NATURALISM IN AMERICAN LITERATURE: TRACING AMERICAN

NATURALISM THROUGH WORD AND IMAGE

A Thesis

Presented to

the Graduate Faculty of The University of Akron

In Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree of

Master of Arts

Afras Khalid Alharbi

December 2019

NATURALISM IN AMERICAN LITERATURE: TRACING AMERICAN

NATURALISM THROUGH WORD AND IMAGE

Afras Khalid Alharbi

Thesis

Approved: Accepted:

______Advisor Interim Dean of the Collage Dr. Patrick Chura Dr. Linda Subich

______First Faculty Reader Dean of the Graduate School Dr. Philathia Bolton Dr. Chand Midha

______Second Faculty Reader Date Dr. Hillary Nunn

______Dr. Matt Wyszynski Department Chair

ii ABSTRACT

Naturalism was a literary movement that originated in France at the end of the nineteenth century when authors began to reject the illusory interpretations of reality offered by Romanticism and Victorian literature. Naturalism suddenly diverted the attention of authors from the glamour of the wealthy classes to the misery of the most disadvantaged groups of American society. The period between the end of the nineteenth century and the middle of the twentieth century was overwhelmed with rapid industrialization, urbanization, economic crisis, and two World Wars. Literature had to make people see the problems in society to provoke change. At the same time, naturalists like Stephen Crane, Jack London, Theodore Dreiser and Frank Norris, took a passive position as narrators by distancing themselves from direct moral commentary to stimulate the audience and convey the main messages of their novels. This analysis is dedicated to the naturalist movement in American literature. Throughout this thesis, I explore, compare, and contrast the works of two different schools of naturalism by tracing the elements of this literary movement in the works of authors. By analyzing naturalistic novels of whites American and African American authors, it is possible to trace different interpretations of naturalism by these two schools. Analysis of different perspectives is synthesized into a systematic review of the literary works. I also analyze elements of naturalism in film adaptations of several novels. The analysis looks at traditional forms of naturalism by tracing its elements through the works of white authors (John Steinbeck,

Edith Wharton, Theodor Dreiser) and African American writers (Ann Petry, Richard

Wright, and Nella Larsen). I compare and contrast these two groups of naturalist authors through an in-depth literary analysis and examination of varied scholarly sources. Finally,

iii I discuss the screen adaptations of three naturalist works (Native Son, The Grapes of

Wrath, and Carrie) and compare them to the original novels. I conclude that naturalism was ahead of its time in presenting ideas and communicating messages for which the society was not yet ready, a notion clearly evidenced clearly in the analysis of the film adaptations.

iv TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

LIST OF FIGURES ...... vi

CHAPTER

I. INTRODUCTION ...... 1

II. NATURALISM IN AMERICAN FICTION BY WHITE AUTHORS: CONVEYING THE LIVES OF WORKING CLASS ...... 7 Elements of Naturalism in the Grapes of Wrath ...... 10 Elements of Naturalism in Sister Carrie ...... 19 Elements of Naturalism in the House of Mirth ...... 26

III. NATURALISM IN AFRICAN AMERICAN FICTION: DEFENDING THE RACE ISSUES ...... 35 Elements of Naturalism in the Street ...... 38 Elements of Naturalism in Quicksand ...... 45 Elements of Naturalism in Native Son ...... 52

IV. NATURALISM THROUGH IMAGE: ANALYSIS OF FILM ADAPTATIONS ..... 57 Elements of Naturalism in the Film the Grapes of Wrath ...... 57 Elements of Naturalism in the Film Carrie ...... 65 Elements of Naturalism in the Film Native Son ...... 72

V. CONCLUSION ...... 80

REFERENCES ...... 86

v

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

1. Joad Family Reunion ...... 58

2. A Farmer’s House Destroyed ...... 60

3. Impoverished Farmers Without Support ...... 61

4. Steinbeck Desire to Attract Large Audience ...... 63

5. Working Class and Relationships ...... 65

6. Decreasing Criticism and Controversy ...... 66

7. Carrie Seduced and Controlled ...... 68

8. Carrie Cannot Control Her Destiny ...... 70

9. Carrie Interacts with Young Child ...... 71

10. Bigger’s Family at Home ...... 74

11. Bigger in Chicago ...... 75

12. Bigger in a South Side Restaurant ...... 77

13. In Mary’s Bedroom ...... 77

vi

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Naturalism was effectively founded in the late nineteenth century by the French novelist Emile Zola, who wrote an early naturalistic novel under the title The

Experimental Novel in 1880 (Campbell, 2011). As changes in the society and the political environment reached the United States, naturalism spread across the country’s literary community as well. Frank Norris became the first North American author to introduce naturalism to the local culture (Pizer 13). According to Norris, naturalism helped to resolve the conflict between realism and romanticism by choosing the best approach to implementing one constituent ignored by both (Pizer 13). In this manner, American naturalism gained authentic features that were not targeted by its European counterparts.

American naturalists did not use direct criticism and moralization but focused on impartiality and frankness.

Naturalists conveyed the lives of the working class and the poor in great detail, which likely shocked reading audiences. Naturalism managed to highlight inequality in

United States and European societies that maintained strict hierarchies by dividing people into socioeconomic classes, as well as racial, ethnic, religious and gender groups. This literary movement was able to emphasize the problems of the American political, social, and economic systems without using direct criticism of the authorities. Some of the naturalists, like John Steinbeck, went further and communicated radical views toward the

1 American government through their characters, though this was not supported by all naturalists. In addition to the focus on urgent social issues, the works of naturalists were characterized by deep pessimism and a sense of imminence or close contact with suffering. The works of Theodore Dreiser, Edith Wharton, and John Steinbeck are the best examples of these tendencies in naturalism. Steinbeck’s The Grapes of Wrath,

Wharton’s The House of Mirth, and Dreiser’s Sister Carrie emphasized the pessimistic nature of their time that could not lead to a “happy end.” As a result, American naturalism established a radical perception of reality that could not be distracted by glamour, physical beauty, and wealth. Instead, as naturalism implied, real-life was unattractive, pessimistic, and decadent. Naturalists were sure that human nature was infested by vices that could not be ignored or avoided by wearing better clothes or living in beautiful houses. This is the main reason naturalist authors such as Steinbeck and

Dreiser chose to focus on the lower socio-economic classes. The naturalists were looking for the truth and they found it only when their glances were directed toward the most vulnerable population group in the country.

At the same time, it is important to admit that some groups of naturalists deviated in some ways from the traditional principles of this framework. Specifically, African

American naturalism developed its own authentic features that differentiated them from their white peers. African American naturalism was founded in 1890’s by W. E. B. Du

Bois and Paul Laurence Dunbar, and later supported by Nella Larsen, Richard Wright, and Ann Petry. Later, scholars admitted that African American authors focused on realism as the form of protest against the marginalization of minorities in the U.S.

However, here I analyze Larsen’s, Wright’s, and Petry’s works as naturalistic novels, as

2 they include the typical elements of this movement, including ultra-realistic depiction of reality and determinism in depiction of their characters. Unlike their white counterparts,

African American naturalists directed their criticism toward the oppression and discrimination of the African American community. During that time, African Americans were heavily oppressed by the majority in the United States and naturalism provided the tools for communicating the messages of this community. African American naturalism aimed at highlighting institutionalized oppression by focusing on characters who lived in poor urban neighborhoods without the possibility of escaping misery. For instance,

Richard Wright’s novel Native Son shows how a divided society makes a criminal of a young African American man. Nella Larsen reveals the state of alienation in which the main heroine has to live throughout her entire life simply because she has a different color of the skin. Ann Petry debunk the myth of the American Dream by following her protagonist’s slow degradation. By telling such stories, African American naturalists were able to finally address problems often ignored by society in the late nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth century. Moreover, the ideas articulated by the

African American naturalists are still relevant for contemporary audiences, as the problem of racism has not disappeared.

African American naturalism managed to highlight certain socio-cultural problems in the U.S. more effectively compared to their white counterparts, as the authors were not afraid to criticize the society directly. For instance, Larsen went further and criticized both the African American community and the white majority by revealing how ostracism can affect the life of an individual. African American naturalism managed to develop into a more radical form because the problems highlighted by the literary

3 works were personal to the authors. Steinbeck and Dreiser witnessed the lives and conditions of the lower socio-economic classes, while Petry, Larsen, and Wright were themselves victims of oppression and ostracism in the U.S. society which affected their interest in naturalism. The products of African American naturalism may be seen as more intense and straightforward compared to the traditional works of this genre.

This thesis is dedicated to the analysis of American naturalism and its variation among African American authors. I use a comparative method to analyze the school of

American naturalism. Specifically, I focuse on exploring naturalism through new historical readings and close attention to imagery and symbolism within this literary movement. The research aims to explore, analyze, compare, and contrast the works of naturalism in the United States, the elements of naturalism, and the impact of these works on subsequent screen adaptations. My major focus is to trace the traditional elements of naturalism in works of white and African American authors, and to determine how their use affected the content and the message of the novels. I also explore the methods used by the authors of both groups (white and African American) to communicate the main message of the works and to highlight the problems in the U.S. Finally, it is important to assess whether the film directors and production studios were able to capture and illustrate the ideas of naturalism in screen adaptations.

Here I analyze the literary characteristics of naturalism and highlight the most prominent traceable elements in the majority of the works written in this genre. In the first chapter, I explore the works of white authors who were the representatives of naturalism, including John Steinbeck’s The Grapes of Wrath, Theodore Dreiser’s Sister

Carrie, and Edith Wharton’s The House of Mirth. I develop an argument that whites

4 authors used naturalism as the method to depict the working class by shifting the attention of the audience from the elites to the working people, while African American authors utilized naturalism as a method to articulate the problems of racism, ostracism, and marginalization of African Americans.

The following chapter provides a general comparison between white and African

American naturalists. It contains the analyses of prominent African American naturalist authors, such as Ann Petry’s The Street, Nella Larsen’s Quicksand, and Richard Wright’s

Native Son. This chapter has a similar format as the previous one by analyzing the works as the representatives of African American naturalism and tracing the elements of traditional and authentic naturalism in these works. I conclude that though both types of works by whites and African American naturalists focus on the problems of marginalized social groups, they differ in the ways of critically analyzing the problems by taking an either neutral or highly personal approach to this matter.

Chapter three is dedicated to the famous screen adaptations of three naturalist texts, including Native Son, The Grapes of Wrath, and Sister Carrie. The analysis of the film adaptations provides an overview of the general characteristics of the movies and explains how the directors were or were not able to include traditional elements of naturalism. The films are also compared to the original works of the naturalists. Socio- economic and political implications of the adaptations and the original works also were evaluated to emphasize the impact of naturalism on American society of the twentieth century.

Finally, the last part of the paper is a conclusion that summarizes the entire paper and ensures that the ideas of each chapter are highlighted. The conclusion provides a

5 reflection on each topic and subtopic addressed in the paper, including naturalism as a literary movement, the difference between African American and white naturalists, and the distinctions between the original works and their screen adaptations. The current analysis contributes to the overall discussion of naturalism and its impact on American literature.

6

CHAPTER II

NATURALISM IN AMERICAN FICTION BY WHITE AUTHORS: CONVEYING

THE LIVES OF WORKING CLASS

Naturalism was in essence a response to romanticism and its focus on emotions, melancholy, and feelings. Overall, naturalism considered that a person’s actions and reactions are affected by environmental factors. For example, cultural background, socio- economic status, family values, religious beliefs, and interactions with others. According to naturalism, the character traits of an individual are formed under the influence of her or his surroundings. In the U.S., naturalism developed after the Civil War and it blossomed during the 1930’s when the economic downturn struck the entire country. According to

Donald Pizer, the main goal of the naturalistic novel of the 1930’s is to provide the diagnosis of societal problems and to suggest a remedy (Pizer 16). To a certain extent, naturalism can be approached as radical realism, as the authors who writing in this area were interested in the lives of the poorest and the most disadvantaged population groups.

Some naturalists were overwhelmed with the socio-economic relationships among people, which was a radical deviation from the period of romanticism.

In general, naturalists chose not to embellish their stories with elaborate descriptions of the beauties of nature. Instead, they had a goal to describe everything as it was, even though it was considered aesthetically ugly and unattractive. By attacking the audience with cold facts and highlighting the most unattractive aspects of reality, the naturalists aimed at shedding the light on the area of society that readers could find

7 aesthetically repellant. The Grapes of Wrath by John Steinbeck, Sister Carrie by

Theodore Dreiser, and The House of Mirth by Edith Wharton were among such literary works that revealed the truth to the audience by documenting the real-life examples of life during one of the most challenging times in the American history.

Authors choose different approaches when they write a work within a specific literary movement. First, naturalism is characterized by narrative detachment.

Specifically, the authors use a detached narrative tone and avoid involving themselves in the story. It is possible to use a metaphor to describe the narrative detachment. For example, by comparing it to the work of a physician who diagnoses the patient who describes the symptoms, yet, he does not provide any treatment. In the same manner, the naturalists create the stories where the author’s role is to describe the reality or even to

“document” it without providing personal judgment or using criticism. In this way, naturalists’ avoidance of emotional involvement in the stories is, to a certain extent, opposition to romanticism. Many naturalists did not have a goal to criticize society or oppose to a specific political system. Their goal was to present the audience with the story that reflected the reality, leaving the readers to draw their conclusions.

Another characteristic of naturalism is determinism. The characters in the works of naturalists often have little or no control over their lives or actions. As mentioned earlier, naturalists were convinced that the external conditions had great control over an individual. Consequently, people cannot have free will or the ability to withstand the difficult circumstances. As a result, characters are destined to suffer throughout their lifetime. As naturalists were convinced that people cannot escape socio-economic or even biological circumstances, it meant that people had to accept their fate and continue to

8 survive in this world. The idea of free will—that a person is the constructor of his or her destiny—was generally not accepted by the naturalists. As a result, the works of these authors were characterized by fatalism, yet, there was nothing religious about it. As the naturalists supported the ideas of Charles Darwin, the determinism stemmed from the scientific approach proposed by this scholar, which included the survival of the fittest.

Pessimism is another characteristic of naturalism. As the authors believed that humans could not control their destiny, and the result led to negative outcomes. Usually, works of naturalism eschewed happy endings, as authors were convinced that it is impossible to attain autonomy. As Xiaofen Zhang implied in his analysis of American naturalism, very often, a specific line or phrase is repeated with a pessimistic connotation throughout the entire text, highlighting the inevitability of death, failure, or defeat (Zhang

196). Under these circumstances, happiness was impossible to achieve. During that time, the authors considered that if people were from poor socio-economic class, they usually doomed to be poor throughout their entire life. In the works of these authors, people often had limited class mobility. In most cases this theory was correct since many works were written during economically devastating periods in the U.S.

Naturalism also was characterized by exploring the concept of heredity and human nature. Since the authors supported the ideas of Darwin, they were interested in what people inherit concerning human nature. Before advancements in the field of genetics, scholars started to make connections between the possibility of an individual inheriting such tendencies as depression or alcohol and drug addiction. It was accepted that a person can inherit character traits from his or her parents. As a result, naturalist fiction explored the aspects of personality traits, heredity, and interaction between

9 physiology and psychology. Authors believed that heredity and human nature reinforced the principle of determinism and pessimism. Since the works usually described people from poor backgrounds or individuals in difficult circumstances, heredity and human nature were often depicted in the form of flaws.

Naturalism was also very interested in investigating social environments. As their predecessors chose to depict only aesthetically pleasing aspects of reality, little was known about the lives of lower social class and their daily routine. As a result, the exploration of social environment usually become the main background for the conflict of a novel. However, it is also important to note that exploration of the social environment was connected to determinism and pessimism. It was generally accepted that if a person was born in a specific socio-economic class, he or she would have specific character traits and a predetermined (mostly negative) destiny.

Finally, one of the most important elements of naturalism is the aspect of evolutionary survival. At some point, the characters of the story will have to encounter challenging circumstances where survival depends upon using their skills and instincts. In some cases, the authors confronted their characters by using socio-economic aspects, war, personal confrontations, or even nature. Very often, the characters were not able to survive, which ties the stories to determinism, pessimism, and the impact of social nature on humans. The “survival of the fittest” principle is often used in naturalist fiction to test their characters and determine if they have the strength to overcome the circumstances.

Elements of Naturalist Fiction in The Grapes of Wrath

10 The Grapes of Wrath by John Steinbeck is a classic example of naturalist fiction since it has all elements of this genre. Steinbeck utilized naturalism as the harsher form of realism, where all unappealing aspects of life are described in detail. This was done by the author with good reason; he used the background of the Great Depression and Dust

Bowl to emphasize the predetermined destiny of the poor families from that era.

Steinbeck, like other naturalists, largely does not bother to criticize the government or financial institutions for the sudden poverty of many families in the U.S. Instead he chooses to create such an implication indirectly through the harsh depiction of the sufferings and survival of the Joad family. Steinbeck uses the background of the

Depression where people were dying of starvation and families were losing their property.

The plot of the story revolves around the Joads, who represent a classic case of a family that lost their farm because of the so-called Dust Bowl, a period of severe dust storms in the 1930’s that led to the destruction of crops. The Joad family’s farm was taken away by the bank due to their inability to pay the loan, which was a typical picture in the 1930’s. Many farmers in the American prairies were unable to find resources and pay the debt, which usually led to their bankruptcy, the loss of their house and property, and severe poverty. Initially, the conflict develops when Tom Joad is released from prison and has to look for his family after finding his home empty. To survive, the Joad family journey’s to California to find jobs, leaving their homestead behind. A major part of the book is dedicated to the family’s journey and their attempts to improve their lives in California.

11 Steinbeck’s work demonstrates a large number of the characteristics of naturalist fiction. The narrative is characterized by a level of detachment when the author describes the events of the story. Even when the most dramatic and devastating events are described, the author maintains distance from the narrative. For example, at the end of the story, the family is hiding from the flood in the barn where they fund a boy and his grandfather suffering from starvation. As Steinbeck describes this family, he implies,

“...starvin'. Got sick in the cotton. He ain't et for six days”, which represents the fact showing that the old man did not eat for six days (Steinbeck 312). The text is not emotionally charged, and it is perceived by the Joad family as a norm since they have witnessed similar cases on the journey to California. The reaction of the family to this problem is, “Ma walked to the corner and looked down at the man. He was about fifty, his whiskery face gaunt, and his open eyes were vague and staring” (Steinbeck 312).

Neither of the family members expresses any emotions about this fact and neither does the author. This scene is particularly tragic since Rose of Sharon, who has recently experienced the death of her newborn child, proposes feeding the starving man with her breast milk. At the same time, neither of these scenes cause an intense emotional reaction in the story. Yet this particular scene was so critical and powerful that the producers of

The Grapes of Wrath film adaptation choose to omit it creating different finale for the film (see Chapter Three).

The detachment of the narrative of the novel is characterized by the absence of emotionally charged messages, epithets, and descriptions. Steinbeck simply describes the events that occur in the life of the Joad family by using the same tone of narration whether it is the usual conversation among the family members or the birth of a stillborn

12 baby. As I’ve mentioned, narrative detachment was important for the naturalist authors in order to retain a certain level of objectivity and allow the readers to make their own judgments and draw conclusions. As has also been discussed previously, the narrative had to highlight the events not elicit predetermined emotional responses to them. As a result, the most tragic and devastating episodes form Joad family history are described in a cold and distant narrative voice.

Another vivid characteristic of the novel is a determinism that can be observed on many occasions. For example, throughout the novel, it is clear that the Joad family has no opportunity to improve their state of affairs as the devastating events keep on occurring in the life of the family. First, they lose the family farm, after, the grandfather dies on the road. In California, the family is exploited by the big farms, the family barely survives.

This leads to Tom Joad to involve in homicide again even though he has been just released from prison. The family has to leave their place and seek shelter. The author creates the chain of events that fall as domino each time the family tries to survive and make ends meet. However, each time they are determined to experience the failure simply because their fate was predetermined by external circumstances, including socio- economic background, the economic situation in the U.S., as well as the chain of events that happen to the family members before their journey. Here, Steinbeck tries to illustrate a typical low-income family that has invested all of its money and effort in a family farm.

Since many farmers were dependent on bank loans and prior to the Depression, the financial institutions provided credit to everyone who asked without any guarantees involved, which itself became a partial cause of the economic crisis during the time.

13 Steinbeck aimed at illustrating that these poor families were unable to withstand the external circumstances simply because they did not have any social security.

While the approach to the events that occurred with Joad family might seem stereotypical from the point of view of modern readers, it was actually close to real life since Steinbeck described a typical case that occurred to lots of people during the

Depression era and Dust Bowl catastrophe. The author describes this problem in the following manner, “if a bank or finance company owned the land, the owner man said,

The Bank – or the Company – needs – wants – insists – must have – as though the Bank or the Company were a monster, with thought and feeling, which had ensnared them”

(Steinbeck 58). In this case, the Bank in the novel is described by the author as an abstract institution that took away the possessions of many families like Joad one and left them to starve and die on the road to California. Martin Staples Shockley claims that

“The Grapes of Wrath was written to arouse sympathy for the millions of poor farmers and tenants who have been brought to miserable ruin because of the development of machinery” (Shockley 355). Determinism is in Steinbeck’s novel vivid at nearly all moments of the plot’s development. Since the Joad family lose their property, the members are trying to improve their situation, yet they are not allowed to because of the circumstances and time when they live. Steinbeck might seem biased when he tells the story of the Joad family since the events seem too typical to the situation experienced by poor farmers in the 1930s. However, it was one of the main goals of the author, as the description of typical events that represented reality was crucial for the naturalist authors.

Another characteristic of the novel is the utmost pessimism, which is closely connected to the determinist concept. The entire novel has a devastating plot and each

14 event experienced by the Joad family is particularly depressing. Even when the family finds a job, it is overshadowed by Tom Joad actions when he kills a man during the protest. When the characters try to improve their situation, they experience another devastating outcome that leads to another tragic event. The novel is difficult to read as a result of this aspect since it is clear that nothing good can happen to Joad family members. In Steinbeck’s The Grapes of Wrath, it is possible to notice that the author does not use pessimistic narrative to implement the criticism of the financial institutions and the government during the Depression. Instead, this is a conclusion that the typical reader can draw, as Steinbeck’s goal was to lead the audience to conclusions and not make them himself. Naturalist writers chose to tell the story by describing the reality of the events, usually focusing on the lives of the lower socio-economic class due to the consideration that this genre has to highlight the reality without any embellishments and show the pessimistic reality of the lives of poor people.

The concept of heredity was used by Steinbeck in the novel indirectly. For the author, the family is a compound, moreover, the group of people, who have lost everything, become one big family in his novel. While Steinbeck creates one frustrating destiny for all poor people in the region, he does not connect it to heredity but rather to class. Specifically, the author depicts the caravan of people who are traveling to find a job by saying, “in the evening a strange thing happened: the twenty families became one family, the children were the children of all. The loss of home became one loss, and the golden time in the West was one dream” (Steinbeck 131). Here, the concept of a shared inheritance is presented in the form of a metaphor.

15 Loss of homes and means for survival is connected to the socio-economic status of the Joad’s and similar families. For naturalists, poverty was the inescapable destiny of powerless people, and it runs in their families because the American society did not allow people to escape poor conditions of living, which is why, as Steinbeck stated, “golden time in the West was one dream” (Steinbeck 131). The concept of heredity was illustrated in The Grapes of Wrath by using the entire human family that had three generations as the main characters of the novel. Specifically, the Joad family has three generations and all of them are poor. Moreover, the book starts with the scene where Tom Joad, a representative of the latest adult generation of the family, is released from prison. Tom’s life was actually much worse than his father and grandfather because he committed a crime while he was on parole which made him ends up with no promising future. This aspect emphasizes the concept of hereditary poverty in the family and in the U.S. in general. To a certain extent, the Joad family is a generalization of low-income class realities in the country.

Like other naturalists, Steinbeck explores social environments in his work by focusing on the working class that immediately was thrown into poverty during the

Depression. Thomas G. Evan claims that “Steinbeck’s emphasis is more sentimental than satirical, having more to do with the suffering and resilience of the poor than with the oppressions of the rich” (Evan 73). However, the author tries to explore the difference between poor people in the U.S. and the wealthy. These two worlds are radically different, according to Steinbeck. For example, in one scene, Ma Joad explains the difference between the poor and the rich by saying, “rich fellas come up an' they die, an' their kids ain't no good, an' they die out. But, Tom, we keep a common'. Don' you fret

16 none, Tom” (Steinbeck 192). According to Ma’s opinion, the ability of the Joad family and poor people to survive for so long without any means is their inherited strength, which allowed all of them to keep on living. Here, the author combines the aspects of heredity and survival. It was mentioned earlier that in naturalist fiction, the theme of survival is one of the most important ones. In The Grapes of Wrath, the concepts of survival and heredity are interconnected. While the overall tone of the novel is quite pessimistic, the author implies that the Joad family has a strong survival instinct that drives them forward no matter what.

Steinbeck does not communicate his Marxist preferences, yet, it is possible to notice his attitude towards capitalism. The novel was written in the last years of the Great

Depression and Steinbeck witnessed the worst outcomes of the long-term economic crisis that affected the agricultural working class the most. In the book, the author depicts an opposition between the working class and rich capitalists. Such aspects as property loss and receiving a handbill were highlighted as the reasons why the Joad family had to flee their land and join the migration movement. However, it is clear that the Joad family and others are being fooled by the large agricultural corporations that managed to steal the land from the farmers. According to one of the views, it was profitable for the corporations that migrants had dreams of becoming small landowning farmers, which would help large companies to exploit their work (Cunningham 334). Instead, Steinbeck showed that the corporations managed to occupy the land and make small farmers work for nothing in California. Here, Steinbeck provides an indirect criticism of the capitalist ideology that is similar to the Marxist critical approach. The position of the working class

17 opposite the wealthy capitalists were highlighted through the example of migration and loss of property.

While the destiny of the Joad family is tragic, several parts of the novel highlight a predominantly positive view. For instance, when the family is planning a trip to

California, they express hopes and positive beliefs towards by imagining what land- owning will be like in the new state. The novel is filled with hope at the beginning of the journey, as many families are hoping to restore their ownership of the land and their source of living. Like any other family, the Joad’s are hopeful that their trip to California will be successful despite the warning signs and large migration movement that builds along the road.

Steinbeck shows that despite the circumstances, some people retain a positive attitude towards life and circumstances. On many occasions he shows that regardless all the difficulties, there is hope in humanity and in people’s kindness. During the Joad family’s journey, they manage to survive and pass critical days with the help of other migrants who suffer like them. For instance, when Grampa dies, the Wilsons, another migrant family, help the Joad family and offer them all possible support. Both families are tired and poor, but they unite to help each other, even sharing food. It is possible to notice some elements of Marxist ideology as well, as the author shows that the working class has more positive characteristics than do the wealthy capitalists who are overwhelmed with materialism. At the same time, it seems clear that the powerless Joad’s and their peers will not immediately win the economic struggle.

The novel contains many life-asserting messages but ultimately its story is pessimistic, as the characters are predetermined to suffer. Unlike other authors of this

18 genre, Steinbeck made certain claims about the differences between the wealthy and the poor by recognizing the drawbacks of the capitalist model. For instance, the author admits that people, who lose everything they have are capable extreme actions. Steinbeck claims, “when a majority of the people are hungry and cold, they will take by force what they need… repression works only to strengthen and knit the repressed” (Steinbeck 161).

By emphasizing these aspects, Steinbeck implies that systematic exploitation and repression of a group of people will eventually lead to rebellion. Similarly, Tom Joad becomes involved in a labor protest and kills a person, which symbolizes the protest of the poor people against the “great owners” and shows that Tom’s fate, and that of his family, are predetermined.

Steinbeck chooses to use a circular plot by returning Tom Joad to a similar situation as he experienced at the beginning of the novel. Particularly, the story begins when Tom is released from prison, where he had been for the homicide; at the end of the novel, he escapes as a fugitive who has just killed a man. By using the circular plot,

Steinbeck managed to emphasize determinism in his book. As a result of Tom’s actions, the family has to move again and again in order to protect him from the authorities. The author develops an open ending to stimulate the audience’s thinking and highlight the never-ending journey the Joad family would experience in order to survive in the cold and unfriendly America.

Elements of Naturalism in Sister Carrie

Theodore Dreiser’s Sister Carrie is more difficult to label as naturalist fiction.

This story has multiple undertones and hidden messages. The plot can be difficult to

19 predict, as it was in The Grapes of Wrath. At the same time, the novel relates to naturalism and the author utilizes certain elements characteristic of this genre. Dreiser developed his novel as an investigation of the topic of happiness, where he criticized capitalism and its values. However, as a typical supporter of naturalism, Dreiser did this indirectly by depicting the life of the main heroine and making her the centerpiece of the conflict. For Dreiser, the culture of materialism cannot bring a person any happiness even though American culture is based on pragmatism and consumerism. Sister Carrie’s message is particularly relevant for modern generations because it suggests the artificiality and ultimate emptiness of material things.

The plot of the novel revolves around a young provincial girl, Caroline “Carrie”

Meeber, who moves from Wisconsin to Chicago to seek adventure and improve her living conditions. However, once Carrie encounters the real conditions of urban life, she becomes frustrated with the reality of her position in Chicago. Carrie’s ultimate goal becomes to improve her financial and social status, which she tries to attain through becoming a kept woman. Carrie changes one man for another when she realizes that he has more power and money. In order to attain her goal, she agrees to run away with her second partner ignoring the fact that he is a married man with two children. Yet after her second partner loses his wealth and status; Carrie decides to leave him to pursue an emerging acting career. The protagonist rises to stardom yet fails to find happiness, though Carrie has already reached her goal and improved her social and economic status.

It is easy for Carrie to ruin other people’s lives, leave them, and continue pursuing her goal simply because she does not care about anyone in her life except herself. The main heroine is particularly narcissistic and shallow and even when Carrie chooses to focus on

20 art rather than money, she only realizes that she will never be happy at the novel’s end. A failure to attain happiness, according to Dreiser, stems from the very nature of Carrie’s character. She is doomed to be unhappy because of her nature, namely, her materialism and narcissism.

Dreiser uses determinism in his novel differently compared to Steinbeck.

Specifically, the element of determinism in the novel can be traced only after reading the entire story, as the plot is not as predictable as the Joads’ journey to California. It is not clear at the beginning if Carrie will continue to live as Charles H. Drouet’s mistress or if she will move on with George W. Hurstwood, her second partner. Carrie hesitates to move in with Lola Osborn in the last part of the novel since she is not sure if she has to leave Hurstwood. At the same time, after reading the novel, it becomes clear that Dreiser has guided the readers through the same path where Carrie used any opportunity to improve her material status despite the consequences. Since the protagonist is particularly ambitious and obsessed with the idea to gain wealth, she chooses her partners as the means for attaining her goals. As Walter Benn Michaels implied in his book, Carrie craves for money not because she was craving power but because she has never had it

(Michaels 33). Carrie’s definition of money stems from a simple desire to obtain something, as money for her is never the method of achieving her goals; rather, it is the ultimate goal of her life.

The protagonist’s ambitions are the main tool used by Dreiser that predetermines the entire plot of the novel. For instance, Carrie is obsessed with realizing her ambition and Dreiser describes it by claiming, “she could not help thinking what a delight this would be if it would endure; how perfect a state, if she could do well now, and then

21 sometimes get a place as a real actress” (Dreiser 123). Carrie is overwhelmed by the idea that she can have it all, which she compares to an annoying humming song in her head.

Here, the author uses the character to implement the element of determinism in the novel.

As the heroine invests all her efforts to attain her objectives, other people become just useful tools and nothing more.

Like Steinbeck, Dreiser uses a detached tone with which he describes the events of the novel without becoming involved in them personally. The author is interested in the description of the events and the chain of events than in criticism of the characters of the society where they live. Dreiser uses the detached method of narration by depicting the events of the novel and the traits of the characters in order to provide freedom to the audience and inspire the readers’ thinking. For example, at the end of the novel, Dreiser depicts Carrie’s feelings in a detached and cold manner by stating, “Carrie thrilled to be taken so seriously. For the moment, loneliness deserted her. Here was praise which was keen and analytical” (Dreiser 650). The author uses “analytical” as the main descriptor to

Carrie’s feelings, which symbolizes the detachment of Dreiser from the narrative as well as the protagonist from her own life. Carrie is now satisfied only on rare occasions when she is praised by someone else, yet, as the audience can notice, loneliness is constantly present in Carrie’s thoughts. The detached narrative is crucial for naturalist writers for emphasizing the objectivity of the author and prompting readers to think.

Unlike Steinbeck’s work, Sister Carrie is not completely pessimistic. Specifically, the pessimism here is not obvious as it was in The Grapes of Wrath. The main heroine attains her goals, as she is not destined to be poor as her family. At the same time, the effect Carrie has on others has certain pessimistic tendencies. Specifically, Hurstwood’s

22 destiny is particularly tragic. He loses everything in his life due to the desire to satisfy

Carrie’s ambitions, which leads him from the position of a wealthy manager to the homeless person who stands in line for bread. Here, the pessimism of the novel can be realized only after reading to the end of the novel. It is not obvious as in The Grapes of

Wrath. When the story is finished, the audience can realize how extreme ambitions and a desire to become wealthy lead to the tragic consequences in the lives of the characters.

Neither Carrie nor Hurstwood attains their ultimate purpose in life and their lives are devoid of happiness because of the mistakes both of them made. However, due to

Carrie’s nature, she is not able to realize her errors.

In Sister Carrie Dreiser explored human nature and biology rather than heredity.

The author endows the main character with a specific set of traits that predetermine her actions. The protagonist is a typical material girl who is obsessed with cashmere and diamonds and wants to obtain more things, status, and power in order to escape poverty.

For example, Dreiser depicts Carrie’s desire to become wealthy by admitting, “when she came to her own rooms, Carrie saw their comparative insignificance… they were but three small rooms in a moderately well-furnished boarding-house” (Dreiser 116). As the author shows, even when her financial and social situation is improved, she cannot be satisfied, as Carrie wants more. Dreiser endows his character with such traits as greed, ambition, and selfishness, which the author depicts as the destructive features. However,

Carrie manages to destroy everything and everyone around her rather than herself.

Dreiser also provided his character with the ultimate fear of getting back to her previous status as a poor provincial girl, which makes her long for more money. In this case,

23 Carrie’s desire to become wealthy is closely connected to her human nature, which is highly materialistic and narcissist.

The fear of the heroine to find herself in the poor conditions drive Carrie towards the new affair with Hurstwood. The only goal Carrie is trying to achieve is material gains. Dreiser positions his heroine in the middle-class society, yet, she is not satisfied with this status. The author explores the differences between different social environments through his protagonist. When Carrie finds herself in a better socio- economic position, she suddenly realizes her fear of poverty. Specifically, on one occasion, the heroine encounters people from the working class and it causes her pain.

According to Dreiser, the main character is devastated when she faces poor people: “She was constantly pained by the sight of the white-faced, ragged men who slopped desperately by her in a sort of wretched mental stupor. The poorly clad girls who went blowing by her window evenings…she pitied from the depths of her heart” (Dreiser 145).

As she was once a “poorly clad girl”, Carrie understands the struggle. However, it is important to remember that a narcissist like Carrie cannot feel empathy for others. Her feeling of pain stems from her arrogance and pride since the heroine has already gained a better socio-economic status. Dreiser wants to show that there is no qualitative difference between the poor people and the wealthy ones, as all of them can be unhappy in their own manner. Wealth, according to Dreiser, is not a source of happiness.

The theme of survival in Sister Carrie is not as obvious as in The Grapes of

Wrath. The protagonist is not challenged by poverty since she is always protected by her lovers. Moreover, it is possible to imply that the protagonist achieves her goals through the agency of other people. For example, she arrives in Chicago to stay at her sister’s

24 place; she moves in with Drouet to improve her financial status. After, she gains a certain status after Hurstwood runs away with the money. Finally, she becomes a theatre worker and moves on with Lola Osborne when the latter asks her to. Carrie wants to become happy by using other people, as she cannot attain satisfaction in life by herself. The topic of survival is used in the novel indirectly. At the beginning of the novel, Carrie is trying not to survive but rather to improve her status. It is clear that she will not work at the shoe factory because she cannot stand the conditions of work and to live with her sister’s family.

However, the protagonist is a survivor. Carrie is able to face the difficulties and overcome them quite easily simply because she is provided with many possibilities to improve her situation. Also, the protagonist has a strong craving for wealth and material success that drives her throughout the entire novel and helps her to survive. It becomes clear that the heroine does not care even about status in society since people do not bother

Carrie at all. Her world revolves around her own persona, which helps her to survive in the world. For example, Dreiser highlights her desire to become wealthy by claiming,

“one of [Carrie's] order of mind would have been content to be cast away upon a desert island with a bundle of money, and only the long strain of starvation would have taught her that in some cases it could have no value” (Dreiser 62). Technically, Carrie understands that money would not guarantee her satisfaction, yet, she continues to crave it. The heroine does not realize that her strivings will not help her to become happier or even satisfied because she constantly wants to obtain more.

In Sister Carrie Dreiser depicts the portrait of a shallow provincial young girl who is overwhelmed with ambition that she chooses to realize with the help of others. She

25 easily abandons her family, her sister, both lovers to gain something that she cannot even articulate. The main problem is that Carrie does not know what she really wants. She realizes that even if she becomes equal with her wealthier acquaintances, she would not be able to enjoy it. The protagonist understands that in the rush for material success she lost many people. At the same time, even though Carrie ruins the life of her lover and abandons Drouet, none of them are likable.

Dreiser does not create appealing characters for a reason. As the author’s purpose was to criticize capitalism and highlight the drawbacks of consumerism, he could not develop likable characters among those who were striving only for material success or obtaining something that they could not have. For example, Hurstwood is quick to move on with Carrie, forgetting about his wife and children. He steals money from Fitzgerald and Moy's restaurant where he was working only to escape his responsibilities. Drouet is quick to seduce a young woman only because she is from a very poor background and she cannot afford to live separately from her sister. The protagonist is unlikable because of her actions and the treatment of others. As a result, Sister Carrie is a novel that condemns the materialistic culture by showing that people are lost in it.

Elements of Naturalism in The House of Mirth

Edith Wharton’s The House of Mirth is a complex study of the social environment, the significance of social status to maintain financial stability, the descending from the elite social circle, and the death of illusions. Wharton created a novel about the danger of materialism and ambition for those who cannot choose an appropriate manner to attain their goals. Specifically, the main heroine of the story, Lily

26 Bart is the socialite who experienced serious losses after the death of her parents, and she is forced to live with her aunt. Lily is limited to the small allowance provided by her aunt from time to time. In order to escape her dependent situation, the protagonist chooses to use intrigues, gossip, questionable relationships with men, and gambling. However, time after time, Lily finds herself in situations when she loses or is affected by others, which drives the girl to conditions when she is overwhelmed with debt. As a result, she is slowly but steadily descending from her status of an elite-class socialite to poverty. She has to work for a living, yet, she chooses to maintain her depression and frustration by pills, developing a dependence on them. After several attempts to improve her status and several suitors who try to help her, Lily is convinced that she has to repay all her debts and end her life in utmost despair.

In the novel, Wharton tries not to criticize the main character but to emphasize her way of thinking that leads to the number of mistakes that lead her to a disaster. The author shows that her heroine is doomed due to the merciless social order that puts women under huge pressure. Early in the twentieth century, due to the furiously maintained patriarchal social system, women were forced to adopt a mercantile and materialistic mindset in order to survive. While Lily can be seen as a superficial woman, she has no choice but to look for a rich suitor in order to survive and be accepted in society. Her suicide is the result of an inability to attain any sense of freedom, as, during this period, women were deprived of a chance to attain autonomy from their parents or husbands. In one of her dialogs, Lily confesses, “they are men enough to say pleasant things to me, and …what I want is a friend who won’t be afraid to say disagreeable ones when I need them” (Wharton 6). Lily is desperate to develop a warm and trustworthy

27 connection with someone; however, her social environment does not allow the building of such relationships.

In the eyes of the author, Lily is a flawed individual who chooses intrigues, reckless investments, and deceit to improve her position in society. However, each time,

Lily fails to achieve her goal. Unlike Carrie in Dreiser’s work, Lily does not have the talent to use others, as each time she tries, her lies are easily discovered. Lily does not have specific talents, which makes her unappealing to the audience as well as worthless in terms of achieving her goals. So as in Sister Carrie, Wharton’s work is full of unlikable characters, as the author aimed at depicting people from the elite society in a negative light. The novel shows how the desire to attain materialistic gains leads to the destruction of the main character, which becomes the main theme of the novel.

It is possible to compare the determinism in The House of Mirth to Dreiser’s work, as it is not clear if the protagonist gains her goal and improves her social status.

However, after reading the entire novel, it becomes clear that Lily’s fate had been predetermined. Here, the destructive element of the protagonist is implemented in the habit of gambling. Lily does not live in poor conditions and she does not require money to survive, yet, she is dissatisfied with her conditions and her dependence on her aunt. As a result, Lily is trying to gain an advantage in her social circles. For example, Lily lives in her aunt’s house, which she finds disadvantageous to her, as Lily says, “she had always hated her room at Mrs. Peniston's – its ugliness, its impersonality, the fact that nothing in it was really hers” (Wharton 146). Overall, Lily mentions several times that she hates ugliness and poverty, which became her primary drive to move away from her aunt’s house and gain a sense of independence. However, despite her craving for independence,

28 she is constantly involved in gambling that increases her dependence even more. The irrational behavior of the main heroine is evident.

Lily holds a belief that only wealth and high social status suit her since she was born to it and got used to being wealthy and careless. This is the reason why the heroine finds her aunt insufferable and by the age of 29, despises her even more due to Lily’s own inability to escape dependent status. For example, the author depicts Lily’s hate towards her aunt by implying, “she revolted from the complacent ugliness of Mrs.

Peniston's black walnut, from the slippery gloss of the vestibule tiles, and the mingled odor of polio and furniture-polish that met her at the door” (Wharton 98). The main heroine has an irrational hate towards her aunt and her surroundings. She also makes ill- considered decisions that drive her far away from her goals. Unlike Carrie in Sister

Carrie, Lily does not recognize opportunities and, thus, she misses chances to become wealthier and more independent. Instead, the protagonist is trying to find more suitable and profitable propositions, which make her abandon people who are fond of her and descend to the position of a personal secretary. Her destiny is predetermined by this time and it is clear that Lily will not win her way back to the high society.

Like Steinbeck and Dreiser, Wharton chooses detached narrative as the main method to describe the events in the story and provide an opportunity for the audience to draw their conclusions. Wharton does not criticize her heroine, as she simply depicts the story of a young girl who lacks guidance and common sense. Lily is a confused woman who does not know what to do in life. As a result, her fate is predetermined by destiny and, partially, her social status. Wharton considers that the representatives of the elite social class were not able to survive if, all of a sudden, they lose their means for living.

29 Steinbeck expressed a similar idea when he on the other hand, depicted his characters as poor yet strong in terms of their ability to survive at any conditions. Wharton shows that

Lily is a helpless creature without the money of her parents and the status that she can gain only when she is married. For instance, the author implies, “a world in which such things could seem a miserable place to Lily Bart; but then she had never been able to understand the laws of a universe which was so ready to leave her out of its calculations”

(Wharton 29). Unlike Carrie, Lily was born to wealthy parents and until the age of 20, she was not equipped with any life skills or necessary knowledge. She cannot become independent by design. As a result, Lily is determined to fail since the beginning of the story.

Lily’s gambling habit, her erratic relationships with her suitors, inability to maintain proper social relations with her friends, the cruel social norms, and the desire to use other people to her advantage lead to the tragic outcomes. Lily is unable to gain control of her life and it is partially connected to the norms and values of the society.

Women from her class were expected to get married at an early age and, thus, they are not required to seek independence or acquire marketable skills. Also, marriages were often informally arranged for the purpose of enabling women to live comfortable but static lives as leisure class ornaments. Wharton’s heroine craves wealth and status, yet she has poor financial management and is unable to change her economically irrational behavior. According to the author, Lily is obsessed with spending money, which provided her with a brief realization that she was able to obtain large sums and live at least for several days as she used to. Wharton depicts Lily’s craving by claiming, “the fact that the money freed her temporarily from all minor obligations obscured her sense

30 of the greater one it represented, and having never before known what it was to command so large a sum, she lingered delectably over the amusement of spending it” (Wharton

110). As this shows, Lily does not see that her erratic spending drives her into more debt.

This predetermines Lily’s descending to lower social status unless she can make a wealthy match.

Here, the topic of heredity is implemented with the help of linking the protagonist to a specific class and time. In Lily’s time, women had to get married in order to leave their parents’ house. They had to act modestly and properly to attract a proper suitor, however, Lily was not taught how to do this, and as a result, she lost the battle. As it was noticed, Wharton contrasts the deterministic theme with the victimization of a person,

Lily in this case, by her familial and social environment, since she is forced into obtaining the roles and characteristics that led to the character’s destruction and dependency (Pizer 242). Moreover, by analyzing the actions of Lily, the author shows the audience the specifics of the social environment where she was born.

Lily’s environment consists of people from the elite society that is full of gossip, intrigues, affairs, and blackmail. Lily tries to get used to it and become the mastermind.

Yet, she lacks crucial biological qualities that would have helped her to attain necessary goals. The protagonist is too simplistic and erratic in her behavior. According to the analysis of Michael Mayne, Lily’s deceit, like her other interactions with people, is masterful; however, the quality of her performance is a complete failure, which leads to her eventual loss (Mayne 2). Lily does not have the mastery of deception and, thus, she tries to improve her position in society with little success. While the protagonist is sure

31 that she belongs to the higher society due to her heredity, yet, she fails to admit that she does not have the means to support that idea.

The novel is not pessimistic throughout. The overall pessimistic mood surfaces largely at the end of the novel when Lily overdoses on sleeping pills. Her work as a secretary is also the source of pessimism, yet, this is not emphasized as an openly pessimistic episode. The ending of the novel is tragic, as the protagonist could have been able to attain happiness after giving back all of her debts and marrying Lawrence Selden.

However, as much as the heroine does realize that she has failed in life, she is not able to conform to society’s expectations. The protagonist has lost her connection to her former life and people she knew as a result of her inability to pay the prices demanded of her by the social order. For instance, Lily struggled with the sense of morality and rules in her environment that became a partial problem for her ability to socialize in her surroundings.

According to the author, “moral complications existed for her only in the environment that had produced them; she did not mean to slight or ignore them, but they lost their reality when they changed their background” (Wharton 191). As a result, Lily loses her sense of morality when she loses her status, which leads to the tragic outcome for the main character.

Unlike her colleagues, Wharton creates her protagonist unable to survive in the harsh conditions of her environment. Unlike Steinbeck and Dreiser who emphasized the resilience of their main characters, Wharton emphasized Lily’s weaknesses, which made her unable to adjust to new conditions. For example, Carrie is able to attain her goal and become wealthy through manipulation; the Joad family used their survival instincts to move to the place that had work and operate as strike-breakers when others were

32 protesting against unfair trade. However, Lily is unable to survive even with the means of living. She has a house to live, she has certain money to satisfy her needs, and she has several suitors who are willing to marry her. However, even in the most advantageous conditions, Lily cannot survive due to the strict gender-determined social codes. As a result of her inability to recognize her core problem, she is predetermined to fail.

According to the author, “she had the art of giving self-confidence to the embarrassed, but she was not equally sure of being able to embarrass the self-confident” (Wharton 19).

Inconsistencies in Lily’s character are connected to her upbringing and lack of guidance from her parents or her aunt. By developing these character traits, Wharton sets-up her main character for failure.

As a result, Lily cannot notice the warning signs provided her along the way. She tries to outsmart her female peers by developing intrigues behind their backs. Lily tries to manipulate everyone she meets. However, as she cannot force herself to maintain her charm until she is married, she is outmaneuvered by others. Only at the end of the novel, the protagonist realizes that her actions were not moral and her desire to manipulate was not justified by anything. Her addictions to pills and gambling represent both a desire to escape reality and a striving to suppress her consciousness. Financial debts are paid by

Lily, yet, she cannot find a way to repay her moral debts. As a result, Lily chooses to take her life in order to prevent future misery.

The Grapes of Wrath by John Steinbeck, Sister Carrie by Theodore Dreiser, and

The House of Mirth by Edith Wharton were the most vivid works of naturalist fiction.

The authors manage to create multilayered and complex stories, complicated characters, and a plot that was based on realistic and believable characters. Each of these authors was

33 able to document the real-life examples during particularly challenging times in

American history. Steinbeck, Dreiser, and Wharton chose to set their novels in the conditions of scarcity and reveal if their protagonists are able to survive in this world.

The authors included the elements of naturalist fiction in their novels, by including such aspects as determinism, detachment, pessimism, heredity, social environment, and survival. Every author approached this goal in a different manner. Specifically, the aspect of determinism is more evident in Steinbeck’s work, as he dooms his characters to eternal poverty and misery. Dreiser and Wharton use determinism in the aspects of character traits. Carrie is selfish and manipulative, which enables to gain her goal, while Lily is simplistic and unprepared that eventually generates constant problems. The aspect of narrative detachment can be observed throughout the texts of three works. The authors took the position of the observer and an investigator but not the critic. This role was delegated to the audience.

Detachment serves for the authors as the method of documenting the events rather than providing guidance to the readers. Each of the authors uses a different strategy to investigate the impact of social status on the protagonists. In The Grapes of Wrath, the

Joad family is suffering from poverty, in Sister Carrie, the heroine is afraid to become poor, and in The House of Mirth, the protagonist aims to reclaim her place in leisure class society. By implementing these elements, all three authors criticize the capitalist society and materialistic culture. The authors arrived at a diagnosis of an American society that, by focusing inordinately on financial success, doomed many of its citizens.

34

CHAPTER III

NATURALISM IN AFRICAN AMERICAN FICTION: DEFENDING

THE RACE ISSUES

Naturalism is a genre that allowed authors to shift their attention to problems of low socio-economic class that were not explored by their predecessors. While naturalism has certain characteristic features, including narrative detachment, determinism, pessimism, and focus on such issues as poverty, heredity, and survival, not all authors included the full range of these topics in their works. In some cases, authors preferred using one or two characteristic features of naturalism without including other. For example, African American naturalists chose to include fewer elements of naturalism compared to their white counterparts. For example, Steinbeck’s The Grapes of Wrath is a classic representative of naturalism where the author used all elements of this genre in full capacity. Nella Larson, however, not only applies a few elements of naturalism in her novel, Quicksand, but also alters the way she uses them in this work. At the same time, both novels are the representatives of naturalism. Analysis of several authors of different background revealed that such characteristics as race and gender of the authors affected the use of naturalism and their approach to this genre. Specifically, white authors were in

35 some ways detached from their narratives compared to their African American contemporaries. s. Also, some African American authors included their own experiences in their works, which symbolized their closer attachment to their art. Female authors were able to highlight problems encountered by women in conditions of segregation and gender inequality, while their male colleagues paid, in general, less attention to the problems of gender as they related to the unequal status of women. In other words, since the question of racial segregation and oppression was personal for African American authors, they tended not to demonstrate the same level of narrative detachment as their white counterparts.

Classic elements of naturalism, including a detachment of an author, the use of determinism, exploration of such concepts as pessimism and heredity, interest in social problems, and the use of the topic of survival can be partially found in African American fiction of the same period. However, African American authors chose a different approach to naturalism due to the historical and ideological factors that have affected their lives. For instance, according to John Dudley, African American naturalism included an element of dualism especially concerning determinist ideology and the method of author’s detachment from the context (Dudley 3). This dualistic perception of determinism is rooted in the historical and ideological background of the late 1800s and early 1900s. Particularly, institutionalized racism and prejudiced treatment of African

Americans were evident during those years, which could not be ignored by the authors.

While white authors focused on socio-economic problems of the working class and disadvantaged citizens (usually of the same racial background), they were eager to use

36 determinism and detachment to simply illustrate the reality of the U.S. during the beginning of the 20th century.

African American authors did not have the same privilege, as their fates were predetermined by race rather than social status. As Dudley emphasized, African

American authors chose to criticize the ideological and political realities through their characters rather than remaining detached as their white counterparts (Dudley 4).

Determinism in African American fiction was used differently as well. Specifically,

African American authors often demonstrated that racial segregation and oppression predetermined the fate of minorities, while the white authors more often chose to consider other factors that determine the fate of their characters. African American authors as Ann Petry, Nella Larsen, and Richard Wright therefore considered that racism played a central role in determining the destiny of their characters.

It was acknowledged earlier that African American female authors focused on the problem of gender in Western society by highlighting such topics as gender discrimination, sexual appropriation, objectification, and violence against women. These topics were depicted with the help of naturalism and its classic elements, including a description of details, pessimistic tone, and determinism. For example, The Street by Ann

Petry focused extensively on sexual objectification and violence against women, which became the main barriers for the main character as well as the reason for her eventual downfall. Objectification is partially present in Quicksand by Nella Larsen who connected it to racial segregation. Female authors included certain personal experiences in their novels, which are especially evident in Quicksand. By focusing on gender problems, female authors communicated one of the most devastating issues; namely, the

37 position of African American women in U.S. society. Both Larsen and Petry used the position of African American females as the main premise for determinism in their novel, as their heroines are unable to attain happiness and fulfill their goals because they are women and because they are representatives of African American community. Both authors considered that these two factors prevented female characters from full and fair participation in U.S. society.

At the same time, naturalism provided an opportunity for African American authors to finally depict systemic long-term oppression and discrimination. Naturalist fiction works to document restrictions imposed on individual freedom, which helped

African American authors to illustrate denial of free will imposed by the history of chattel slavery in the United States. African American naturalism was more reactive and specific in reflecting the reality of that time. While white American naturalists focused on the lives of the working class as a whole, African American authors chose to depict the lives of African American people. Since their social status was caused by racist tendencies and prejudice towards minorities, African American people were often destined to live in poor conditions. As a result, African American authors created a unique form of naturalism that reflected a specific part of American history and culture at the beginning of the 20th century. It is possible to argue that naturalism contributed to the rapid development of African American literature by allowing the authors to share real daily experiences of African American people.

Elements of Naturalism in The Street

38 Naturalism in The Street by Ann Petry is more evident than in other African

American authors due to its compliance with all canons of this genre. Petry depicts the daily lives of her characters with vivid harshness by illustrating every ugly detail and every aspect of violence. This novel was written after the Great Depression and the

World War II (1946), which marked a rapid economic growth in the U.S. However, all characters in the novel were on the edge of poverty with no real possibility to escape it.

While the novel does not focus on the general economic state in the country, it is possible to notice Petry’s intention to emphasize the role of racism and prejudice in the social status of her characters. So, like other representatives of naturalism, Petry does not provide a direct criticism of U.S. authorities or the white majority, yet, it is easy to recognize her point of view between the lines. The author uses naturalism as a tool in an intentional effort to challenge the idealistic perception of the so-called “American

Dream” in her reading audience.

The Street tells the story of an African American single mother, Lutie Johnson, who holds a naïve belief of a possibility to escape poverty if she works hard enough. The protagonist recognizes the detrimental impact of her surrounding on herself and her child.

By leaving her father’s house, she tries to escape poverty and violence. However, as the genre dictates, Lutie finds herself in a worse situation. The main character is intelligent and ambitious, which becomes her curse rather than escape. Lutie is dreaming about a possibility to live in a nice house and clean neighborhood but she is constantly confronted by racial hatred among the whites and sexual sadism in her social circle. It is clear since the very beginning that Lutie, as well as other residents of Harlem, are doomed to die in poverty no matter how hard they try to escape it.

39 Despite the fact that The Street mostly focuses on Lutie and her son, the main protagonist of the novel is the street itself. Here, Harlem plays a crucial role by symbolizing racial prejudice in the U.S. All residents of “the street” live in their own

“hell”, which predetermines their actions. For example, Min is suffering from constant abuse from her partner and cannot leave him due to fear and inability to support herself.

Mrs. Hedges runs a brothel, as she knows only one possibility to earn money in Harlem.

Jones uses violence as the reaction to a deep feeling of loneliness and worthlessness. All characters feel depressed, lonely, and frustrated due to the inability to escape “the street”.

Here, Petry uses classic characteristics of naturalism by turning to determinism and pessimism. Her characters have no way out. Even Lutie, who tries harder than everyone else, eventually fails to attain her goals. In The Street, Petry shows her diagnosis of the society by emphasizing the role of racism in the lives of African American people.

Petry’s novel includes all elements of classical naturalism as well as the specificities of African American naturalism. The novel is pessimistic, and it includes a detailed depiction of violence, poverty, and frustration. The focus of the novel is fixed on social problems. Yet still, The Street includes African American interpretation of determinism, where racial segregation and economic inequality are causal factors that predict the actions and behavior of the protagonists. The novel is not emotionally charged and Petry does not take an active part in providing a critical analysis of the events. Like her colleagues, the author chooses to be impartial during the narration of her plot.

However, the author’s impartiality in The Street is only a veil that covers a strong opinion of its author. For instance, as Nirjharini Tripathy believes, the novel includes a

“dichotomous analysis of “the street” and its residents, which shows Petry’s inability to

40 remain impartial to the events of her time (Tripathy 343). Consequently, the detachment of the author from the events of the novel can be observed by the reader. Yet still, Petry tries to direct the audience’s opinions in a specific direction in order to show how racial segregation affected African Americans.

The author tells the story from the point of view of Lutie and her perception of

Harlem and its residents. The novel does not provide the audience with a possible glimpse of Lutie’s future. Instead, the author follows the protagonist’s optimistic train of thought. For example, when Lutie moves in a new home in Harlem, she thinks, “now that she had this flat, she was just one step farther up on the ladder of success” (Petry 24). The main heroine is sure that by moving out of her father’s flat, she is able to provide a better life for her child by eliminating the negative impact of violence and alcoholism. At this point, Petry provides no indication that Lutie is doomed to fail due to her inner optimism.

At the beginning of the novel, Petry tries to convince the audience that Lutie can eventually create a better life for herself due to her ambition and lack of bad habits, like alcoholism or drug addiction.

According to Tripathy, in some instances, Lutie is depicted as a contradictory character in the context of her surrounding and Harlem in general (Tripathy 343). In some instances, it is possible to notice the author’s belief that the heroine does not belong in Harlem since she differs dramatically from her neighbors. She tries to live an honest life by working hard and avoiding the vices of Harlem. Lutie does not have an abusive partner, like Min, and she does not involve illegal actions like Mrs. Hedges. Therefore, the audience might develop a (false) belief that Lutie might escape Harlem with all of its violence and poverty. The novel’s determinism is not as evident as, for example, in

41 Steinbeck’s The Grapes of Wrath. At the same time, when the protagonist begins to experience the first obstacles, it becomes clear that she will not escape the grasp of

Harlem.

In The Street, Harlem is depicted as a city within a city by creating an invisible border that segregates African Americans from the white majority. Petry depicts Harlem as a prison for its residents. Harlem was chosen as the main setting for the novel purposely to create a claustrophobic atmosphere for the residents and ensure that they would not be able to run away. As Petry reveals, “it wasn’t just this city. It was any city where they can set up a line and say white folks stay on this site so that black folks are crammed on top of each other…” (Petry 206). As it is possible to see from this citation, the author could not remain detached from reality like white authors, as the author knew about the problem of segregation from her own experience. White authors, who were dealing with naturalism, knew about the life of the working-class mostly through observation. For example, John Steinbeck came from a wealthy family, Theodore Dreiser had his experience of living in relative wealth as well, Edith Wharton also was the only daughter of leisure-class parents. Despite the fact that Petry was raised detached from the disadvantaged neighborhoods, she was able to experience the impact of racism and segregation on herself and her family.

As a result, The Street includes certain critical analysis of the events presented by the author even though Petry tries to stay impartial most of the time. She admits, however, that Harlem is the prison of African Americans, as they were “jammed and packed and forced into the smallest possible space until they were completely cut off from light and air” (Petry 206). It is possible to see that the residents of Harlem have no

42 other choice than to kill their time through drinking and abuse of their partners, which was highly criticized by Lutie.

Determinism in the novel becomes evident when the protagonist experiences the first negative effects of a rough neighborhood. For example, the super of the house, where she rents the flat, is intrusive and dangerous. Her neighbors symbolize the lost hopes and lack of opportunities that Lutie avoids noticing in order to retain her optimism.

However, the heroine’s optimism is soon perceived as naivety, as Lutie does not want to realize that her life in Harlem would not be different from her life in her father’s flat.

Despite the fact that she does not have addicting habits or abusive partners, she is still faced with violence and sexual aggression on a daily basis. This aspect of the novel becomes a starting point of deterministic ideas.

Determinism becomes more evident when Lutie adopts the ideas of an American

Dream by trying to adopt certain habits from the wealthy family where she works as a maid. The more Lutie believes in the possibility to achieve an American Dream, the more she becomes detached from reality. For example, the heroine tries to teach her son about the importance of money. Lutie considers that she can attain a better socio-economic condition by saving; thus, she teaches Bub (her son) to save money. As Petry reveals,

“she was always telling him how important it was that people make money and save money—those things she had learned from the Chandlers” (Petry 70). Lutie does not realize that the segregated system in the U.S. is created in a way to make African

American people fail by presenting no opportunities to escape poverty.

Determinism in the novel creates a recognizable atmosphere of pessimism, which is typical for the naturalistic novels. It is clear that all characters in The Street are

43 doomed, including Lutie, as she cannot escape the effect of poverty and inequality in

Harlem. Despite choosing relatively good jobs, which were available for African

American women, Lutie does not have enough finances to move out of Harlem or improve the conditions for her son. Pessimistic tendencies can be observed in the depiction of a contrast between the white neighborhoods and the African American ones.

Petry shows deep pessimism of Lutie’s perception towards unfair life’s conditions. For instance, the protagonist thinks, “the richest part of it [town] was to be fenced off so that people like herself could only look at it with no expectation of ever being able to get inside it, then it would be better to have been born blind so you couldn’t see it” (Petry

155). Lutie realizes that she cannot be the part of the world “filled with sunlight and good food and where children were safe” because she was African American, and it was unattainable for her (Petry 155). She sees her being born with ambitions and expectations as a curse, as she realizes her inability to fulfill them. Lutie’s desire to live in better conditions is understandable but unrealistic.

As it was mentioned earlier, African American authors were not interested in the idea of people’s nature and heredity. Instead, they chose to blame the environment where

African Americans were destined to live in poverty and violence. Petry does the same in

The Street, as her characters’ actions are formed by their environment. For instance, Lutie develops aggression towards her surrounding as a reaction to her inability to attain her goals. In the final part of the novel, Lutie kills Boots not only in an attempt to protect herself but also as the result of developed aggression towards Harlem and its residents.

Specifically, the author reveals Lutie’s aggression by claiming, “a lifetime of pent-up resentment went into the blows. Even after he lay motionless, she kept striking

44 him, not thinking about him, not even seeing him” (Petry 308). It is possible to notice that

Lutie was blinded by rage when she killed Boots Smith. This rage was not necessarily directed only towards Boots, it was a reaction of a person who sees all her dreams shattering day by day. In this way, Lutie becomes a typical member of Harlem, even though she was different during the first part of the novel. Violence, danger, sexual advances, aggression, and the atmosphere of frustration affected the protagonist greatly by transforming her personality almost completely.

The Street is a vivid example of African American naturalism, as it includes the elements of determinism and pessimism, it focuses on socio-economic issues, depicts poverty and the lives of disadvantaged citizens in detail, and allows the author to illustrate the impact on inequality on African Americans. It is possible to notice certain differences from the approach to the naturalism of Steinbeck or Dreiser as well. For example, Petry supports the idea of nurture rather than nature by illustrating the impact of the environment of human behavior. The ideas of nature were more evident in Steinbeck and Dreiser who saw the problem in heredity rather than social or racial inequality. Two different perspectives allowed all authors to explore the ability of naturalism in highlighting the realities of their time. Petry, as well as her African American colleagues, chose to illustrate a specific problem in American society by using naturalism as a tool.

Elements of Naturalism in Quicksand

Nella Larsen’s Quicksand uses a similar approach to African American naturalism as Petry by creating a heroine that does not fit in her surroundings. Larsen’s Helga Crane has a mixed-race identity, which makes her a pariah in both White and African American

45 community. In Quicksand, identity becomes the central problem explored by the author.

By using the elements of naturalism, Larsen shows a tragedy of one woman who fails to find her place in the world. According to Larsen, her heroine is doomed not to find her

“tribe” because of racial segregation. Socio-economic conditions in Quicksand have a secondary importance, as Larsen tries to explore the intrapersonal problems. This specificity sets the novel aside from other representatives of naturalist fiction. While surrounding is still important in Quicksand, Larsen is more interested in people and their feelings rather than economic conditions.

At the beginning of the story, Helga Crane is depicted in contrast to her surroundings due to her personal frustration towards African American society. The heroine is dissatisfied with her people, as she considers them “as complicated and as rigid in its ramifications as the highest strata of white society” (Larsen 33). Helga’s frustration is the reaction to her unacceptance in African American society as a person with mixed- race ancestry. Larsen makes her heroine the representative of two cultures (white and

African American), which prevents her from blending in. Since she realizes the problem existing in both worlds, Helga remains dissatisfied with both parts of society. She travels from one place to another in a search for her people and faces constant frustration. Helga cannot find peace in segregated America as well as she cannot live in harmony in open- minded Copenhagen. Whenever Larsen’s heroine is traveling, she is not perceived as equal by any of the “tribes”. As a result, Helga starts to lose her identity.

In keeping with the majority of naturalist novels, Quicksand is a tragedy. The main protagonist of the novel experiences failure throughout the entire plot. Her tragedy is a loss of identity, as Larsen shifts her focus from socio-economic problems of African

46 Americans to the issues of race. The novel is deeply pessimistic, and it is possible to notice a certain level of detachment of the author from the plot. Unlike her colleagues,

Larsen does not concentrate her attention on the depiction of poverty and horrors of disadvantaged neighborhoods. Instead, the author focuses on the problem of race in

Western society by exploring an approach to this topic in both the U.S. and Europe. The author tries to remain as distant from criticism as possible by allowing the audience to develop its own judgment regarding the events of the novel. At the same time, Larsen uses her characters to express their criticism concerning inequality, racism, and prejudice.

Quicksand occupies a unique position in African American literature because of its approach to the problem of racism. Larsen treats this issue differently compared to her

African American colleagues by putting a mixed-race character in the center of attention.

Few authors of both racial backgrounds (white and African American) explored this controversial issue. Larsen chose to address the problem of identity among mixed-race individuals due to her own experience as a daughter of an African American and white immigrants. As a result, Quicksand explores the problem of acceptance in the U.S. overwhelmed by racism in the white community and resistance to racism in the African

American community. Quicksand also creates a heroine who does not belong in either of these communities not only because of unacceptance but also due to her loss of identity.

Larsen explores an interconnection between the inner world of an individual and the external world.

The novel has a pessimistic tone and it focuses on a social problem. However, it might be difficult to see Quicksand as a work of the naturalist genre. For example, Larsen

47 does not go into detail when depicting the life of the working class. Unlike Petry or

Steinbeck, Larsen does not concentrate attention on the suffering of citizens with low socio-economic status. Her heroine possesses a certain level of mobility by being able to change the social circle and location when she fails to fit in. Moreover, Helga Crane belongs to the class of intellectuals and she is well-educated herself. This sets apart Helga from the characters of other naturalist novels. Unlike, for example, Petry’s Lutie, Helga is not naïve. Quite the opposite: the heroine of Larsen’s novel is particularly critical. For instance, Helga considers that her African American friends are obsessed with the problem of race, which the heroine does not particularly support. Specifically, Helga notices that some African American intellectuals express hidden hate to their own race despite their open opposition to racism. According to one of the heroine’s thoughts,

“these people yapped loudly of race, of race consciousness, of race pride, and yet suppressed its most delightful manifestations, love of color, the joy of rhythmic motion, naive, spontaneous laughter” (Larsen 34). The heroine recognizes the fault in discussions of racial pride among African American intellectuals, which can be attributed to the racial segregation in the U.S. Focus on this social conflict is the main feature that connects

Quicksand to naturalism.

The social conflict between African Americans and the white majority is the characteristic feature of naturalism even though Larsen does not use all tools of this genre. Larsen does not take a specific position by criticizing both African Americans and whites. The protagonist embodies characteristics from both races, and she is despised for her background by both of them as well. For example, in Denmark, Helga is perceived and treated as an exotic creature but not an equal human being. In the U.S., the

48 protagonist is a pariah because she is a reminder of a connection between African

Americans and whites, which is not accepted by any of them.

Inability to reach happiness in any circumstances becomes one of Larsen’s approaches adopted from naturalism. For example, in The Grapes of Wrath, the family moves from one place to another without any chance to gain success. In The Street, Lutie moves to a different place as well, which leads to tragedy. Inability to attain happiness by changing a location or circumstances can be attributed to the classic elements of naturalism as well. Helga asks herself, “why couldn’t she have two lives, or why couldn’t she be satisfied in one place?” (Larsen 93). She begins to notice the loss of her identity in

Denmark, where she feels, “the division of her life into two parts in two lands, into physical freedom in Europe and spiritual freedom in America” (Larsen 96). The heroine cannot accept the duality of her world simply because she cannot find people who would accept her as she is. Helga can experience equality in neither of the countries and societies.

Helga is losing her authentic identity in order to survive and adapt to her surroundings. Adaptation to the negative conditions of life can be observed in The Street and, partially, in all of the novels treated here. because adaptation is a typical element of naturalism, one that often mark the tragedy of a main character. Specifically, the authors put the characters in the conditions where escape is impossible even if any of them are trying to make a change. Helga moves to different locations throughout the entire novel.

She teaches in Naxos, moves to the New York City, travels to Denmark, and returns to the U.S. by moving to the rural part of the South. Each location holds a promise of a new life, yet, the heroine is unable to experience happiness because of the cruelty of her social

49 circle. Happiness is inaccessible for Helga in marriage as well. Like many heroes from naturalist fiction, Helga is dreaming of escaping this part of her life as well, yet she never does.

Larsen concludes that Helga’s inability to be happy is predetermined by her racial background. Determinism is evident in Quicksand only closer to the end of the novel when it is clear that the protagonist loses her desire to seek happiness and adapts to the circumstances. Unlike several naturalist novels, including The Street and Sister Carrie,

Quicksand uses determinism throughout the novel covertly. It is impossible to notice deterministic tendencies in the first part of the novel. As the heroine is motivated to change her situation, the audience has a false belief that she is able to attain happiness.

However, in the second part of the novel, it becomes clear that Helga’s destiny is predetermined by her racial background and a desire to be free from prejudice.

Unfortunately, in the society of racial segregation, freedom for Helga is unattainable, as she is doomed to be rejected by both white and African American communities.

Helga is destined to fail because she is a woman and because she has African

American blood in her veins. This is one of the main premises to use determinism in the novel. At the same time, Larsen shows that the mixed ancestry makes Helga’s life even more challenging, as people in both “camps” do not know how to approach her. At this point, it is possible to compare the works of Larsen and Petry, as both novels include certain dualistic tendencies. Particularly, Helga is treated inadequately by African

Americans and whites through resentment and objectification. Lutie is constantly objectified in African American society and disregarded by the whites. These women did not feel safe or accepted in different communities simply because African American

50 women experienced an intense form of segregation and racial oppression. Moreover, they were facing physical and sexual violence in the African American community due to the impact of racial segregation. For instance, Kimberly Monda admitted that Helga is affected by sexual objectification of African Americans, whom the society sees as savage; at the same time, in liberal Denmark, she becomes a sexual object of “exotic” beauty (Monda 23). Petry’s heroine is constantly objectified by all males around her, which leads to growing aggression and a commitment of a violent crime. To escape sexual objectification, Helga marries a minister in the Deep South. Either of them is unable to escape their destiny, as according to determinism, the environment forms the behavior and actions of people.

It is possible to conclude that Quicksand has certain elements of naturalist fiction, even though it is difficult to associate it with this genre completely. Larsen was more interested in the social and ideological conflict between the white majority and African

Americans. The author was also more interested in showing a bigger picture of racism and segregation by focusing on the rigidity of thinking in both camps. Larsen explored the problem of being a mixed-race individual in a segregated society, which was not explored by many authors in those days. Quicksand became a unique novel that was able to highlight a challenging topic of self-hate, unacceptance, and avoidance of authentic racial background in the African American community. This novel also managed to reveal hidden racism in liberal Western society. As a result, Larsen’s novel became a revelation for her contemporaries, as the topics highlighted in Quicksand were not explored before.

51 Elements of Naturalism in Native Son

Richard Wright’s novel Native Son explores the relationship dynamics between

African Americans and whites by focusing on the themes of violence and fear. This novel explores the circumstances that push a young African American man to the road of violence and death. It is possible to argue that Native Son uses more elements of naturalism than Petry or Larsen. The novel is pessimistic and grim; it depicts violence and poverty, the destiny of the protagonist is predetermined since the very beginning, and it focuses on such topics as survival and degradation. Wright is convinced that people are not in control of their destiny, as their environment forms behavior and affects actions.

The novel’s protagonist is doomed to become a criminal due to the conditions in which he lives. Wright is more detached from the narrative compared to his female colleagues

(Petry and Larsen), as he allows the audience to see the world of Native Son through the eyes of the character. The novel is also more brutal and pessimistic compared to other naturalist authors due to the description of violent crimes.

The plot of Native Son revolves around the life of a young African American man,

Bigger Thomas, who receives a job in the house of a wealthy white family (the Daltons).

Bigger experiences confusion and fear towards the family, as he was not exposed to the life of the whites before his employment. The protagonist is unable to understand the language of the whites and their intentions. He is frightened by the wealth of the Daltons and is constantly afraid to do something wrong and lose the job. The novel creates a close connection between fear and violence in Bigger’s life. One of the episodes in the first part of the story shows that Bigger is afraid to interact with the whites by predicting that something horrible might happen. The protagonist does not realize his resentment and

52 aggression towards the whites until he commits his first crime, which liberates him in a twisted and horrible way. Bigger is destined not only to become a criminal but also to lose his life, as the segregated world does not allow African Americans to access the same benefits as the whites. Naturalism in Native Son is evident from the beginning to the end of the novel. At the same time, Wright retains its focus on the problem of race in the

U.S., as do all of his African American colleagues.

Violence is closely connected with determinism in Native Son. For example,

Primitive and humiliating illustration of African Americans in the movie that he attends with his friends immediately triggers a violent reaction in Bigger, which he unleashes on his friend without realizing why he acts aggressively. Bigger realized his tendency towards violence by thinking, “mixed images of violence ran like sand through his mind, dry and fast, vanishing. He could stab Gus with his knife…Bigger sat down and felt cold sweat on his skin” (Wright 34-35). It is possible to observe how Bigger’s tendency towards violence is progressing throughout the novel even though he does not realize its initial cause. Violence becomes a release for Bigger’s intrinsic aggression towards the whites. Violence also becomes the main element that predetermines his life path. The protagonist is destined to become a criminal, as this is the only way to express his hidden aggression and frustration towards the world and the white majority. For instance, when

Bigger kills the daughter of his employer, Mr. Dalton, he feels a certain level of release.

According to the author, “he felt he had his destiny in his grasp. He was more alive than he could ever remember have been; his mind and attention were more pointed…”

(Wright 129). The protagonist feels that the killing of Mary liberated him and allowed him to have control over his life, despite the gruesomeness of his act. At this point,

53 Bigger realizes the cause of his actions by thinking, “the shame and fear and hate which

Mary and Jan and Mr. Dalton and that huge rich house had made rise so hard and hot in him had now cooled and softened” (Wright 129). Bigger admitted that even his violent act towards Mary was caused by fear engendered in hum by a brutally racist environment which does not afford him humanity.

Violence against Bessie, his girlfriend, however, was a different type of crime that

Bigger did not want to realize. The protagonist cannot any longer control his urges and violent intentions, as it has provided the freedom that Bigger did not know before. For example, Bigger in his thinking of killing Bessie, “he wished he could clench his fist and swing his arm and blot out, kill, sweep away Bessie on Bessie’s face and leave the other helpless and yielding before him” (Wright 120). Here, Bigger realizes his intention to use violence against women to make them more helpless and “yielding”. The protagonist uses violence, which predetermines his destiny and leads to arrest and sentencing to death. His killing of Mary and Bessie shows that Bigger can no longer control his aggression and frustration. While the author does not justify the actions of his character,

Wright shows that Bigger’s crimes are determined (at least partially) by the conditions in which he lives. Poverty, segregation, and prejudice against African Americans lead to the adoption of violent behavior.

The novel is deeply pessimistic, as it highlights the destruction of several innocent lives due to social inequality. The lives of Bigger, Bessie, and Mary are lost in vain, while the society sees the problem in one specific race. The society in the book is outraged when newspapers report that an African American man is wanted for murder. At the same time, everyone around Bigger acts as if his destiny is already decided, which

54 creates a claustrophobic mood in the novel. The pessimism of Native Son allows the author to detach himself from the narrative while allowing the audience also to decide whether it is to blame Bigger for his crimes against the society around him. Wright avoids using direct criticism of the characters or the society, yet still, he allows his character to communicate the message of the novel. As a result, the main character enacts violence toward his friends, his girlfriend, and a white woman. Even though, the death of

Mary Dalton is accidental but that does not matter in a world that already judges Bigger as a murderer and rapist. As Wright depicts him, Bigger is unequipped to realize in advance how these actions will affect his future.

Native Son is a classical naturalist fiction with its tendency to pessimism, determinism, and detachment of an author from the reality of the text. Wright managed to approach his novel from a similar position as white authors by focusing on a story of one protagonist who cannot escape his destiny even though he tries very hard to do so. Unlike his female peers who explored both gender and race, Wright decided to concentrate his full attention on the problem of race in the U.S. The author approached it from a wider perspective through the exploration of fear and violence in the African American community. Bigger’s transformation into a criminal was predetermined by his environment, where he was placed in an unequal and humiliating position. While white naturalist authors analyzed social problems of poverty in the society as well, they looked at this issue from a completely different perspective. As mentioned earlier, Steinbeck and

Dreiser implied that an array of naturalistic forces predetermine their lives; thus, they are doomed to live in poverty and misery. African American authors, including Wright, saw the main problem in an environment in which minorities were oppressed by the race-

55 obsessed majority. Wright depicts Bigger as a typical dweller of African American neighborhoods that were overwhelmed with poverty, violence, and fear. Bigger as well as his peers feel trapped, marginalized, and alienated from the world of wealth and opportunity that was available only to whites.

Bigger’s destiny represents a tragedy of a person who was pushed towards a violent path by society. In segregated America, African Americans were supposed to slave themselves for food, shelter, and the ability to survive. Bigger’s reaction to seemingly ordinary circumstances in Dalton’s house is predetermined by his reaction to whites. He always feels fear and aggression towards them, which leads to his first murder. Unlike white naturalist authors, Wright does not consider that Bigger’s actions are caused by his genes or his “nature”; instead, the author implies that the character reacts to the external factors (e.g. racism, alienation, inequality). This is a major difference between African American naturalist authors compared to their white colleagues. Wright chooses the ideas of behaviorism rather than Darwin’s approach by arguing that nurture overpowers nature. Wright uses the tools of naturalism, like determinism, pessimism, and focus on social issues to highlight the problem of racism in the 20th century U.S. and reveal its real impact on the African American community.

56

CHAPTER IV

NATURALISM THROUGH IMAGE: ANALYSIS OF FILM ADAPTATIONS

Film adaptations that were based on naturalist fiction had to recreate not only the plots of these books but also to convey the ambiance of that time. Since the movies were filmed long after some of the books were written, thus, the directors had a goal of not only illustrating the historical period correctly but also transmitting the message of the naturalist authors. For instance, The Grapes of Wrath was adapted for the screen in 1940 by John Ford, Carrie was filmed in 1952 by William Wyler, and Native Son by Jerrold

Freedman was seen on the big screen in 1986. The Grapes of Wrath is the only film adaptation studied here that was released immediately—one year after John Steinbeck released his book. Consequently, the analysis of the film adaptations has to take into consideration the date of the movie’s release and the tendencies in the cinema during that time. The analysis of the film adaptations shows that each author approached the primary source from a different angle that affected the message originally communicated by naturalist authors. The approach to screen adaptation was affected by the tendencies in cinema that existed during that time, personal choice of directors, and an intention to recreate the message of the books.

Elements of Naturalism in The Grapes of Wrath by John Ford

57 Ford’s adaptation of The Grapes of Wrath was released in 1940. It is a black-and- white film starring Henry Fonda (Tom Joad), Jane Darwell (Ma Joad), and John

Carradine (Jim Casy) among others (Ford). The first part of the adaptation followed the plot of the book almost to the dot by illustrating the journey of Tom Joad from his prison release to reuniting with his family (Figure 1). However, the second and the last parts of the film differ dramatically from Steinbeck’s narrative and message. Ford decided to create some type of a “happy ending” rather than showing the downfall of the Joad family. In the adaptation, the main characters find peace in a camp organized by the government, while in the book, the Joad’s were denied a chance to survive during the

Great Depression. Overall, it is possible to characterize Ford’s adaptation as a “toned down” version of The Grapes of Wrath compared to the literary source. Unlike

Steinbeck, Ford does not focus on the political criticism, as he chooses a more personalized narrative that revolves around the main characters and antagonists. Ford shifts his focus from the political aspects that contributed to the development of Great

Depression to the opposition between the farmers and bankers, which creates a different picture compared to Steinbeck’s approach.

Figure 1: Joad Family Reunion

58 While Ford does not deviate from the naturalist tendencies of fiction completely, his adaptation includes some elements of romanticism. Specifically, the movie develops an idea of hope and positive outcome for the Joad family, which is a characteristic feature of romanticism. Ford illustrates the poverty in detail, yet still, his adaptation seems too theatrical rather than realistic. The director honestly portrays the hierarchal difference between the farmers and bankers; however, to a contemporary audience it looks overly dramatized and not fully realistic. At the same time, it is important to acknowledge the level of development of cinema industry and the general trends in film that were characteristic to the 1940s. In addition, political background and historical trends have to be taken into account when analyzing this movie. While Steinbeck was bolder in his depiction for the U.S. government, Ford did not risk choosing the same path. It is possible to speculate that Ford’s choice was based on the historical conditions of the

1940s, as it was the beginning of the World War II, as well as his or the studio’s decision to depict the government as a “good guy” in the movie. Political context was almost unnoticeable in the movie compared to the text. Yet still, the director was not alienated from the narrative as Steinbeck was in his work.

One of the main elements of naturalism is determinism. Specifically, the author makes sure that his characters encounter one blow after another, which makes a happy ending impossible. The protagonists are usually doomed to remain poor or become the victims of the system, as was shown on the example of Tom Joad and his family in The

Grapes of Wrath. John Ford uses this element only partially. For example, in the beginning of the movie, the film shows a flashback, where one of the farmers, Muley

Graves (John Qualen) describes how his land was taken from him by bankers (Ford).

59 This scene shows a shabby house has been destroyed by the tractor driven by the local man (shown in Figure 2). When confronted, the man confesses that he receives $3 per day for the destruction of farmers’ houses and he has no choice due to the need to feed his family. This scene represents determinism in the film, as it shows that Muley’s farm was not the only one being destroyed in the region. It is easy to realize that the situation will deteriorate, as impoverished people were involved in the battle for survival. When

Tom Joad returns to the Joad farm, his birthplace, he realizes that his family as well as all of his neighbors are doomed to be homeless.

Figure 2: A Farmer’s House Destroyed

However, deterministic tendencies disappear closer to the end of the film when the Joad family are able to settle down in the “clean” Weedpatch camp established by the government. In reality, the U.S. authorities did not provide a large number of such luxurious camps for the impoverished farmers, most of whom were left without any support (Figure 3). Ford, however, decided to end his movie on a hopeful note by scripting an inspirational message communicated by Ma Joad. Particularly, the ending scene shows a conversation between Ma and Pa Joad riding in a car through the cotton fields. Pa is complaining that he constantly recollects the time when everything was

60 better, while Ma describes a more pragmatic approach by claiming that the life of a man is a journey with its challenges and pitfalls (Ford). Here, Ford aims at diverting the attention of the audience from such painful social issues as inequality, poverty, homelessness, and oppression by labeling the story as a “journey” of a specific individual. While Ma Joad’s character is depicted very accurately in the adaptation, including her pragmatism and optimism, the ending scene in the movie draws a controversial conclusion. Here, Ford denies the plausibility of determinism by trying to imply that an individual goes through a journey based on his or her own choices. In this manner, Ford eliminates almost completely political and social background of

Steinbeck’s The Grapes of Wrath as well as he decreases the importance of determinism as the element of naturalism.

Figure 3: Impoverished Farmers without Support

The pessimistic mood that was evident in the novel is therefore difficult to notice in the film adaptation. Particularly, Steinbeck ensured that each part of the book leads to a complete downfall of the Joad family by making his characters face horrible circumstances, while Ford chooses to decrease the level of pessimism dramatically by creating, for example, a more polished look for the characters and for Oklahoma. Even

61 without focusing on the visual specificities of the movie, including its “theatrical” decorations and noticeable props, the characters do not, in my opinion, create a realistic vision of starving farmers. For example, the clothes of the actors are too clean, their bodies healthy, and their overall look does not suggest that they suffer. Moreover, Ford includes an optimistic score in his adaptation that does not create a pessimistic mood. For example, when the Joad family travels on Route 66, the audience hears optimistic music that suggests an optimistic journey. Steinbeck, however, creates an atmosphere of despair and misery, both of which are more suitable to the period of the Great Depression.

Consequently, it is important to mention that Ford’s choice to deviate from the primary source and eliminate some of the pessimism could be partially dictated by the political and historical tendencies of the 1940s. Steinbeck’s book illustrated the events that occurred from the 1929 to 1939 with its peak in the middle of this period. However,

1939 was the beginning of the World War II in Europe, when different political and social movements were in place. While U.S. forces entered combat only in 1941, a year after the film’s premiere, people were by 1940 tired of the long periods of misery, poverty, and despair that were produced by the Great Depression (Whitfield). As one of the critics noticed, it was a time when people needed “happy endings” of the type delivered by Ford. Not Surprisingly, the director was criticized for his liberal interpretation of Steinbeck’s work (Yilmazok 19). Ford’s choice to avoid or mute

Steinbeck’s hidden criticism of capitalism can be explained by an intention to create a popular movie that would attract a wider audience (Figure 4). During the beginning of the

1940s, the movie industry was struggling due to the economic crisis, which could have affected the choice of the producers of the film adaptation. However, Ford was criticized

62 for his adaptation due to his popularization of the New Deal policies issued by President

Roosevelt, which were not as effective in reality (Cassano 102). Consequently, the pessimism of the film, which was closely connected to the portrayal of the political and social issues in the U.S., was omitted by Ford in order to either satisfy the viewers or communicate a propagandist political message that justified government actions.

Figure 4: Steinbeck Attracts Large Audience

One of the elements of naturalism to which Ford was attentive is the focus on the working class in the adaptation. The movie does not deviate from the book and depicts the journey of the Joad family and some of other characters in detail. Ford focuses on the relationship dynamics inside the Joad family by creating a realistic portrait of Steinbeck’s characters. For example, Ma Joad is particularly pragmatic and resourceful. This character is the “heart” of the family in both the book and the movie. The tendency to retain close relationships with the family among the members of the working class was highlighted accurately by Ford. The same picture was presented by Steinbeck who showed the close relationship of the Joad family with each other and their intention to help others. The subtopic of betrayal of community was highlighted by both Ford and

Steinbeck in their works. For instance, Steinbeck shows how strikebreakers betray their

63 own people who try to oppose the oppressing authorities. Ford depicts this topic at the beginning of the film when a local man is pushed to betray his neighbors and destroy their houses for money. These scenes represent naturalism in its true form, as they illustrate the clash between the need to survive and the desire to oppose the oppression.

As both Steinbeck and Ford conclude, the desire to survive is stronger than the ideological opposition. This is a sad truth and a realistic depiction of human in both works. So, as Steinbeck, Ford does not criticize people who chose survival over the ideological struggle, which is why Tom Joad is separated from the family in the book and the film. Specifically, since Tom chooses an ideological struggle and has problems with the law, he has to part ways with his loved ones and escape.

Overall, the lack of serious naturalism as presented in Ford’s adaptation is only partially due to the decision to create a more polished version of the Great Depression in order to attract audiences and avoid political controversy. Ford’s goal was to create a

“light” version of The Grapes of Wrath, a general picture recognizable by readers, yet, with a message blurred by romanticist tendencies. As a result, Ford has created a very liberal adaptation of the book that was created in the traditions of realism and romanticism rather than naturalism. The film adaptation has certain elements of naturalism, including the interest to the working class, their relationship with each other, opposition to the authorities, and criticism of the bankers (Figure 5).

At the same time, Ford eliminated the elements of determinism and pessimism from the film, as well as he chose to eliminate the criticism of the government and political ideology. Ford’s adaptation cannot shock or impose uncomfortable questions as

Steinbeck did. Instead, the director proposes the audience a two-hour long entertainment

64 that takes the viewers in the inspirational journey of a strong family that survives despite the odds.

Figure 5: Working Class and Relationships

Elements of Naturalism in Carrie by William Wyler

Wyler’s film adaptation, Carrie, was based on the literary work of Theodore

Dreiser, Sister Carrie. The novel was originally published in 1900 and it was adapted in

1952 for the big screen by Wyler. The film adaptation stars Jennifer Jones as Carrie

Meeber, Eddie Albert as Charles Drouet, and Laurence Olivier as George Hurstwood among others. Naturalism in Carrie is hardly noticeable, as the director chose not to shock the viewers and communicate controversial messages produced by Dreiser.

Wyler’s adaptation is somewhat sentimental and superficial compared to the primary source, as the director choses to shift the general message of the entire novel. While the film adaptations are incapable to illustrate every scene of the book or recreate each dialogue, they still have a responsibility of delivering the same, or at least, the similar message. Directors and production studios, however, are pressured to create a profitable product that would attract the viewers and generate the financial profits for all parties

65 involved. Consequently, as it was mentioned earlier, some directors decide to decrease the degree of criticism and controversy in their adaptations (Figure 6).

Figure 6: Decreasing Criticism and Controversy

Unlike Ford, Wyler does not deviate from the plot of the novel dramatically, yet still, the director of Carrie changes the relationship dynamics in the film. Dreiser’s main focus was the criticism of consumerism and superficiality of romanticism through the character of Carrie Meeber, who is particularly opportunistic. Wyler, however, creates an image of a “damsel in distress” who has fallen victim of an experienced womanizer, which justifies her choices and actions. Sister Carrie is an ironic drama that debunks the myth of true love and mocks the romantic aspects of the romanticist works. Carrie, however, is a sentimental film that both reassures gender stereotypes and, to certain extent, criticizes them. Carrie is a different product compared to Sister Carrie, as Wyler decided to shift the main idea of the novel. It is possible to imply that Carrie tones down

66 certain controversial messages, yet, the movie raises other important social questions that were not highlighted by Dreiser. It is possible to speculate that Wyler’s choice to make changes were based on the tendencies existed in the 1950s and the shift in focus inside the family institutions in the U.S.

Wyler’s film adaptation can be perceived as a story of success of a woman with modest background, who becomes a victim of men. Dreiser’s novel was about a provincial opportunist who stops at nothing to achieve her goal. It is possible to notice a radical difference between Dreiser’s and Wyler’s approach to their works. The main goal of the author was to create a realistic portrayal of relationship between men and women, which was radical for his contemporaries. Wyler’s goal, however, was to communicate a relatable message to the audience by putting in the center of attention a classic character of his time. Women in film during that time were depicted as passive creatures who dependent completely on men. While, in part, it was a correct depiction of women since they were oppressed by the patriarchy in the 1950s; this idea was not criticized or even questioned. Thus, Wyler could not put a classic interpretation of Carrie Meeber in the center of his film. Dreiser’s Carrie would not be a likable character as well as she would not be a passive creature, which did not suit the tendencies of that time.

Consequently, the element of determinism is present in the film only partially. It is possible to claim that Wyler uses the concept of determinism in a different context. For example, in Dreiser’s work, the characters are doomed to be unhappy because of their superficial and materialist nature. In Wyler, Carrie is doomed to be unhappy because she is seduced and controlled by her lovers (Figure 7). Dreiser implied that people who live in materialist culture, cannot express such feeling as love, loyalty, and empathy; while

67 Wyler eliminated the protagonist from this context. Consequently, the element of determinism is present until Carrie gains success as an actress. Wyler creates a happy ending for the film in order to justify Carrie and create a more pleasant heroine. The audience would not feel empathy to George Hurstwood because he is portrayed almost as a villain in the film. In this case, his destiny is predetermined as well, as he is responsible for his downfall. In Dreiser’s novel, both Hurstwood and Carrie were also responsible for their action. Yet still, the conclusion drawn by the author differed dramatically from

Wyler’s one.

Figure 7: Carrie Seduced and Controlled

As a result, Wyler uses determinism to pave the path of his protagonist to success by punishing the “villains” and justifying the “heroes” (or victims). In the film, the choices made by the characters determine if they attain success or experience a downfall.

In Sister Carrie, neither of the characters had such choices because they live in materialist society that dictates its own rules. Dreiser focused on the inner intentions of his characters and their reactions to the environmental factors. His Carrie acts as an opportunist as a result of her innate features rather as a reaction to her environment.

68 Wyler chose a different direction, as he considered that his protagonist chose the career of an actress and left her lover behind due to the desire to overcome poverty. Dreiser’s determinism was closely connected to the idea of impact of hereditary factors on personality. Wyler’s adaptation showed that Carrie has to become a mistress simply because she had no other options. On other words, Wyler uses the same plot and events written by Dreiser, but he interprets them from a completely different angle. In the film,

Carrie is a victim of circumstances rather than a villain who seeks financial benefits.

However, it is important to notice that Wyler used elements of determination in depiction of inequality between the rich and the poor. For example, Carrie has no prospects when she arrives to Chicago and she is forced to work at the factory for a miserable pay. Specifically, at the beginning of the film, Wyler shows that the female workers of the factory were exploited by the owners that did not allow them to escape poverty. As the film reveals, Carrie and other women who work as seamstresses receive only one dollar per day. Moreover, they have to work in poor conditions with a threat to lose their jobs if they receive an injury (Wyler) (Figure 8). This episode shows that the fate of these women is predetermined, as they have no chance to improve their socio- economic situation and they depend on men in the society almost completely. Carrie is put in the circumstances when she cannot control her own destiny because she has no prospects in life.

69

Figure 8: Carrie Cannot Control Her Destiny

As mentioned earlier, Wyler disregarded the idea of heredity in formation of a personality. Instead, the director supported the opinion that says that an individual is the product of her or his surroundings. Therefore, the cinematic Carrie is naïve because she was born in a provincial town. She also uses any opportunity to improve her position in the society. The 1950s was a transformational era for the American society when all industries experienced massive changes. The cinema was not exclusion from this rule. As

I recognized earlier, since women started to strive for independence in the 1950s, the films could no longer portray them through one-dimensional characteristics (Pomerance

46). At the same time, the power of patriarchy was still very strong, which affected the ambiguous illustration of female characters in film (Pomerance 47). Wyler could not make his Carrie a hard-headed opportunist, as women were not seen as such in the 1950s.

The film could not portray her as a homemaker either, as it was important to preserve

Dreiser’s narrative. Wyler has found a compromise where Carrie retains her “innocence” by assuming a role of naiveté. She attains success as an actress without being regarded as an opportunist because Wyler makes her lover a villain. As one of the critics admitted,

70 Wyler’s Carrie is a weak and distorted shadow of Dreiser’s Carrie (Crowther).

Consequently, Wyler chose not to use the concept of heredity in his film in order to change the direction of the narrative.

Pessimism is not very evident in Carrie as well. Wyler applies several episodes of pessimistic nature, including the scene at the factory and Carrie’s interaction with a little girl in her building who says that she is not allowed to talk to Carrie because of her status

(Figure 9). However, the film has melancholic mood with some emotional undertones.

Carrie is shown as a woman who reaches stardom first as a mistress by living in comfort and, later, as an actress by becoming an independent woman. Wyler’s George Hurstwood is particularly sentimental and reckless, which leads to his downfall. He is the one to lose his family, position in society, and wealth. However, the director puts the blame on

Hurstwood rather than Carrie for his failure. Dreiser, on the other hand, was quick to blame Carrie’s opportunism for his Hurstwood’s crisis. Wyler’s adaptation is not an inspirational story of success, yet, it is also not a pessimistic tragedy. The film is a melancholic drama that shows how people’s choices determine their lives.

Figure 9: Carrie Interacts with Young Child

71 Naturalist Elements in Native Son by Jerrold Freedman

Native Son is Jerrold Freedman’s adaptation of Richard Wright’s novel of the same name. The film tells the story of a young African American man who lives in conditions of severe poverty and strives for a better life despite the circumstances. As in all naturalist novels, he is doomed to remain poor and experience failure. Film adaptation follows the narrative of Write’s novel by adopting naturalist principles and creating a realistic portrayal of poverty and degradation, filling the film with highly pessimistic mood, and targeting urgent social problems, including racism and prejudice, in the

American society (Freedman). The adaptation was released in 1986, while the book was published in 1940. The movie stars Victor Love (Bigger Thomas), Oprah Winfrey (Mrs.

Thomas), Matt Dillon (Jan), Akosua Busia (Bessie), Elisabeth McGovern (Mary Dalton),

Carroll Baker (Mrs. Dalton), and John McMartin (Mr. Dalton) among others. The film follows the plot of Wright’s novel almost to the dot, yet, with one exception. Specifically, the film does not include a crucial scene of rape and murder of Bessie, whose character in the movie is almost completely eliminated. It is possible to speculate that the production company chose to delete the scene due to its controversial nature in order to attract the viewers.

Overall, Freedman adaptation is more respectful to the primary source compared to the works of Wyler or Ford. Adaptation of Native Son managed to capture the tone and the message of the book by creating a social drama with a tragic ending. Freedman chose to retain the criticism of the racial segregation and false liberalism that was voiced by

Wright. Moreover, according to Freedman, cutting of the scene of Bessie’s murder was the decision of the studio, which he criticized profoundly. As Freedman claims, “the

72 scene is pivotal in the novel because it underscores the disintegration of Bigger Thomas, a victim of racism and segregation in Chicago of the 1930's who in turn becomes a victimizer” (Harmetz). By cutting this scene, the studio wanted to ensure that the protagonist is still seen as a victim in a classic understanding of this concept. By including the scene of killing Bessie it was possible to create a more controversial character than the studio wanted him to be. However, as Freedman implied and Wright considered, Bigger Thomas was not a classic “hero” usually portrayed in White’s literature, as he has no chance to become one. Nevertheless, the film remains a substantially detailed adaptation of the novel in terms of its events and the overall message.

The film includes a lot of naturalist elements, which were present in the primary source, including the atmosphere of pessimism, interest to the social problems of the most vulnerable population group, inclusion of the idea of determinism, and preservation of certain detachment from the narrative. Among all adaptations analyzed earlier, Native

Son is the most naturalist film. It is possible that a choice of Freedman to preserve the message of Wright’s novel was affected by the popularity of “big studio films” (or commercial films). During the 1980s-1990s, directors were allowed to use bolder and more controversial topics. Their predecessors were not allowed using shocking scenes, nudity, and violence in film, which provided the director of Native Son with some freedom in terms of depicting some violent scenes in the movie.

The film uses the idea of determinism by showing two different worlds, the white and African American. For example, at the beginning of the movie, the director shows

Bigger and his family to fight the rat in their apartment (Freedman) (Figure 10). The

73 protagonist lives in poor neighborhood alienated from the wealthy citizens. His destiny as well as the fate of his friends is predetermined by the conditions of segregation. The audience sees that young African American men are exposed to violence; they have no opportunities in life as well as the options to improve their situation. By living in poor disadvantaged conditions, Bigger and his peers have no other option than to involve in crime. A scene in the theater shows that young men do not understand the White culture simply because they are alienated from it. Instead, their cultural heritage is marginalized and disregarded by the majority. Freedman shows that Bigger’s life is predetermined even when he receives a job in Dalton’s house. He is shy and confused because he does not understand how to behave around the White employers. As Freedman reveals, Bigger does not belong in the world of wealth and aristocracy because his fate has already been decided by the society that put him in a disadvantaged position since his birth. As a result, Bigger is doomed to attain a better life and escape poverty since the system is working against him and his entire community.

Figure 10: Bigger’s Family at Home

74 Freedman understands that Bigger’s downfall is the fault of his environment rather than his innate features. According to Freedman’s adaptation, people who live in poor conditions cannot escape because the societal system is designed to keep them poor.

Consequently, Bigger is not affected by his birth in poverty necessarily; he is put in poverty by society. Thus, violence and crime become the main way of escape from the agony, which Bigger tries to fight. However, the protagonist cannot distinguish between the concepts of “right” and “wrong” that were imposed by White society, as he lives in completely different conditions (Figure 11).

Figure 11: Bigger in Chicago

The director does not justify Bigger’s actions. Like Wright, Freedman occupies a neutral position that allows the audience to decide whether to justify Bigger or blame him for his crimes. Freedman chooses alienation from his narrative purposely in order to create a more accurate adaptation of Native Son and to stimulate the audience to think and draw conclusions by themselves. Freedman adopts the role of a documentarist who simply follows the protagonist, which was evidenced by the choice of cinematography.

Particularly, Freedman’s adaptation is filmed by using a camera that follows bigger as if it was another person in the scenes. This provides a sense of presence for the viewers and

75 adds realism to the story. While the previous adaptations were quite theatrical,

Freedman’s adaptation adopts naturalist approach by showing to the viewers everything without censorship. Specifically, Freedman’s characters living in poverty look like people who live in poor conditions, which creates a stark contrast between the wealthy and the poor characters. Detachment from the narrative is shown by Freedman when he does not criticize his characters from each world. The director shows that the death of Dalton’s daughter is a tragic coincidence and neither the family nor Bigger is to blame. However, it is possible that the audience adopts a different opinion, which allowed Freedman to retain neutrality.

Pessimism is evident in each scene of the movie. Bigger’s interaction with his friends and his attempts of communication with Mary and Jan are shown as a tragedy.

Bigger becomes more frightened in Dalton’s house and more violent with his friends. The audience would understand that Bigger’s slow transformation is the outcome of his status in the society. The protagonist is striving to change something in his life, yet, he does not know how as well as he is not allowed to do so. He knows what has to be changes but

Bigger also sees that he would not be able to overcome the barriers built by the white majority (Figure12). Bigger decision to disguise himself when Mrs. Dalton enters the room is the outcome of deep fear of being thrown away on the street and an unconscious fear before the Dalton’s (Figure 13). As a result, Bigger is waiting for his discovery patiently. He realizes that his downfall is inevitable, which creates an atmosphere of deep pessimism in the film. Freedman emphasizes the pessimistic tone of the movie by depicting the conditions of living of Bigger’s family and Bessie that were illustrated as a sharp contrast to Dalton’s house. Bigger’s initial joy when he receives his own room in

76 Dalton’s house shows that he had never had anything of his own, which is frustrating as well.

Figure 12: Bigger in a South Side Restaurant

Figure 13: In Mary’s Bedroom

Overall, Freedman’s Native Son offers a vivid and accurate adaptation of Wright’s novel. The director was very careful with the primary source, as he realized the importance of this literary work for the current generation. Despite the absence of one of the most crucial scenes, it is possible to imply that the film has more naturalistic elements compared to other adaptations. It is possible that Freedman’s ability to create a more accurate version of a naturalist text was affected by the era in which he has created his film. The directors acquired more freedom in depicting violence and sexual content, which allowed many of them to create more accurate and realistic films. Native Son

77 communicates the same message as Wright’s novel by showing that an individual cannot escape failure in oppressive environment that pushes him or her to commit crimes.

As the current analysis recognizes, film adaptations of the naturalist texts were the products of their eras. Since all three movies were released in different historical periods, they adopted a different approach to the process of adaptation and interpretation of the main messages of the novels. For example, Ford’s The Grapes of Wrath has become a lose adaptation of a text that was highly affected by naturalism. Wyler’s Carrie is a sentimental adaptation of an ironic and tragic story. Finally, Freedman’s Native Son is the most naturalist movie that managed to follow the primary source almost to the dot. Film adaptations released during the 1940s and 1950s could not afford to follow the novels’ narratives due to the existed rules in the film industry and the overall ideological background.

Filmmakers were not able to create a realistic atmosphere of tragedy because of the lack of interest to this type of works in the audience and the studios. For instance, the adaptation of The Grapes of Wrath could not be pessimistic and tragic, as the U.S. has just escaped the misery of the Great Depression. Carrie could not create an opportunistic heroine simply because it was not relevant for the 1950s audience. Only Native Son was able to follow the novel’s ideas as the reaction to the industry’s transformation. In other words, all of the films analyzed here chose to use the elements of naturalism only when it suited the cultural moods of the public. It is a well-known fact that authors always had more freedom in terms of their art compared to the filmmakers. Authors were allowed to express their ideas, criticism, and opinions in all possible forms, while the directors and studies had to focus on the interests of the general audience. My harsh criticism of Carrie

78 and The Grapes of Wrath stems from the realization that these films reflected eras that were different from the literary text’s period of production, eras in which naturalism was different from and perhaps less accepted by specific audiences or the general public.

Visual and written forms of art have different methods of showing reality, which can provide a certain advantage to the latter form.

79

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSION

This thesis has shown that naturalism in American literature constituted a reaction to the escapism of the Romantic literature. Moreover, though literary naturalism allowed

20th century readers to embrace a new vision of reality, that vision was in some cases later contradicted in screen adaptations. According to this analysis, American literature was affected by naturalistic tendencies that emerged in France at the end of the 19th century. However, American naturalists chose a more radical version of this genre by committing to the detailed description of the lives of the most vulnerable population groups. Naturalism in American literature gained clear and well-identified characteristic elements that could be traced in all works of the genre. This analysis recognizes that such prominent naturalistic elements as detachment of an author from the narrative, pessimism, the concept of determinism, interest in the problems of the lower socio- economic classes, lack of direct moral criticism, the notion of heredity, and a tendency toward pessimistic outcomes can be noticed in the works of both white and African

American authors. Though these two artistic categories have certain differences, including the approach to the main heroes and the focus of the narrative, substantial naturalistic elements can be found in both.

80 At the same time, the two schools have vivid differences, as they focused on completely different groups of the population. Naturalist authors like Dreiser, Steinbeck, and Wharton focused on the lower and middle socio-economic classes consisting of white citizens, while African American authors, including Petry, Larsen, and Wright were focusing on the representatives of their own race. The different focus of the authors produced a different result. For instance, Steinbeck described in detail the event of the

Dust Bowl and the destiny of farmers during the Great Depression in the 1930s. Wharton directed the audience’s attention to the middle-class representatives who lost their wealth.

Dreiser depicted the clash between the provincial poor and the upper-class representatives. Perhaps in part because the white naturalist authors were the beneficiaries of certain class and race-based privileges, they described events and created impoverished characters largely on the basis of observation, which may explain their comparative detachment. White authors were observers and they chose to retain this aspect in the creation of their novels. In addition, the explanation of the characters’ choices and fate was mostly based on the idea of heredity or even affiliation to a specific socio-economic class. The only author that implemented a somewhat different approach was Steinbeck, whose leftist political beliefs were typical for that time. Steinbeck was the only author who managed to apply some aspects of criticism of the governmental policies concerning the poor farmers and American citizens in general during the Great

Depression. Overall, white authors chose not to criticize the actions of the government but to describe poverty and the difficult conditions of living of the urban and rural poor.

African American authors executed a more personal approach to their works. This can be explained by their personal experience with racism, ostracism, and discrimination

81 of the African American community. As a result, their works highlight socio-economic and cultural problems in American society more effectively. For example, Petry focuses the attention of the readers on the illusions imposed by the society that hard work can help improving economic and social status in the U.S. Larsen highlights the cultural and ideological problems in both African American and white communities that do not allow a person with a mixed-race background to be accepted in the society. Finally, Wright shows how a racially divided society creates criminals by limiting the freedoms and rights of one population group. African American authors do not consider that heredity affects the actions and choices of their community. Instead, as the authors imply, the affiliation to the lower socio-economic class that was artificially constructed in U.S. society is responsible for the inability to escape poverty in African American neighborhoods. Due to the personal approach to the topics, the novels of African

American authors are both more poignant and more pessimistic. None of the characters in

The Street, Quicksand, or Native Son is able to elevate their status in an American society limited by the white majority. Naturalism provided African American authors with the necessary tools to expose the vile actions of the majority against minorities. Prior to the emergence of naturalism, these authors could perhaps not so fully convey the pain and frustration of the African American community. As a result, the naturalism of this school has certain authentic features that cannot be traced in the works of their white counterparts.

Both schools of naturalists were able to address the problems of their contemporaries by describing them honestly and straightforwardly. The authors managed to direct their focus on the problems about which they knew and wanted to change. Both

82 whites and African American authors were concerned about the state of the American society of the 20th century that praised wealth, consumerism, and segregation. While each author depicted the issues that were either personal or well known, their collective contribution to the social and cultural development of the American society is easily noticeable. Naturalism has become a harmonious and relatable literary movement for the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century. The authors managed to capture their reality and interpret it according to their own beliefs.

It is impossible to say the same about the screen adaptations of naturalist fiction.

Analysis of screen adaptations of three works named Carrie, The Grapes of Wrath, and

Native Son showed that some filmmakers did not dare to fully implement ideas of naturalism on screen. Compared to the original works of naturalist novelists, film adaptations were weak and lacked depth. Though some of the films (e.g. Grapes of

Wrath) were filmed right after the release of the novels, they did not capture the main or central ideas of the author. For instance, Carrie, which was an adaptation of Sister Carrie by Dreiser, shows the main heroine as a “damsel in distress” rather than a provincial opportunist whose focus is set on materialist success. A happy ending of The Grapes of

Wrath adaptation ruins the main idea of Steinbeck, who wanted to show how capitalism ruined the lives of small farmers during the Great Depression. Native Son applies censorship and cuts one of the crucial scenes in the film so as not to shock viewers. While the adaptations stay close to the text, they change the main message of the original works, leading to completely different perceptions.

The difference in approaches to narrative and message development in authors and filmmakers shows that the literature was braver and bolder in terms of expression.

83 Filmmakers were more concerned about the audience’s responses, and the perceptions of the film-industry regulating authorities, than about the preservation of the important messages communicated by each author. Only the adaptation of Wright’s Native Son, filmed in 1986, managed to re-create the overall mood of the original text and convey the main ideas of the author. The current analysis implies that the filmmakers were more concerned with the commercial side of the filmmaking business rather than its aesthetic and social meaning, which affected the narrative choice and the main message. That naturalism in film is rare in comparison to that found in literature is due to the stronger grip on censorship in the movie industry.

Overall, this analysis of naturalism in American literature shows that authors were ready to change the artistic environment and alter approaches to narrative development.

Naturalism marked a radical transformation of the American literature by switching the focus of the audience from romantic and sentimental to the brutally realistic perception of life. At the end of the 19th to the beginning of the 20th century, American authors tried to open the eyes of the public in order for them to see how inequality, segregation, and discrimination affect individual citizens and the entire society. Naturalist novels revealed unpleasant truth to the audience that spoke on behalf of the poor and disadvantaged population groups. This literary movement managed to direct the attention of the readers to the problems of social groups that were not provided by the voice. As naturalism revealed, segregation according to race, social class, and economic capabilities created a society that was deaf to the problems of the most vulnerable people. While the authors did not provide recommendations on how to change this question, they presented the audience with the tools to address these issues by admitting the problem.

84 Naturalism in American literature has become a powerful phenomenon, as it allowed the audience to accept the reality. Unfortunately, film adaptations that were created during the same time redirected the focus of the audience to more comfortable topics that included romance, sentiments, and escape reality. Naturalism had a major effect on further developments in American literature as well as some elements of this literary genre can be noticed in modern written works as well as films. Naturalism allowed the authors to tell the truth, to be brutally honest with audiences and show people that they have to accept reality. While naturalism is sometimes perceived as a movement that was preoccupied with unpleasant and common details of everyday living, it is important to note that this genre is more than that, as it allows readers to analyze reality more effectively.

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