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Whence This Severance of the Head?”: the Osteology and Archaeology of Human Decapitation in Britain

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Whence This Severance of the Head?”: the Osteology and Archaeology of Human Decapitation in Britain UNIVERSITY OF WINCHESTER FACULTY OF HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES “Whence this Severance of the Head?”: The Osteology and Archaeology of Human Decapitation in Britain KATIE TUCKER Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy January 2012 UNIVERSITY OF WINCHESTER ABSTRACT FACULTY OF HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES Doctor of Philosophy “Whence this Severance of the Head?”: The Osteology and Archaeology of Human Decapitation in Britain Katie Tucker Decapitation burials (burials in which the cranium and mandible are displaced from correct anatomical position and replaced elsewhere in the grave) are a relatively common minority burial practice in Romano-British cemeteries. They have usually been ascribed to a post-mortem funerary ritual with various different motives being postulated. However, these interpretations seem to have largely been based on assumption rather than evidence from the archaeological context or the human remains, only small numbers of which have been subjected to detailed skeletal analysis. Decapitated burials are also found in the early medieval period, and, conversely, these are normally concluded to be the victims of judicial execution, an interpretation that is only very rarely used when discussing Romano-British examples. This thesis examines the archaeological and osteological data from a large sample of Romano- British decapitated burials and compares them with the wider Romano-British cemetery population, in order to better understand the differences between decapitated individuals and the rest of the population, in terms of burial practice, demographics, and ante-mortem health status. The evidence for decapitation in the Neolithic, Bronze and Iron Ages, early medieval, medieval and post-medieval periods was also examined, with the analysis of samples of decapitated individuals being undertaken where possible, in order to provide comparanda for the Romano- British examples, and assess whether there is any evidence for continuity in the practice between the periods. The thesis focuses particularly on the evidence for decapitation-related peri-mortem trauma, and this data is used to identify and describe a number of different types of decapitation amongst the samples of individuals. The complete body of evidence is then used to discuss the feasibility of each of the different interpretations previously suggested for the practice of decapitation, with the intention that it can be used to inform any future discussion of such burials. “Whence this severance of the head?” is quoted from Royce (1883: 77) Contents List of Figures ................................................................................................................... v List of Tables.................................................................................................................... ix Glossary ........................................................................................................................... xi Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................ xiv Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 1 Aims of the research ...................................................................................................... 1 Structure of the thesis .................................................................................................... 2 Chapter 1: The Phenomenon of Decapitation in Britain as Discussed in the Archaeological and Osteological Literature...................................................................... 5 1.1 Definition of a Decapitation Burial .................................................................... 5 1.2 Early Research into the Practice of Decapitation ............................................... 5 1.3 Previous Syntheses of the Extent and Manner of the Practice ......................... 10 1.4 Interpretations of the Practice ........................................................................... 16 Chapter 2: Materials and Methods .................................................................................. 25 2.1 Age Determination ........................................................................................... 27 2.2 Sex Determination ............................................................................................ 32 2.3 Metrical Analysis ............................................................................................. 34 2.4 Non-Metrical Analysis ..................................................................................... 36 2.5 Musculo-Skeletal Stress Markers ..................................................................... 36 2.6 Pathological Changes ....................................................................................... 37 2.7 Trauma Analysis ............................................................................................... 37 2.8 Statistical Analyses ........................................................................................... 44 2.9 Using the Appendices ....................................................................................... 44 Chapter 3: Evidence for Decapitation in British Prehistory............................................ 45 3.1 The Neolithic .................................................................................................... 45 3.1.1 Decapitated heads...................................................................................... 45 3.1.2 Other forms of decapitation ...................................................................... 47 3.1.3 Evidence for peri-mortem trauma ............................................................. 48 3.2 The Bronze Age ................................................................................................ 49 3.2.1 Decapitated heads...................................................................................... 49 3.2.2 Other forms of decapitation ...................................................................... 51 3.2.3 Composite skeletons ................................................................................. 52 3.2.4 Conclusion ................................................................................................ 54 3.3 The Iron Age .................................................................................................... 54 3.3.1 Osteological data from the Iron Age sample............................................. 55 3.3.2 Evidence for peri-mortem trauma amongst the sample ............................ 59 3.3.3 Post-burial manipulation ........................................................................... 60 3.3.4 Decapitated Heads ..................................................................................... 61 3.3.5 Other forms of decapitation ...................................................................... 64 3.3.6 Individuals with extensive peri-mortem trauma ....................................... 65 3.3.7 Discussion ................................................................................................. 70 3.3.8 Post-mortem manipulation of cranial remains .......................................... 71 3.3.9 Conclusion ................................................................................................ 73 Chapter 4: Decapitation in the Romano-British Period .................................................. 75 4.1 Dating, geographical distribution and the rural/urban divide ........................... 76 4.2 Isolated head deposits ....................................................................................... 80 4.3 Burial practice .................................................................................................. 82 4.4 Placement of the head....................................................................................... 83 4.5 Demographics ................................................................................................... 84 4.6 Summary of data on the burial practice, head placement and demographics of the decapitated samples ............................................................................................... 91 4.7 Stature ............................................................................................................... 92 4.8 Non-adult health status/nutritional stress ......................................................... 93 4.9 Dental health..................................................................................................... 94 4.10 Degenerative joint disease/activity related changes ......................................... 97 4.11 Infectious disease ............................................................................................. 98 4.12 Ante-mortem trauma ...................................................................................... 100 4.13 Summary of evidence from the stature and palaeopathological analysis ....... 105 4.14 Peri-mortem trauma ........................................................................................ 106 4.15 Decapitation types .......................................................................................... 109 4.15.1 Incised cutting ........................................................................................ 109 4.15.2 Incised cuts to anterior of vertebrae with additional cuts or chops ........ 111 4.15.3 Chopping blows associated
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