Welcome Letter Dear Delegates, Welcome to the 32nd annual North American Model United Nations Conference at the University of Toronto! I, and the rest of the NAMUN staff, look forward to working with you and seeing your impressive skills in negotiation, military strategy, political maneuvering, historical research and any other talents you may bring to the table. It is with my pleasure that I invite you to be a delegate in the 8 Nations Alliance Committee of the Historical Crisis. You will be working closely with the NAMUN Crisis staff, as well as communicating with our fellow Boxer Rebellion Committee, the Qing court. As we turn back to the beginning of the 20th century, you will be able to influence not only ’s future, but also those of the international community. I look forward to discussing such topics as imperialism, clashing ideologies, religious differences, anti-foreign sentiments and much more. As for a bit of background on myself, I intend to pursue a double major in neuroscience and either history or international relations (I am a tad bit indecisive). This will be my fourth in Model United Nations, and my second year chairing a historical crisis committee. Since I’ve acted as a delegate in a previous Boxer Rebellion Historical simulation, I know what it is like to be in your shoes, and I am excited to be your committee chair this year! Below, you will find the background guide which briefly covers the historical background of the Boxer Rebellion, the main issues we will be dealing with in committee, and the state of affairs before our first committee meeting. I strongly suggest that you use this background guide as a preliminary source, and continue to do your own research, especially in respect your particular nation. I have provided a list of sources that you may find useful, but these are by no means the only sources that you may, or should look at. Physical sources may prove to be quite useful to you (as opposed to just online ones), as they often provide the depth, detail and analysis needed for our discussions. With that, I once again welcome you to NAMUN 2017 and I look forward to meeting you all!

Andrea Ho

Introduction

The Boxer Rebellion is perhaps one of the most recognizable conflicts that epitomized anti-foreign and anti-imperialistic sentiments in China. However, the outbreak of the rebellion should not come as a surprise, as the conflict’s foundation lies deep within China’s internal strife during the nineteenth century. Various factors, ranging from conflicts with external powers to a restless population and from natural disasters to increasing foreign aggression, came together in the final years of the nineteenth century to form a perfect storm. Rumblings of a rebellion originally started in the late 1890s with a group known as the Yihe Quan, “ United in Righteousness.”1 However, martial arts was a long standing tradition in Northern China. Previously, other societies such as the Dadaohui (“Big Sword Society”) and Shen Quan (“Spirit Boxers”) existed in the province, but eventually merged and became collectively known as the Yihe Quan. Later, local officials changed the group’s title from Yihe Quan to Yihe Tuan (“Militia United in Righteousness”) which, in turn, became the motto for the Boxer movement.2 Leading up to 1900, the international community became aware that the Boxers were carrying out a series of smaller attacks against foreign officials and missionaries that were publicly unsupported by the Qing government. However, in early 1900, Cixi officially ordered Qing officials to cease any active repression of Boxer activities.3 By May 1900, a group of Boxers was advancing on from the countryside. On June 17th, an international relief force seized the Dagu forts on China’s coast, to restore access from Beijing to Jianjin. Shortly after, ordered the Boxers and Qing military to attack the foreign legation quarter and subsequently declared war on all the

1 Yingcong Dai, “Boxer Rebellion,” in Encyclopedia of Modern Asia, ed. Karen Christensen and David Levinson (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2002), accessed September 7, 2016, http://ic.galegroup.com/ic/whic/ReferenceDetailsPage/ReferenceDetailsWindow?displayGroupName=Ref erence&zid=fef31521951aa5b80d2c5127989aed71&p=WHIC%3AUHIC&action=2&catId=&documentI d=GALE%7CCX3403700384&source=Bookmark&u=nort87507&jsid=c4e22e5eba218621a8a5b475c33 fb7b5. 2 Dai, “Rebellion.” 3 Martin, William A.P. The Siege in Peking: China Against the World. 1900. Reprint. (Wilmington: Scholarly Resources, 1972), 71.

Western powers.4 As a result, eight countries (Britain, , Germany, France, Russia, Japan, Italy and Austria-Hungary) formed an international relief force to alleviate the besieged foreign officials.5 By , the foreign powers had occupied Beijing, which led Cixi to flee with her court and take refuge in Xi’an.6 Negotiations resulted in an agreement named the “”. The key stipulations of this agreement involved , public apologies and that foreign be stationed at certain strategic points in Northern China.

4 Dai, “Rebellion.” 5 Dai, “Rebellion.” 6 Dai, “Rebellion.”

Historical Background

Geographic and Population Analysis: The Boxers seemed to have originated in the province of Shandong, in Northern China. The Shandong province was known for its wide expanses of flat land, “cereal” agriculture, dense populations and poverty-stricken villages.7 The area had the potential to thrive because the silt deposits from the Yellow River could contribute to good land for farming, but the province lacked proper irrigation infrastructure.8 Since the water could not be properly drained from the land, Shandong was nothing more than a salty plain, unable to support successful crops. Additionally, the province was ravaged by natural disasters including both droughts and famines. The Qing government had already spent money on military expeditions to Burma and Nepal in the 18th century, so there was no monetary support for agricultural development.9 Moreover, west of Jinan, an imperial highway, which ran north-south, was used constantly by invading armies. As a result, the local population was constantly subjected to devastation inflicted by these armies,10 and bore the brunt of the destructive nature of the conflicts. Around 95% of Shandong’s population remained peasants,11 and social mobility was not feasible. The impoverished population led to the rise of banditry, because many people had no other option.12 And since majority of the population lived in poverty, only a few wealthy families existed, who then became easy targets for bandits. These families then turned to increasingly militaristic means to defend themselves, which made room for the development and training of local militia.13 Opium exchange and salt smuggling also developed throughout the province, though the popularity of those commodities varied

7 Joseph W. Esherick, The Origins of the Boxer Uprising (Berkeley: University of California, 1987), 2. 8 Esherick, Origins, 2. 9 David J. Silbey, The Boxer Rebellion and the Great Game in China (New York: Hill and Wang, 2012). Silbey, Great Game, 22. 10 The various conflicts that used this imperial highway included the Mongol Invasion, Yong-Le’s takeover of the Ming Throne, the Manchu Invasion and the Taiping rebellions. Esherick, Origins, 16. 11 Esherick, Origins, 2. 12 Esherick, Origins, 18. 13 Esherick, Origins, 23.

within the province itself.14 Additionally, due to the migrant nature of the population, the Shandong citizens were generally open to new ideas, and it was easy for various ideologies to become popular.15 Lastly, there were very few Christian gentry in the region, which meant there was less support for foreign religious beliefs. When one combines such factors as desolate land, an impoverished and possibly corrupt population, and a lack of strong support for Christianity, one can see why the Boxer rituals spread so quickly.16

Figure 1: Shandong Province, the origin of the Boxer Rebellion, in relation to Beijing1

Boxer Culture and Popular Culture: The rise of the Boxers would not have been so immediate if the rituals among the Boxers did not strike “some familiar chord”17 among the farmers. The Shandong people had a well-established martial arts culture, and were known for their bravery,18 so it was easy for the population to accept the Boxers’ martial arts practices. Those who knew martial arts became invaluable and important defenders of the community, especially since the environment was becoming much more dangerous. Additionally, spiritualistic

14 Esherick, Origins, 21. 15 Esherick, Origins, 27. 16 Esherick, Origins, 28. 17 Esherick, Origins, 38. 18 Esherick, Origins, 45.

rituals had historical roots, since in the Zhou dynasty, there were various shamans who practiced “spiritual-possession,” and even Daoist priests were known for their incantations.19 Only the Qing government saw practices involving incantations as heterodoxy,20 but in the eyes of the common people, it was something very familiar. And as time continued, heterodoxy became more familiar until there was no longer a distinction between heterodoxy and normal culture. Thus, the Boxers’ ideology was “perfectly understandable in terms of the popular culture of the West Shandong peasantry”.21 And since Boxer culture was so popular, it was easy for its practices and tenets to spread across the province in the a very short amount of time.22

Missionary Activity in Shandong: Active missionary work first began in Shandong in the 1630s when the Jesuit conversions first became popular.23 At some point in the late 17th century, Catholic conversions began to take place in the Norwest Shandong areas, and by 1854, France negotiated an edict that promised toleration for Christianity from the Dao-Guan emperor.24 In the following years, the number of converts increased substantially across Shandong and the rest of China. The missionaries that were least accepted by the Chinese peoples, were the German missionaries of the Society of the Divine Word (SVD). These missionaries often played a role in local affairs, were openly supportive of foreign practices, and had trouble adopting to the local culture.25 Thus the local population perceived the SVD to be highly disruptive, but this behaviour was common among many other missionaries. The most common complaint among the Chinese was that their Christian counterparts often received better results before local magistrates because of their

19 Esherick, Origins, 39 20 Heterodoxy in the Shandong province originally referred to Confucian orthodoxy, but over time the definition changed and instead referred to magical and ritualistic practices. The Qing government did not support such practices, as it drew the population away from the government endorsed religion, Confucianism. Seiwert, Hubert. Popular Religious Movements and Heterodox Sects in Chinese History. (Koninklijke Brill NV, 2003), 21. 21 Esherick, Origins, 67. 22 Esherick, Origins, 67. 23 Esherick, Origins, 76. 24 Esherick, Origins, 77. 25 Clements, Paul H. The Boxer Rebellion: A Political and Diplomatic Review. (New York: Columbia, 1915), 73.

connections.26 This stemmed from the reality that the Catholic administrative hierarchy was “invariably” faster than the Chinese bureaucratic hierarchy.27 And as the Catholic Church continued to play a hand in China’s internal politics, the citizens became increasingly upset at the Qing government’s inability to function properly.

First Opium War: The in early 1839 was perhaps the first act of aggression by a foreign power in China,28 and represented the “opening” of China to the West.29 Britain originally shipped opium to China because it had the beneficial effect of keeping Indian and Chinese trade in financial balance. But soon the Chinese population began to suffer due to the side-effects of opium usage, and the government was becoming increasingly concerned about its citizens. A disagreement about the importation of the drug led to the First Opium War. It soon became clear that the Chinese were no match for the advanced and mechanized weaponry of the British. China’s defeat led to the opening of five of her ports to British merchants, and a large .30 This clearly showed that China was not capable of protecting itself from foreign influence, and paved the way for further economic interactions.

Taiping Rebellion: The started in 1850, after its leader, , awoke after 30 days of delirium to conclude that the Manchu rulers must be destroyed, and the Heavenly Kingdom of Great Harmony must be established.31 The Taipings’ central mandate was a combination of a slightly confused version of Christianity, along with a

26 Esherick, Origins, 84. 27 When Christians had complaints, they could deal with them through the “Catholic Hierarchy”, which followed the path from parish or priest, to foreign missionary, to county magistrate, to bishop, to prefect or governor and then ultimately to the emperor. A complaint that followed this path was often resolved much quicker and more successfully than any complaint filed through the Chinese bureaucratic system. This led Chinese citizens to become increasingly upset with the Chinese government, and its lack of authority in such matters. Esherick, Origins, 84. 28 Silbey, David J. The Boxer Rebellion and the Great Game in China. (New York: Hill and Wang, 2012), 24. 29 Esherick, Origins, 68. 30 Eric Ouellet, “Multinational counterinsurgency: the Western intervention in the Boxer Rebellion 1900 –1901,” Small Wars and Insurgencies 20 (2009), accessed September 7, 2016, doi: 10.1080/09592310903027074. 31 “Taiping Rebellion (1850-1864),” Columbia University, accessed September 7, 2016, http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/china_1750_taiping.htm.

doctrine that “promised both the end of the world and its perfection, possibly at the same time.”32 However, this ideology attracted millions because the central tenets of the Taiping philosophy provided both an explanation for the difficulty of life, and a solution which satisfied feelings of helplessness.33 Thus the rebellion enjoyed immense success both socially (since the ideas resounded with people) and militarily. It took almost fourteen years for the Qing to develop to the point at which it could successfully beat the Taipings in 1864.34 However, the effort was exhausting and the devastation was enormous. Millions of people died and many of the provinces suffered for many years to come as a result of the fighting.35 The people would always remember the war that ravaged the country, and that it was led by the lower class.

Second Opium War: On October 8, 1856, a ship called the Arrow was boarded by Chinese authorities in Canton, because two suspected pirates were on board. The entire crew was eventually arrested. However, the ship was Chinese owned and crewed, but had been registered with British authorities in Hong Kong. This supposedly gave the Arrow immunity from Chinese maritime authorities, even though the registration had already expired.36 There are varying accounts as to whether the Chinese took down the British flag, or if the flag was flying it in the first place. Regardless, the British saw this as “an insult of a very grave character.”37 This led to the , which once again, did not end favorably for the Chinese. Unfortunately for Yizhu, the young emperor at the time, he listened to his aggressive counselors and attempted the unthinkable: to back out of the agreements immediately after they were signed. This led to the recommencement of hostilities, and the march of the Anglo-French forces into Beijing itself, which was then captured, looted and razed.38 The , hundreds of years of documentation, history and monetary funds were either destroyed or stolen.

32 Silbey, Great Game, 25. 33 “Taiping Rebellion” 34 Silbey, Great Game, 25. 35 “Taiping Rebellion” 36 Ouellet, “Counterinsurgency.” 37 Silbey, Great Game, 27. 38 Silbey, Great Game, 28.

First Sino-Japanese War: Japan had already undergone a period of modernization, but in 1874, Japan began to conduct imperial expansion.39 It started with the seizure of China’s vassal state, the Liuchiu islands.40 This was so successful that a few years later, Japan challenged China over the ownership of . The conciliatory policy of the Chinese government prevented war in 1885, but Japan was not easily deterred. When the Chinese military was called in to supress a Korean revolt, Japan reacted by simultaneously moving her military into Korea, even though a previous agreement prevented any military movement in Korea without advance notice. Influential individuals in China did not want Japan’s actions to go unpunished, as they did not think that the relatively small nation could compete with their military forces. Thus, the first Sino-Japanese war was fought over ownership of Korea, but China was no match for Japan’s advanced military. This was the conflict that “brought matters to a climax [and] revealed China’s rottenness to the world”.41 The revelation that China was weak and could be conquered by a recently modernized power hastened foreign aggression. This resulted in the “Scramble of Concessions”, in which many foreign powers rushed to gain a piece of the treasured foreign territory.

Figure 2: Foreign acquisitions in China c. 19001

39 Chester C. Tan, The Boxer Catastrophe (New York: Columbia, 1955), 10. 40 Tan, Catastrophe, 10. 41 Ouellet, “Counterinsurgency.”

Reforms of 1898 Empress Dowager Cixi’s nephew, and adopted son, Guangxu, came to the throne in 1870 as a young boy. Cixi was appointed , along with the other main power in court, . When Prince Gong died, Guangxu tried to implement multiple progressive reforms while simultaneously plotting to sideline Cixi.42 In what is known as the Hundred Days reform, multiple memorandums emerged from the Emperor’s court in an attempt to restructure Chinese society. However, Cixi had no intention of giving up her power at court to a young usurper. Cixi’s political expertise allowed her to take advantage of the Manchu nobility who were uncomfortable with the disintegration of their power and familiar administrative structures and to successfully dethrone Guangxu.43 Cixi quickly undid all of Guangxu’s reforms and executed all those who had any hand in them.44 Thus China lost all hope of radical progress, and the conditions of the lower classes had still not improved.

Figure 3: Battle at T'ien-chin in the Boxer Rebellion1

42 Silbey, Great Game, 32. 43 Silbey, Great Game, 33. 44 Silbey, Great Game, 33.

Issues

The first major issue at hand for European powers, America and Japan, is that many of the missionaries and foreign officials are being brutally and unjustly killed at the hands of the Boxers. If nothing is done about the violence, the situation will escalate, and more lives will be lost. Additionally, delegates should keep in mind that the continued murders of missionaries will damage the prestige of the imperial powers, as it shows their inability to protect their citizens abroad, and their lack of control in foreign nations. Potential solutions include military intervention, diplomacy or negotiation attempts. Once the main issue of violence is dealt with, delegates should also consider how best to continue spreading Christianity throughout China. The benefits of keeping missionaries in China, include moral and religious reasons. Many westerners believed that it was part of their duty to bring those who were unenlightened and uncivilized into a more Christian and scientific world.45 One could even make the argument that “conquest was for the benefit of the subjugated”.46 However, delegates should keep in mind that keeping missionaries in China may lead to benefits unrelated to religious benefits. Missionaries often need economic and even military support to ensure their safety as they continue to spread Christianity to the interior of the country. This might mean that delegates could attempt to occupy more territory to support the missionaries, which obviously entails secondary economic benefits. However, the most important issues for foreign powers is quite obviously the acquisition of further territory and trade concessions in China. This territory may bring direct economic benefits through the increase in trade by exporting various goods to cities in China. For example, one important export that was highly desired by the Chinese were cotton textiles. By the mid 1990s, the Shandong province was buying 100 000 more piculs47 per year of cotton textiles than they had in the early 1980s.48 The dramatic increase in demand for cotton textiles indicates that Chinese citizens are willing and able to buy foreign imports, especially those everyday commodities. Additionally, there is

45 Silbey, Great Game, 9. 46 Silbey, Great Game, 9. 47 One picul is the equivalent of 60.5 kg. Esherick, Origins, 69. 48 Esherick, Origins, 69.

currently little competition in the market of foreign imports, and delegates should keep in mind that these opportune circumstances will change rapidly, given the increased foreign interest in China.49 Additionally, foreign powers may gain economically by setting up infrastructure to extract natural resources. Most of China’s natural resources at this time are largely untapped.50 An increase in material wealth and raw resources not only increases the prosperity of a state’s domestic economy, but also could significantly increase the size and power of its army. Many of the foreign powers are competing to ensure that its armies are at the top of the world stage. Without military strength, a nation cannot be seen as a world power and cannot protect and enforce one’s will on the territories and ports which fuel its economy. Foreign territorial acquisitions may also be used to expand a nation’s military influence such as when Kaiser Wilhelm II built a coaling station51 in Jiazhou to establish a military presence in China.52 On that note, the pure acquisition of territory also gives nations more authority and respect, and convinces others that the nation is a force to be reckoned with. Additionally, delegates may want to consider the sentiment that “[Force] is regarded by most … as the only sure and speedy agent for ‘opening up’ China. The merchants look upon the use of force as necessary to open up new resources and avenues of industry, and a large proportion of the missionaries favor it because their task will, by this means, be rendered less difficult, probably, than by the slow and laborious process of moral suasion.”53 Another objective which delegates must keep in mind, is that they must either maintain the balance of power, or emerge from the struggles in China so powerful that no rivals pose a serious threat to them. Since the Congress of Vienna, the idea of the “balance of power” has been respected among the most powerful nations of the globe,

49 “In Asia lurked China, with its hundreds of millions of people, ripe for sales, ripe for exploitation, ripe for conquest … Winning China would win markets, and dominance, either continuing or new. Silbey, Great Game, 21. 50 Peter Harrington, Peking 1900: The Boxer Rebellion (Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2001), 7. 51 Coaling stations served as ports where ships, which at that time ran primarily on coal, could be refuelled. In the late 1890s, Willhelm II was primarily concerned with the goal of establishing coaling stations, and even prioritized them over the pure acquisition of foreign territory. Rohl, John C.G. Wilhelm II: The Kaiser’s Personal Monarchy, 1888 – 1900. Cambridge University Press, 2004, 778. 52 Esherick, Origins, 29. 53 Esherick, Origins, 75.

and it would be dangerous to tip the balance of power, especially if it is not in a delegate’s favour. The balance of power has also been respected as one of the forces that has kept nations from falling into large international conflicts, so it might be wise to respect that, at least for the time being. Historically, the balance of power has been followed in acquisition of Chinese territories. For example, Japan had earlier claimed the Liaodang Peninsula as her prize.54 However, Russia, Germany and France made Japan return the Liaodang Peninsula because it ruined the balance of power in the region.55 Collaboration may be key in maintaining the balance of power, especially since another nation’s acquisition might lead to one’s own acquisition, in an attempt to maintain the balance of power. This has historically happened when Germany took Jiaozhou, which previously belonged to Russia. However, instead of convincing Germany to give Jiaozhou back, Germany instead convinced Russia to obtain a port of her own.56 However, as important as the balance of power may be in the short term, the long- term goal of delegates must be to maximize the benefits a nation may gain from China’s internal strife. Delegates may choose to adhere to the balance of power for as long as it serves its purpose of not letting other nations become too powerful, but indeed it may be wise to turn the idea of the balance of power on its head to gain undisputed authority in the international community. After all, it may be much easier to be at the top of the world stage at the turn of the century, then to continue perpetuating an already deteriorating balance of power. Delegates should be afraid of the partition of China and distribution of her resources among other nations,57 because it would ultimately lead to the weakening of a delegate’s nation. Delegates should also keep in mind that China presents many opportunities and resources, however these are finite. If a delegate does not maximize the benefits from this conflict, another nation will surely gain, resulting in an

54 Esherick, Origins, 129. 55 Esherick, Origins, 129. 56 Esherick, Origins, 129. 57 In particular, the Americans, British and Japanese were scared of the partitioning of China, and were primarily concerned with ensuring the “Open Door” policy to trade. Ruxton, I. 2002. "Sir Ernest Satow in Tokyo, 1895-1900: From Triple Intervention to Boxer Rebellion." Diplomacy & Statecraft 13 (2): 135-160. doi:10.1080/00222937900770111.http://resolver.scholarsportal.info/resolve/09592296/v13i0002/13 5_sesit1ftitbr.

ultimate loss for the delegate’s nation.58 Delegates may also want to remember that China is located in a vulnerable geographic spot, as it is close to British, Russian and French empires, and a short distance to Japan and the new American possession in the Philippines.59 Even the Germans have enough islands in the Pacific to manage a naval presence off China’s coastline. Especially in terms of imperialism, China represents the last un-colonized nation, as once it is divided up, it would be the “closing of an imperial frontier”.60 Obvious obstacles may include dissent among Chinese citizens, especially regarding economic losses. Delegates may want to keep in mind that China is currently impoverished, and any further economic losses would greatly upset the peasantry. As it stands, China’s population has just boomed, so there are many youth willing to serve as part of China’s military forces. Other obstacles may include military conflicts, or retaliation on the part of the Chinese, in the form of destroying foreign establishments in China, or more dramatic violence against foreigners.

58 As one American observer put it, “On the decision of the fate of China may, perhaps, hinge the economic supremacy of the next century.” Silbey, Great Game, 21. 59 Silbey, Great Game, 21. 60 Silbey, Great Game, 21.

State of Affairs

As it stands currently, it is a few days after the Juye incident, which occurred on the Night of all Saint’s day, November 1, 1897. Three German missionaries of S.V.D (George Stenz, Richard Henle and Francis Exavier Nies) had gathered in Stenz’ missionary residence in Zhangjiazhuang in Juye county, 25 km west of Jining. Richard Henle had come to visit because he was discouraged by his slow progress in saving souls, so as a friendly gesture, Stenz invited him to his residence to take a break. During the evening, the three missionaries practiced for Requiem the following day. An hour before midnight, shots were heard and Stenz’ courtyard was filled with torches. A group of around twenty to thirty men raced into the missionary quarters, broke down the doors, and “hacked Nies and Henle to death”.61 The murderers did not find Stenz, the local missionary, and went into the Church to look for him. However, the Christian villagers, at that time, had woke up and tried to defend themselves, at which point the murderers “ran into the night”.62 Stenz is still alive, but cannot identify the murderers, although he has several suspects in mind. He also suspects it was not a spontaneous attack, and that there was greater planning at work. Delegates will gather to discuss the issue of the murdered German missionaries, and other earlier attacks on Christians and missionaries. Delegates must decide on what course of action they will now take within China. Delegates of Britain, France, Germany and America may want to keep in mind that they can call on significant land and naval forces from their colonies63 on a fairly short notice. Due to the proximity of Japan and Russia to China, delegates from these countries can relocate domestic forces to deal with the conflict. As for Italy and Austria, military resources in the region are more limited, as only a handful of their warships are nearby. However, delegates may choose to dispatch more warships and military forces accordingly. As for the consideration of funding, delegates may find that their governments are prepared to authorize the use of considerable financial resources, however, in many cases, this monetary backing is dependent on whether the various

61 Esherick, Origins, 123. 62 Esherick, Origins, 123. 63 Colonies include British India, French Indochina, American Philippines and various German island territories.

objectives of the governments are being met. There are also a number of corporate and mercantile parties interested in the outcome of this incident, whose resources may later become available. Delegates should bear in mind that the Chinese military system is extremely complicated. The ancient formation of the and green standard armies still exist, and are organized into medium size formations spread throughout China, whose effectiveness is questionable. The Yongying corps, a far more effective and modernized army, still exists, but is subject to the whims of the provincial governors who pay them. Additionally, delegates should be mindful of the fact that the Qing government has begun experimenting with Western equipped, drilled, and officered units of soldiers following the Sino-Japanese war.

Suggested Sources

Buck, David D. (1987) Recent Chinese Studies of the Boxer Movement. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe.

——. (1991) "The 1990 International Symposium on the Boxer Movement and Modern Chinese Society." Republican China 16, 2 (April): 113–120.

Cohen, Paul A. (1997) History in Three Keys: The Boxers as Event, Experience, and Myth. New York: Columbia University Press.

Clements, Paul H. The Boxer Rebellion: A Political and Diplomatic Review. New York: Columbia, 1915.

Dai, Yincong. “Boxer Rebellion.” In Encyclopedia of Modern Asia, edited by Karen Christensen and David Levinson. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2002. Accessed September 7, 2016, http://ic.galegroup.com/ic/whic/ReferenceDetailsPage/ReferenceDetailsWindow ?displayGroupName=Reference&zid=fef31521951aa5b80d2c5127989aed71 &p=WHIC%3AUHIC&action=2&catId=&documentId=GALE%7CCX3403700384 &source=Bookmark&u=nort87507&jsid=c4e22e5eba218621a8a5b475c33fb7b 5

Esherick, Joseph W. The Origins of the Boxer Uprising. Berkeley: University of California, 1987.

Martin, William A.P. The Siege in Peking: China Against the World. 1900. Reprint. Wilmington: Scholarly Resources, 1972.

Harrington, Peter. Peking 1900: The Boxer Rebellion. Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2001.

Ouellet, Eric. “Multinational counterinsurgency: the Western intervention in the Boxer Rebellion 1900 – 1901.” Small Wars and Insurgencies 20, (2009): 507 – 27. Accessed September 7, 2916. doi: 10.1080/09592310903027074.

Preston, Diana. (2000) The Boxer Rebellion: the Dramatic Story of China's War on Foreigners That Shook the World in the Summer of 1900. New York: Walker & Company.

Silbey, David J. The Boxer Rebellion and the Great Game in China. New York: Hill and Wang, 2012.

Tan, Chester C. The Boxer Catastrophe. New York: Columbia, 1955.

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