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Experimental Generation of Volcanic Lightning Experimental generation of volcanic lightning C. Cimarelli, M.A. Alatorre-Ibargüengoitia*, U. Kueppers, B. Scheu, and D.B. Dingwell Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Ludwig Maximilian University, Theresienstraße 41, 80333 Munich, Germany ABSTRACT A Transparent collection tank Explosive volcanic eruptions are commonly associated with intense electrical activity and High-speed lightning. Direct measurement of the electric potential at the vent, where the electric activity camera in the volcanic plume is fi rst observed, is severely impeded, limiting progress in its investi- 6-7 cm gation. We have achieved volcanic lightning in the laboratory during rapid decompression 11 cm Antennas and experiments of gas-particle mixtures under controlled conditions, and recorded it using a P-transducer high-speed camera and two antennas. We fi nd that lightning is controlled by the dynamics of 2 cm the particle-laden jet and by the abundance of fi ne particles. The relative movement of clus- Gas inlet ters of charged particles generates the electrical potential, which is necessary for lightning. 10-16.5 cm Sample Diaphragm The experimental generation of volcanic lightning suggests that rapid progress can now be expected in understanding electrical phenomena in volcanic plumes to implement lightning P-transducers monitoring systems and the forecasting of volcanic ash emissions. INTRODUCTION observed in thunderstorms (Williams and Mc- Lightning discharges are often observed dur- Nutt, 2004; Thomas et al., 2007). As such, the ing explosive volcanic eruptions and are com- presence of hydrometeors within the plume B Nozzle monly associated with the formation of ash has been assigned a decisive role in the genera- plumes (Mather and Harrison, 2006; James et tion of volcanic lightning (Arason et al., 2011). al., 2008; McNutt and Williams, 2010; Rakov Measurements of electrically charged volcanic and Uman, 2003). Their occurrence appears to ash in the fi eld (Miura et al., 2002; Gilbert et be independent of magma composition, eruption al., 1991; Calvari et al., 2012) and in laboratory type, and plume height (McNutt and Williams, experiments (James et al., 2000; Büttner et al., 2010). Increasingly sophisticated lightning 2000) invoke triboelectrifi cation (electrifi cation mapping arrays show that lightning discharges of solids through friction) and fractoemission are ubiquitously produced within three regions (emission of electrons and ions from fresh crack of the plume, each of which is governed by surfaces resulting in a residual charge) as the very distinct dynamics, i.e., (1) the gas-thrust main mechanisms of volcanic particle electrifi - region immediately above the vent, (2) the con- cation (Gilbert et al., 1991; James et al., 2008). P-transducer Antennas vection-driven rising column extending several In previous experiments lightning discharges Figure 1. A: Shock-tube apparatus. B: Close- kilometers above the vent, and (3) the neutrally have not been observed, thus demonstrating that up of nozzle, pressure transducers, and an- buoyant umbrella region (Thomas et al., 2010; particle charging per se is a necessary but insuf- tennas. Nozzle diameter is 2.8 cm, distance Bennett et al., 2010; Behnke et al., 2013). At fi cient condition for lightning generation. Some between antennas is 1 cm. Autoclave is fi lled least two main regimes of electrical discharges important questions remain concerning volcanic with loose particles and equipped with pres- sure transducers. Gas-particle mixture is de- have been described derived from lightning lightning. How are lightning discharges gener- compressed through diaphragm and ejected mapping array observations (Thomas et al., ated in the near-vent region? What is the domi- into collection tank (atmospheric pressure, 2007, 2010; Behnke et al., 2013): (1) the vent nating mechanism for particle charging and Pa ~ 0.1 MPa, atmospheric temperature, Ta ~ discharges (sparks) and near-vent lightning, as- electrical discharge at the inception of an ex- 24 °C, relative humidity ~60%). All sensors are synchronized with high-speed camera sociated with the fragmentation of magma and plosive eruption? Does this mechanism depend recording at as much as 50,000 frames/s. collision of particles occurring during the explo- on particle size distribution? Finally, if charging sion, and (2) the plume lightning, dominated by mechanism and charge distribution are key pa- gravitational separation of the ejecta, occurring rameters for lightning generation, to what extent through a nozzle of 2.8 cm diameter (D) into a in the convective plume (Thomas et al., 2010; is the charging mechanism and charge distribu- large tank fi lled with air at atmospheric condi- Behnke et al., 2013). Field studies of electric tion model proposed for thunderclouds (Rakov tions. Because of their impulsive character, our fi eld variations induced by volcanic plumes and Uman, 2003) valid for volcanic plumes? experiments most closely represent the condi- have focused mainly on the convective and um- tions encountered in the gas-thrust region of the brella regions (Anderson et al., 1965; Lane and METHOD plume, when pyroclasts are fi rst ejected from Gilbert, 1992; James et al., 1998; McNutt and We generated lightning in rapid decompres- the crater. We used sieved natural ash with dif- Davis, 2000; Miura et al., 2002). Current mod- sion experiments in a shock tube (Alatorre- ferent grain sizes (Table DR1 in the GSA Data els of electrical charging within the convective Ibargüengoitia et al., 2011) (Fig. 1A). Upon Repository1) from Popocatépetl (Mexico), column propose that volcanic plumes may be- decompression (from ~10 MPa argon pressure Eyjafjallajökull (Iceland), and Soufrière Hills have as “dirty thunderstorms,” thus being able to atmospheric pressure Pa = 0.1 MPa), loose (Montserrat) volcanoes, as well as micromet- to produce lightning discharges as commonly particles are vertically accelerated and ejected ric glass beads to constrain the infl uence of *Current address: Centro de Investigación en Gestión de Riesgos y Cambio Climático, Universidad de Ciencias y Artes de Chiapas, Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas 29039, Mexico. 1GSA Data Repository item 2014018, Table DR1 (experimental conditions), Figure DR1 (electronic schematics of the antennas), Figures DR2–DR5 (video frames of lightning fl ashes), and Videos DR1 and DR2 (high-speed videos of two experiments with different camera exposure time), is available online at www.geosociety.org /pubs/ft2014.htm, or on request from [email protected] or Documents Secretary, GSA, P.O. Box 9140, Boulder, CO 80301, USA. GEOLOGY, January 2014; v. 42; no. 1; p. 79–82; Data Repository item 2014018 | doi:10.1130/G34802.1 | Published online 6 December 2013 GEOLOGY© 2013 Geological | January Society 2014 of America.| www.gsapubs.org Gold Open Access: This paper is published under the terms of the CC-BY license. 79 Downloaded from http://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article-pdf/42/1/79/3545975/79.pdf by guest on 30 September 2021 material properties on lightning. We monitored with the overpressure at the nozzle and the therefore will infl uence the fl uid dynamic prop- the dynamics of the particle-laden jets with a presence of the turbulent shell (Fig. 2A). Fre- erties of the particles, especially with regard to high-speed camera and the pressure and electric quent smaller potential changes characterize the the coupling to the gas phase, and thereby con- potential at the nozzle using a pressure trans- beginning of this phase, which evolves to less trol the mean distribution of particles in the jet ducer and two copper ring antennas connected frequent, higher voltage discharges. During the near-fi eld. These factors are likely to infl uence to a high-impedance data acquisition system, third phase, particles are ejected for a further the charging mechanism of particles in the ex- respectively (Fig. 1B; Fig. DR1). 200–250 ms: the pressure at the nozzle rapidly periments and in nature. decreases to Pa, the electric potential recovers EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS the initial value, no turbulent shell is observed, Effect of Grain-Size Distribution on and no further discharges are recorded. Discharge Number and Flow Structure High Speed Imaging and Electric In one experiment, the antennas can record The spherical glass beads, used in this study Measurements hundreds of electrical discharges (amplitude as a standard material, are highly homoge- We distinguish three temporal phases within >0.2 V, duration 0.6 μs) associated with fl ashes neous in density, chemistry, and shape, inde- each experiment (Fig. 2): (1) the escape of the to 5 cm in length (Figs. DR2–DR5). High-speed pendent of size. The response of a particle in a argon originally above the loaded particles; videos (Videos DR1 and DR2 in the Data Re- fl ow is characterized by its Stokes number Sk = τ τ τ (2) the ejection of the front of the gas-particle pository) show that most of the fl ashes originate p/ f, where p is the time required for a particle mixture and the generation of a more turbulent and propagate within a region defi ned by the to obtain a velocity of 63% of the fl uid veloc- τ conical region surrounding the main jet (turbu- turbulent shell and a 2 D vertical distance above ity, and f is a characteristic fl ow time scale. It lent shell); and (3) the ejection of the remain- the nozzle. This distance is consistent with the has been shown that particles with Sk >> 1 are ing particles in a well-collimated jet. In the fi rst theoretical Mach disk height for a pressure of ~6 unresponsive to fl uctuations within the fl ow phase (Fig. 2B), the shock wave and the argon Pa at the vent (Ogden et al., 2008). As is the case and that preferential clustering of particles fi rst ≈ escape produce a sharp pressure increase, the for thundercloud lightning, we also observe in occurs when Sk 1 in regions of relatively high gas condensation, and a negative transient in the our experiments downward- and upward-propa- strain and low velocity (Longmire and Eaton, τ electric potential relative to Earth.
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