District Governments of Punjab, Pakistan: the Cases of Attock And
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Leadership and Participatory Development in Post-Reform (2001-2010) District Governments of Punjab, Pakistan: The Cases of Attock and Sahiwal Districts. By Kashif Rathore A Thesis Submitted to the University of Birmingham for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY International Development Department School of Government and Society College of Social Sciences University of Birmingham July 2012 University of Birmingham Research Archive e-theses repository This unpublished thesis/dissertation is copyright of the author and/or third parties. The intellectual property rights of the author or third parties in respect of this work are as defined by The Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 or as modified by any successor legislation. Any use made of information contained in this thesis/dissertation must be in accordance with that legislation and must be properly acknowledged. Further distribution or reproduction in any format is prohibited without the permission of the copyright holder. ABSTRACT This thesis explored whether, why and how leadership or other factors in Punjab’s District Governments were related to participatory development programme introduced in Pakistan’s local governments in 2001. Networking/Partnering and transformational styles were found to be significantly correlated with participatory programme utilization levels in sixteen districts. Qualitative analysis in two districts concluded that leadership; local socioeconomic and power patterns; public awareness, trust and confidence; institutional-legal design of participatory development; policy-orientation of higher-level government(s); and local group politics were important factors affecting participatory development programme. Charismatic leadership is highly conductive to change when it builds integrity and trust in a novel public programme, but strong charisma could also lead to discouragement or even suppression of a poorly designed change when leaders intellectualize it in an unfavourable way. Participative leadership led to building follower ownership in participatory policy. Individualized consideration sub-style led to building follower capability for participatory development while intellectual stimulation was the most important leadership sub-style for checking elite-capture. The extent of participatory programme utilization was determined by Networking/Partnering leadership style. ‘Deliverance’ leadership behaviour was idealized by followers under conditions of poor citizen-rights. An ongoing uninterrupted participatory programme was found to be generally empowering for the communities in the long-term. DEDICATION ……to the many local government and community leaders who made participatory development (CCB) programme a success in Punjab. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My greatest acknowledgement is to Almighty Allah to Whom I owe my very existence and the humble effort I have made in this thesis. I feel indebted to my family, friends, colleagues and teachers. This thesis would not have been possible without their support. “Transformational leadership, well that’s fine. But what does it transform?”—Dr Adrian Campbell (My Supervisor at IDD, University of Birmingham) “Find the tree, baubles will follow.” Dr. Zafar Iqbal Jadoon (Professor, Institute of Administrative Sciences, Punjab University, Lahore) “I don’t think I have a better use for this hi-fi. Leave your old laptop for me.”—Dr. Nasira Jabeen (Director, Institute of Administrative Sciences, Punjab University, Lahore) “Go muddy your hands and feet if you want something real.”—Dr. Tariq Siddiqui (Adjunct Faculty, Institute of Administrative Sciences, Punjab University, Lahore) “£ 54,600.00 funding and Four-year study leave.”—Punjab University, Lahore “INSHALLAH”—Mr. Mahmood Rai (Additional Secretary to Government of Punjab) “Questionnaires are on their way. Anything else, Sir?”—Mr. Shahzad A. Siddiqui (PA to Director, Institute of Administrative Science, Punjab University, Lahore) “People do speak; they just need to know you through a friend of a friend. Let’s get you in the network.”—Qazi Khalid Mehmood (Conservator Forests, Punjab Forest Department) “Don’t worry about money. But submit your thesis.”—Altaf H. Rathore, F.R.C.S (Dad) TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION…………………………………...………………………..…1 1.1. Broad aims of research………...…………………………………………………….............1 1.2. Contextualizing the research………………………………………………………………..3 1.3. Significance of research timeframe...……………………………………………………….5 1.4. The CCB programme……………………………...………………………………………...6 1.5. Personal motivation for research......…………………………………………………….....9 1.6. Significance of research...………………………………………………………………......10 1.6. Structure of the thesis...…………………………………………………………………….11 CHAPTER 2: LEADERSHIP THEORIES AND PERSPECTIVES……………...………..12 2.1. Conceptualizations of leadership...………………………………………………………..12 2.2. A review of major leadership models and theories...…………………………………….14 2.2.1. Trait theory…………………………………………………………………………….....16 2.2.2. Behavioural Models of Leadership……………………………………………………...17 2.2.3. Situational-Leadership Theory……………………………………………………….....19 2.2.3.1. Hersey and Blanchard’s (1969, 1988) situational leadership theory...……………...19 2.2.3.2. Path-Goal Theory...…………………………………………………………………….21 2.2.3.3. Normative-Decision Theory..………………………………………………………….24 2.2.3.4. Fiedler’s contingency theory of leadership...…………………………………………25 2.2.4. Leader-member exchange theory…………………………………………………..........26 2.2.5. Charismatic theories of leadership………………………………………………….......30 2.2.5.1. Conger and Kanungo’s Charismatic leadership theory...…………………………...32 2.2.5.2. Burns’s Heroic Leadership..…………………………………………………………..33 2.2.5.3. Extreme charisma, dark charisma and personalized charisma perspectives..…….38 2.2.6. Transformational leadership theories…………………………………………………..40 2.2.6.1. Burn’s Transforming Leadership Theory..…………………………………………..40 2.2.6.1.1. Characteristics of transforming leadership………………………………………...41 2.2.6.1.2. Archetypes of transforming leadership……………………………………………..48 2.2.6.2. Bass’s Transformational Leadership…..……………………………………………..50 2.2.6.2.1. Transformational Leadership: Charisma………………………………………......53 2.2.6.2.2. Transformational Leadership: Inspirational motivation……………………….....53 2.2.6.2.3. Transformational Leadership: Intellectual stimulation…………………………...54 2.2.6.2.4. Transformational Leadership: Individualized consideration……………………..54 2.2.6.2.5. Transactional Leadership: Contingent Reward……………………………………54 2.2.6.2.6. Transactional Leadership: Management by Exception (Active)………………….55 2.2.6.2.7. Transactional Leadership: Management by Exception (Passive)…………………55 2.2.6.2.8. Transactional Leadership: Laissez-Faire/Avoidant………………………………..55 2.2.7. Networking and partnering perspective on leadership………………………………...56 2.3. Summary..…………………………………………………………………………………..57 CHAPTER 3: CITIZEN-PARTICIPATION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES…………...59 3.1. The concept of citizen participation…...…………………………………………………..59 3.2. Reasons for citizen participation…...……………………………………………………...61 3.2.1. Greater democratization…………………………………………………………………62 3.2.2. International donor/lenders’ preferences……………………………………………….63 3.2.3. Reaction to technocratic approach……………………………………………………...63 3.2.4. Public disillusionment with traditional governance structures………………………..64 3.2.5. Governments’ recognition of their limits…………………………………………….....64 3.3. Benefits and pitfalls of citizen-participation in developing countries…………………...65 3.4. Contextual conditions affecting the success of citizen participation…………………….70 3.4.1. Citizenship quality and equality in society……………………………………………...70 3.4.2. Institutional Design……………………………………………………………………….72 3.4.3. Political and administrative support for participation………………………………...73 3.4.4. Historical context of peoples’ involvement………………………………………….......74 3.5. Summary..…………………………………………………………………………………..75 CHAPTER 4: PARTICIPATORY LOCAL DEVELOPMENT IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES……………………………………………………………………………………77 4.1. Local development...………………………………………………………………………..77 4.2. Participatory local development…………………………………………………………...77 4.3. Institutional types of local development.…...……………………………………………..79 4.4. A typology of citizen participation in local development.…...…………………………...82 4.4.1. Arnstein’s Ladder of Citizen Participation……………………………………………..82 4.4.2. Conflict-negotiation Model of Participation……………………………………………84 4.4.3. International Development Model of Participation……………………………………86 4.4.4. Moynihan’s instrumental-normative model of citizen participation………………….87 4.4.5. Pretty’s low end—high end interactive forms of Participation……………………......89 4.4.6. White’s Stakeholders-interest model of Participation…………………………………89 4.4.7. Crocker’s Modes of Participation………………………………………………….........90 4.5. A proposed typology of citizen participation in local development………...…………...90 4.6. Summary...………………………………………………………………………………….97 CHAPTER 5: ELITE CAPTURE OF PARTICIPATORY DEVELOPMENT IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES…...……………………………………………………………99 5.1. Elites and the basis of their power…..……………………………………………………99 5.2. Elite-Capture in Developing Countries……...…………………………………………..102 5.3. Dealing with Elite Domination…...………………………………………………………103 5.4. Conditions Contributing to Elite Capture……………………………………………….105 5.4.1. Economic and social dependency………………………………………………………106 5.4.2. Information asymmetries…………………………………………………………….....107 5.4.3. Elite’s ability to influence authorities……………………………………………….....108 5.4.4. Media attention……………………………………………………………………….....109 5.5. Summary..…………………………………………………………………………………110