of tissue culture. successful in distinguishing Differences were demonstrated in the resistant and susceptible germplasm. reaction of calli to Sclerotinia This method will save much time and culture filtrates related to field 1abour. reaction. This method was app 1i ed for Phoma macdona 7di i. The re we re seve ra 1 In the absence of complete genetic reports, mainly by French workers, of resistance, pathologists have studies on improved chemical control, identified several fungicides which particularly techniques of spraying. control the pathogen. To be highly The recent discovery of true effective, chemicals have to be systemic, Fenpropinorphe, opens new applied either before disease possibilities of chemical control of appearance or when symptoms are head rot. confined to leaves. Thus the use of genetically resistant Phomopsis: This disease, which was hybri ds/popul at i ans appears to be the first discovered in Yugoslavia in most feasible preposition for which 1980, was reported to be one of the research efforts need to be most serious diseases in all intensified. countries of Europe and has been observed in the United States, Iran Plasmopara: There is renewed and Pakistan. This disease is likely interest in downy mildew, to spread to other countries. Much particularly with the need to control research has been done in Yugoslavia new races and to identify and control and France on the biology, the disease in new areas where it histopathology and control of the appears (India in particular). With pathogen. further studies of biology, conservation of inoculum and testing One of the problems complicating the methods are no longer a problem. 137 However, at present, all the Processing, utilization and marketing resistance known is reported to be race-specific. Perhaps in the future, The 11 presentations covered the high researches should be made for some technology of processing as well as horizontal form of resistance. the use of sunflower for diverse human food. Indication in one of the Rust: So far, five rust resistance papers was there to elucidate that genes have been identified although sunflower oil apart from edible only four are still existant. purposes could be processed for use Resistance to race 4 has been found as fuel. Nevertheless, need for to be governed by two dominant genes. studying the economic aspects of this In an effort to standardize procedure project was emphasized. Various kinds and facilitate communication between of packing for long- and short-term pathologists and breeders in storage and depending on need was different countries, it would be emphasized. desirable to standardize the nomenclature system and the use of Germplasm in the field the same differential varieties and preferably the same inoculation and Yugoslavia is the center for the evaluation procedures to make maintenance of FAO germplasm of definite dent on this vital front. sunflower. The germplasm are maintained by the Department of Alternaria: This appears to cause Sunflower of the Yugoslavian Field some symptoms outside its usual area and Vegetable Crops Research in China and France. Efficient Institute located at Novi Sad. Apart resistance tests developed by from the participation in the Australian and French workers can deliberations of the conference, with effectively be used by breeders in the kind gesture of Dr. Skoric, Head different countries for evolving of the Sunflower Department and resistant/tolerant varieties and Secretary General of the Conference, hybrids. a field visit was undertaken for on the-spot assessment of the germplasm Diverse fungal diseases: in the field . Epidemiological and resistance breeding studies on Macrophomina Ten thousand germplasm lines were phaseo7ina and biological studies of grown in the field showing wide Septoria and Rhizopus spp were diversity with respect to plant type, reported. It was surprising to note head type and its position, plant that there was no paper on Botrytis, stature, maturity duration, inspite of its importance in Northern resistance to diseases, drought and and Western Europe. various other traits of economic significance. Out of about 2,000 Insect pests: Five articles restorer lines grown, the majority described the insect pests present was of multi-headed type. Some of in China, Iran, Yugoslavia and which were reported to possess as Hungary. Detailed studies carried out much as 64% oil in the seed. These on aphids in Yugoslavia and France lines may be of great interest for were presented. There was a chinese enhancing oil content in hybrids and report on the importance of the may al so be of use in population sunflower moth in the i r country. In improvement programs. Although multi fact, problems enlisted and efforts headed trait is undesirable but, undertaken/contemplated on interestingly, it is controlled by entomological aspects appeared recessive gene which provides an limited. opportunity to exploit these lines in 138 hybrid development programs. Fifty Resource Personnel and one wild species were maintained Training Facilities showing wide diversity in various traits and a few of them were easily It was felt that training of crossable and the progenies were scientists in plant breeding and oil grown in the field. Some of these quality in the first instance would popu lat i ans may be of considerable be much more rewarding and on this significance particularly for endeavour the Oilcrops Department of developing populations for drought the Institute of Field and Vegetable resistance as well as for crops, Novi Sad, would be an incorporating resistance to diseases appropriate institution. The matter and pests. A few stable short was discussed at length with Dr. statured lines with upright growing Dragan Skoric and he agreed for leaves were observed which may be of imparting the training of about one considerable interest for month duration to the senior architecturing plant types for breeders/biochemists and four to five increasing plant populations per unit months training to junior area under mono culture. These lines researchers/technicians of Asian and may be of great significance where African countries. It was felt that the sunflower is grown or likely to the expertise, experience, well be grown as mixed crap/ i nte re rap. equipped laboratories and-over Certain restorer lines with profusely everything - availability of the base branching system which obviously world germplasm at the Institute will continue to fl ewer for a wide would provide a unique opportunity range of time may be of interest as for the trainees for their they may facilitate crossing programs development. It was further felt that over a wide range of time. expertise for different diseases and facilities for such training viz.: World Sunflower Hybrids rust in Canada, downy mil dew in UK on Display and France, Alternaria in Yugoslavia and Sclerotinia in France may be The opportunity was availed to visit availed as and when required. For the demonstration plots where almost consultancies in plant breeding and all the promising hybrids from all seed production, Dr. Skoric of over the world developed in both Yugoslavia and Dr. Alex viorel public and private sectors numbering Vranceanu of Romania may be resource 198 (Annexure) were grown. This personnels. In the field of Plant provided a unique opportunity to have Pathology, services of Dr. Sackston a look and assess the relative E. Waldemar of Canada may be had. performance/traits of all the hybrids. Depending on the plant type, General maturity duration, resistance to diseases, likely yield potential, 1. It was decided to organize the reported oil content, etc. , 28 13th International Sunflower hybrids (Annexure*) were identified Conference at Pisa, Italy, in 1992. as probable potential materials. It was further decided that the 14th Instead of fragmented approaches of and 15th International Sunflower testing x- or y- hybrid at a time, it Conferences in 1996 and 2000 would be may be of interest to evaluate a 11 held in China and Mexico, the 28 hybrids at a time which may respectively. provide a base for further negotiations depending on the 2. A perusal of the over all potential of the hybrids under scenario indicated that area under varying agro-climatic conditions. sunflower will increase considerably in African and Asian countries in the years to come where, unlike Western 139 countries, popu 1at i ens wou 1d continue It would, therefore, be necessary to to play a dominant role under rainfed have one or tow centers of excellence situations, However, under well preferably one national center in managed irrigated conditions, hybrids India where integrated approaches would make much dent if seed supply involving biotechnology, genetics, is assured. breeding, plant protection, biochemistry, processing and other 3. Looking to the intense and related disciplines well supported multifarious research requirements with modern 1aboratory facilities can of the crop, fragmented approaches deliver the goods for this potential ·are not likely to pay much dividends. upcoming crop in the country. A N N E X U R E LIST OF COMMERCIAL HYBRIDS AVAILABLE 1 . NS-H-45 39. NS-H-7 77. OROSOL* 2. NS-H-43 40. NS-H-10 78. SC 062 3. NS-H-44 41. NS-H-11 79. HYSUN 340 4. NS-H-15 42. NS-H-12 80. HYSUN 354 5. NS-H-17 43. CONTI FLOR 3* 81. SUNBIRD 6. NS-H-26-RM 44. CONTI FLOR 7 82. DO 704 X L 7. NS-H-27-RM 45. CONTI FLOR 8* 83. DO 855 8. NS-H-33-RM 46. CONTIFLOR 9 84. DO 728 9. NS-H-47 47. CONTINENTAL P-86 85. DO 705 10. NS-H-HELIOS 48. BARBARA 86. DO 705 11 . NS-H-52* 49. HNK-81 87. IS 7111 12. NS-H-53 50. HNK-173* 88. IS 33076 13. NS-H-54 51. IBH-166 89. ISOMAX 14. NS-H-55 52. SUN M 20 90. IS 320025 15. NS-H-57 53. s 1283 91. HYSUN 32 16. NS-H-58 54. SF-100* 92. HYSUN 33 17. NS-H-60 55. SF-102 93. T-548 18. NS-H-64* 56. ADVANCE 94. T-557 OW* 19. NS-H-65 57. CANNON 95. T-560 A 20. NS-H-66 58. DYNAMITE 96. T-565 21. NS-H-68* 59. SUPER 407* 97. T-575 22. NS-H-70 60. SUPER 405 98. DOBRICH 23. NS-H-79 61. SUPER 430 99. ALBENA 24. NS-H-84 62. SUPER 530 100. SUPER START 25. NS-H-85 63. SH-222 101. OS-H-393 26. NS-H-86 64. NS-26 102. OS-H-325* 27. NS-H-87 65. ALHAMA EXTRA 103. OS-H-125 28. NS-H-88 66. SH-31 104. OS-H-115 29. NS-H-89 67. SH-3322 105. OD 128* 30. NS-H-90 68. SH-3822 106. OD 123 31. NS-H-91 69. SH-3622 107. OD 122 32. NS-H-92 70. FRANKASOL 108. OD 106* 33. NS-H-1 71. ALPHASOL 109. OD 105 34. NS-H-2 72. MIRASOL 110. CMS 821/1264-1* 35. NS-H-3 73. CARGISOL 111. S-335 36. NS-H-4 74. PARADISOL 112. ST-349 37. NS-H-5 75. FLORASOL 113. ST-330 38. NS-H-6 76. RIOSOL 114. ST-314 140 115. SUNWHEAT 102* 143. FLORI CA 171. M-733 116. SUNBRED 285 144. CERF LOR 172. M-732 117. SUNBRED 281 145. VERAFLOR 173. M-731 118. SUNBRED 277* 146. MIKAFLOR 174. M-702* 119. PHARAON 147. MARYFLOR 175. M-701 120. SUNKING 256 148. TOP FLOR 176. CITOSOL 4 121. VYP 149. EURO FLOR 177. CITOSOL 3 122. TESORO 92 150. R0-1418 178. VIKI 123. FLORIDA 2000 151. R0-1390 179. BLUM IX 124. FLORAKISZ 152. R0-1213 180. VIGOR 125. DK 4020 153. R0-1155 181. VEGA 126. C-100 154. R0-924* 182. RODEO 127. DKS-39 155. No.17 183. PINTO 128. DKS-37 156. No.5 184. ELIA 129. SPS 7115 157. PACH IN 185. GUADALSUR 130. SPS 3094 158. IS 61074 186. TOLEDO 55 131. SPS 3160* 159. IS 33142 187. TOLEDO 2 132. SPS 3130 160. IS 33241 188. MONRO 45 133. IS 3107 161. SIGCO 375 189. NS-H-53 134. AG x 210 OW* 162. SIGCO 471* 190. NS-H-52 135. AG x 110 163. SIGCO 468 191. NS-H-15 136. AG x 230* 164. SIGCO 465 A 192. NS-H-10 137. SUNCROSS 60* 165. SIGCO 442 193. MULTISOL 138. SUNCROSS 40 R* 166. PACIFIC 3054 194. SUPERSOL 139. NS-H-68 167. HYSUN 54* 195. AGRISOL 140. ARI FLOR 168. HYSUN 44* 196. SOLAR IS 141. RUSTIFLOR 169. HYSUN 34 197. NOVI SOL 142. MAXI FLOR 170. HYSUN 24 198. GLORIASOL * May be of merit to Network countries. 141 STATUS OF SUNFLOWER AS OXLSEED XN BANGLADESH Sunflower is a new oilcrop in 1985, it was grown as a garden flower Bangladesh. A cultivar named Kironi and as research material for (DS-1) has been released by the experimental purpose only. Now it is National Seed Board in 1982. It is a growing in the districts of selection from one introduced Rajashahi, pabna, Tangail, Gazipur, material "Elkopolski" from poland and Cami 11 a, Natore, Bari sa 1 and has been introduced in the farmers' Dinajpur, Table 1. field in 1985. Prior to Table 1. Sunflower demonstration in farmers' plots of variety Kironi (OS-1), in 1987-88. No. of Total Yield District ~lots area (kg[ ha) Remarks Rajshahi 86 8. 6 280 Farmers are interested Camilla 50 5.0 358 Farmers are interested to grow, but feel problems cf lodging and crushing seeds. Tangail 07 0.7 390 Boys take away flowers, crushing problem identified Barisal 06 0. 6 490 People take away flowers. Farmers' wi 11 i ng to grow in large scale. Dinajpur 20 2.0 719 Farmers' opinion 'oil is better than mustard oil". Gazipur 60 6.0 809 Farmers are willing to grow Total 229 22.9 483 Source: Concerned officers of relevant districts of the Directorate of Agricultural Extension (DAE). Statistics on its growing area is not where enough residual moisture or yet available with Bangladesh Bureau irrigation is available. It bears of Statistics (BBS). Ra inf a 11 between positive prospect to reduce the 300-600 mm during the main growing chronic shortage of edible oi 1 in the period upto pre-flowering stage is country. The crop has been introduced desirable. But flowering in full in the farmers' field to supply high rainy season (June-August) is not qua 1ity oil as well as to grow the desirable because it causes lodging oilseed crop in two seasons. and sterility. Under improved management the yield ranges from Now, it is being cultivated by the 1400-1500 kg/ha. Due to its farmers for its oil yield and they insensitivity to light and are consuming the oil from their temperature, it can be cultivated produce, which is crushed either in throughout the year particularly in bullock driven "ghani" or electric spring (early kharif), Autumn (late "ghan i" . It is a 1so crushed by kharif) and rabi seasons. expeller in big markets where There is a scope for growing electric power is available. The oil sunflower after harvest of is free from undesirable erucic acid transplanted Aman rice in some of the and is rich in linoleic acid i.e. the northern districts of the country essential fatty acid, Table 2. The 142 seed contains 40-45% oil , but the problems so far observed in sunflower extracted oil yield varies from 25% cultivation. Seed filling may be by ghani to 33% by expeller. The improved by encouraging visits of residue oil cake, which contains honey bees as well as hand about 35% normal protein. The seeds pollination. By growing the crop in are fed to polutry, caged birds or larger area, the bird damage is taken by wild birds. The cake is fed likely to be reduced considerably. to cattle, but after shel 1ing, it may be made su i tab 1e far human food in Research should be carried out for the form of chips or breads. The cake developing short duration varieties is free from toxins. with 100-110 days of maturity to fit it in the local cropping patterns. As a highly cross pollinated crop, Early maturity, dwarf plants and maintenance of pure seed and short convex head have been fixed as plant type is very difficult. criteria for selection of desirable Sterility, loss of viability, tall types. plants and bird damage are the major Table 2. Percent of some important constituents of major oilseeds. Oleic Linoleic Linolenic Erucic Oil Protein acid acid acid acid Cro~ I 18: 11 I 18: 21 ! 18: 3l I 22: 11 Rape &Mustard 40-45* 22-26• 11-15** 12-16** 9-11** 48-56** Groundnut 48-49 22-23 45-48 32-34 2-3 Ni 1 Sesame 44 19.7 44.4 45.2 Trace Nil Sunflower 41.3 27.5 37.0 55.4 Trace Nil Source: Oilseed Research Center, BARI, •Percent of the whole seed, **Percent of total fatty acids. 143 SOME ASPECTS TOWARDS OVERCOMZNG VEGETABLE OZLS ZNSUFFZCZENCV ZN EGYPT : PRODUCTZON OF SUNFLOWER AND ZTS ZMPROVMENT ZN SUEZ CANAL REGZON (Part of a Report, Supreme Council of Universities, University Linkage Project No. 842052. US Counterparts Dr. K.J. Frey and C.F. Curtiss, Agronomy Department, Iowa State Univ., U.S.A.) To overcome vegetable oil insuf as sowing date, seeding rate and ficiency in Egypt, it has become very plant density, fertilization and urgent to expand indigenous oil weed cont ro 1 . production through increasing the total area under oil crops as well as 4. recommend areas to be cultivated the production per unit area. with sunflower about 50,000 2 Sunflower is considered promising in faddans (1 faddan = 4200 m ) in this respect. It is the second most Suez Canal region and adjacent important source of vegetable oil in reclaimed lands. the world, second only to soybeans. It can be grown in the new reclaimed In this paper some of the agronomic lands as wel 1 as in the low maize studies conducted in the new yielding soils without drastic reclaimed lands as well as in areas changes in the crop rotation in where maize is usually grown will be Egypt. The crop responds well to new demonstrated. techniques of irrigation. Such conditions are prevailing in Suez SEASON I (1985) Canal region. I. Evaluation of Some Sunflower The loca 1 varieties of sunflower have Varieties at Different Levels on only about 30% oil while the new New Reclaimed Lands cultivars in the developed countries have more than 50%. Therefore, high Materials and methods yielding, short season with high oil content varieties should be Four field experiments were introduced or bred to grow the crop conducted, two at Ismailia under successfully. surface irrigation and two at Salhia project under sprinkler i rri gat ion The research project entitled "Some (Pivot i rri gat ion). Meanwhile, at aspects towards overcoming vegetable each situation, one experiment was oils insufficiency in Egypt" was performed as early summer sowing and initiated in 1985 and continued in the other as late summer one. In 1986 and 1987 seasons. The period of each experiment, 10 cultivars were the project was two years. The main evaluated at two levels of objectives of the project were to: fertilization and three planting distances. 1. select the most suitable cultivars to be grown in Suez The cultivars were: 2 open varieties Canal region on different types "Giza-1" and "Maiak" (Russian of soi 1 as we 11 as under variety introduced to Egypt in different irrigation systems. 1970); 4 American hybrids "H. 7000", "H. 7111 " ' H. 7116 .. and H. 77 80 ., 2. have synthetic variety of higher and 4 French hybrids "Eli a", seed and oil yields. "Topflor", "Cerflor" and "Bolero". 3. adapt the agricultural practices The American hybrids are produced by for the selected varieties such Interstate Seed and Grain Company, 144 North Dakota, USA, while the French flowering as well as to harvesting. ones were imported for Salhia At harvesting, the following data project. The local cv. "Giza-1" was were obtained: plant height, head not included in the late summer diameter, seed index, seed yield and experiment at Salhia. seed oil content. The data were subjected to the proper statistical The two levels of fertilization were analysis of variance at the Central 40 kg N + 15 kg P20 5 + 25 kg K20 per Lab., Computer Unit, Faculty of faddan and 80 kg N + 30 kg P2 O 5 + Agric., Alexandria University. 50 kg K20 per faddan. The three planting distances were 36, 30 and 24 Results cm between one-plant hills within the row 70 cm in width. The split-split A. Effect of fertilization: (Tables plot design was used where the two 1'2) fertilization levels were allocated a. The high level of in the main plots, the three planting fertilization caused almost distances in the sub-plots and the 10 insignificant increases in the varieties in the sub-sub plots. The seed yield and its components experimental plot consisted of 4 rows such as head diameter and seed 360 cm long and 70 cm wide in the two index, while the reverse was summer experiments as well as in the true in seed oil content. late summer at Salhia while in the late summer at Ismailia the plot was b. The high level of three ridges only. fertilization is not recommended for sunflower in Sowing was carried out on 28th April sandy soils under Ismailia and 1st May in early summer and 19th Governorate conditions July and 29th July in late summer at regardless of the irrigation Ismailia & Salhia, respectively. methods. Hand hoeing as well as irrigation were carried out as proper. B. Effect of pl anting di stances: (Tables 3, 4). At 75 days from sowing, data were a. In general, head diameter as recorded for plant height, number of well as seed index decreased leaves/plant, fresh and dry weights/ consistently as pl anting plant, fresh and dry weights of distance was decreased from stem/plant, fresh and dry weights of 36 to 24 cm and the head/plant, and number of days to differences were highly Table 1. Effect of fertilization levels on yield and its components. Fertilization No. of days Plant Head 100-seed Seed Seed oi 1 Levels to harvest height diameter weight yield content (cm) (cm) (g) (kg[fad.) (I) Ismailia Su1mer Experiment 40 N+ 15 P 2 0 5 + 25 K2 o 104.70 163. 19 15.90 4. 74 1000 45. 15 80 N+ 15 P 2 0 S + 50 K2 o 104.20 161. 58 15.70 5.03 1007 43.57 L.S.D. 51 N.S N.S N.S 0.09 N.S N.S a N.S N.S N.S 0. 17 N.S N.S Salhia Summer Experiment 40N + 15 P 2 0 S + 25 K2 o 115 .o 117. 0 16.30 5.27 850 41. 02 80 N+ 15 P2 0 S + 50 K2 o 115.60 121. 32 16.90 5.29 930 39.37 L. S. D. 51 N.S N.S 0.60 N.S N.S 0.47 a N.S N.S N.S N.S N.S 0.69 145 Table 2. Effect of fertilization level on yield and its components. Fertilization No. of days Plant Head 100-seed Seed Seed oil Levels to harvest height diameter weight yield content !cm) [cm) (g) !kg/fd.l (ll lsmailia late summer experiment 40 N+ 15 P 2o 5 + 25 K 2o 85.30 8.41 4.315 568 42.44 80 N+ 15 P 2o S + 50 K 2o 87. 80 8.59 5.657 667 41. 92 L. S. 0. 51 0.52 N.S N.S 78 a Salhid. late suiltllir experUmlnt N. S- 40 N+ 15 P 2 0 S + 25 K 2o 65.89 10. 91 3. 77 380.0 44. 33 80 N+ 15 P 2 0 S + 50 K 2o 70. 15 13.00 3.77 378.0 45. 10 L. S. 0. 5l N.S 3.34 tl.S N.S N.S a N.S 9.78 N.S N.S N.S significant in all attributed also to the experiments, except in 1ate difference in the soil type. summer under sprinkler The soil at Ismailia was pure i r r i ga ti on at Sa 1h i a . sandy, while at Salhia it was However, comparisons between sandy loam. the three planting distances, within each experiment, showed b. In the Summer experiment at that the highest seed yield Ismailia under surface irri was obtained with 30 cm under gation, the highest seed surface i rri gat ion and with yields were obtained for the 24 cm under sprinkler French hybrids followed by irrigation. However, the the open varieties without differences ~re stat i sti ca 11 y significant differences among significant in the late summer them. That was more evident at Salhia only. with planting distance of 24 cm and under the high or b. It could be recommended to level of fertilization. In grow sunflower at planting Salhia Summer experiment, the di stance of 30 cm under highest seed yields were surface irrigation and 24 cm obtained for Giza-1 followed under sprinkler irrigation. by H. 7116 followed by H. 7780 and Elia. In the late C. Effect of varieties: (Tables Summer experiments, the 5,6,7 and 8) French hybrids, Elia and a. According to the data of Bolero gave the highest seed earliness (number of days to yields. flowering and/or number of days to harvesting). The c. The highest seed oil contents results showed the differences were obtained from the among the open varieties, the hybrids Topflor, Maiak, H. American and French hybrids. 7780, Bolero and Elia in Ismailia Summer experiment The de 1ay in f 1oweri ng and under surface irrigation. maturing in Salhia experiments The introduced hybrids gave under sprinkler irrigation as higher seed oil content with compared to Ismailia ones planting distance of 30 cm. under surface irrigation In Salhia Summer experiment, within each planting (summer the hybrids Topf lor and or late summer) might be 146 Table 3. Effect of plant distances on yield and its components. Planting No. of days Plant Head 100-seed Seed S;ed all distances to harvest height diameter weight yield content (cm) ! cm) ( gl (~g[fad.) (% l Ismailia summer exQeriment 36 cm 105.30 167. 33 16.60 5.35 969 44.04 30 cm 104.40 162.73 16. 10 4.94 1065 45.22 24 cm 103.70 157.09 14.80 4.35 975 43. 93 L. S. D. 5% 1. 17 N.S 0.73 0. 16 N.8.S a N.S N.S 1.03 0.22 N.&.S Salhia summer exQeriment 36 cm 116 .4 133.90 18.20 5.54 870 40.64 30 cm 114. 50 117.84 16.50 5.29 870 39.96 24 cm 115. 10 116.04 15.40 5.02 930 40.75 L.S.D. 51 N.S 6.07 0.90 0. 12 N.S 0.47 a N.S N.S 1.30 0. 17 N.S C.69 Table 4. Effect of plant distances on yield and its components. Planting No. of days Plant Head 100-seed Seed Seed oi 1 distances to harvest height diameter weight yield content (cm) (cm) i gm) ! kg[ fad.) !ll Ismailia summer exQeriment 36 cm 90.90 8.63 5.400 623 42.05 30 Cl!! 82.90 8.92 4.928 651 42. 12 24 cm 85.90 7. 93 4.929 578 42.37 L.S.D 51 0.59 0.35 N.S N.&.S a 0.86 0.42 N.S N.&.S Salhia late summer 36 cm 71. 52 12.80 3.95 354 43.37 30 cm 67.52 12.07 3.63 381 46.0 24 cm 65.06 10.99 3.72 402 44.79 L.S.D. 51 N.S 3.34 0.07 11 N.S 9.78 o. 11 Table 5. Effect of varieties on yield and its components in Ismailia summer experiment. Plant Head 100-seed Seed Seed oil No. of days varieties height diameter weight yield content to harvesting (cm) (cm) ! g) (kg[ fad.) (I) Maiak 214.48 17.50 5. 71 1005 46.68 112.00 G;za 1 266.57 18. 10 5.84 1053 33.25 113.25 Hybrid 7000 136. 51 14.80 5.67 820 42.82 100.60 7111 135.93 14.60 4.52 856 43.80 100.30 7116 140.65 14.60 3.78 975 44.87 100.55 7780 139.96 14.20 3.90 962 46.64 103. 15 Eli a 165.37 14.60 4.85 1169 46.40 104.30 Topf lor 138.69 15. 10 4.90 1028 48.03 106.55 Cerf lor 145.48 14.80 4.60 1121 43.65 99.90 Bolero 138.58 15.50 5.02 1044 46.48 104.30 L.S.D. 51 6.80 0.89 0.'4 256 2.27 3.21 a 8.91 1. 17 0.31 336 3.01 4.22 147 Table 6. Effect of varieties on yield and its components in Salhia summer experiment. Plant Head 100-seed Seed Seed oi 1 No. of days Varieties height diameter weight yield content to harvesting (cml ( Cll) ( g) (kg/fad.) (I) Maiak 164.52 19.3 6. 70 1150 40.33 132.6 Giza 1 193.08 20.8 6.77 1280 28.21 130.9 Hybrid 7000 97.92 14 .8 5.85 640 40.70 108.6 7111 97.32 15. 1 4.95 780 42.55 108.0 7116 101. 64 16 .1 4.61 960 43.64 110. 6 7780 108.24 16. 1 4.36 870 42.54 112. 1 E1 ia 111.0 16.0 4.98 870 41.65 115. 1 Topf lor 100.20 15. 7 4.35 710 44. 73 114. 7 Cerf lor 110. 16 16.0 5.27 840 40.61 108 .1 Bolero 107.64 16.2 4.97 810 39.52 113. 2 L.s.o. 51 4.87 0.9 0.27 84 1.76 2. 1 11 6.38 1. 2 0.35 114 2. 34 2.7 Table 7. Effect of varieties on yield and its components in Ismailia late summer experiment. Plant Head 100-seed Seed Seed oil Varieties height diameter weight yield content (cm) ( Cll) (g) (kg/fad.) (I) Maiak 126. 7 11. 15 5.858 570 41.31 Giza 1 118. 7 9. 17 5.336 551 30.56 • 7000 82.2 8.77 5.578 554 41.00 • 7111 73.4 6.93 4.847 523 43.34 • 7116 78.7 8. 18 4.293 572 43.99 • 7780 79.5 9.20 4.616 595 45.36 Elia 85.9 8.93 4.650 720 43.93 Top for 78.5 8. 19 4.859 653 48.18 Cerf lor 75.2 6.83 4.239 663 41.34 Bolero 66.7 7.68 5.578 672 42.76 L.S.D. 51 1.06 0.37 0.846 36 2.52 1S 1. 41 0.50 1.130 48 3.34 Table 8. Effect of varieties on yield and its components in Salhia late summer experiment. Plant Head 100-seed Seed Seed oil Varieties height diameter weight yield content (cml (cm) (g) (kg/fd. l (I) Maiak 97. 38 14 .82 3.80 465 39.21 Hybrid 7000 62.20 10.68 4.13 237 45.25 7111 60.57 11. 52 3.54 361 H.19 7116 61. 08 12.07 3.68 395 43.47 7780 62.68 11.93 3.28 329 42.35 Elia 72.43 12.64 4.16 474 44. 95 Topf lor 65.59 11. 70 3.67 391 47.84 Cerf lor 68.02 10.79 3.67 317 46.31 Bolero 62.28 11.42 3.87 442 48.29 l.S.D 51 5.63 1.55 o. 13 46.80 1.29 1S 7.48 2.07 0.17 61.95 2.65 148 H. 7116 had the highest seed breeding program of mass selection is oil content and that was more recommended for its purification and evident with planting distance earliness. of 24 cm. In the late Summer experiment at Ismailia, hybrid D. Effect of planting dates Topflor fol lowed by H. 7780 had the highest seed oil The Summer planting in May resulted content with planting distance in high yields under surface as well of 24 cm. H. 7780 responded as sprinkler irrigations, while in negatively to the higher level the late summer sowing (Nily), the of fertilization in this yields remarkably decreased. respect. However, under Moreover, at Ismailia region, the sprinkler irrigation at Salhia yield was severly subjected to the in the late Summer sowing, attack of birds. Therefore, it is hybrids Bolero and Topflor had recommended to cultivate sunflower the highest seed oil content in both locations as a summer crop. and that was more evident However, sowing dates should be under the higher level of studied further. fertilization as well as with planting distance of 30 cm. SEASON II ( 1986) d. On the basis of earliness, In Summer 1986 season, a series of seed yield per faddan and seed experiments were conducted in oil content, it is recommended Ismailia province in areas where for sunflower producers to maize is usually cultivated. The cultivate the French hybrids following exp. were carried out: as well as the American hybrids 7116 and 7780 for the II. Evaluation of Some Sunflower Summer sowing in Sandy soil Varieties at Different Planting under surface irrigation, Distances and Fertilization Levels while under sprinkler irrigation at Salhia project Materials and Methods where the soil is sandy loam, H. 7116 followed by 7780 and The same experiment (I) which was Elia are recommended for the conducted on the new reclaimed lands same sowing. Al though the at I sma i l i a as we 11 as at Sal hi a seed yield decreased markedly project in 1985, was also performed in the late summer sowing, in 1986 season at Abo-Sultan district generally the same afore in a special farm, the soil of which mentioned cultivars were also is sandy loam. the superiors. The phosphorus fertilizer in the form e. The open variety Maiak gave of supe rphosphate 15. 5% as well as high seed yield and almost did the potassium fertilizer in not differ significantly from the form of potassium sulphate 48% the high yielding hybrids in were added during soil preparation, yield as well as in seed oil while nitrogenous fertilizer was content. That was applied twice, one half before the particularly true for the second irrigation and the other half summer sewings. But this before the third irrigation. The variety was relatively late following data were recorded: number maturing (by about 2 weeks of days to harvest, plant height at at Ismail ia and 3 weeks harvest, head diameter, 100-seed at Salhia). Therefore, a weight, seed yield. 149 Table 9. Effect of fertilization levels on sunflower characters in Abo-Sultan experiment during 1986. Fertilization No. cf days Plant Head 100-seed Seed Levels to harvest height diameter weight yield (cm) (cm) ( g) (kg/ fad.) 40 N+ 15 P 2o S 104.0 151. 1 17.8 7.28 974 K + 25 2o 80 N+ 30 P20 S 104. 1 153. 1 18.0 7.94 1042 + 50 K 2o L.S.O 5X N.S N.S N.S N.S N.S 11 N.S N.S N.S N.S N.S Results fertilization level. The increases in 100-seed weight and seed yield a. Effect of fertilization: (Table amounted to 9.06% and 6.89%, 9) respectively. The studied characteristics were found to be affected slightly but b. Effect of planting distances: insignificantly by increasing (Table 10) Table 10. Effect of planting distances on sunflower characters in Abo-Sultan experiment during 1986 season. Planting No. of days Plant Head 100-seed Seed distances to harvest height diameter weight yield (cm) (cm) ( gl (kgLfd.) 36 cm 104. 1 151. 1 1s.2 8.02 857 30 cm 103.7 153.3 18.0 7. 66 1024 24 Cl!I 104. 1 152.0 17. 5 7. 16 1132 L.S.O. 5X N. S. N. S. N. S. 0.396 32.91 a N.S. N.S. N. S. 0.557 47.80 Decreasing planting distance from 36 varieties Maiak and Giza- 1 (by about cm to 24 cm did not affect 10 days). Meanwhile, the tallest significantly, number of days to plants were recorded for Maiak harvesting, plant height at followed by Giza-1 and both differed harvesting and head diameter. On the highly significantly from the other hand, 100-seed weight was found introduced varieties which did not to decrease consistent 1y and differ significantly from each other significantly as planting distance in this respect. was decreased. Meanwhile, seed yield increased consistently and highly Head diameter: the differences among significantly as planting distance the varieties were highly was decreased. There were increases significant. Giza-1 followed by in seed yield of 18.11 and 30.68% by Maiak had the largest heads and both decreasing planting distance from 36 surpassed significantly the cm to 30 and 24 cm, respectively. introduced hybrids. Hybrid 7116 had larger heads compared with the other c. Varietal differences: (Table int reduced hybrids and deviated 11) significantly from a 11 of them except Number of days to harvest: Elia. Significant differences were found among varieties The American hybrids 100-seed weight: The differences as well as the French ones matured among the varieties were highly significantly earlier than the local significant. The heaviest seeds were 150 Table 11. Effect cf /arieties on sunflower characters n Abo-Sultan experiment during 1986 season. No. of days Plant Head 100-seed Seed Varieties to harvest height diameter 11eight yie1d (Clll) [cm) (g) (kg[fd.; Maiak 111.5 221. 8 20. 0 8.64 1603 Giza 1 111.6 191. 4 21.4 8.93 mr Hybrid 7000 102. 1 135.9 16.3 8.28 691 7111 102. 1 13'.0 16.? 8. 18 788 7116 1c 1. 7 138.2 18.6 6.90 1023 7780 102. 5 m.1 16. 7 6.45 911 Elia 102.5 152.5 17.8 7. 57 g~n Tcpflor 102.4 138.9 17.4 7. 52 901 Cerf lor 101.7 141.9 17.5 7. 00 940 pt Bolero 102.3 127.2 15. 8 7.13 ' I" L.S.D. Sl 1.339 26.74 0.965 0.803 240.20 a 1. 772 35.39 1.280 1.063 317. 92 those of Gi za-1 wh i1 e the l i ghtest distances were allocated in the main ones were those of hybrid 7780. plots and the cultivars in the sub plot. The plot consisted of four Seed __yield: Over the two rows of 60 cm width and 360 cm fertilization levels and the three length. Fertilizer was app 1 i ed at planting distances, the highest seed 60 kg N + 15 kg P2 0 5 • The phosphorus yield was obtained from Maiak fertilizer was added before sowing in followed by Giza-1. Both local the form of calcium superphosphate, cultivars, highly significantly, out while nitrogen fertilizer was added yielded the introduced hybrids. twice before the 2nd and the 3rd H.7116 had the highest seed yield irrigations in the form of Ammonium when compared with the other nitrate. Thinning was carried out introduced hybrids but it deviated after about 7 weeks from sowing. Data significantly from H. 7000 only. were recorded in two stages: The interactions among the three i. At 75 daYS___from sowing: The factors did not affect significantly, following data were estimated on a all the studied characteristics. sample of 3 pl ants taken randomly from the inner rows of each plot: III. The Response of Certain plant height, fresh-weight per plant, Sunflower Cultivars to dry weight per plant, and leaf area Planting Distances at index (LAI). Different Planting Dates ii. At harvesting: Plant height as Materials and Methods an average of 1O pl ants, head diameter as an average of 10 plants, Three field experiments were 100 seed weight, and seed yield. conducted on low maize yielding soil at Abo-Swier district in 1986 season The data were statistically analyzed at three dates of sowing (22 May, 12 and Duncan's multiple range test was July and 5 August). In each used for comparison among averages. experiment, three cultivars namely, Maiak and the American Hybrids 7116 Results and 7780 were tested at four planting distances: 12, 18, 24 and 30 cm. The Table 12 indicates the mean averages experimental design was split-plot of all characters at the three with four replications. The planting planting dates for the three 151 varieties at the four studied while in the July/August sewings the planting distances. differences among the four distances were significant. Maiak had the 1. Plant height (cm) highest LAI and deviated, significantly, from the other two Plant height decreased consistently hybrids. H. 7780 plants had as planting distance was increased, significantly larger LAI than H.7116 but at 75 days from sowing, the in July/August sewings. differences were significant in the third sowing only, while at 4. Head diameter (cm) harvesting these differences were significant in the three sewings. Although head diameter increased Meanwhile, the differences between consistent 1y as p1 anting di stance was 24 and 30 cm were not significant. increased, the differences among the Maiak, as it was expected, had the four planting distances were tallest plants and differed significant in July/August sowi ngs significantly from the American only. Maiak gave larger heads than hybrids 7116 and 7780 which almost both hybrids, which did not differ did not differ from each other in significantly from each other. That this respect. However, plant height was true in the three dates of was decreased evidently by delaying sowing. sowing from 22 May to 12 July as well as to 5 August. 5. 100-seed weight (g) 2. Fresh- and dry-weight per plant This trait was not affected i9.l significantly by the plating distances when sowing in May as well Both characters increased as in August, while the weight consistent 1y as p1 anting di stance was increased cons i s tent 1 y and increased. The planting distance of significantly as planting distance 12 cm deviated almost significantly, was increased. H.7780 gave the from the other distances, while the heaviest seeds in the three sewings differences between 24 and 30 cm were and differed significantly with Maiak not significant. Maiak had the and H. 7116. In May sowing, H. 7716 heaviest plants as compared to H. resulted in seeds significantly 7116 and H. 7780. The plants of heavier than those of Maiak, while hybrid 7780 were heavier, but the the differences between them were not differences were significant in July significant in July/August sewings. and August sewings concerning fresh Genera 11 y, the seeds of May sowing weight and August sowing concerning were heavier than the seeds of the dry weight. Pl ants became 1i ghter by other sowing dates. delaying sowing from May to July or August. The plants of May sowing 6. Seed yield (kg/fad) were, on the average, heavier by 65.4% and 77.6% in fresh-weight and In the May sowing, the highest seed by 71.3% and 68% in dry-weight yield was obtained by sowing compared to those of July and August sewings. 3. Leaf area index at 75 days of sunflower at planting distance of 12 sowing (LAI) cm compared to the other distances, LAI decreased consistently as which did not differ significantly planting distance was increased. In from each other in this respect. In May sowing, the differences between the July/August sowing, the yield 12 and 18 cm as well as between 24 de c re a se d con s i s tent 1 y and and 30 cm, were not significant, significantly as planting distance 152 was increased. There were no in this respect. There was significant differences among the significant interaction between three cultivars in May sowing as distances and cultivars concerning wellas in July sowing, while in the effect on seed yield. All over August H.7116 gave seed yield less the factors studied May sowing than H.7780 and Maiak, which did not outyielded July and August sewings differ significantly from each other by about 37%. 153 Table 12. Response of so11e sunflower cultivars to planting distances at different sowing. 22L5/1986 Sowing 12L7L1986 Sowing 5[8[1986 Sowing Cul ti- Planting distances lcll Planting distances (cm) Planting distances (cm) vars 12CI 18CI 24CI 30CI Avg. 12Cll 18CI 24CI 30CI Avg. 12CI 18CI 24CI 30CI Avg. Effect on giant height (c1) after 75 days: H.7116 179a* 185a 184a 160a 1778 ma 134a 132a 116a 1268 126de 126de me 118f m8 H. 7780 ma 166a 168a 157a 167C 128a 131a ma 11oa 1248 129de 130d 124def 1069 1228 MAIAK 213a 206a 194a 203a 204A 201a 197a 205a 178a 195A 212a 197b 194bc 187c 198A AVG. 189A 186A 181A 174A 182 150A 154A 155A 135A 148 156A 1518 147C 1370 148 Effect on giant height (c•l at harvesting: H. 7116 178d 178d 171de 166de 1738 140 136 128 120 1318 me 132ed 126df 1169 m8 H. 7780 173d 168de 162de me 1648 137 132 124 116 me 134e me 125f 1129 m8 MAIAK 284a 256b me 238c 252A 266 242 223 216 236A 245a 232b me 219d 230A AVG. 212A 201A8 1888 1868 197 181A 1708 158C 1510 165 171A 1678 159C 155C 162 Effect on fresh weight ger glant (g) after 75 days: H.7116 ma 734a 950a 1097a 8768 360a 454a 556a 555a 481C 380a 435a 502a 528a 461C H. 7780 552a 942a 917a 998a 8528 ma 529a 596a ma 544C 410a 454a 519a 540a 4818 MAIAK 939a 1283a 1107a 1325a 1164A 596a ma ma 851a 723A 491a 515a ma 593a 543A AVG. 7388 986A 992A 1140A 964 4788 553A8 640A 661a 583 4270 468C 5318 554A 495 Effect on drt weight aer giant (g) after 75 days: H. 7116 117a 118a 139a 161a 1348 58a 77a SO a 82a 748 ?Oa 82a 92a 94a 85C H. 7780 93a Ula ma 164a 1358 67a 84a 79a 81a 788 78a 87a 96a 95a 898 MAUK 156a 194a ma 198a 181A 95a 104a 124a 118a 110A8 86a 87a 104a 98a 94A AVE. 122A 152A 151A 174A 150 73A 86A 94A 94A 87 78C 858 97A 96A 89 Effect on leaf area index after 75 dats: H. 7116 1. 21 0. 76 0.82 0.55 0. 838 0. 72 0. 62 0.56 0.43 0. 58 0.75c 0.62de 0.59e O.W9 0.61C H. 7780 0. 92 0.91 0.67 0.50 0.758 0.91 0. 63 0. 56 0. 49 0. 65 0.95b a.soc o.59e 0. 449 0. 708 MAIAK 1.64 1.46 0.96 0.94 1.25A 1.21 1. 01 0. 98 0. 78 1. 00 1. 09a 0.81c 0.68d o. 55ef 0. ?SA AVE 1.25A 1.04A 0.828 0.648 0.94 0.95 0. 75 0. 70 0. 57 0. 74 0.93A 0. 748 0.62C o.m 0. 70 Effect on head diameter (c11) at harvest: H.7116 16. 7a 17.3a 17. 7a 18. Ta 17 .68 12.3a 14.3a 1Ua 1Ua 13.98 T.Tg 8. ig 1C. 7f 13. 3de 10.10 H. 7780 15. 7a 16.0a 18.0a 18.0a 16.98 10. 7a 12.6a 14.la 15. Oa 13.28 7.79 9.0g 12.7cd 14. 7cd 11. 08 MAIAK 19.0a 21.0a 22.7a 25.0a 21.9A 14. la 16.7a 18. 7a 22.0a 17. 9A 14.0cde 15.0c 17.lb 18.lal 16. 2A AVG. 17 .1A 18.1A 19.4A 20.6A 18.8 12.40 14.6C 15. 88 17.2A 15.0 9.80 10.9C 13.68 15.4A 12. 4 Effect on 1oo seed weight (g l: H. 7116 6.57a 5.26a 6.42a 6.21a 6. 118 Ula 4.78a 5.39a 5.29a 4.978 5.07a 5.64a 5.2fa 5.54a 5.388 H. 7780 7.41a 6.15a 7.21a 7.24a 6.94A 5.50a 5.64a 6.27a 6.28a 5.92A 5.68a 5.96! Ula 6. 35a s.m MAIAK 5. 10a 5.37a 5.64a 5.88a 5.50C 4.70a 4.82a 5.08a 5.86a 5. 128 4.96a 5.07a 5.32a 5.20a .~. """~ !~ AVG. 6.36A 5.59A 6.42A 6.44A 6. 20 4. 90C 5.088C 5.58A8 5.81A 5.34 5. 24A 5.56A 5.57A 6.C3A 5. €2 Effect of seed lield ~er faddan (kg): H. 7116 1800a 1526a 1495a 1589 1602A 141 Oa 1288a 1159a :o4oa 1224A moa ne1a ~OJ7a 905a 11 m H. 7780 1916a 1508a 1472a 1483a 1594A 1297a 1175a 1133a 1063a 1167A 143?a 1334a 1066a 949a 11W. HAIAK2 2144a 1555a 1533a 1635a 1717A 1412a 1198a 1095a 1049a 1188A 1450a 12Ha '.OHa goa 119~~ AVG. i953A 15308 15008 15698 1638 1373A 12208 112980 10500 1193 1406A 12728 1065C 9320 1'.69 Values followed by the same letter for each character are not significantly different. 154 RESPONSE OF SUNFLOWER TO NZTROGEN APPLZCATZON AND PLANT POPULATZON DENSZTV UNDER ZRRZGATZON AT GZZA. EGYPT In Egypt, there is a severe shortage Results and Discussion in vegetable edible oils. The majority of local oil production Effect of N fertilization comes from cotton seed. However, there is no prospect to increase the Two experiments were conducted. Data area devoted to cotton cultivation. in Table 1 showed that an average of Therefore, increasing oil production both experiments showed that depends on cultivation of the new increasing N level from 30 to 60 oilcrops, such as sunflower. kg/feddan increased plant height, stem diameter, leaf area, leaf urea Maximizing sunflower yield under index, head diameter, and dry weight Egyptian condition can be achieved of leaves, stems, head and tops. by introduction of good varieties However, increasing N level from 60 and/or application of suitable to 90 kg/feddan did not significantly cultural treatments. Nitrogen increase these characters. Also, fertilization and plant population increasing N level from 30 to 60 density are the main factors kg/feddan significantly increased affecting yield and its components yield and its components, i.e. head in sunflower. diameter, 500-seed weight and seed weight/head, Table 2. Materials and Methods Thus, the present results indicated The experimental site of this study that application of 60 kg N/feddan was at the caculty of Agric., Cairo to sunflower was enough to maximize Univ., Agric. Research Centre (ARC) growth of the plants, seed and oil at Giza. The soil type is loamy clay; yields under the conditions of this the pH 7.8-7.9, total N 0.11 - 0.12% study. and organic matter 1.17%. Three nitrogen levels, 30, 60 and 90 kg Effect of plant populaiton density 2 N/feddan (one feddan = 4200 m ), were applied in the form of ammonium As plant population increased leaf nitrate (33% N), after thinning, just area, head diameter, dry weight of before the first i rri gat ion. Al so, leaves, stems and heads were three plant densities were used decreased but leaf area index (17 ,000, 35,000 and 70,000 increased in both experiments, Table plants/feddan). These densities were 3. However, pl ant height (in both obtained in distributions by the experiments) and stem diameter (in following hill spacing and number of the second one) were not plants/hi 11. The variety used was significantly affected by population Mayak: density. Row Hi 11 Seed and oil yields of sunflower and Plant spacing spacing Plant/ the i r components (head diameter, seed System density _wu_ Jgl_ JulL weight/head, 500-seed weight) were ..T 17.500 SC 40 1 significantly affected by plant I I. 35.COO 60 20 population density. However, oil I II. 35.000 60 40 content was not significantly IV. 70.000 60 20 affected. 155 Table 1. Effect of Nlevels on plant characteristics at peak flowering. P LA N T CH A R A C T E R I S T I C S N Plant Ste1 Leaf Leaf Head Levels height dia11eter arj area diameter Dr~ weight (gl of Experi1ent (kg/fed) ( Cll) ( Cll) (d ) index ( Cll) leaves Stell Head Total top 30 198.9 1.89 35.9 2.93 9.2 26.8 59.9 13. 5 100.2 60 213.6 2. 10 48.6 4. 12 10.0 38.6 93.2 15.2 127.0 LSD 0.05 N.S. N.S. 7.96 6.49 7.6 4.66 N.S. N.S. N.S. 2 30 116. 5 1.54 31. 8 2.67 7.7 24.8 25.0 79.7 57. 77 60 121.5 1.66 35. 1 3.28 7.7 32.9 32.7 7.94 72.94 90 129.0 1. 78 34.5 3.01 8.2 36.0 29.6 8.4 74.0 LSD 0.05 N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. N.S. 5.78 5.69 N.S. 8.80 Table 2. Effect of Nlevels on yield and yield components. N Head Seed Weight/ 500 seed Seed Oil Oil Experiment levels diameter head weight yield content yield (kg[fedl (cm) (gj (g) (ton[fed) (~) (tonLfed) 30 13. 7 37.7 24.81 1.09 45.52 0.48 60 15.0 49.5 28. 72 1. 43 44. 54 0.64 LSD 0.05 0.89 5.95 2.02 0.214 N.S. 0. ~ 43 2 30 14.26 53.73 28.60 1.34 45. 17 0.46 60 15. 15 61.47 31.60 1.58 44.75 0.72 90 15.55 62.52 32.27 1.51 43.97 0.57 LSD 0.05 0.67 5.06 2. 12 0. 14 N.s 0.08 Table 3. Effect of plant population density on plant characteristics at flowering peak. Plant Plant Stem Leaf Leaf Head population height diameter are~ area diameter Or~ weight (g) of Experi11ent density (cm) (cm) (dm ) index (cm) Leaves Stem Head Total top I 211.3 2.20 55.9 2.31 11.0 44.2 84.7 18.3 147.2 II 197.0 1.98 49.6 3.88 9.2 32.6 58.0 13. 7 104.2 III 211.5 2.03 40.5 3.88 10.0 33. 1 69. 1 15. 5 117. 7 IV 205.4 1.75 27.3 4.53 8.4 21. 1 54.6 9.8 85.5 LSD 0.05 NS 0.21 11. 75 0.92 1.41 6.74 12.26 4.42 17.8 2 I 116. 5 1.89 35.4 1.51 8.7 28.5 40.6 9.5 78.6 II 117. 3 1.47 32.2 2.63 8.0 26.0 24.2 7.82 58.02 III 124.9 1. 64 39.3 3.28 7.6 49. 1 28.7 7. 91 85.71 IV 130.8 1.69 28.2 4.52 7.3 21.4 22.2 7. 18 50.78 LSD 0.05 NS NS 6. 198 0.657 0.67 4.375 7.25 1. 073 9.849 156 Inspite of the reduction in yield Regarding the plant population components, such increase in seed and density of 35,000 plants/feddan, the oil yield could be explained by the average results of treatment used by number of harvestable plants which two systems (II & III), revealed that increased from 14,875 to 28,525 to system III resulted in greater 49000 plants /feddan, when plant harvestable plants, seeds and oil population density increased from yields by 10.2, 13.1 and 10.2%, 17,000 to 35,000 to 70,000 respectively, over system II, as an p1 ants/feddan, respective 1y, Tab 1e 4. average of both experiments. Table 4. Effect of plant population density on yield and yield components. Plant Head Seed Weight/ 500 seed Seed Oil Oi 1 Experiment population diameter head weight yield content yield density !cm) I g) ( Q) ltonlhdl (I) !ton[fedl I 16.2 60.8 29.59 1.04 44 .87 0.47 II 13.9 41.0 26.22 1. 16 44. 69 0.52 III 13.9 43.2 26.40 1. 35 43.93 0.59 IV 13.4 29.4 24.86 1.48 44. 64 0.66 LSD 0.05 0.81 7.29 1. 94 0.177 Ns 0. 124 2 I 17.38 72.22 31.18 1.02 43.64 0.46 II 15. 38 56.62 30.93 1.43 44. 75 0.65 III 14. 27 55.69 30.65 1.59 44. 26 0.71 IV 12.89 52.42 30.51 1.86 45.87 0.86 LSD 0.05 0.46 8.92 Ns 0.24 Ns 0. 104 157 SUNFLOWER RESEARCH AND PRODUCTXON XN EGYPT Ba.dllr A. E"'l-Ahma.r Sunflower seed is one of the most sugarcane as winter cultivation. important sources of edible oil in most of the continents due to its To achieve these objectives the wide range of adaptability in breeding program involved the addition to high percent of excellent following: edible oil in the seed, 45-55%. A. Composite oopulation In Egypt, due to severe shortage of edible oil, sunflower (oil type) In order to increase our genetic received a great attention from the resources and widen genetic high authorities since 1987 so that variability, seven composite the area devoted to oil type populations were formed since 1979 sunflower was increased from 3000 ha up till now, two of them namely, No. in 1987 with an average seed yield 1/79 and 2/81 were formed in 1979 of 0.5 to 7000 ha in 1988 with 1.5 and 1981, while the others were made ton/ha. This season, 1989, the area in 1988. Those composite devoted to this crop is 8000 ha populations are gene pools acting as concentrated mainly in Fayoum and sources of new germplasm, which give Behera provinces. The average seed us good opportunity to select the yield of the harvested area (till end desirable plants and characters as of August ) was 2.97 and 2.2 ton/ha head bending, CMS, earliness, etc. in the two provinces, respectively. B. Synthetic varieties The increase in the average seed yield was due to holding a field day, Twelve inbred lines, quite similar showing the farmers the technology of phynotypically, were selected. oil type sunflower cultivation and Different cross combinations were the difference between the oil type made among the inbreds without and the large-seeded confectionery emasculation and the produced seeds type to which the farmers are more (hybrid and selfed) were grouped. familiar. Each group contains, at least, six different inbreds. Each group was Research Activities on Sunflower sown in a suitable number of rows according to the amount of seed. Breeding QLogram All plants were bagged and pollen was collected. Hand pollination was The objectives of sunflower breeding made using the mixed pollen grains. program focussed on developing varieties with such characteristics The construction of these synthetic as: varieties was started in 1987. The varieties will be tested next season 1. Early maturity. in comparative yield trials. 2. High in seed and oil yield. 3. Resistance to bird attack. 4. Resistance/tolerance to c. Hybrids program diseases. 5. Resistance/tolerance to Cytoplasmic male sterile (CMS) salinity. plants were selected from composite 6. Suitability to prevailing weather populations viz., 1/79 and 2/81. In during Egyptian summer. 1988, one CMS plant was crossed with 7. Suitability to intercropping with an open pollinated variety (pure 158 line) in order to obtain A,B lines, Egypt) research stations, Table 1. as the first step to produce hybrids. One CMS plant was crossed with an Table 1. Summary of comparative yield trial open pollinated variety in 1988. The (t/ha) 1987. hybrid seed was sown at Giza Res. Station in 1989. All the plants Varieties Sak ha Serw Sids Mean Oil I produced from this seed are CMS, Ma yak 1.8 3.2 4.3 3.5 42.0 which means, this variety does not G 100 1. 8 3.1 4.8 3.4 40.6 have restorer gene. Two to three G 101 1.6 2.7 4.4 3.0 33.8 plants of the CMS progeny were back DK 4021 2.5 3.2 4.4 3.5 43.4 crossed to the original open Bloero 2.9 2.7 4.0 3.7 36.6 pollinated variety to obtain BC 1. Rodeo 1.0 2. 3 3.6 2. 3 37. 4 Elia 1. 6 2.6 4.6 3.1 39.5 Some other open pollinated varieties Slow 1.8 2.6 4.6 3.2 42.7 were used as parents and crossed (2- Pariow 1.0 3.0 3.7 2.7 37.1 3 CMS plants) with pollen grains of M5131 2.1 2.8 4. 7 3.4 39.7 each open pollinated variety u 5025 1. 9 2.9 4.8 3.2 39.7 co 11 ected from each pl ant separately. 5077 1.2 2.9 4.5 3.4 39.7 6480 2. 2 2.6 4.6 3.4 39.2 Crosses: In order to select an early 6431 2.0 3.3 4.5 3.3 44.4 maturing and short stem genotype, ten 6440 2.2 2.2 4.2 3.0 43.7 crosses were made this season (1989) 6U 0001 1.2 2.5 4.5 3.3 37.4 using the commercial variety Mayak Florom 328 1. 5 2.9 4.3 2.0 38.0 (O.P.) and three inbreds (tall stem, Floro11 350 0.7 2.6 2.7 2. 3 39.9 good head shape and diameter) as male 2.6IH - 173 1.6 2.0 4.3 3. I 39.1 parents and very short inbred lines Jnegi HNK 81 1. 4 3.0 4.5 3.1 38.4 as females. These crosses were made without emasculation of the female c. v. (%) 16.89 17. 5 13. 7 parents. LSD (0.05) 0.408 0.986 D. Breeding nursery At Sakha, two varieties, DK 4020 and Bloero, outyielded the check by 700 The sunflower breeding nursery and 1100 kg/ha, respective 1y. In included the following: Serw Research Station, however, there was no significant difference between 1) 90 pure inbred lines, the tested hybrids but, some hybrids 2) 2 cytoplasmic male sterile such as DK 4020 and 6431 have given populations, about the same yield as the check. 3) 2 restorer gene populations, In Sids, Middle Egypt, 4 hybrids. G 4) 40 cytoplasmic male sterile 100, Elia, U 5131 and U 5025 , out lines, and yielded the check by 438, 305, 400 5) 6 segregating generations (sown and 670 kg/ha, respectively. at Sakha). Concerning oil content, the hybrids DK 4020, 6431 and 6440 had 1-2% higher oil than the check. E. Comparative yield trial In 1988, 32 hybrids were tested at Sakha and Serw Research Stations. During 1987, 19 hybrids were tested At Sakha, Seven hybrids viz. U 5087, for their potential of both seed and G 98, DICS 440, OKS 610 OKS 3849, OKS oil yields and adaptability to the 3848 and Hysun 33, outyielded the Egyptian condition. The check was check (Mayak) by 840, the local commercial Mayak. This 470, 800, 590, 660, 690 and 510 experiment was carried out at Sakha kg/ha respectively, Table 2. The (Middle Delta), Serw (north-eastern same hybrids except G 98 had a higher region of Delta) and Sids (Middle seed yield than the check at 159 Table 2. Summary of comparative yield trial of Agronomic studies sunflower 1988. Fertilization Seed yield (t/hal Oi 1 Husk Varieties Sakha Sids Mean (I) (I) Sunflower like other crops requires Ma yak 2.59 1.35 1.97 42.0 20 a suitable amount of NK for each type Mikaflor 2.45 1.07 1.76 37.3 20 of soi l to produce a maxi mum seed Topfflor 1.73 0.96 1.84 38. 14 20 yield. Eurof lor 2.58 0.65 1.61 38.05 22 Cerf lor 2.34 1.69 2.01 39.25 23 An experiment including three DKS 39 2.30 1.74 2.02 38.21 24 varieties (Mayak, Rodeo and Elia), Sigco 475 2.37 1.02 1.69 38. 78 28 three N levels (70, 110 and 150 465 h 2.43 1.38 1.90 39.03 22 kg/ha) and two levels of k2 0(0 and 452 1.72 1. 90 1.81 37.39 18 60kg/ha) was conducted at four 468 1.88 1.41 1.64 39.44 22 research stat i ens in 1988. The u 5025 1.74 1.12 1.43 37.67 32 preliminary results indicated that • 6480 2. 11 2. 11 2. 11 38.39 25 at Serw, Sakha, and Sids old lands • 6431 2.41 1.22 1.81 38.01 23 there was no response for the higher XF 569 1. 64 1. 08 1.36 37. 93 32 110 and 150 kg/ha doses of N due to u 5087 3.43 1.59 2.51 38.32 25 the high fertility of the soils of 6 40047 2.53 0.99 1.76 37.98 24 these sites. The suitable nitrogen G98 3.06 1.22 2.14 38.07 20 dose was 70 kg/ha. For Nubaria G90 2.36 1.93 2.14 34.86 29 region (new col carious soil), DKS 440 3.39 0.94 2. 16 38.73 29 however, the suitable N dose was 110 • 600 1.62 0.83 1.22 38.73 23 kg/ha, Table 3. Sunflower does not • 610 3.18 1.98 2.58 39.01 22 respond economically to K20 • 3849 3.25 1.95 2.62 39.80 24 application except at Nubaria region • 3850 2.05 1.67 1.86 37.63 22 in which the seed yield increased by Viki 2.05 2.04 2.04 38.96 25 0.8 ton/ha when the amount of 60 kg DKS 3848 3.28 2.14 2. 71 38.96 24 k2 O/ha was applied, Table 4. This 937 1. 90 0. 94 1. 42 38.57 22 experiment is being repeated this 39 1.96 0.78 1.37 37.76 21 season. G 100 1.75 1.25 1.50 38.65 23 G 101 2.29 1.28 1.78 37.80 26 Effect of levels and time of N Hysum 23 2.04 0.78 1.41 37.87 24 application 33 3.10 2.08 2.59 38.47 31 54 2.34 0.86 1.60 39.16 26 Three levels (70, 110 and 150 kg/ha) PAC 354 2.08 1. 12 1.60 39.01 21 and three times of application of N C.V I 15.44 14.42 were tested for two seasons at two LSD (0.05) 0.33 20.212 locations using one sunflower variety. The time of application was Se rw Res. Stat ion. G 98 produced designed to apply: approximately equal seed yield with that of the check. 1) all at the time of sowing, 2) all 30 days after sowing and Across locations, the hybrids U 5087, 3) half at the time of sowing, and OKS 610, OKS 3849, OKS 3848 and Hysum the other half 30 days after 33 out yielded the check by 540, 610, sowing. 650, 740 and 620 kg/ha, respectively. The results showed that splitting N Some of these hybrids are being at a rate of 110 kg/ha significantly tested on a large scale this season. increased seed yield meanwhile application of N at a rate of 70 kg/ha at sowing time had a signi ficant effect on oil content in both seasons and locations, Table 5. 160 Table 3. Summary of seed yield (t/ha) of three Table 4. Effect of NK fertilizer on seed yield sunflower varieties to different NK (ton/ha) of sunflower at the 4 locations doses, 1988. Varieties N(kg[hal K20 (kg[hal Variet- Treatments Locations 70 110 150 0 60 ies N K Sak ha Serw Nubaria Sids Serw Ma yak 70 0 3.6 2.3 3.3 1.7 Ha yak 2.0 1. 9 2.3 2.4 1. 7 70 60 3.3 1. 8 4.2 1.8 Radeo 1. 2 1. 5 1.8 1. 4 1. 6 110 0 3.7 2.4 3.9 2.0 Elia 1.8 1. 7 1.7 1.7 1.8 110 60 4.2 1. 4 5.6 2.3 Mean 1. 7 1. 7 1. 9 1.8 1. 7 150 0 3.9 2.6 4.6 2.7 150 60 3.0 2.0 5.6 2.8 LSD:Var.: 0.218, N=0.218, K20:0.000 Rodeo 70 0 3.2 1.3 2.9 1.3 70 60 3' 1 1.1 3.6 1. 4 Sak ha 110 0 3.3 1. 5 4.2 1.5 Ma yak 3.4 3.7 3.8 3.7 3.5 110 60 3.2 1.6 4.3 1. 7 Radeo 3' 1 3.2 3' 2 3.2 3' 1 150 0 3.2 1. 3 2.9 1. 7 Elia 3' 1 3.2 3.4 3.3 3.2 150 60 3' 1 2.2 3.9 2.2 Mean 3.2 3.3 3.5 3.4 3.3 Elia 70 0 3' 1 2.0 3.2 1. 4 70 60 3.0 1. 7 4. 1 1.5 LSD:var : 0. 134, N=.084, K20:0.060 110 0 3.3 1.5 4. 1 1. 9 110 60 3' 1 1.8 4.6 1.8 Nubaria 150 0 3.4 1. 6 4.5 1. 9 Ma yak 3.7 4.7 5' 1 3.9 5. 1 150 60 3.4 1.8 5.0 2.3 Radeo 3.2 4.3 3.9 3.6 3.9 Elia 3.6 4.4 5' 1 3.9 4.8 LSD var 0' 13 0.22 0.59 0.23 Mean 3.5 4.5 4.7 3.8 4.6 N 0.83 0.22 0.05 0' 10 k 0.06 0.06 0.05 LSD:var : 0.059, N:0.053, K20:0.057 Var. x N 0' 14 - 0.09 0' 17 Var. x K o. 10 0.28 0' 10 0.09 Sids Nx K 0.28 0.09 Ma yak 1.8 2.2 2.7 2.2 2.3 Radeo 1.3 1.6 2.0 1. 5 1.8 Elia 1. 4 1.8 2' 1 1. 7 1.8 Mean 1. 5 1. 9 2.3 1.8 2.0 LSD:var : 0.231. N=0.097. K20=0.053 Table 5. Seed yield (t/ha) and oil content (I) of sunflower as affected by levels (kg/ha) and ti1e of Napplication at Sakha and Sids, 1986 and 1987. T I ME 0 F AP P L I CA T I 0 N N Sak ha Sids levels 1986 1987 1986 1987 2 3 Mean 2 3 Mean 1 2 3 Mean 2 3 Mean Seed yield 70 2.7 2.4 3. 1 2.7 1.8 2.9 1.6 2.1 1.3 1.4 1.6 1.5 2.2 2.7 3.6 2.1 110 3.5 3.6 3.5 3.7 1.8 1.9 1.8 1.8 1.5 1.6 1.9 1.7 2.8 3. 1 4.2 2.5 150 3.3 3.4 3.4 3.4 1.6 2.0 1.5 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.1 1.9 2.3 2.7 2.9 2.3 Mean 3.2 3.1 3.4 1.7 2.3 1.6 1.5 1.6 1.9 2.3 2.8 3.6 LSD ( .05l N:0.397 I TiH=NS, N=NS, Tine=NS N=O. 10. Tine=O. 10. N=0.431. Ti11=0.431 Oil content 70 40.5 41.8 43.5 41.9 41.3 42.3 42.8 42. 1 39.8 41.5 42.8 41.3 40.3 41.5 41.8 41.2 110 40.5 39.5 39.5 39.8 40.8 38.3 38.5 38.5 40.5 39.0 39.0 39.5 40.3 36.0 38.3 38.2 150 39.3 36.5 37.3 37 .8 39.8 38.3 37.0 38.5 39.3 36.3 36.3 37.3 38.5 36.0 35.5 36.7 Mean 40. 1 39.3 40. 1 40.6 39.6 39.4 39.8 38.9 39.3 38.7 37.8 38.5 LSD N=0.8. Ti11e=NS. N:1_,_1, Ti11e:NS. N:0.7. Ti11e:0.7. N=1.3. Tiu:1.3 1=All Nat sowing, 2=All N30 days after sowing, 3=1/2 at sowing and 1/2 after 30 days, NS=Not signif. 161 PERFORMANCE OF A NEW SVNTHETZC SUNFLOWER STOCK DEVELOPED FROM LOCAL AND ZNTRODUCED GERMPLASM AND FURTHER ZMPROVEMENTS VZA POPULATZON ZMPROVEMENT METHOD R- Sha.ba.na. The gap between p reduction and subsidized seeds to the farmers. consumption of edible oils in Egypt, as well as in many African countries, Choice of parents is increasing from year to year. The failure in ceasing the gap increments For the best choice of parents, an has many reasons, among which the approach was made to define the model population and consumption are the cultivar needed in Egypt (4) by two main ones. testing 120 accessions which represent local and introduced The population has increased from germplasm in several evaluation about 10 million at the beginning of experiments that covered the the 20th century to 28 mi 11 ion in environmental conditions prevailing 1960. Nowadays, it became over 55 in Egypt. The work Continued in co million and is expanding at a rate of operation between the Agronomy about 3% every year. Surpri zi ngl y, Departments of Cairo and Suez-Canal not only the population that Univ er sit i es. Through this increased at a higher rate, but also university's linkage programs, We the consumption of edible oil per made a collection from farmers in person which increased in the 1ast Middle and Upper Egypt who used to decade from 9 to 12 kg. Besides, the grow their own seed for many years. area under cotton, which was and Although these land races had mixed still is the main oil crop in Egypt, seed colors (mainly white and striped decreased from 1.9 million feddan (1 seeds) which would affect their 2 feddan = 4200 m ) with 888,000 MT of acceptance and lower their price, seed in 1960 to 1.05 million with they were known to have a good 552, 000 MT in 1986. As a resu 1t, yielding ability (2.4-3.6 tons/ha), self-sufficiency decreased from 95. 4% under conditions of small holders. of 1960 to 34% in 1980. At present, They showed also vigorous growth and domestic production accounts for adaptation. However, they had some approximately one fifth of our disadvantages such as tallness, late consumption. Thus, more attention maturity and low oil content (30% or and investments are given to oil less). We aimed to combine high oil crops including sunflower. content, earliness and shortness from exotic materials with high yield Internationa 1 experience from potential and adaptability of our sunflower growing countries revealed land races. Thus, we tested all the that crossing among a limited number available accessions at Giza and of chosen se 1fed 1 i nes to deve 1op Ismal ia. The evaluated accessions synthetic cultivars would be a better included a varietal cross which I way for sunflower improvement in most made in the previous season between countries. Moreover, synthetic the two distributed cultivars in varieties of open pollinated crops Egypt (Giza - 1 and Maiak) and some are more acceptable in many third selections from previous works (5). world countries due to the price At Giza, I used the polycross method policy and the prevailing market to test the combining ability of the conditions. Hybrid seed of sunflower accessions that showed superiority in can only be produced in Egypt under their characteristics to fit our some sort of governmenta 1 support need. Based on the eva 1uat ion through the distribution of experiments and the combining ability 162 results, three land races were stems; Citosol, Drysol, and ISEA were selected to be used as female also selected as a source for high parents together the two distributed oil content. Characteristics of male cultivars. As male parents, we and female parents against the F1 of selected VN-03, VN-04, and VN-05, as the varietal cross Giza-1 x Maiak are gene sources for earliness and short presented in Table 1. Table 1. Mean characteristics ~f parents used to form the synthetic population. Days to Plant Head 1000 seed Seed• Seed oil Parents flowering height diameter weight yield content ! cm) ! cm) ( g) (tLhaJ (~; Giza-1 85.5 383.2 20.9 96.45 3.06 29.59 Maiak 75.5 362.3 15.5 67.50 1.51 38.20 varietal cross 83.0 432.6 19. 0 85.55 2.36 33.~C !SEA 75.0 304.5 19. 5 85.00 2.61 42.89 VN-03 58.0 168.5 18.4 62 .10 1. 13 41.23 VN-04 60.0 193.0 18.0 77. 5 2.07 42.24 VN-05 49.5 92.0 7.0 56.60 0.52 33. 11 Citesol 68.5 216.0 17. 5 85.00 1.91 42. 18 Land race 82.5 453.2 21.9 91.80 4.33 23.54 Land race 81.0 453.8 23.0 91.25 3.46 22.73 Land race 83.0 410.0 23.5 98.75 3.90 25.05 Formation of base synthetic grouped: population Group (I): included the earlier MOre than 100 healthy plants per crosses with high oil parent were selected for selfing by yield. inducing the plants to form two Group (II):included medium maturing branches (6). Selfing was continued crosses with high oil for two seasons fa 11 and summer). yield. Visual selection was manipulated in the field. After harvest, heads with Equal quantities of seed from crosses higher seed yield and oil content in selected in each group (Synthetic O) each parent were kept. S2 of female were mixed, irrespective of their parents were sown 15 days earlier seed color, to form Synthetic-1. than male pa rents and we re treated Syn-1 from group I was assigned to by GA3 as a gametoc i de when heads the Agronomy Department, Suez Canal were one cm. in diameter. Crosses Univ. while, that from group II was between males and females were done my responsibility for further by hand. Half the seed of each cross improvements. I will restrict myself was evaluated in two diverse in the rest of my presentation to locations (Giza and Ismalia) in the improvements made with respect to summer of 1986. CRosses that showed group II. less plant height, larger heads, absence of natural disease symptoms, Data in Table 2 show the ranges among bird resistance and morphological the crosses from which we selected characteristics such as: drooping the ones that composed Syn-1. heads, lightness of seeds, more It is obvious that taller plants concave heads and bracts that extend dominated the crosses. Thus, one of over the head, were selected in the the objectives is to increase gene field. Based on the harmony in frequencies for shortness. However, flowering date, crosses with high it seems a difficult task from the seed yield or oil content were experience with my synthetic 163 population so far. Table 2 shows achene yield per plant and oil also transgressive segregations for percentage. Table 2. Range among the crosses, 1ode and percentages of frequencies among the sunflower crosses, below or above the mode class. Percentage of fr~guencies Character Range Mode below modal above modal class class Number of leaves/plant• 19-59 34.39 50. 79 37. 30 Plant height (cm.) 127-375 257.21 32.59 35.56 Head diameter (cm.) 12-27 19.46 42.31 41.02 Achene yield (g/plant) 77-307 143. 36 51.13 34.47 Oi 1 content (I) 13.3-48.5 30.00 27.47 56.04 * Ranges for number of leaves among male and female parents were 7-39 and 17-46, respectively. To increase gene frequencies for the Table 3. Field performance of six sub-populations desired characters, I began a after one cycle of recurrent selection recurrent slection program. In in synthetic-1, summer 1989. Zambia, a recurrent selection program was manipulated using a composite and Sub Plant Head Achene it was possible to increase the population height diameter yield potential yield from 1.5 to 2.5 mt/ha (cm) (cm) (gLfeddan) and the oil content from 28-32% to A 342. 17 17.09 26.18 35-44% on a country wide basis (3). B 314.03 17.60 24.38 The experiment revealed the c 290. 10 18.06 28. 11 advantages of local breeding D 342.20 18.78 29.06 programs. E 328.53 17. 43 25.51 F 343.70 17.09 25. 19 In my recurrent selection program, I tested the general combining ability using a weak tester for the these populations via population characters in question (p < 0.5). improvement. With this procedure, Thus, to screen the population for populations of plants are dynamic high achene yield, I used var Maiak gene pools, to which new sources of as a tester. By contrast, to screen germplasm are added when feasible, for oil content in the population, I in which the frequencies of desired used var. Giza-1 (oil content about alleles are progressively increased 30% only) as a tester. Select ion through recurrent selection, in which pressure of performance in the field genetic recombination is enhanced by and achene yield was 10% but about 1% massive hybridization among selected was retained after oil analysis. genotypes, and from which cultivars, inbred or parental lines can be After one cycle of recurrent extracted at any stage (2). Indeed, selection, the synthetic population it had been also suggested (1) that was divided into six sub-populations a breeder who wants to start a based on achene yield, oil content or population breeding program should oil yield and seed color (black, spend 3. 5 years evaluating and white or striped). Performance of selecting plant materials from the six sub-populations (mean of five l oca 11 y adapted and exotic sources replications) is presented in Table for inclusion in the population. 3. These suggestions are consistent with the present breeding work. I hope to continue in developing 164 References Cited 4. Shabana, R. 1982. An approach for breeding an ideotype of sunflower for irrigated area. 7th 1. Eberhart, S.A., M.N. Harrison, and F. Ogada. Inter. Cong. Stat. Comp. Sci. Soc. & 1967. A comprehensive breeding system. Der Demographic Res. Vol. 6: 275-293. Ziichter 37:169 - 174. 5. and S. Abo -K had rah S. 19 83. 2. Frey, K.J. 1983. Plant population management Contribution of. growth duration and growth and breeding. A.S.A and CSSA ed. Crop characters to variation in seed yield of Breeding. P. 81. sunflower under selection. The 1st conf. 3. Mwala, M.S., B.H. Lubozhya, V. Eylands, Agric. Bot. Sci. 27-28 April: 74-85. P.Lepoint and B. Chimbwe. 1988. Sunflower 6. Skoric, D. 1968. Ispitivanje metoda za research program in Zambia: Present state and dobivanje veceg procenta samooplodnje U So achievements. Pree. of the 4th Oi 1 craps generaciji kod Suncokreta. M.Sc. Thesis, Network Workshop, Kenya. IDRC MR 205e (A.Omran Faculty of Agric. Novi Sad, Yugoslavia. ed.): 130-136. 165 RESPONSE OF SUNFLOWER AND ASSOCXATED WEEDS TO SOME SXNGLE AND TANK MXXED HERBXCXDES 1 A-F-Xbra.h"i111 • Z-R- Veh"ia.2 • H-r- E"'l-Wek"i"'l2) and E.O. Abuste"it1 Abstract Two field experiments were carried out during 1985 and 1986 seasons at the Farm of Sids Agric. Res. Station, A.R.C., Ministry of Agric. (Egypt), to study the effect of six herbicides applied in a single or tank mixtures applications as well as hand-hoeing treatment on sunflower plants and associated weeds under Egyptian conditions. Pendimethalin, alachlor, linuron, prometryn, terbutryn and chlorobromuron at 2.04, 2.304, 1.2, 1.92, 2.88 and 1.2 kg a. i/ha, respectively) were applied pre emergence in single applications. Pendimethal in and alacholor were combined with 1inuron, prometryn, terbutryn and chlorobromuron at the same rates in the tank mixed treatments. The untreated check was left without weed removal throughout the growing season. Pendimethalin in single or in tank mixed treatments with terbutryn, prometryn and linuron as well as hand-hoeing treatment gave the highest control of narrow weeds, while excellent effectiveness against broad-leaved weeds was obtained by terbutryn and prometryn in mixture with pendimethal in. Whereas, pendimethalin applied in mixtures with terbutryn and prometryn provided the most effective control of the total weeds and gave significantly higher seed yield of sunflower as well as other yield components. The full paper is published in: Assiut Journal of Agricultural Sciences, Vol. 19(2), 1988: 112-124. 1) Agron. Dept., Fae. of Agric., Cairo Univ., Giza, Egypt. 21 weed Control Res. Oept., A.R.C., Giza, Egypt. 166 REPORT ON SUNFLOWER PRODUCTION XN DAKAHLXA GOVERNORATE, EGYPT S.E. E"1-Ka"1"1a. Sunflower (He7ianthus annuus L.) is highest seed and oil considered the second most important yields/faddan (1 faddan = 4200 source of vegetable oil in the world, m2 ). Sowing sunflower at a second only to soybean. There are two space of 25 cm between hills and types of sunflower, the oi 1-types and 60 cm between ridges gave the non oi 1-types. Seeds of oil type highest seed and oil cultivars contain 38 - 50% oil and yields/faddan, Tables 1 and 2. 14 - 19% protein. The treatment having 45 kg N/faddan and sowing plants at a Sunflower is adapted to a wide range space of 25 cm between hills was of soil and climatic conditions. It recommended for ra 1 sing can be planted over a rather wide sunflower productivity, Table 3 range of dates. It is considered more and 4. Despite higher oil drought tolerant than most crops and content of the variety Maiak, it can therefore, be grown in most was inferior to Giza-1 in seed drought-prone regions and performs and oil yields (2). better than such crops as corn and soybean. Sunflower can be 2. Raising nitrogen rates up to 40 economically grown in the newly kg N/faddan, significantly reclaimed soils at northern parts of increased seed yields (1). Egypt which can not be planted with Phosphorus showed a relatively other crops such as corn or soybean. large positive effect on all studied characters, Table 5. Sunflower is relatively a new crop in the Egyptian agriculture and 3. It was al so reported that early production aspects are not well sowing (1 8 t week of May) favoured understood. Thus, more care should growth parameters, seed oil be given to this crop for increasing content as well as seed and oil its productivity to minimize the gap yields (3). Nitrogen application between the production and significantly increased growth consumption of vegetable oil. Most characteristics, as well as seed of high yielding oil varieties are and oil yields. The imported and need to be evaluated recommendation was that under the Egyptian circumstances. The sunflower should be sown at the proper cultural practices also need first week of May with 45, 31 to be well recognized through and 24 kg/faddan of N, P 2 O5 and continuous researches that must be K2 0, respectively (3). done in the newly reclaimed soils in North Delta. Beside the bird damage, one of the major problems threatening sunflower Under the environmental conditions, production in Dakahlia Governorate of El-Mansoura province, little is the ignorance of sunflower investigations were conducted during producers to use the suitable the last decade, and came to the cultural practices that increase following conclusinons: sunflower productivity under the newly reclaimed soil conditions. 1. The response of two sunflower varieties to plant spacing and The most limiting factors for nitrogen rate was studied (2). sunflower production which need to It was reported that adding 45 be studied are: kg N/faddan, resulted in the 167 Table 1. Mean seed yield (kg/faddan) of sunflower cultivars as affected by nitrogen levels and plant spacings, 1978 and 1979. Cul ti vars Giza-1 Maiak Treatments 1978 1979 1978 1979 A. Nitrogen levels il.9.Lf addan): 0 1048. 7 a+ 868. 1 a 839.5 a 960.7 a 15 1308.7 b 1104. 8 b 1044.9 b 819.5 b 30 1497. 7 c 1296.0 c 1098. 7 b 951. a c 45 1716.5 d 1496.9 d 1257.7 c 1027.6 d F Test ** ** ** ** B. Plant spacing (cm): 25 1477.Sa 1351.3 a 1180. 1 a 1006. 1 a 35 1366.6 a 1161.~ b 1041.2 b 854.0 b 45 1334.7 b 1061. 9 c 959.4 c 757.0 c F Test * u u u +Numbers followed by the same letter are not significantly different at 0.05 level. *,** Significant at .05 and .01 levels. Table 2. Mean oil yield (kg/faddan) of sunflower cultivars as affected by nitrogen levels and plant spacings, 1978 and 1979. Cultivars Giza-1 Ma1ak Treatments 1978 1979 1978 1979 A. Nitro_g_e_n_levels li.9.LW.d.~J: 0 328.48 a+ 295.83 a 327.90 a 303.18 a 15 420.32 b 351.50 ab 408. 12 b 351.43 b 30 439.53 b 387.22 be 420.42 b 401.37 c 45 470.23 b 454.93 c 461.58 b 422.75: F Test * * t ** B. Plant sgacing (cm): 25 455.39 a 421.20 a 435.91 a 428.20 a 35 394.84 b 363.21 b 398.09 b 361.40 b 45 393.70 b 322. 71 c 379.51 b 326.95 c F Test u u ** +Numbers followed by the same letter are **not significantly different at 0.05 level. *•** Sifnificant at .05 and .01 levels. Table 3. Mean seed yield (kg/faddan) of sunflower var'.ety Mayak as affected by the interaction of nitrogen level (kg/faddan) and plant spacings (cm between hills) I 1979, Nitrogen levels Plant spacings (cm) (kg/faddan) 25 35 45 o 762.7 d+ 690.5 b 618.9 a 15 922.1 hi 813.5 ef 722.C: c 30 1140.2 k 908.5 h 806.6 e 45 1199.5 1 1003.3 j 879.8 g +Numbers followed by the same letters are not signif1can~ly different at 0.05 level. 168 Table 4. Mean oil yield (kg/feddan) of sunflower var. Majak as affected by the interaction of nitrogen and plant spacing, 1978 and 1979. Plant spa~cml Nitrogen levels 1978 1979 (kg/faddanl 25 35 45 25 35 45 o 322.9 a+ 328.9 a 321.9 a 333.9 b 296.7 b 279.0 a 15 413.0 be 402.9 be 408.5 be 396.2 de 359.0 be 329.2 ab 30 501.1 d 409.9 be 350.3 ab 489.0 f 374.4 cd 340.7 be 45 496.7 d 450.7 cd 437.4 cd 493.8 f 415.5 e 358.9 be +Number followed by the sa~e letters are not significantly different at 0.05 level. Table 5. Effect of nitrogen and phosphorous levels on sunflower characters, 1979 and 1980. C H A R A c T E R s Seed weight 1000-seed seed yield Oil content per head [ gl weight (g) [ kgLf ad.) (Sl Treat~ent 1979 1980 1979 1980 1979 1980 1979 1980 Nitrogen levels_: ~: (without N) 56.3 49.3 73.9 70.4 1049 861 32.9 33.4 N,: 20 Kg N/fad. 68 .1 60. 1 78 .1 74.2 1356 1115 31.8 32.2 ~: 40 Kg N/fad. 77 .8 71. 3 84.0 79.0 1540 1261 30. 1 31.6 F-test ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** H.S.D at .01 level 0.7 1.8 1. 9 0.5 32 10 0.3 0.3 Phosphorus levels: P0: (without Phos.) 63.6 57.8 76.8 73.3 1251 1069 31. 9 32.3 P 1 :15kgP 2 ~ 67.2 60.2 78.8 74.6 1328 1079 31.6 32. 1 P2: 30 kg P2 05 71. 1 63.1 80.4 75.8 1367 1089 31.4 31.8 F-test ** ** ** ** ** ** H.S.D. SS 0.5 **1. 4 1.5 0.4 25 8** 0.2 0.2 oa 0.7 1.8 1. 9 0.5 32 10 0. 3 0.3 **Significant at .01 level. 1. Selecting the high yielding References cultivars, the suitable planting dates and the proper plant 1. El-Kalla, S.E. and A.T. El-Kassaby. 1981. population and distribution. Effect of nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers on growth, yield and oil content of sunflower. 2. Determining sunflower J.Agric. Sci., Mansoura Univ., Egypt. 6:781- requirements for N P K 789. fertilizers as well as micro 2. Leilah, A.A. 1981. Response of some sunflower nutrients. varieties to certain cultural treatments. M.Sc. Thesis, Fae. of Agric., Mansoura University, 3. Raising fertilizer efficiency Egypt. through proper time and method 3. Sultan, M.S.; A.N. Attia and A.A. Leilah 1988. of application. Response of sunf l ewer (He 1i an thus annuus, L. ) 4. Searching for suitable methods to sowing dates and N P K fert i 1i zat ion. J. of weed, pest, disease and bird Agric. Sci., Mansoura Univ., Egypt, 13(1):1-8. control. 169 STUDXES ON DXALLEL CROSS XN SUNFLCJtlllER (HEL:CANTHUB- ANNUU.S L) Kha"'lad Hammad The acute shortage of edible oil in (Helianthus annuus) populations per Egypt leads to a great deal of se and their diallel crosses with concern to the production of respect to the type of gene act ion different oil crops, especially for agronomic and technological sunflower. Increasing yield and oil characters. The parents are: Giza-1, content is one of the important Mayak, Int. 763, Int. 764, Int. 797 objectives in sunflower breeding. The and Int. 800, Table 1. main objective of this investigation is to evaluate six sunflower Table 1. Origin and major characteristics of the parental cultivars•. Days to Plant Diameter Yield/ 100-seed Oil Husk No. Cultivars Na11e Origin flowering height Head Stem ~lant weight (I) (~ l 1 Giza-1 Girasol white G1 Turkey Very late Tall Big Thick High Heavy Low High 2 Ma yak Ma yak Bulgaria Late Medium Medium Medium Medium High Low 3 Int. 763 Argent- Italy Medium Short Medium Medium aria 4 Int. 764 Ala Medium 5 Int. 797 Ami ata Early 6 Int. 800 Al pi an Medium Short Thin •These cultivars were kindly supplied from the Oil Crops Research Sections, Field Crops Research Institute, Agricultural Research Center, Giza. The investigation was carried out at 1argest positive effect indicating the Nubaria Research Station and the that they have the longest number of analyses were performed using model days to flowering. The other 2 of Griffing's method. Parents and cultivars possessed negative F1 plants were grown in a randomized estimates, with cultivar Int. 800, complete block design with 4 possessing the 1argest negative replications. estimate. The results are presented in Tables Plant height: Positive estimates were 2 and 3. It is shown that the largest deteced for the two cultivars, Giza- portion of genetic variation was due 1 and Mayak. The other introduced to the additive variance. For all cult ivars exhibited negative characters, the results revealed that estimates. The g.c.a. effect for Int. the additive genetic variance was the 763 was not significant. largest component of the genetic variance while non-additive was also Head diameter: Significant positive present in small magnitude. effect was recorded for the cultivars Giza-1, Mayak and Int.800, negative General combining ability (g.c.a) estimates were recorded for the other cultivars, but the two estimates of Days to flowering: From Table 4, it Int.763and 797were not significant. could be seen that significant g.c.a. effects were obtained for all Stem diameter: g.c.a. effects were traits. The two cultivars, Giza-1, highly significant for all cultivars and Mayak have proved to possess the while the effect in the introduced 170 Table 2. Mean performance of the different parents and their crosses for the characters studied. No. of days to Plant Head Stem Yield/ 100-seed Entries flowering height dia. dia. plant weight Oi 1 Husk ( Cll) ! cm) [cm) ! g) ( g) (I) (I} P1 79.25 222.43 21. 71 3.06 92.04 9.37 28.59 37.36 P2 67. 14 193.38 19.55 2.50 67.00 7.85 41. 61 26.42 P3 61. 66 123 .18 17.04 2.00 53.97 7. 15 37.65 27.39 P4 61. 60 134.36 16.35 1.86 58.73 7.64 36.87 29.51 P5 59.84 149. 28 17.76 2.04 60.91 7. 51 33.06 27.71 P5 62.83 121. 08 17.00 1.75 53.85 7.53 33.01 29.65 P1 x P2 65.24 230.93 22.38 3.01 122. 18 10.45 30.92 34.89 x P3 64.36 246.36 24.49 3. 16 141. 84 10.85 30.84 36 .44 x P4 65. 14 233.33 22.63 2.83 104.56 8.85 30. 15 35.32 x P5 65.29 237.43 23.70 3.30 125.51 9.99 30.34 36.73 i( p 6 63.46 226.45 22. 19 2.94 111.93 9.42 33.32 33.76 P2 x P3 65.45 213.24 21. 70 2.83 112.50 8.96 37.60 30.42 x P4 69 .10 209.75 21.86 2.82 92.09 8. 14 36.76 28.73 x P5 60.54 191. 13 22.55 2.98 85.74 9.27 37. 18 25.95 x P6 63.43 209.39 21. 58 2.86 99.99 8.47 39.32 28.88 P3 x P4 55.31 172.84 19.30 2.52 62.67 8. 10 34.97 28.94 i( p~ 59.65 171. 65 20.75 2.38 79.53 7.99 38.01 25.87 x Ps 54.34 172.80 19.60 2.46 69. 17 8. 15 37.49 26.65 p4 x P5 64.01 185.39 20.26 2.47 75.05 8.52 38. 19 26.55 x P6 50.26 150. 28 19.30 2.23 76.79 9.07 32. 61 31. 16 P5 x P6 55.43 150. 06 17.83 02. 11 64.50 7. 91 35.45 27.01 L.S.O. 0.05 2.46 21. 42 2. 19 0.33 19.97 0.94 4.28 3.01 0.0! 3.51 28.49 2. 91 0.43 26.56 1.25 5.66 3.99 P1: Giza-1, P2 : Mayak, P3 : Int.763, P4 : Int.764, P5 : Int.797, P6 : Int.800. Table 3. Mean squares for entries, combining ability and error variance for the studied characters using Griffing's Method-2. No. of days to plant Head Stem Yield/ 100-seed s.c.v. d.f flowering height diam. diam. plant weight Oil Husk (cm) (cml (cm) !g) !g) {SJ {SI Reps 3 96.15** 3398.72** 18.73** 0.78** 721.79** 3.197** 45. 30** 16.70* Entries 20 136.00** 6134.06** 21.58** 0.81** 2684.52** 4.09** 52.10** 57.76** g.c.a. 5 86. 78** 3983.05** 13. 17** 0.50** 1493.65** 2. 83** 40. 52** 48. 13** s.c.a 15 16.65** 717.04** 3.66** 0. 12* 396.99** 0.46 3.87 2.88* E 60 0.87 57.36 0.60 0.01 49.86 0.11 2.26 1. 13 Error 60 3.49 229.43 2.39 0.05 199.4 0.46 9.03 4.52 g.c.a. :s.c.a 5. 2: 1 5. 6; 1 3. 6: 1 4.8: 1 3.8:1 4. 2: 1 10. 5: 1 16. 7: I **Significant at 0.01 level,* Significant at 0.05 level. cultivars was negative and possessed the highest value. significant. 100-seed weight: Significant g.c.a. effects were found for Gi za-1, Int. 76 Yield: Gi za-1 and Ma yak possessed the and Int. 800. highest positive effect. The other cultivars possessed insignificant or Oil content: Significant negative negative estimates. Also Giza-1 effects were calculated for Giza-1. 171 Mayak and Int.763 possessed Crosses with Mayak also showed significant positive effects, while significant s.c.a. effects except estimates for the other cultivars with Int.797, other crosses were of were not significant. inconsistent trend. Husk percentage: Highly significant Head diameter: s.c.a effects were g.c.a. effect was found for Giza-1. significant for the crosses Giza-1 Significant negative effects were with each of Int. 763, 764 and 797; also detected for Mayak, Int.763 and Mayak with each of Int. 764, 797, Int.797. 800; and Int. 797 X Int. 800. Finally, it could be concluded that Stem diameter: Significant s.c.a. Gi za-1 and Mayak proved to possess effects were recorded for the the highest values of g.c.a. effects crosses: Giza-1 with each of Int. for most of the characters studied. 764, 797, and 800; Ma yak with each These two varieties could be included of Int. 764, 797 and 800. in the breeding program to utilize their superior characters. Yield/plant: Significant s.c.a. effects were found for the crosses Specific combining ability (s.c.a): Giza-1 with each of Int. 763, and 797; and Mayak X Int. 800. Days to flowering: Table 5 shows that significant s.c.a effects were Oil content: Negative and significant obtained for the crosses Giza-1 by s.c.a. effects were calculated for each of Mayak, Int.763 and 800. The the crosses Giza-1 X Mayak and Int. cultivar Mayak, however, has proved 763 X Int. 800. Positive and to be good combiner for this significant estimates, however, were character. calculated for the crosses Giza-1 X Int. 800 and Int.797 X Int. 764. Plant height: s.c.a. effects showed significant estimates for the Husk percentage: s.c.a. effects were crosses cf Gi za-1 with each of the significant for the crosses Giza-1 other cultivars except Mayak. with each of Int. 763 and 797 and Mayak with each of Int. 763 and 764. Tab1e 4. General :cmbiring 3bi'ity effects for a11 the characters studied using Griffing's ~ethod-2. No. cf days tc plant Head Stem Yield/ 100-seec 14,,-• varieties flowering height diam. diam. plant weight Qi 1 .,y;)f\ (cm) ~cm) :cm) ( g) ( 9) ( %l :%.: Giza-1 5. 739** 38.05** 1. 95** 0.915U 2B .20** 0. 982** -5.48** 5.4CU Ma yak 2. mu 15. 79** 0. 75** c. 323** 4.~3 0.068 3. rn u-ueu Introduced 763 -1. 705U -11.46** -0.41 -0. 086U -4.97 -0.256* 1.82* -0.36* 764 -1.771** -11.83** -0.89** -0. 181** -10.38** -0.305** 0.40 -0.66 797 -! .433** -10.00u -0.32 -0.089U -6.66* -0.213 c.oc -1,75U 800 -2.951** -20.47U 1.09** -0.382** -10. 72** -0.290U -0. 1360 -0. 53 S.E 0.30 2.440 0.249 0.0375 2.719 0. 1'.3 0.485 o. 243 C.D. (0.05) 0.592 4.780 0.486 0.0735 5.329 0.220 c. 95, c.n C. D. (O .01) 0.776 6.270 0.640 0.097 6.987 0. 290 1.245 :.m 172 Table 5. Specific combining ability effects for the characters studied using Griffing's Method-2. No. of days to Plant Head Stem Yield/ 100-seed Cross flowering height diam. diam. plant weight Oil Husk (cm) (cm) (cm) ( g) (g) (I) (I) P1 x P2 -4.92** 10.76 -0.78 -0. 17 5.48 0. 76** -2.77* 0.99 x P3 -1.97** 31.92** 2.49** 0.25* 33.65** 1. 49** 1.25 2.02* x P4 -1. 13 19.25** 1. 11* 0.02 1. 97 -0.46 -1. 94 0.40 x P5 -1. 31 21. 61 ** 1.61* 0.40** 20. 00** 0. 59** -0.53 3. 21** x P6 -1.63 21. 02* 0.87 0.20* 9.79 0.09 2.48* -0. 10 P2 x P3 2. 74 21.05* 0.90 0.16 25.03** 0.51* -1.27 2.27** x p4 1.45* 17. 94** 1. 55** 0. 24** 10.68 -0.26 0.62 0.08 x Pc -2.45** -2.30 1.67** 0. 31 1. 41 0. 78** -0.57 -1. 30 x p6" -1.96 26.23** 1.46** 0. 34** -14.02* -0.06 1.70 0.39 P3 x P4 -3.51* 9.28 0.14 9.21* -10.24 0.03 -1.58 -0.23 x P5 0.50 5.35 1. 02 -0.02 3.52 0.17 1.86 -0.99 x P6 -3.30** -28.12** -.64 0.21* -3.30 0.07 1. 47 -0.60 P4 x P5 4.92* 19.45** 1.02 0. 16 4.83 0.41 2.76* -1.62* x P6 -7.43** -5.39 0.82 0.08 9.93 1.04** -2.69* -1.66* P5 x P6 -2.49* -7.23 -1.23** -0. 14 5.28 -0.22 0.55 -1. 09 S.E 0.684 5.543 0.565 0.985 6. 167 0.256 1. 099 0.778 C.D (0.05) 1. 340 10.86 1. 107 0.166 12.087 0.502 2.154 1. 525 C. D( 0 .01) 1. 758 14.246 1. 446 0.218 15.849 0.658 2.824 1.999 P1 : Giza-1, P2 : Mayak, P3: Int.763, P4 : Int.764, P5: Int.797, P6 : Int.800. * = Significant at 0.05 level, ** = Significant at 0.01 level. ( 4) 173 EFFECT OF SOME XNTERCROPPXNG PATTERNS OF SUNFLOWER/SOYBEAN ON VXELD. VXELD COMPONENTS AND LAND USAGE ZN EGYPT M - A. Ma.cH In Egypt, there is a big gap between complete block design with four the demand for edible oils and oil rep 1i cat i ans. Phosphorus fertilizer 1. production, Tab 1e So, high oi 1seed was added at a rate of 30 kg P 2 05 yield per unit area becomes of prime /faddan ( 1 faddan = 4200 m2 during importance to meet the increasing seed bed preparation and N at 60 demand and the lack of arable land. kg/faddan in split application; the first half at sunflower sowing and Table 1. Production and consumption gap in edible the second at thinning. The plots oil crops. were irrigated every two weeks. Oil Oil Produc. The experiments were planted in produc. conSU11p. gap l Self highly productive clay loam soil at Season (M. Tl (M. Tl (M. Tl suffi ciencv pH 7. 5 and the preceding crop was 1981/82 115,000 429 I ODO 314,000 26,8 onion and wheat in 1982 and 1983 1986/87 120.000 637.000 517 I ODO 18,8 respectively. The treatments were: In the o 1d 1ands, we have to p1 ant 1. Solid planting of soybean major crops such as cotton, maize, ( 140, 000 p1 ants/fad) using the rice, etc. The new lands ought to be optimum population for high planted with oi lcrops and/or production. intercropped with the major crops. 2. Solid planting of sunflower (23,333 plants/fad) using the Intercroppi ng systems practiced by optimum population for high farmers generally produce more total production. yields per unit area than sole 3. Pattern I: One side ridge of cropping systems. It has been pointed soybean (140,000 plants/fad.), out, by many investigators, that a alternating with one ridge of yield advantage of 20 - 50% is sunflower one plant/per hill commonly obtained by intercropping. (23,333 plants/fad). 4. Pattern II: Soybean on both Two field experiments were conducted sides of one ridge (280,000 during 1982 and 1983 crop seasons at plants/fad.), alternating with Sids Agric. Research Station, Middle one ridge of sunflower, one Egypt, to study the effect of eight plant/hill. intercropping patterns and solid 5. Pattern III: Two ridges of planting on yield and other soybean on one side alternating characters of soybean (G7ycin Max L. with two ridges of sunflower, one Merr.) variety Calland and sunflower plant/hill. (He7ianthus annuus L.) variety Maiak 6. Pattern IV: Two ridges of . Soybean was planted on May 20 and soybean on two sides alternating 25, 1982 and 1983 crop seasons, with two ridges of sunflower, one respectively. Three weeks later, plant/hill. sunflower was planted. Soybean was 7. Pattern V: One side ridge of harvested on Sept. 22 and 25, 1982 soybean, alternating with one and 1983, while sunflower was ridge of sunflower, two harvested on sept. 24 and 30, 1982 plants/hill (46,666 plants/ha). and 1983, respectively. 8. Pattern VI: One ridge of soybean on both sides, alternating with Plots were made up of 8 ridges, 4 X one ridge of sunflower, two 2 4. 8 m , arranged in randomized plants/hill. 174 9. Pattern VII: Two ridges of Where, soybean on one side, alternating Zab = sown proportion of species with two ridges of sunflower, two (a) (in mixture with (b)). plants/hill. zba = sown proportion of species 10. Pattern VIII: Two ridges of (b) (in mixture with (a)). soybean on two sides, al te rnat i ng with two ridges of sunflower, two Aggressivity usually denoted by 'A' plants/hill. also assumes that mixtures form a replacement series and gives a simple Calculation of land Equivalent Ratio measure whether the relative yield CLER) has been a common practice in increase in species a is greater intercropping studies (6). LER is than that of species (b)(3): determined as the sum of fractions of the yields of the intercrop relative to their crop yields, as depicted in the formula below. It is usually y aa x Zab y bb x zba assumed that the "level of where, Aab is the aggressivity value management" must be the same for of species (a) in combination with intercropping as for the solid (b). cropping. LER = + + y bb x zba y aa x zab where, Aba is the aggressivity value of species (b) in combination with Where, (a). Yab = mixture yield of species (a) in combination with (b). The results could be summarized as Yaa = pure stand yield of species follows: (a) Yba = mixture yield of species 1. Most intercropping patterns (b) in combination with (a) reduced the yield components Ybb = pure stand yield of species (pods/plant, seed/plant and 100- (b). seed weight) of soybean. The best result was obtained from pattern Relative Crowding Coefficient (RCC), 5 ( 35 pods/pl ant and 74 assumes that mixture treatments form seeds/plant) compared with a replacement series ( 1). Each soybean in pure stand, Table 2. species has its own coefficient (k), which gives a measure of whether that 2. Pure stand of soybean signi species has produced more or less ficantly out yielded inter yield than expected. cropped. Intercropping soybean at high population produced higher seed yields compared with soybean at low population, Table (Yaa-Yab)X Zab 2. for species (a) (in a mixture with species (b)). 3. Some intercropping patterns recorded higher oil contents in Similarly for species (b) (in a soybean seeds than solid mixture with species (a)), it can be planting, Table 3. calculated as follows: 4. Intercropping Sunflcwer/ soybean, Ki,a = specially at low population of sunflower increased stem and head Diameters of sunflower, but 175 number of leaves/plant was not 7. Most intercropping patters of affected whereas husk percentage sunflower/soybean increased LER. of sunflower was reduced. The land usage has been increased in 7 patterns out of 8 depending 5. Intercropping patterns at low on the tow seasons average. Best pop u1 at i o n of s u nf 1 owe r LER values were obtained when increased seed yield/plant of both crops were grown at higher sunflower compared with solid population densities, Table 4. planting and other intercropping patterns, Table 3. 8. The RCC/(K) value of inter cropping was greatly influenced 6. In general, intercropping re by population densities of both duced seed yield significant 1y intercrop components. k value as a result of the reduction in reached its maximum where both actual area grown. On the other crops were intercropped at higher hand, the yield per unit area at population, Table 5. dense sunflower population was significantly higher than that 9. Aggressivity (A) as an average of lower population. At high of both seasons showed that in population of sunflower plants, soybean/ su nf lower mix tu re, oil content was favorably sunflower was the dominant affected by intercropping, Table component in 6 out of 8 patterns, 3. Table 6. Table 2. Effect of intercropping patterns of Cal land soybean (with Maiak sunflower) on the field, yield components and other characters average of 1982 and 1983 seasons. IntercroD~ing ~atterns Soybean Solid Characters ~lanting I II III IV v VI VII VIII L.S.D Leaf Area Index (LAI) 4.78 4.92 7.40 5.47 7. 14 5.73 6.86 5.24 6.56 0.34 Plant height, (cm.) 86.50 70.70 80.30 72.80 69.40 72.40 75.80 65.30 75. 10 3.60 No. of branches/pl. 2.20 1.33 1.44 1.93 1.69 1.26 1.85 2. 15 1.43 0.25 No. of pod/pl. 34.98 32.98 33.68 32.53 27.23 35.98 32.49 30.30 27.84 2.55 No. of seeds/ p1. 67. 15 67.41 58.23 66.43c 58.71 74.00 60. 16 63.30 58.06 4.23 100-seed wt., (g). 17. 14 17. 19 14.09 17.50 14.34 15.69 13.62 16.68 14.48 0.50 Seed yield/pl. (g). 11. 66 11.67 7. 66 11.48 8. 12 11.37 8.42 10.41 8.25 0.66 Seed yield, kg/fad* 1125.00 538.00 713.00 533.00 724.00 542.00 724.00 522.00 709.00 46.00 Relative yield(I) 100.00 48.00 63.00 47.00 65.00 48.00 64.00 46.00 63.00 Protein (I) 34.61 33. 18 32.44 33.08 32.58 32.48 32.61 31.81 32.59 0.68 * Actual yield. 176 Table 3. Effect of intercropping patterns of Maiak sunflower (with Cal land soybean) on the yield, yield components and other characters: average of 1982 and 1983 seasons. Intercro~ging ~atterns Soybean Solid Characters glanting II III IV v VI VII VIII L. s. 0 Leaf Area Index (LAI) 4.55 5.43 6.24 5.95 5.23 8.64 9.83 9.25 9.75 0.42 Plant height, (cm.) 180.9 178.0 173.7 177. 5 176.6 174.4 171. 9 169.9 181. 9 5.20 Stem diameter, (cm.) 1.99 2.05 1.83 2. 12 1.63 1.56 1.67 1.67 1.87 0. 10 No. of 1eaves/p1. 28.4 27.7 27.0 28. 1 29.3 26.8 27. 7 26.6 28.9 1. 60 Head diameter, (cm.) 19.08 20. 11 19. 91 19.33 20.78 16.95 16.94 16. 91 16.98 0.94 Husk (% ) 24.05 23.28 22.94 21.94 22.99 20.89 20.88 23.90 24.41 0.93 100-seed wt., (g) 6.98 7.52 7.15 6.76 7.99 6.88 7.04 6.64 7.54 0.58 Seed yield/pl.(g) 34.42 40.66 35.89 35.45 38.47 24.78 24.35 27. 54 27.67 2.65 Seed yield (kg/fad) 782.00 462.00 408.00 403.00 437.00 563.00 553.00 625.00 629.00 49.00 Relative yield (%) 100.00 59.00 52.00 52.00 56.00 72.00 71. 00 80.00 80.00 Oi 1 (%) 41. 90 42.91 43.38 43 .12 44.07 43.73 44.48 43.13 42.97 0.55 * Actual yield. Table 4. Land equivalent ratio (LER) fer intercropping Cal land soybean and Maiak sunflower in 8 different patterns of intercropping in 1982 and 1983 seasons. Intercro~~ing ~atterns Year II III IV v VI VII VIII 1982 L Soy. 0.48 0.63 0.48 0.66 0.48 0.63 0.46 0.62 L Sf 1. 0.62 0.52 0.53 0.56 0.73 0.70 0.83 0.80 LER 1. 10 1. 15 1.01 1.22 1.21 1.33 1.29 1.42 1983 L Soy. 0. 18 0.65 0.47 0.63 0.49 0.66 0.46 0.64 L Sf 1. 0.56 0.53 c. 51 0.56 0. 71 0.72 0.77 0.81 LER 1.04 1. 18 0.98 1. 14 1.20 1. 38 1.23 1. 45 2-Years average L Soy. 0.48 0.63 0.47 0.65 0.48 0.64 0.46 0.63 L Sf 1. 0.59 0. 52 0.52 0.56 0.72 0. 71 0.80 0.80 LER 1.07 1. 15 0.99 1.21 1.20 1. 35 1.26 0.43 L Soy = Land Equivalant Ratio For Cal land Soybeans in mixed stand. L Sf l = Land Equivalant Ratio For Maiak Sunflower in the mixed stand. LER = Land Equivalant Ratio For Cal land soybean and Maiak sunflower yields. 177 Table 5. Relative Crowding Coefficient (RCC) resulting from intercropping Cal land soybean and Maiak sunflower in 8 different patterns of intercropping in 1982 and 1983 seasons. lntercroDQing Qatterns Year II III IV v VI VII VIII 1982: KSoy. 0.91 1.71 0.92 1.97 0.91 1.70 0.87 1.64 KSf 1. 1.63 1.07 1. 11 1.29 2. 74 2.30 4.83 4.03 K. 1.48 1.83 1. 02 2.54 2.49 3.91 4.20 6.61 1983: KSoy. 0.92 1.75 0.88 1.73 0.97 1. 92 0.86 1.77 KSf 1. 1.28 1. 11 1.02 1.25 2.41 2.55 3.38 4.18 K. 1.18 1. 94 0.90 2. 16 2.34 4.90 2. 91 7.40 2-year average KSoy. 0.92 173.00 0.90 1.84 0.94 1. 81 0.87 1. 70 KSf 1. 1.44 1.09 1.06 1.27 2.57 2.33 3.93 4.11 K. 1.32 1.89 0.95 2.34 2.42 4.22 3.46 6.99 KSoy. Relative crowding coefficient for Cal land soybean in mixed stand. KSf 1. . . . . Maiak sunflower in mixed stand. K. Product of relative crowding coefficient ck soy. x k sfl. Table 6. Aggressivity values of intercropped Called soybean and Maiak sunflower in 8 different patterns of intercropping in 1982 and 1983 seasons. Intercrogging gatterns Year II III IV v VI VII \'I II 1982 ASoy -0.284 0.226 -0.095 0. 199 -0.513 -0. 132 -0.731 -0.359 ASf 1. 0.284 -0.226 0.095 -0 .199 0.513 0. 132 0.731 0.359 1983 A Soy -0. 168 -0.221 -0.080 0. 152 -0.431 -0. 120 -0.622 -0.359 ASf 1. 0. 168 0.221 0.080 -0. 152 0.431 0. 120 0.622 0.359 2-year average ASoy -0.226 0.224 -0.088 0.176 -0.472 -o.m -0.675 -C.350 ASf 1. 0.226 -0.224 0.088 -0. 176 0.472 0. 126 0.676 0.350 ASoy : Aggressivity value of soybean. ASf 1. : . . . sunflower. Bibliograghy Moshtohor, Vo 1. 24 (4). 5. Shafsak, S.E., El-Sayed Shaker, B.A. El-Ahmer, 1. Dewit, C.T. 1960. On competition. Verslag. and ~.A. Madkour. 1996. Studies on soybean and landbovwkundiga onderzoek, No.66: 1-82. (c.f. sunflower intercrcpping. 2- Interspecific Willey, R.W. 1979). competition. Annals of Asric. Sci., Moshtohor, 2. Madkour, M.A. 1985. Studies on intercropping Vol. 24(4). sunflower with soybean. Ph.D. Thesis, Fae. 6. Willey, R.W. 1979 a. Intercropping- its Agric. Moshtohor, Zagazig Univ., Egypt. importance and research needs. Part 1: 3. McGilchrist, C.A. 1965. Analysis of competition Competition and yield advantages. Field Creps experiments. Biometrics, 21:975-985. (c.f. Abst.32: 1-10. Willey, R.W. 1979). 7. . 1979 b. Intercropping- its 4. Shafsak, S.E., El-Sayed Shaker, B.A., El-Ahmer, importance and research needs. Part 2: Agronomy and M.A., Madkour. 1986. Studies on soybean and and research approaches. Field Crops Abst.32: sunflower intercropping. 1- Plant 73-85. characteristics, yield and yield components of soybean and sunflower. Annals of Agric. Sci., 178 SUNFLOWER DXSEASES XN EGYPT Ara.fa A- There are 14 known diseases of area may be of little significance sunflower (He7ianthus annuus, L) but in another because of differences in only 6 are commonly observed, Table environment or cultivars. Disease 1. We have contended with most of occurrence, prevalence, and severity the diseases recorded in the may differ from year to year. sunflower growing countries. The first known disease was rust Some of the sunflower diseases; (Puccinia he7ianthi Schwu.), which (charcoal rot, 1eaf spot, root-rot was recorded in 1931. Root-rot and rust) have been intensively incited by Sc7erotiumbatatico7a, and studied in Egypt. Whereas, little Rhizoctonia so7ani was reported on work has been done on the other sunflower in 1957. Other diseases diseases. Therefore, it is important were, however, observed between 1970 to determine the nature of these and 1988. diseases, and such factors as soi 1 and climatic conditions.Means for Diseases known to be present in one their control should also be area may not be found in others. established. Some destructive diseases in one Table 1. List of sunflower diseases in Egypt. Disease Pathogen Comment 1. Charcoal rot Machrophomina phaseo1ina Major disease 2. Rust Puccinia he1ianthi 3. Leaf spots [complex) Alternaria a1ternata Curvu1aria 1unata Drechslera rostrata D. spicifera U1oc1adium botrytis U. septosporu111 Botryodip1odia theopromae 4. Wi 1t Fusarium oxysporum Uncommon 5. Southern blight Sclerotium rolfsii Minor disease 6. Stalk and head rot 5c1erotinia sclerotiorum 7. Powdery mildew Erysiphe cichoracearum 8. Head rot Rhizopus arrhizus Heavy damage on Asperg i 11 us spp. short cultivars. 9. Root-rot (complex) Rhizoctonia so1ani Minor disease Pyth ium spp. Fusarium spp. 10. Verticillium wilt Vertici11ium dahliae 11. Gray rot Botrytis cinerea Scarce 12. Black stem Phoma oleraceae var. . Helianthi-tuberosi 13. Root-knot He1oidogyne spp. Heavy losses in sandy soil 14. Bacterial disease Pseudomonas so1anacerum Scarce 179 Charcoal rot as a major disease is Rhizoctonia so7ani, Pythium spp. and found in most of the growing areas Fusarium spp. Powdery mildew caused in Egypt, where damage ranges between by Erys iphe cichoracearum occurred on 5 and 80%. Symptoms of the disease late maturing sunflower. Several start to appear on 35-45 days old cases of Southern blight disease plants and are not usually apparent attributed to Sc7erotium ro7fsii were until after flowering. In infested observed in many fields, mainly in fields, dark discoloration on the Upper Egypt. Heavy infestation of outer surface of the stem basal parts root-knot nematodes (Me7oidogyne is predominant, and premature spp.) was reported on sunflower grown ripening and drying stalks which bear in sandy soil. poor heads are evident. Varieties Giza-1 and Giza-2 were more tolerant Selected References on Sunflower Diseases to the disease than the other tested in Egypt ones. The disease affects plant growth and reduces head diameter, 1. Abeu-Donia, S.a., A.H. El-Samadisy and A.A. total seed yield, 1000 seed weight, Hi lal. 1983. Laboratory evaluation of and oil content. Depending on different fungicides against Macrophamina environmental conditions and phasea1ina. Proc. 5th Arab Pesticides Conr. cultivars, the disease can cause 10- TantaUniv., Egypt, III: 12-21 (Egypt). 30% yield loss. Many trials were 2. El-Deeb, A.A., H.A. ~ohamed and A.A. Hi la1. carried out on the control of 1985. Studies on charcoal rot disease cf charcoal rot by applying fungicides sunf 1ow er in Egypt. 1st Nat. Conf. cf Pests and as seed dressing. Benomyl, Diseases of Vegetables &Flel~ Crops in Egypt, Thiophanate-methyl, Vitavax/Thiram Ismailia: 607-620. and Hamai at the rate of 3-5 g/kg 3. El-Samadisy, A.H., S.A. Abeu-Donia and A.A. seed gave efficient control of the Hi lal. 1983. Fungicidal seed treatments for disease. the control of charcoal stem rot of sunflower. Proc. 5th Arab Pesticides Conf. Tanta Univ., Rust is one of the major diseases of Egypt. Vol. III 1-13. sunflower in Egypt. It was 4. El-Waki 1, A.A. 1977. Studies on leaf spot anj frequently observed in different head rot diseases of sunflower in the A.R. governorates in the Delta, Middle Egypt., M. Sc. Thesis, Fae. Agric., Zagazig Egypt and as far south as Sohag. Univ., 95p. Moreover, it is prevalent in north 5. El-Zarka, A.H. 1976. The status ~f sunf1ower western areas and newly reclaimed as a promising oil :rop in Egypt with emphasis lands where the spray irrigation is on disease spectrum. 7th: Internat~ona1 widely applied. From the previously Sunflower Ccnf. Krasnodar, USSR, June 27-July reported four Races, only Race-1 was 3, 1976. identified in Egypt. Plantvax, 6. 1976. Diseases of sunflower in Calixin and Daconil-2787 gave A. R. Egypt., Their occurrenca and incidence. sufficient control to sunflower rust The 2nd Cong. Egyptian Phytopathol. Soc. Cairo, when applied three times at the rate Nov. 1976. of 0.25%. 7. 1979. Leaf mottle disease (Verticillium wilt) of sunflcwer in Egypt a Leaf spot diseases were frequently potential problem. The 3rd Cong. Egyptian caused by A 7ternaria a 7ternata, Phytopathol. Soc., Cairo, November 19?9. Drechs7era spicifera and D. rostrata 8. and A.A. Hilal 1976. and to a lesser extent by U7oc7adium Occurrence cf a new disease of s~nflower in spp. and Curvu7aria 7unata. Head rot Egypt caused by Curvu1aria 1unata. Proc. 2nd caused by Rhizopus arrhizus always Conf. Phytopathol.: 311-316. fol lowed by head wounds was severe under moist conditions on short-stem 9. Hi lal, A.A. 1981. Studies on charcoal stem rot varieties. disease in sunflowr incited by Macraphamina phasea1ina and methods of control. M.Sc., Fae. Root rot diseases were caused by Agric., Al-Azhar Univ., 118 pp. 180 10. Hilal, A.A., H.S. Shalaby, M.I. Elian, and 11. Maklad, E.M.I. 1978. Studies on some fungal A.A. El-Deeb. 1987. Studies on sunflower rust sunflower diseases and their control. M.Sc. in Egypt. Egypt. J. Appl. Sci., June, 1987: Thesis, AHzhar Univ., 128 ~p. 259-267. Pa.rt 3 SESAME AND SUNFLOWER GENERAL 182 THE VEGETABLE OXL/PROTEXN SYSTEM PROGRAM: THE KENYAN EXPERIENCE CBlr"'le>s Zu"'lbert-i The purpose of this paper is to Oil Crops Network was established report the various steps undertaken, with a permanent Technical Advisor to the different actors participating coordinate its activities. The first and some of the results being meeting of the Network took place in obtained in the process of developing Cairo six years ago (3-8 September, and implementing the Vegetable 1983). Several other gatherings have Oil/Protein System (VOPS) program in taken place since then and four Kenya. The description of the Subnetowrks have emerged, two of integrated approach being followed which are meeting here today. to characterize, analyze and generate research and policy interventions of In 1986, while the Network was the oil/protein Production, strengthened by having more Processing, Marketing and Utilization participants and expanding its (PPMU) system has as its main activities, the world prices for oils objective, the generation of and fats were fol lowing a downward awareness on the work being done, the trend reaching the lowest levels in appraisal of its usefulness, and the 14 years. The decline in prices was assessment of its potential for mostly caused by accumulation of implementation in other countries of stocks due to the supply growing the region. It is expected that at faster than the demand. It can be the end of the meeting the seen in Figure 1 that using palm oil participants will evaluate the as an example, the prices were below possibilities following a similar 300US$/MT in the years before 1972 approach in their respective and 1986. countries and estimate the interest that their col leagues at home wi 11 Those low levels were not attained have in carrying out this kind of during 1973-1985 period. As a work in the future. consequence of the significant price drop, the possibility of continuous Baclsground over production and the collapse of the market was felt as a real threat. The International Development As someone quite eloquently put it at Research Centre (IDRC) is a Canadian that time " The rivers of palm oil public corporation established in from the Far East wi 11 flood the 1970 by the Parliament of Canada to mountains of butter in Europe". support research designed to adapt science and technology to the needs Figure 1 also shows that of developing countries. As part of substantially different conclusions its mandate, IDRC began to fund could be drawn depending on which oil crops research projects in East length of time is used to analyze Africa, the Middle East and South past prices. If the last 20 years Asia in the late 70's. After few are taken into consideration, the years, the need to promote and general tendency is for the price of facilitate contacts between research palm oil to increase. While if the workers investigating similar last 15, 10 or 5 years are used, the subjects but in relatively isolated tendency is decreasing, at a rate places was identified. To ameliorate given by the slope of the regression the problem, partially, due to the line; increasing as the period of lack of an international agricultural analysis shortened. In other words, research centre responsible for most it was during the last few years, of the important oilseed crops, the immediately before 1987, that the 183 Ll'l c Ll'l c N 11 II II II II OX . !... (/) :::s w w u :t: J Q. 3: ...J z 0 .... u ~ ...J <( RI Q. ~ E --:::s QJ (/) !... :::s Cl LL. c c c c c c c c c c c c c c c ...... c M N c en CIO Ll'l .... 1W/$Sn 184 prices really decreased, reversing Or even under decreasing oil prices the previous growing tendency and to what extent the demand for protein significantly changing the future cake for animal production could help outlook of the sector. justify the continuous cultivation of oilseeds, especially in those Figure 2 shows that what has been countries where oilcrop research has said for palm oil closely applies to been funded or being considered for sunflower oil which has a very support. similar price change pattern while enjoying a premium due to its A meeting to discuss the subject relatively better quality*. between the Associate Director (Agricultural Economics) and the A similar situation also existed for Program Officers (Crops and Animal cakes. Using soybean meal prices as Production Systems and Postproduct ion an example, Figure 3 shows that the Systems) from the Agriculture, Food tendencies were alike but gradient of and Nutrition Science (AFNS) Division the slope for soybean meal was and the Program Officer (Economics) substantially smaller than for oil's. of the Social Science Division took While the price of palm oils place in the East African Regional decreased at an average yearly rate Office (Nairobi) in October 1987. of US$ 18.01, 31.87 or 79.70 per MT depending if 15, 10 or 5 years were Based on the discussions held with a taken into consideration, the prices number of informed Kenyans f ram of soybean meal dee reased US$2. 28, Government, research institutes, and 2. 85 and 8. 20/MT /year during the same industry and a potential periods. In other words, the international consultant, the need relative importance of oil, as one for a four-stage investigation aimed of the products obtained from at establishing the economic as well oilseeds, was diminishing in as technical feasibility of oilseed comparison wit~ the cake. And, both production and processing with commodities were showing the same parti:ular reference to the marketing downward trend observed in many othe; of the meal for animal feed was agricultural and non agricultural identified. commodities. The four stages were**: Under these circumstances, IDRC professionals began to query if it a) A consultancy to formulate a was still justifiable to allocate project that would investigate limited research funds to oilcrops the principal economic, technical research when its future l oaks so and institutional factors bleak. They started to speculate to determining the economic and what extent the decline of fats technical feasibility of oilseed and oil prices in the international production and processing (3 markets would negatively affect the months). cultivation of oilcrops at the local level to the point of making b) Locally based research into the irrelevant the generation of more principal economic, technical and productive technologies through institutional factors affecting agricultural research. the economic and technical t Uifcrt~nately, internationa~ ~rice data fc• ses3me 1s n:t ava:lable for t~e same peric1s of ti!e but, it cau 1d be e:(pe:ted t~a~, if am 1ab 1e, w: 11 srJw l'ery simila• tendeicies. tt The descriptior of :~e fou• prese~~ec ln its Jrigira1 fo•m 35 they 3ppear in the earl:er docume~t. Late• on 'twas slightly mod;f;ed tc improve t~eir presentaticn ard understandi~g. 185 .. '~.JQJ QJ ...J II II II II II Ox. (/) LU ..... u 0 c:::: c:::: a. ~ c: ...J .....n> - I 0 x c:::: QJ LU s:: ' 0 !....°' u.....J 0 z ~ :::::> c: (/) n> N QJ !.... :J u..°' 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 en CIO ..... ID in ::1' ("t') N ... J.W/$Sn 310 ,._. oc 300 .... egend ()\ 290 D = 1 yP.c:irs x = 5 years 280 6 = 10 years 270 0 = 15 years = 20 years 260 ,...., + 250 240 230 220 210 200 H 190 ~ 180 ~ -Ul :::i 170 160 150 140 130 120 110 100 90 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 Figure 3: SOYBEAN MEAL PRICES 44% U.S., CIF Rott 187 feas i bil 1ty of oil seed production ruled out on economic grounds. This and processing in Kenya (8-9 original notion was somehow made more months). embracing by promoting the continuation of research based on c) Based on the results of the above previous satisfactory performance mentioned study, a series of demonstrated by the economic field trials related to selective criterion, the quality and relevance aspects of oil seed production and of the results being obtained and the processing, and further commitment of the researchers investigation of the marketing of involved in the exercise. oilseed cake and vegetable oi 1 (2 years). The concept of incremental process also connotes the notion that d) On the basis of the above knowledge and understanding of mentioned research, and in systems, the social, economical and conjunction with Government political environment in which they authorities, farmers ev o 1 v e must be generated organizations, enterprises in the sequentially, step by step, because food industry, and other donor tomorrow's research can not be agencies, spec if i cation and properly defined until today's implementation of a program to results are out. In other words, the expand Kenyan production and investigations required to generate processing of oilseeds (2+ meaningful results and improved years). recommendations must be based on previously accumulated experience and System Approach the continuous assessment and improved understanding of the over The oil/protein sub-sector was changing reality. conceptualized as a system with several interacting components which The first step to fol low the has to be analyzed as a whole to be i ncrementa 1 process was taken, in able to properly describe and November, 1987 by retaining the understand it. It was envisaged that services of a consultant, through a by following a system approach it Divisional Activity Project (OAP*), will be poss i b1 e to identify those to prepare a report leading to the research and policy interventions identification of a possible research required to modify it to better project on the feasibility of oil seed satisfy national objectives without production and processing for edible unexpected and undesirable effects. oils and protein cake in Kenya. Incremental Process to Research Table 1, represents the various steps Support followed initial 1y and how the program and its financing has From the start, the VOPS program was developed since then. conceived as to foll ow an inc rementa 1 precess by which each step of the Stage I investigation is predicted on prior demonstration, from the results of the previous stage, that oilseed The consultancy was carried out as production and processing can not be expected and the report was discussed ' The Divisional Activity Project (OAP) is an IDRC internal mechanism for the speedy financing of relatively low cost activities leading, in most cases, to the identification and development of full fledged projects. 188 Table 1. The incremental process applied to the known about the oil and fat financing of the vegetable oil/protein system industry, its backward and progm in Kenya.. forward linkages and the direct and derive demands for its VOPS prog ra11 IDRC Amount Effective products, which will enable us tmino logy ter11inology a~~ roved CAD l date to make conclusive Stage I DAP 1 16,400 Nove11ber, 1987 recommendations. A better DAP 2 26,060 February, 1988 understanding of the complex Ex tens ion 9,555 April, 1988 interrelationships... is required to determine where Stage II Phase I 234, 100 May, 1988 interventions are needed by Phase 2 223, 100 February, 1989 identifying and predicting their outcome." Stage III Core Phase 3 641, 000 September, 1989 The gathering at Njoro was attended Sate 11 ites DAP 3 6'000 September, 1988 by several Kenyan professionals from DAP4 8,000 January, 1989 Universities, Ministries, Research Institutes and the Private Sector plus a sizable representation of on the 24 of January, 1989 and a IDRC staff including the Deputy presentation made at the Fourth Oil Director, two Associate Directors Crops Network Workshop at Njoro, and several Program Officers of AFNS Kenya, 25-29 January, 1988. The main and the Regional Director for East output from this initial exercise was Africa. The interest demonstrated the general characterization of the by the Kenyan professionals in the oil/protein system which was subject made IDRC confident of the represented by a diagram (Figure 4) need for the continuation of the showing seven major interrelated investigation, fallowing the components, inc 1ud i ng the po 1 icy previously described incremental environment. process by carrying out a comprehensive study of the various The main conclusions were: components of the system. "The importation of palm oil at OAP 2 and Extension bargain prices has allowed high levels of profitability of the Egerton University, through its refining and packing activities recent 1y created Division of in spite of relatively low price Research and Extension, showed the to consumers. The fats and oi 1 interest and wi 11 i ngness to assume industry has no economic the leadership and coordination encouragement to pay the prices responsibility and became the required by the domestic recipient of the second OAP and its producers to make a profit." extension aimed at the generation of a project proposal for those " ... the production of oilseed studies. in Kenya does not appear to be economically feasible and the The Deputy Vice-Chancellor for importation of oil/protein Research and Extension assumed the related products will continue responsibilities of Principal until the existing circumstances Investigator and, from then on, a are deliberately modified, very close and participatory shifted by outside forces without profes si anal re 1at ion ship was local control or unexpectedly developed between him representing changed by unforseen events." the recipient organization, the Postproduction Systems Program "Unfortunately, not enough is Officer at the IDRC Regional ------OILSEEDS PRODUCTION I I FATS ANO OILS RURAL INDUSTRY PROCESSING I POLICY ENVIRONMENT ANIMAL INTERNATIONAL MARKETS FEED FUTURE DEMANDS - INDUSTRY I DAIRY POULTRY PRODUCTION Be PIG PRODUCTION PRESENT CONSUMPTION PRESENT CONSUMPTION PRESENT CONSUMPTION OF EDIBLE OF MILK Be POULTRY Be PIG FATS Be OILS MILK BY-PRODUCTS PRODUCTS FUTURE DEMAND FUTURE DEMAND FUTURE DEMAND OF EDIBLE OF MILK Be POULTRY Be PIG FATS :!. OILS MILK BY-PRODUCTS PRODUCTS ...... 00 - \0 Figure 4: THE VEGETABLE OIL/PROTEIN SYSTEM IN KENYA PRODUCTIVE, INDUSTRIAL AND CONSUMPTION ACTIVITIES. 190 Office in Nairobi as the Officer seven groups following the Responsible representing the Donor characterization of the sub-sector, Agency and the consultant. The three Figure 5, under the leadership of of them acted as partners in a team carefully selected by the Principal from their own institutional Investigator, group team leaders perspective pursuing the objectives representing a wide spectrum of of the program by identifying common institutions and professional grounds in which to operate together. expertises. That basic team actively interacted with and had the support of the Each group generated a plan of work Program Officers for Crops, Animal for the next month having as the main Production and Economics at the East objective the preparation of a Africa Regional Office and the proposal and a budget to carry out Associate Director of the the investigations related to their Agricultural Economics Program in main area of interest. Vancouver, Canada. The Principal Investigator and/or the To develop the proposal for the Consultant met with every group comprehensive study of the sub during that month to participate and sector, two workshops were organized advice on the preparation of the with the participation of about 50 individual proposals. They also Kenyan professionals. They were held hosted a meeting for a 11 the team on February 16 and March 15, 1988. leaders to ensure consistency in the presentations. In the first meeting, after general presentations about oilcrops In the second general meeting, each production and processing in Kenya team leader made a presentation of and their relationship with the his group proposal and how they were international market, the consultant planning to execute the study. They presented a challenging null received comments and suggestions hypothesis: from other participants on how to clarify the objectives being pursued "Due to the importation of cheap and suggestion to improve the palm oil to satisfy local demand methodology to be utilized. it is not worthwhile for the country to pursue the expansion The draft proposals prepared by the of oilseed production and, as a groups were used to develop a unified consequence, no more genetic, and definitive proposal which was agronomic or socio-economic presented to IDRC for consideration research on the subject is on 15 April, 1988. That proposal had required". the benefit of the discussions that the Principal Investigator and the Several participants, mainly the Consultant had with AFNS Di rector who plant breeders and agronomists visited Nairobi in March to attend refused to accept that conclusion but the IDRC Board of Governors' meeting they had a difficult time trying to which took place during that period. justify their rejection. It became evident that not enough information The objectives of the research was available and the system was not project which became known as properly understood to arrive to Vegetable Oil/Protein System (Kenya) meaningful cone l us i ans. The whole (VOPS) Phase 1 were to: assembly concluded that a much better grasp of the various components and a) specify the structural their interactions was required. characteristics of the oil/protein production system in The participants then organized in Kenya, the linkages between the 1 - ...__ OILSEEDS PRODUCTION I I I 2 I 7 I - FATS AND OILS RURAL INDUSTRY - PROCESSING I 6 3 I 1-- POLICY ENVIRONMENT ANIMAL INTERNATIONAL MARKETS FEED ~- - FUTURE DEMAND INDUSTRY I I 4 I 5 I - DAIRY POULTRY PRODUCTION - Sc PIG PRODUCTION PRESENT CONSUMPTION PRESENT CONSUMPTION PRESENT CONSUMPTION OF EDIBLE OF MILK Sc POULTRY Sc PIG FATS Sc OILS MILK BY-PRODUCTS PRODUCTS FUTURE DEMAND FUTURE DEMAND FUTURE DEMAND OF EDIBLE OF MILK Sc POULTRY Sc PIG FATS Sc OILS MILK BY-PRODUCTS PRODUCTS ...... - l.O EGERTON UNIVERSITY V..iog..iotabl..io Di l/Prot..ioin Program1ne ...... Figure 5: STUDIES OF THE VEGETABLE OIL/Pl- Table 2. Supply and demand of oils and fats in selected 17 countries, 1987 (000 MT). Population Opening Ending Balance Countq Juh 1987 Stocks Production Im~orts ExQ:irts DisaQ~ear Stocks Ex~- Im~ China 1, 065. 4 757 7,428 965 117 8,298 734 (848) India 786.4 312 3,860 1, 823 40 5,435 519 ( 1'783) Bangladesh 102.6 25 56 346 367 49 ( 346) Pakistan 102.2 224 586 769 1,478 102 (769) Philippines 57.4 135 1'529 28 1'07 5 447 171 1, 047 Egypt 50.8 120 134 603 865 51 (603) Ethiopia 45.2 4 (4) Tanzania 23. 1 25 25 ( 25) Sudan 22.8 6 213 44 10 249 ( 34) Kenya 21. 9 5 167 38 115 19 ( i 29) Nepal 17. 6 Uganda 16.5 Sri Lar.ka 16.4 16 52 21 17 68 (4) Mozambique 14.5 47 (47) Zimbabwe 8.7 18 ( 18) Malawi 7.5 7 ~ Zambia I, 1 ( 9) Ruwanda 6.5 Burundi 5.0 Somalia 4.9 27 27 r2n Israel 4.4 17 103 ( 12) Bhutan 1. 5 Botswana 1.2 201 MZCROBZAL CONTROL OF LEPZDOPTEROUS PESTS OF OZLSEED CROPS H.S. Sa"1&111& In the present studies, a series of 234 (var. gelleriae), HD-263, HD-341, experiments were conducted to H0-89 (var. Kurstaki), in addition to evaluate the potency of some fifty HD-110 (var. Entomocidus) and HD-96 strains of Baci77us thuringiensis (var. Thuringiensis). The most potent (8. t) against larvae of two major strains were HD-593, HD-110, HD-263 pests of oil crops, namely, greasy and HD-554 giving LC 50 values of cut worm (Agrot is yps i 7on) and cotton 22.0, 27.4, 35.7 and 37.5 ug leaf worm ( Spodoptera 7ittora 7is). endoto xi n/m l , respectively as The bacterial cul tu res were first compared to 2160 ug/ml for HD-1-1980 grown aerobically on a rotary shaker standard preparation. using either fodder yeast or ground kidney beans media. The harvested In the second phase of the present Endotoxin preparations were work, studies were conducted to bioassayed for their potency against search for possible biochemical means 2nd and 3rd instar larvae of A. to enhance the potency of the ypsi1on and S. 7ittora7is, bacterial Endotox in preparation respectively. The bioassays were against A. ypsi lon as plausible means carried out under standard conditions to increase the feasibility of on larvae fed on castor oil leaves application and lowering the field dipped in Endotoxin suspensions at spraying costs. Thus, a number of 500 ug/ml level. Proper controls were simple chemcial compounds were used run simultaneously. in conjunction with low levels of endotoxin preparation of 8.t. var. With respect to A. ypsi7on, several Ga 77eriae HD-234 ( 125 ug/ml) . These cultures of var. Aizawai (amongst groups of compounds included selected which were HD-130, HD-128, HD-228, divalent salts of Calcium, zinc and HD-593 and HD-865) proved to be Copper; some salts of Potassium and active against this insect pest. Sodium; a group of organic acid salts Within the var. galleriae, HD-210 and as well as some protein-solubilizing HD-234 were effective. In addition, a~ents. Appropriate controls were run two strains of var. kurstaki, HD-341 simultaneously, and the cotoxicity and HD-263 as well as HD-703 of var. factor (CF) in each case was Thuringiensiswere also highly active calculated to elucidate the type of against the same insect pest. The the resulting interaction. Within the most effective strains against A. divalent cations tested, a clear ypsilon were HD-130, (var. Aizawai), enhancing effect on the potency of HD-703 (var, Thuringiensis), HD-134, the Endotoxin was noted for the (var. (Aizawai) and HD-341 (var. calcium salts with CF ranging between kurstaki) giving LC 50 values of 15.3, 43 and 72 depending on the salt 22.6 26.0 and 46.5 ug/ml, tested. However, among this divalent respectively, as compared to 3640 group of salts, Zinc sulfate recorded ug/ml of the HD-1-1-1980 standard. the highest CF value reaching 84 whereas copper salts were also When the 8. thuringiensis strains potent i at i ve but demon st rated notable were screened against third i nstar toxicity when tested alone against larvae of S. 7ittora7is, several the target insect. The LC50 values of cultures of var. Aizawai notably HD- the Endotox in ( 138. 2 ug/m l was 134, HD-593, HD-113 and HD-282 were lowered to 29.7, 29.9, 37.1 and 39.5 highly active. Furthermore, some ug/ml in the presence of Calcium other cultures were also effective carbonate (0.1%), Hydroxide (9.1%), notably HD-554 (var. Canadensis), HD- Acetate (0.05%) and Nitrate (0.1%), 202 respectively. Copper carbonate, acids. These compounds were Copperoxide and zinc sulfate lowered incorporated in the dipping solution LC 50 to 9.5, 13.8 and 18.7 ug/ml, both alone and in conjunction with respectively (cone. 0.05-0.1%). the endotox in suspension in final concentrations of 0.05%. Proper Within mono-cationic salts tested, controls were run simultaneously. A Potassium carbonate exhibited high notable potent i at i ve effect was noted potentiating effect with CF value of for some aliphatic amino acids 55 and lowering the LC 50 value of the including OL-serine and OL-alanine endotoxin to 7.6 ug/ml when added at where CF values amounted to 91 and 86 1% concentration to the dipping with LC 50 reduced to 52. 8 and 33. 9 solution. Among the mono-carboxylic ug/ml, respectively, as compared to acid salts tested, those of short 240. 7 ug/ml for the endotox in chained acids proved to be highly preparation only. Within the branched potentiating for the endotox in effect amino acids, L-valine was the most on the target insect. Thus, CF values potent activator of the endotox in of formate and acetate were 92 and with CF value of 86 and lowering LC 50 91, respectively. The highest CF of the endotoxin to 33 ug/ml. Among value obtained for this group of the basic amino acids and amides, L compounds was 127 recorded for arg1n1ne was the most effective acetamide added at 1% final potentiatorfollowed by OL-ornithine, concentration. L-asparagi ne and OL-gl utami ne with CF values of 110, 93, 91 and 88 Some dicarboxyl ic acid salts accompanied by reduction of the LC 50 exhibited high potentiative effect, value to 6.0, 12.0, 9.2 and 83 ug/ml, e.g., malate, tartarate and fumarate respectively. The acidic amino acids, yielding CF values of 96, 78 and 72, L-aspartic and L-glutamic, were also respectively. In the presence of the potentiative but to a lesser extent potentiative organic acid salts, the than their amide forms. The indole LC 50 values of the endotoxin containing OL-tryptophan and the preparation were reduced drastically. cyclic L-prol ine amino acids were Thus, the LC 50 values in the presence al so highly effective potent 1ate rs of acetamide (1%), fumarate (0.5%), with CF values corresponding to 90 malate (0.5%) and tartarate (0.1%) and 92 with a capacity to lower LC 50 were 7.4, 47.5, 48.4 and 49.4 ug/ml, value to 14.9 and 7.7 ug/ml, respectively. respectively. On the other hand, the sulfer-containing amino acids tested In addition, some protein could not exhibit any potentiation of solubil izing agents, e.g., EOTA, the endotox in under study. On the urea, and sodium thioglycollate were contrary, L-cysteine and L-cystine also potentiative for the endotoxin were antagonistic to the potency of resulting in CF values of 100, 75 and the endotoxin and recorded negative 71, respectively. In the presence of CF values. The obtained results were these compounds, LC 50 values were discussed in the light of their lowered to 15.6, 80.8 and 55.3 ug/ml scientific as well as application in the same respective order. merits in the field of bilogical control of pests of oilseed crop. In the next phase of the studies, 21 amino acids and amides were tested as Fifty nine cultures belonging to 12 possible potentiators for endotoxin different vars. of B.t were screened preparation of B.t. var. Ga77eriae for the production of B-exotoxin. A H0-234 against larvae of A. ypsi7on. devised medium was used for The amino acids were selected to maintenance of the cultures. The represent different classes including activity of the B-exotoxin aliphatic, branched, aromatic, preparation of different 8. t. cyclic, basic as well as acidic amino cultures was evaluated for A. ypsi7on 203 and S. 7ittora 7is, compared to the Field tests were conducted to standard preparation, thuringiensin. determine the effectiveness of wheat The resu 1ts showed that some B. t. bran baits based on 8. t var. kurstaki cultures were able to produce large HD-1 (Dipel 2x) compared to the amounts of B-exotoxin, such as vars. organophosphorous insecticide, Kenyae HD-588, Ga77eriae HD-129, Hostathion, against the greasy To 7oworthi HD-301 and subtoxicus. cutworm (A. yps i Ton) on faba bean Some field tests were carried out to (Vicia fabae). Significant larval assess the effect of spraying B reductions were observed in all exotoxi n against S. 7ittora7is on treated plots after one application peanuts and the results were with a significant increase in the encouraging but they need further yield (1.45-1.60 folds) compared to conformation. the control plots. The yield was not affected by varying dose of Dipel in 8.t var. Kurstaki HD-1 (Dipel 2x), the bait between 150 and 250 gm/f. as a biological insecticide was The addition of the adjuvant, tested against S. 7ittora7is, larvae potassium carbonate, to the Dipel infesting soybean plants either alone bait caused a significant larval or combined with potassium carbonate reduction, 10 days after application as an adjuvant. The carbamate and showed to be as efficient as chemical insecticide, Lannate, was baits based on Hostathion. used for comparison. The materials were applied either through spraying In the third series of experiments, or dusting. Results showed that application of Dipel 2x at a rate of potassium carbonate enhanced and 250 g/f was effective against the significatly increased the effect of larvae of S. 7ittora7is (1st to 4th Diepl. Both techniques are suitable instars), while larvae in older for use in control application. The stages (5th and 6th instars) were recommendation of using a combination more resistant. Lannate was highly of Dipel at 250 gm/faddan and effective against young and old potassium carbonate at 150 g/faddan larvae. The addition of potassium is advisable. This combination gave carbonate to Dipel increased larval significantly high larval reduction mortality. In Sharkia governorate, (96.86% and 92.11% with an increase the yield of soybean increased of 2.50 and 1.60 folds in yield after significantly when the infested areas spraying and dust appli- cations, were treated once by Dipel 2x or respective 1y. The data a 1so suggested Lannate with 1.113 fold increase. In that a combination of Dipel and Menoufia governorate, also, when potassium carbonate (Dipel + K2C0 3 ) soybeans were treated three times might be an effect-ive component of with Dipel 2x or Lannate, yield the future S. 7ittora 7is !PM programs increased 2.031-2.066 times. This on soybeans. difference in yield gives a higher net profit to the farmer exceeding the costs of spray applications. 204 SUNFLOWER AND SESAME RESEARCH ZN THE PHXLXPPXNES Nan"ita M. Tapora Sunflower and sesame are minor oil Sesame crops in the Philippines. Sunflower is an introduced crop while sesame is Sesame research in the Philippines grown in marginal areas by few is conducted only by CLSU and has farmers. Most, if not all, of the been continuous since 1982 though in cultivation of these crops is in a limited scale. Central Luzon where the Central Luzon State University (CLSU) is located At present, there are 128 accessions and where there is very distinct dry of sesame germplasm in the CLSU, and wet seasons. Table 1. Duplicate seed lots of these accessions were brought to the There is increased interest in upland National Pl ant Genetic Resources crops to increase the productivity Laboratory (NPGRL), Institute of and income of irrigated and rainfed Plant Breeding of the University of lowlands as well as uplands. This is the Philippines at Los Banos (IPB where sunflower and sesame could fit UPLB) for storage. in. Table 1. CLSU sesame germplasm collections. Sunflower Number of Continuous sunflower research has Accessions Origin Source been undertaken by CLSU since 1972. 5 Thailand Bureau of Plant Industry Various studies have been made 1 Guatemala Philippines (Appendix A) and a complete package 2 Sri Lanka of p reduction technology had been 5 Philippines developed (Appendix B) which is now 8 Thailand IRRI thru Dr. Carangal being pilot tested in three towns of 1 Colombia Nueva Eci ja. The cost and return 10 Philippines NPGRL I IPB-UPLB analysis for one hectare of sunflower 7 Thailand CLSU graduate students seed production shows a return of FAO thru Dr. Campos investment of 137% (Appendix C). 14 Greece 7 Mexico The technology has shown high 3 India Bhabha Atomic Research potential for increasing the income Center thru Dr. Murthy of farm families, especially when the 6 India Tamil Nadu Agric. Univ. seeds are processed as cracked seeds. 5 Introductions Through Dr. Thangavelu Sunflower crack seeds have become to India popular around CLSU. It is better 2 China Institute of Crop than the common watermelon crack Germplasm Resources, seeds in terms of nutritive content CAAS thru Dr. Yu-Shen and palatability. Dong 20 Israel FAO through Dr. Pineda Sunflower production can be one of 12 Somalia IDRC Oilcrops Network the potential alternative cash crops Sri Lanka Through Dr. Omran for farmers. The limitations to 10 Egypt production are lack of quality seeds 7 Ethiopia and low seed setting in the farmers' 128 field. For high seed set, pollinators like bees are needed but Last year, 78 accessions were normally the farmers do not engage in characterized & evaluated, Table 2. beekeeping. 205 Table 2. Performance of sesame accessions evaluated during 1988 wet season. Acces- Yield Ma tu- Plant Branch- Number Seed 1000- Seed Phyllody Cercos- Powdery sion /plant rity Height i ng of pods coat seed size Disease para Mi'dew No. (g) (DAE*) (cm) habit /plant color weight (No. cf leaf :nci- (g) plants spot denceu wlth Inc;- disease denceu 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10 11 •?,_ 68 11 64 116 Basal 88 White 3.0 Sma 11 2 LR** 69 10 64 94 Monopodial 28 White 3.C Big LR 43 8 65 90 Basal 60 Cream 2.75 Sma 1: 0 LR 46 13 65 110 Monopodia1 36 Dirty white 3.0 Sma 11 0 LR 50 13 65 84 Monopodial 41 Light brown 3.25 Bjg 0 LR 54 30 65 97 Monopodial 21 Cream 3.5 Sma 11 0 LR 19 8 65 92 Basal 37 White 2.0 Sma 11 0 LR 41 14 67 104 Basal 53 Light brown 3.5 Big 0 LR 45 9 67 94 Basal 52 White 3.0 Big 0 LR LR 51 19 67 78 Basa1 34 Light browi 3.75 Sma 11 2 LR 21 9 67 78 Monopodial 46 Dirty white 3.0 Big 0 LR 17 68 110 Basal 68 White " •t Sma 11 0 Lq 20 '' I" 17 21 68 159 Top 106 Reddish brown2.C Sma l: 1 MR a' l ~p 38 '4 68 130 9asal 75 Jirty white 3.25 B'g 0 LR M 42 e 68 105 Basal 61 9rcwn 3.5 9ig 0 LR 44 15 72 110 Basal 112 Dirty w~i:e 3.25 Big 0 LP. 18 11 72 96 Monopcdial 50 Ligt:t brcwr: '.,;" t Sna 11 LR 55 10 73 12C Monopodia1 41 Dirty white 3.75 Big 0 LR 59 12 73 12~ Basal mg Dirty white 3.0 Big 0 LR LR 6A 17 73 17 i Basal 107 White 4.0 tig 1 MR a;l MP. 66D 15 78 140 Basal 97 White 3.5 Big 2 LR MR It 7t Dirty white 2.5 Sma 11 0 c.R cR 33 '" 78 147 Basal '" 35 17 78 171 Monopodial 95 Dirty white 2.75 Sma 11 3 MR a11 M 36 13 78 172 Basal 78 Dirty white 2.5 S:na 11 0 MP. a11 M 37 15 78 165 Basal 96 Cream 3.0 Medium 3 MR a11 M 39 22 78 180 Moropodial 38 Dirty white 2.5 Sma 11 0 MR a11 LP. 05 12 80 141 Top 42 B1ack 3.0 Big 0 MR a11 12 29 80 157 Basal 165 Light brwn 3.0 Sma 11 0 LR 53 78 80 162 Basal 224 Light brown 3.0 Sma 11 0 MR a11 16 12 82 101 Monopodial 72 Brown 3.0 Sma 11 0 LR 47 14 82 134 Monopodial 51 Dirty white 3.75 Big 0 LR LR \IP 56 10 82 141 Basal 42 Dirty white 3.25 Big 2 LR ·" 52 15 85 122 Basal 124 Light brown 3.0 Big 0 LR ~ 65B 29 85 179 Basal 127 White 4.25 Big 2 MR a11 75 30 85 105 Basal 138 Dirty white 4.0 Big 0 LR 76 4 85 85 Monopodial 40 Cirty w~ite 2.5 Big 0 LR 01 13 87 154 Top 66 Cream 2.0 Sma 11 0 LR 58 12 88 196 Monopod i a1 72 c~eam 4.0 Big 0 LR 65A 16 88 163 Top 50 White 3.0 Big 0 ER a11 60 21 92 198 Top 120 White 3.0 Big 0 L1 70 24 92 151 Basal 104 Purplish- 3.25 Big 0 ~R black 71 19 92 14C Tap 110 3.0 Big LR 72 25 92 149 Basal 158 3. '.) Big MR a11 73 20 92 147 Top 122 3.75 Big 0 LR -Table 74 27 92 140 Basal 85 4.0 Big 0 ~R a' l 24B 7 94 170 Top 52 White 3.0 Big 2 MR al~ M 206 2 contd. 3 4 6 7 10 11 12 12 10 95 101 Basal 57 White 3.0 Sma 11 c LR M 48 '. 3 95 96 Basa 1 52 Cream 2.5 Sma11 0 LR M 49 9 103 91 Basa 1 48 Cream 2.75 Sma 11 0 ER al1 H 82 103 187 Top 576 Black 3.5 Big 0 LR 1c1 19 103 125 Basa 1 99 Dirty white 2.75 Big 0 LR 102 25 1C3 147 Basal 99 Black 3.0 Big 0 LR 61 8 103 m Top 76 White 3.0 Sig 0 LR 63 12 103 187 Top 77 Dirty white 3.0 ~edium 0 LR 77 39 103 70 Top 294 Light brcwn 2.5 Sma 11 0 LR 78 21 103 166 H~nopod' a1 132 White 3.0 Sma 11 0 LR 06 16 1C3 194 To~ 126 Black 1.5 Small 0 LR 04 8 104 149 Top 44 Black 3.0 Big 0 LR 27 . 2 ~ae 198 Tep 90 Light brown 2.5 Sma 11 0 LR 10 105 ·75 Top 108 Light brown 1.5 Sma 11 1 LR 29 13 105 193 Tep 146 Brown 1.5 Sma 11 3 LR 67B 23 105 198 Top 223 Dirty white 2.0 Sma 11 0 LR 238 10 106 178 Toe 154 Purplish- !.75 Sma 11 8 LR Black 136 18 107 158 Tep i20 Cream 3.~ Had1 ~Ir! 0 LR 25 11 107 17 4 Top 52 Brown 4.0 Big LR 34 19 107 193 Top 196 ~ight grey 1.75 Sma 11 c LR 3C 20 107 189 193 Dirty white 1.5 Sna 11 0 LR 24C 12 1oe m Top 93 Grey'.sh b1ack2.0 Big 0 MR all ~2 108 i6? Top E1 Black 3.0 Small 0 LP. 240 1e 108 177 Top m Greenish- 3 n Big 0 LR browr: 31 10 110 172 Top 66 Grey 3.0 Big 0 ~R 32 2C 110 189 Top 159 Black 2.5 Big 0 LR ~6 112 196 Top 180 Dirty white 2.0 Small ~R 28 113 184 Top 110 Brown 1.25 Very sman o LR 02 17 123 224 Top 1~~ Black Big LR 64 9 124 182 Top 72 Brown 3.C Big C LR 03 13 12~ 177 :op 82 Greenish 3.C Big 0 LR brow~ S4A 223 To~ 140 ~ight brown 3.25 3ig 0 LR *DAE = days after emergence, **LR= late recroduct~ve stage, ***HR = mid reproductive stage, ****H : Maturity. The collections had wide ranges of origins were observed with some variabilities including yield (5-82 plants showing symptoms of phyllody, grams per plant), maturity (64-124 Tables 3 and 4. Diseased plants were days after emergence (DAE), plant uprooted and burned as soon as the height (70-224 cm), number of pods symptoms were observed. Phyllody was per plant (40-576), 1000 seed weight more prevalent during the rainy (1.25-4.00 g),and seedcoat color season than during the dry season. (white, dirty white, cream, light Eighteen accessions were susceptible brown, brown, reddish brown, greenish to powdery mildew and three to brown, light grey, grey, grayish Cercospora leaf spot. black, greenish black, purplish black Ninety-seven crosses of outstanding and black). introduced varieties with varieties previously found adapted to the Fifteen accessions from different Philippines were made. 207 Five varieties with the highest multiplied and were programed for yields in a yield trial were multilocation yield test in Northern Luzon- Region I and II. Table 3. Performance of 23 highest yielding sesame accessions evaluated during 1988 wet season. Acces- Yield Ma tu- Plant Branch- Number Seed 1000- Seed Phyllody Cercos- Powdery sion /plant rity Height ing of pods coat seed size Disease Pora Mildew No. (g) (DAE*) ( Clll) habit /plant color weight (No. of leaf Inci- (g) plants spot dence with Inci- disease denceu 07 82 103 187 Top 576 Black 3.5 Big 0 LR 53 78 80 162 Basal 224 Light brown 3.0 Sma 11 0 MR a11 77 39 103 70 Top 294 Light brown 2.5 Sma 11 0 LR 75 30 85 105 Basal 138 Dirty white 4.0 Big 0 LR 54 30 65 97 Monopodial 21 Cream 3.5 Small 0 LR 12 29 80 157 Basal 165 Light brown 3.0 Sma 11 0 LR 65B 29 85 179 Basal 127 White 4.25 Big MR a11 74 27 92 140 Basa~ 85 Black 4.0 Big 0 MR a11 102 25 103 147 Basal 99 Black 3.0 Big 0 LR 72 25 92 149 Basal 158 B1ack 3.0 bi3 0 MR all 70 24 92 151 Basal 104 PJrplish 3.25 Big 0 LR black 678 23 105 198 Top 223 Dirty whitE 2.0 Sma 11 0 LR 39 22 78 180 Monopdial 98 White 2.5 Sma11 0 MR a; 1 LR i n 78 21 103 165 Monopodial 132 White ~.v Small 0 LR 17 21 68 159 Top 106 Reddish brown2.0 Sma 1' 1 MR a11 60 21 92 198 Top 120 White 3.. ~ Big 0 L~ 73 20 92 147 Top 122 Black 3.75 Big 0 LR 30 20 107 189 Top 192 Dirty white 1.5 Small 0 LR 32 20 110 189 Top 159 B1ack 2.5 Big 0 LR 51 19 67 78 Basal 34 Light brown 3.75 Sina 11 2 L~ 71 19 92 140 Top 1 10 B1 ack 3.0 Big 1 LR 101 19 103 125 Top 99 Dirty white 2.75 Big c LR IC 34 19 107 193 Top 196 Light grey 1.75 Sma 11 0 i..i. *DAE : davs after emergence **LR = late reproducti~e stage ***MR = mid reprod~ctive stage. Table 4. Incidence of phyllody disease in 15 sesama accessicns eva1~ated d~ring 1388 wet seascn. Accession Origin/ Number of ~1ants Accession Origin Number o~ plants number source with s~m~toms number source with s~m~to11s 23 Ph~lippines 8 68 China 2 29 Philippines 3 69 China 2 35 Thailand 3 65 T.nu ~· la 2 37 Thailand 3 58 FAO (Mexico) 13 Thailand 2 10 Phi1ippines 51 FAO (Greece) 2 17 Thailand 56 FAO (Mexico) 2 71 India 66 India 2 208 Appendix A. Sunflower Studies Conducted in CLSU fro1 1972-88. Number of studies Varietal Improvement 4 Cultural Management - Planting dates, seeding rates, irrigation, harvesting and land preparation 16 - Fertilization 2? - Intercropping 10 Crop Protection - Insect pests 13 - Weeds 11 - Diseases 3 Seed Tech no 1ogy 4 Economics 3 Processing -1£ Total 123 Appendix B. Package of Technology for Sunflower Production 1. Recommended varlety: Improved CLSUN-190-95 maturity days. 2. Site Selection: The area should have irrigation facilities. The basic soil requirements are moderate to well-drained soil. Soils used for corn, rice and vegetable are suited for sunflower production. 3. Growing season: The best time fer planting sunflower for the first cropping is from October-January and the second cropping from February-May. 4. Land preparation: Burn the residues of previous crops and grasses to ki 11 disease organisms prior to ploughing. Plough the field once and leave it for 2-3 days. Harrow twice to obtain good tilt. 5. System of planting: Planting should be done using single row method with rows spaced 75 cm and plants 25 cm within the row. Plant at the rate of 2-3 seeds/hi11 at a depth of 3-4 cm. Seeding rate is 18-20 kg/ha. 6. Thinning, off-barring and hilling-up: Thin the plants to one plant/hill 14 days after emergence (DAE). 7. Ferti 1izer application: Ferti 1izer application should be made on the basis of soi 1-test results. For soi ls with high P and K values: 90-0-0 (4 bags urea) and for soi ls with low Pand Kvalues: 90-30-30 (3 bags 14- 14-14). 8. Irrigation schedule: First (just after planting), second (15 DAE), third (30 DAE), fourth (50 DAE), and fifth (70-80 DAE). 9. Control of pests and diseases: Insect pests and diseases of sunflower can be controlled using the following: 209 Insect pests/ diseases Control measures Cut":;o rm 1) CRop rotation with a non-Lea7worm leahorm susceptible host plant. Leaf hopper 2) In small areas, ccl lect eggs Headworm and larva and crush them. 3) Spray using any of the following: Sevin (2-3 tbs/15 1 of water;, Larr.ate (3 tbs/151 of water;, Azodrin 202R (2-3 tbs/16 1 of water), Thiodan (3-5 tbs/16 1 of water). Spray as soon as insect pests appear. If needed, repeat at 7-days interval. Shorten spray interval in cases :f heavy infestations. Sclerotium 1) Pu1 l out 1nfected ~1ants and burn wi 1t them immediately. Leaf spot 2) Use the following fungicides: Leaf Leaf blight blight Arasan, Brassico1 ~5-10 g/l:g cf seed;; Ma~zate, Dacon~l (3-4 :bs/1E '. :: water). Thoroughly mix with the seeds be7cre planting fer Sclerct;u:t! \li 1 t control. Spray when symptoms of infect;:on appea•. 10. Bees as pollinators (cctional I: In sunflower ~roduct1on, tntrod~c:ion of bee c~lonies du•lng the cnset cf blooming is important tc increase seed setti~g. Bees as ~ollinators '.ncrease seed setting to as much as 20%. Wind and some ~ther beneficia~ insects can a1so help in po1linatlng the crop. 11. Harvesting of heads: Harvest the head when the green back side cf the flower dlsks turned to ye'lo~1s~ brown. Cut the stalk with a scythe or lingkaw JUSt below the head. Spread harveste~ heads i~ a sin;le layer on dry ground with their faces up. Dry for 2 er more days or un:i1 the seeds start tc separate from the head. 12. Threshing: Sunflower heads are ready ta ~e thres~ed when the seeds separate easily from the head. Threshing can be done using a screen board with nails laid out in squares 1 cm apart or by a self-feeding power sunflower thresher. 13. Cleaning: Clean the threshed seeds before storage to prevent heat accumula:icn. :Jan with a winno~er er a seed blower. 14 . .Q.r.rin.9.: Dry the seeds to a moisture content of 8-10%. 15. Storage: Seeds should be packed in plastic bags/sacks. Store ir: a ventilated roo'!I or area to prevent the attack of storage pests. Seeds intended for planting should be treated with pesticides before storage. Appendix C. Cost-Return Analysis for One Hectare Sunflower Seed Production Rate &quantity I. Gross Income 1,000 kg Yield at P15/kg 15,00C.OO I I. Expenses A. Cash Costs 1. Labor* a. Land preparation P850/ha 850.00 b. Planting/replanting/Thinning 18 MJ 540.00 210 Rate Item &guantit~ Value P c. Fertilization 6 MD 180.00 d. Hilling-up (tractor) P175/ha 175.00 e. Spraying 5 MD 150.00 f. Irrigating 12 MO 360.00 g. Harvesting/Thresh ing/Hauling 25 MC 750.00 h. Cleaning/Drying/ Bagging 6 MD 180.00 Sub-total 3, 185.00 2. Inputs a. Seeds 20 kg lp15 300.00 b. Fertilizer (Urea) 4 bass lp165 660.00 c. Pesticides '.Insectlcides) 555.00 d. Irrigation fee 425.00 Sub-total 1, 940. JO B. Overhead cost Interest on Capita1 (m per anrium) 153.00 Land rent 1.035.CO Sub-total 1, 188 .00 Total Expenses 6,313.00 III. Net Income 8,687.00 IV. Ret~rn or Investment (ROI) ~37% V. Production Cost per ~g 6. 31 *P30.00 per MD. 211 Part 4 DISCUSSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 212 I. SESAME SUBNETWORK The priorities of constraints were revised in consultation with the concerned countries and the priorities included for those countries which were not represented earlier (Egypt and Bangladesh), Table 1. The following is the discussions on actions taken-or to be taken- on the recommendations of the first subnetwork meeting, Kenya, January 1988. IDRC MR 205e, compiled by Dr. S. Thangavelu, the chairman of Sesame Subnetwork. A. Insect Pests i. Shoot Webber - The information available in India on pests especially on Antigastra - Three lines (ES 12, ES 22 and Si and cont ro 1 was comp i1 ed by Dr. 250) reported to be Thangavelu and furnished to Dr. resistant/tolerant to Anti gastra Om ran to form part of the were confirmed for their proceedings. resistance/tolerance and data presented by Dr. Thangavelu Further work on Antigastra is in (India) in the meeting. The mode progress in India and Dr. and mechanism of inheritance will Thangavelu has agreed to present be further investigated in these results during next subnetwork lines. meeting. - Mr. Ahmed (Sudan) will test/verify 2. Aphids the resistance of local varieties to Antigastra and also will supply - The study on biology of aphids and materials to India for identifying the causes for confirmation of resistance under preference in feeding was agreed artificial conditions. to be taken up by Dr. Tepora in Philippines. - There was no incidence of Antigastra in Tanzania, hence the 3. Storage pests fungus attacking the pest could not be identified. However, - The information on activated clay search wi 11 be made this year was presented in the subnetwork also. meeting by Dr. Thangavelu. The procedure for preparation of Initially the collection of activated clay has been furnished literature on biological control and forms part of the proceedings. by fungus will be done before The studies were agreed to be starting a regular program. Dr. continued by Dr. Thangavelu. Pineda (FAO) has agreed to collect the available information. 213 Table 1. Priorities• of constraints of sesame research and production. C o u n t r i e s ** Factors Su Et So Ke Ug Ta Za Pa In Ne Sr Th Ch Ph M~ Ko Ni Eg Ba Tota 1 1. INSECT PESTS Antigastra 3 3 - 3 3 3 3 3 - 1 ••~c Aphids - 2 - 2 3 1 2 - - 2 3 ? - 1 19 Storage pest 2 1 1 2 2 • ? '.7 Seed Bug 3 1 - - ? - 2 2 - - 2 10 Acherontia - ? 2 - 2 ? - 10 Mites - 1 - ' - ? 1 - - 1 - 1 9 Gallmidge - 1 - '? - 2 - ? ? - 8 Cotton green bug 2 -- ? 1 1 - ? . 12 Flee Beetle - 1 - 3 - - ? ? - 4 2. DISEASES Phyllody 3 2 1 - 1 - 2 3 3 2 2 - 24 Macrophominia 2 2 1 3 3 2 3 1 3 3 30 Fusarium 1 2 1 1 1 - ? 2 3 2 2 - 2 29 Powdery Mildew - 2 1 1 - 3 2 3 3 2 3 - - 1 26 Phytopthera 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 - 19 Cercospora 1 - 2 2 3 2 2 1 • 2 - 21 H Xanthomonas 2 3 1 1 - 2 2 i'., Pseudomonas 2 2 - 1 - 2 -- 2 1 - - 2 - 1 13 Alternaria •I - 2 3 - - - 1 13 . iC Leaf curl 2 - •I ,,, Corynespora - 1 1 -- 2 - 1 PMMV - 1 TUMV - 1 3. OTHER CONSTRAINTSLNEEDS - ~ - Seed Retention 3 3 3 3 3 3 " 3 3 40 Harvest Index 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 - 3 45 Wide Adaptability 3 3 3 3 - 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 - 3 - " 42 Yield Potential 3 3 ~ - 3 3 3 3 3 3 - - 3 45 Growth Habit 2 3 3 1 1 2 2 3 3 - 3 3 37 Maturity 3 2 2 3 2 3 3 - 1 3 2 39 Drought 3 3 3 2 1 2 3 2 2 3 - 3 39 Stand Establishment 2 2 3 2 2 3 3 2 2 3 - 1 28 Root System 2 2 2 3 2 2 2 2 2 2~ Inter Cropping - 3 3 3 2 3 - 2 - 3 2 29 Fertilizer Response 1 2 1 - 3 2 • 1 26 Branching 2 2 1 3 - 2 •' 2 3 1 27 Sequential Cropping - 2 2 1 - - ? 2 - 2 3 - 25 1 1 i7 Relay Cropping 3 2 - 1 - I - 3 - 2 - ;; Mechnical Harvesting 3 2 3 '. 3 Water logging - 1 1 1 - 3 - - 1 - 3 3 - - 1 3 22 Salinity - 2 - - 1 - 1 1 2 3 - 1r.,, Post-harvest losses 3 3 3 3 ? • -- 3 - 3 ~" 3 3 - 1 29 Weed Control 2 2 3 3 - 3 3 - 3 3 36 Hybrid varieties - 1 - 1 - 2 - 1 - 3 2 - '1 OilL~rctein s~stem 3 2 2 2 2 27 * 3 =High, 2 =Medium, 1 = Low, - =Nat a priority, ? =No informat'on. u Su = Sudan, Et = Ethiopia, So = Somalia, Ke = Kerya, Ug = Uganda, Ta = Tanzania, Za = Zambia, Pa = Pakistan, In = India, Ne = Nepal, Sr = Sri Lanka, Th = Thai land, Ch= China, Ph : Philippines, My= Myanmar (Burma), Ko= Korea, Ni : Nicaragua; Eg = !:gHt, Ba = Ban;ladesh. 214 B. Diseases 4. Phyllody 7. Powdery_J.1ildew - The investigations are in progress - A11 countries agreed to screen the in India and Dr. Thangavelu has germplasm available for resistance agreed to present the results when to powdery mildew and wi 11 present available. data. - Dr. Amram Ashri (Israel) has - The methodologies available for agreed to identify the donor effective screening will be agency for undertaking DNA probe collected and will be furnished studies on MLO causing phyllody. by Dr. Thangavelu. 5. Macrophomina 8. Fu sari um Egypt (Dr. A. Helal / Dr. A. El Information from China and Egypt Deeb) has agreed to send the on resistance to Fusarium will be inoculation procedure for collected and furnished. publication in the newsletter and also identify the resistant - Resistant sources wi 11 be sources. In personal communication collected and supplied to to Dr. Thangavelu. Dr. Li Lili participating countries along with from China has reported a few high mode of screening. resistant local cultivars in her studies on resistance to 9. Other Pests Mac rophom ina and further information will be obtained. - The information will be collected on resistant sources to all other 6. Phytophthora pests from different countries and methods of control and will be Information on reported resistance presented in the next meeting. will be obtained from Sri Lanka and Korea. C. Other Constraints or Needs 10. Seed retention wi 11 be collected. Each country will furnish the information. The Information to be collected from studies will be undertaken by all Korea on hormone treatment for participating countries. Some seed retention and uniform Sudan local types were reported maturity. Information from SESACO to have delayed shattering and to be obtained. further investigation will be done. Dr. Wasana Wongyai of Thailand is working on semi-shattering - Mutation breeding by the capsule. It is characterized by following countries will be opening of the tip of capsule. continued for selecting the types Information will be obtained on for seed retention: Venezuela, this program. Information on Sudan, Sri Lanka, Korea, India, studies of indehiscence, strong and Egypt. placentation, delayed dehiscence, 11. Harvest Index tip opening and upright capsules 215 Studies wi 11 be undertaken with Infra-red screening for plant more efficient types as indicated hydration done in Spain for below for better harvest index by sunflower (Dr. Fernandez Martinez) Phillipines, India, Sudan and will be obtained and studies Egypt. undertaken. IDRC is kindly requested to provide funding for a. Short internode the purchase of this equipment for b. Basal capsule setting at least two or three countries. c. Linear leaves The information on work being done d. Longer capsules in Thailand by Dr. Wongyai using e. Many seeds/capsule the enzyme electrophoresis f. Three capsules/axil technique will be collected. The influence of fertilizer, 15. Stand Establishment season, irrigation and management on harvest index may be - The countries where seed planter investigated wherever possible. is used will undertake studies on this aspect. The result of 12. Maturity investigation being done in India will be presented by Dr. - All countries will initiate Thangavelu. studies and present the results in the next meeting. 16. Weeds 13. Stability over years - All countries will identify the major weed flora and screen - The already available information germpl asm for early vigour and on simple method for stability growth. analysis done in Australia will be obtained and utilized by all In India, Fluchloralin at 1750 countries to study the stability ml/ha as pre-emergence spray was of their available reported to be effective in germplasm/varieties over controlling the weeds. Dr. loc at i ons/se aso ns/yea rs. Dr. Thangavelu has agreed to collect Was an a Wong a i of Thailand is further information. already working on this problem and information will be obtained. It is reported that Trefl an at 1500 cc/ha is effective when 14. Drought applied to soil after mixing with soil. Further information will be Information for screening by collected. 216 Summary Recommendations for Sesame 1. The action plan drawn based on 6. It was requested to provide funds the last subnetwork meeting after to chairman and co-chairman for accomplishing a few, may be effective collaboration and co carried out by the scientists of ordination as well as to visit to the countries as agreed. co-ordinating countries in the region. The Oilcrops Network is 2. The group strongly recommended requested to provide funds. the consideration of the project on sesame proposed earlier to 7. As recommended in the last FAO/UNDP for funding as any subnetwork meeting, the training further delay is likely to result for senior level scientists is in set back in sesame production proposed to have advance training at global level as it is opportunities on sesame breeding considered as minor oil crop by methodologies, new methods of most of the countries. statistical analysis, oil quality etc., with Dr. R.D. Brigham of 3. The member countries were Texas A & M University, Texas. requested to urge their The Chairman of Sesame will Governments to give priority for supply the Co-ordinator the list sesame research programs for of recommended scientists along funding by outside agencies. with priorities. 4. IBPGR is requested to accord 8. A training program for sesame priority for collection of wild production covering all aspects species of sesame in is reconvnended for junior level collaboration of respective scientists in India (Tamil Nadu countries as any further delay Agril. University, Coimbatore). is likely to result in loss of The chairman wi 11 finalize the valuable genetic resources. list and period of training and furnish to the Network Co 5. Dr. Li Lili of China in her ordinator. communication to chairman of sesame subnetwork requested that 9. It is recommended that IDRC/Net academic exchanges meetings may work may provide small funds to be held every year in different two or three centres for the countries for exchange of latest purchase of Infra Red equipment scientific knowledge and ideas. for screening for drought This was recommended subject to resistance .. The cost of one availability of funds. equipment may be around 800-900 US$. 21? II.RECOMMENDATIONS FOR SUNFLOWER SUB-NETWORK The sunflower group of 13 lines leading to develop open participants from 7 different pollinated varieties and inbred lines countries (Bangladesh, Egypt, India, having desirable characteri sties such Morocco, Pakistan, Spain ad as drought tolerance, high yield, Yugoslavia) took part in the long and high oil content, resistance to downy in-depth discussion and formulated mildew, earliness and short height. The following recommendations as To achieve this, four groups have compiled by Dr. Mangala Rai, the been formulated each having some chairman of the Sunflower subnetwork, sunflower varieties/germplasm lines and Dr. M.A. Rana. with specific characters. The groups are as fol lows: 1. Identification of Priority Constraints Group I: High yield, high oil group 1. New pemir (Spanish) The priority constraints of sunflower 2. Peredov i k published in the proceedings of last 3. Vniimic 8931 meeting held in Kenya (IDRC MR 205e) 4. Smera was reviewed and updated, Table 2. 5. Luch Some new constraints such as head rot, collar rot, grey cotton bug, Group II: Drought resistance group ideotype, economics and development 1. Armavirsky 3492 of farm machinery for small farmers 2. Armavirsky 9343 were identified and added in Table 1. 3. Armavirsky 9345 Two new countries, Bangladesh and Morocco were listed in the Table Group !!!:Resistant to downy mildew indicating their priority 1. Yubile noyu 60 constraints. 2. Progress 3. Novinka According to the total scores, 4. October priority constraints such as: leaf spot, white rot, downy mildew Group IV : Mixed group (diseases), cutworm, bird damage 1. Mayak (Drought) (pests), drought, plant height, 2. Zarya (Earliness) earliness and oil content were 3. Donsky (Dwarfness) identified. To obtain the seed of above lines It has been suggested to revise the (except New Pemi r) the Coordinator Table 2 and include in the (Oi lcrops Network) is requested to proceedings. In this regard, the approach the concerned authorities Coordinator (Oilcrops Network) is in USSR. In case the seed of some requested to contact the countries, varieties are not available in USSR, which did not attend this meeting, other sources shall be contacted such and get update on the table as Dr. Dragon Skoric, Dr. Vennozi and concerning situation in their Dr. Vranceano. Dr. Jose Fernandez country. Martinez promised to supply the seed of "New Pemi r" on the request of the 2. Devel ooment of Imp roved coordinator (Oilcrops Network). The Populations seed of varieties included in group I, II, III, and IV wi 11 be used for A st rang need was felt to develop making/developing different gene different diversified sunflower pools by India, Morocco, Pakistan and populations to help generate base Egypt, respectively. A11 the seeds material for the selection of elite shall be supplied to coordinator 218 Table 2. Priorities* of constraints of sunflower research and production. Coun:riesu Factors Mo Ph Et Eg Ke Za Pa In Ug Th Ca Ta Ne Su Ba My Total DISEASES Head rot 2 2 3 12 Leaf spot 2 2 3 2 23 Leaf blotch 1 1 2 White rot 3 2 2 2 27 Leaf blight 2 4 Rugose mosaic 3 9 Yellow ring spot 2 3 10 Downy mildew 3 3 3 23 Rust 2 2 2 14 Powdery mildel' 3 1 Wilt 2 2 2 1 2 24 C~ar:8a1 rot 2 2 2 15 Col 1ar rot 2 3 2 17 :NSECT PESTS Cut worms 3 2 2 28 Bo;: worms 1 " 2 3 3 21 Hairy caterpil. 2 ' 1 ~4 Tobacco 2 3 12 Caterpi11 ar Termite 10 Plus~a semi 8 Flee beetles 8 Niscus " 2 Stinging bug ' Blister beet1e 2 Nair.atJde5 1 7 Rodents 2 3 ? .. Birds "J 3 " 3 .. 3 43 Grey cotton bug ? ? - 3 ~THERS Idec type 7 ? Weeds/ " 8 Parasites Salinity/ ? 6 alkalinity Acidity 1 3 6 Drought 3 2 3 2 3 2 3 3 33 Plant height 2 3 3 2 3 2 2 " 2 27 Earlines 3 3 3 3 2 2 3 2 2 3 '3 3 3 43 Oil percent 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 2 3 3 3 3 46 Economics 3 1 2 3 3 2 15 Farm machinery 2 1 3 1 ? 3 - 11 * 3 = High, 2 =Medium, 1 = Low, - =Not a priority, ? = No information. ** Mo = Morocco, Ph = Philippines, Et = Ethiopia, Eg = Egypt, Ke = Kenya, Za = Zambia, Pa= Pakistan, In= India, Ug =Uganda, Th : Thailand, Ca= Canada, Ta= Tanzania, Ne = Nepal , Su = Sudan, M= Morocco, Ba = Bangladesh, My = Mycnmar (Burma l. 219 (Oi lcrops Network) for redistribution sunflower growing area in their to member countries for selecting respective countries: desirable types. a. Average monthly temperatures 3.Distribution of Literature on (maximum and minimum), "Sunflower Breeding" b. Monthly precipitation (mm), c. Soil types, and To help the breeders to learn "how d. Sunshine intensity and to develop populations, gene pools duration. and handle the material in each population for the selection of 5. Identification of Races of Downy elite/novel lines", the coordinator Mildew (Oi lcrops Network) is requested to purchase 20 copies of a special issue It has been suggested to identify the of the Yugoslavian Journal containing downy mil dew races present in each valuable article entitled "Sunflower country as a first step towards an Breeding" by Dr. Dragan Skoric and integrated approach for building high distribute one copy to each member resistance against this disease in country through their contact person. sunflower. To achieve this, the Dr. Skoric will kindly supply the Coordinator (Oilcrops Network) shall publication free of charge. request USDA at Fargo to supply the seed of differential lines which 4.Transfer of Technolo~v Through would be distributed among the member Exchange of Information countries to initiate the work on race identification. All the member countries are requested to supply one copy of their 6. Leaf Blight (Alternaria) sunflower production/ protection technology package to the Coordinator It has al so been suggested to (Oi lcrop Network), who would initiate screening work against photocopy these documents to make a alternaria disease in the countries complete set and redistribute them to where it is a problem. Dr. Dragan each participating member country. Skoric has very kindly agreed to supply enough seed of a wi l d The production package document sunflower species (He7 ianthus should contain brief information on tuberosus) to the Coordinator at least following topics: (Oi lcrops Network) who would distribute it among the member a. Land preparation, countries. The countries where the b. Method of planting, resistance to al ternari a is found c. Time of planting, shall share the information and gene d. Seed rate, source with the member countries. e. Recommended varieties, f. Interculturing practices, 7. Charcoal Rot g. Fertilizer doses, h. Seed treatment, Dr. Skoric has very kindly agreed to i. Herbicide application, provide the seed of lines which are j. Insecticide recommendations, resistant to charcoal rot to the k. Harvesting, Coordinator (Oilcrops Network), who 1. Marketing and storage, and would distribute them to the m. Economics (Production cost interested countries on receiving a and benefit ratio). formal request. In addition, each member country is 8. White Rot also requested to furnish in brief the following information about the Si nee no proven race of resistance 220 is available for white rot disease, member countries. Dr. D. Skoric has cultural practices such as crop also very kindly agreed to supply rotation should be followed to avoid seed of some elite lines having high disease to the maximum extent oil content and some early maturity possible. lines to the Coordinator (Oilcrops Network). 9. Insect Pests Each country will exploit their gene Looking to the other priorities, for pool for developing populations/lines the time being, no action is with earliness and high oil content suggested on the prob 1em of insect for their countries. pests except to take appropriate chemical measure to control the 13. Compilation of Review on Charcoal insect-pest infestation wherever it Rot is a problem. Dr. Arafa Hilal (Egypt) has very 10. Salinity and Alkalinity kindly agreed to prepare a review on charcoal rot disease indicating the He 7ianthus paradoxus has been pointed following: out as a source for resistance to salinity and alkalinity. Dr. D. a. Breeding techniques, Skori c has very kindly agreed to b. Selection techniques, provide small quantity of seed of c. Preparation of inoculum, this wild sunflower species to India d. .Methods of artificial and Egypt through the Coordinator inoculation, (Oi lcrops Network). India and Egypt c. Gene sources available, will initiate breeding work on the d. Effect of environments on the salinity/alkalinity problem, the appearance of disease, findings of which (information and e. Disease symptoms, resist ant materi a 1) wi 11 be shared f. Mode of infection and life among the member countries. cycle of pathogen, g. Chemical control if any, 11. Drought Resistance h. Alternate hosts, and i. Other important points not Dr. Jose Fernandez Martinez, on the being covered by above. request of Coordinator (Oilcrops Network), wi 11 supply the seed of two 14. Consultancy B populations and two R populations which have showed better performance Since sunflower is a new crop it under the drought conditions. The would be desirable to provide the Coordinator (Oilcrops Networks) will consultancy services in specific share this material with the member di sci p1 i nes and problem areas to some countries. For the increase of seed, of the more needy countries to Pakistan is assigned to multiply the deve 1op research programs on sound seed of B populations and Egypt the footings. R populations and return them to the Coordinator (Oilcrops Network). 15. Training Needs 12. Earliness and High Oil A strong need of training manpower in specific disciplines of plant It has been pointed out that every breeding, plant pathology, seed country has some early maturing and techno 1ogy and seed production has high oil materials, which should be been pointed out. The recommendat i ens obtained by the Coordinator (Oi lcrops made in this regard during the Kenyan Network) for developing gene pool at meeting have a 1so been endorsed by his level to distribute among the the sunflower group. 221 A specific training in plant breeding in theory as wel 1 as practical so have been worked out to be undertaken that the participants can get a during July-August, 1990 or 1991, the comprehensive knowledge about details of which are as follows: sunflower breeding methodology. The courses should cover: a. Place of training: Institute of Field and Vegetable Crops, Novi 1) development, maintenance and Sad, Yugoslavia. improvement of sunflower b. Time of training: July 10 to populations. August 1O, 1990 2) Emascu 1at ion and crossing c. Duration: 30 days. procedures. d. No. of Participants : 20-26 (two 3) Maintenance of wild species. from each country) 4) Procedures of using wild species e. Level of participants : in sunflower breeding for - One junior scientist having selection of resistant genes and Master's degree in plant breeding transfer of these genes to with at least 2 years experience cultivated species. of research. 5) Role of embryo culture of - One senior scientists having interspecific hybridization and Master's/Ph.D. degree in (Plant its practical use. breeding) with at least 6-8 years 6) Development of inbreed lines and experiance of research. their maintenance. f. Lectures and practical training 7) Making new combinations (top courses: The training course crossing) and evaluation of their should cover a diversified area performance. 222 III. GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS 1. Research on Oil/Protein System develope potential research centers in different countries to cater to Many countries have shown interest the needs of specific priority in the Oil/Protein system research problems of the regions. To start as reviewed by Dr. Zulberti in the with, we may have centers of meeting. The interested countries are excellence on drought, salinity/ requested to write to IDRC for alkalinity, oil quality, and disease financial and technical assistance resistance. These cent res would be indicating their interest and special complementary or supplementary for requirements. augmenting research inputs even to the International Oilcrops Unit. 2. Low Cost Oil Extraction Machines 5. Establishment of Oil Quality Laboratory All the countries which have developed the low cost manual- or The group strongly recommended power-operated oil extraction strengthening of some of the oil machines should send the information laboratory for quick determination about them to the Coordinator of oil content and fatty acid (Oil crops Network) for sharing the profile. IDRC should consider to information among the member provide adequate funds/equipments for countries. strengthening laboratories in the member countries. Preferably the equipment suitable for the regions 3. Establishment of an Interna should be provided to these tional Unit on Oil Crops laboratories on priority basis. The group st rang l y felt that IDRC 6. Venue for Next Meeting must establish a research unit on oil crops in the region for The network suggested to hold the undertaking multidisciplinary next meeting in Pakistan during last research programs on the pattern of week of April 1991. A formal other International Research permission will be seeked from the Institutions. This is essential to Pakistan Agric. Res. Counsel and provide much needed thrust to the Government of Pakistan for this crops which are, although important meeting. It is also suggested to hold for the region, not being looked the full network meeting at the same after by any International Research time. Suggested agenda/program will Organization. be 1-2 days of steering committee of subnetworks, 4 days of presentations 4. Es tab l i shment of Centers of and discussion especially finalizing Excellence the constitution and 2 days of field trips to Lahore and Faisalabad. It was felt absolutely essential to