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For the World Wide Web Designing Large-Scale Web Sites AdvancedIntroduces Findability3r Tagging Concepts and d Edition Information Architecture for the World Wide Web Peter Morville & Louis Rosenfeld Information Architecture for the World Wide Web Other resources from O’Reilly Related titles Ambient Findability Web Design in a Nutshell Information Dashboard Ajax Design Patterns Design Head First HTML Designing Interfaces with CSS & XHTML oreilly.com oreilly.com is more than a complete catalog of O’Reilly books. You’ll also find links to news, events, articles, weblogs, sample chapters, and code examples. oreillynet.com is the essential portal for developers interested in open and emerging technologies, including new platforms, pro- gramming languages, and operating systems. Conferences O’Reilly brings diverse innovators together to nurture the ideas that spark revolutionary industries. We specialize in document- ing the latest tools and systems, translating the innovator’s knowledge into useful skills for those in the trenches. Visit conferences.oreilly.com for our upcoming events. Safari Bookshelf (safari.oreilly.com) is the premier online refer- ence library for programmers and IT professionals. Conduct searches across more than 1,000 books. Subscribers can zero in on answers to time-critical questions in a matter of seconds. Read the books on your Bookshelf from cover to cover or sim- ply flip to the page you need. Try it today for free. THIRD EDITION Information Architecture for the World Wide Web Peter Morville and Louis Rosenfeld Beijing • Cambridge • Farnham • Köln • Paris • Sebastopol • Taipei • Tokyo Information Architecture for the World Wide Web, Third Edition by Peter Morville and Louis Rosenfeld Copyright © 2007, 2002, 1998 O’Reilly Media, Inc. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Published by O’Reilly Media, Inc., 1005 Gravenstein Highway North, Sebastopol, CA 95472. O’Reilly books may be purchased for educational, business, or sales promotional use. Online editions are also available for most titles (safari.oreilly.com). For more information, contact our corporate/institutional sales department: (800) 998-9938 or [email protected]. Editor: Simon St.Laurent Cover Designer: Karen Montgomery Production Editor: Rachel Monaghan Interior Designer: David Futato Proofreader: Rachel Monaghan Illustrators: Robert Romano and Jessamyn Read Indexer: Reg Aubry Printing History: February 1998: First Edition. August 2002: Second Edition. December 2006: Third Edition. Nutshell Handbook, the Nutshell Handbook logo, and the O’Reilly logo are registered trademarks of O’Reilly Media, Inc. Information Architecture for the World Wide Web, the image of a polar bear, and related trade dress are trademarks of O’Reilly Media, Inc. Many of the designations used by manufacturers and sellers to distinguish their products are claimed as trademarks. Where those designations appear in this book, and O’Reilly Media, Inc. was aware of a trademark claim, the designations have been printed in caps or initial caps. While every precaution has been taken in the preparation of this book, the publisher and authors assume no responsibility for errors or omissions, or for damages resulting from the use of the information contained herein. This book uses RepKover™, a durable and flexible lay-flat binding. ISBN-10: 0-596-52734-9 ISBN-13: 978-0-596-52734-1 [M] Table of Contents Foreword . xi Preface . xiii Part I. Introducing Information Architecture 1. Defining Information Architecture . 3 A Definition 4 Tablets, Scrolls, Books, and Libraries 6 Explaining IA to Others 8 What Isn’t Information Architecture? 9 Why Information Architecture Matters 11 Bringing Our Work to Life 12 2. Practicing Information Architecture . 16 Do We Need Information Architects? 17 Who’s Qualified to Practice Information Architecture? 18 Information Architecture Specialists 23 Practicing Information Architecture in the Real World 24 What Lies Ahead 28 3. User Needs and Behaviors . 30 The “Too-Simple” Information Model 31 Information Needs 33 Information-Seeking Behaviors 35 Learning About Information Needs and Information-Seeking Behaviors 38 v Part II. Basic Principles of Information Architecture 4. The Anatomy of an Information Architecture . 41 Visualizing Information Architecture 41 Information Architecture Components 49 5. Organization Systems . 53 Challenges of Organizing Information 54 Organizing Web Sites and Intranets 58 Organization Schemes 59 Organization Structures 69 Social Classification 77 Creating Cohesive Organization Systems 80 6. Labeling Systems . 82 Why You Should Care About Labeling 83 Varieties of Labels 86 Designing Labels 98 7. Navigation Systems . 115 Types of Navigation Systems 116 Gray Matters 117 Browser Navigation Features 117 Building Context 118 Improving Flexibility 120 Embedded Navigation Systems 122 Supplemental Navigation Systems 131 Advanced Navigation Approaches 139 8. Search Systems . 145 Does Your Site Need Search? 145 Search System Anatomy 149 Search Is Not an IT Thing 150 Choosing What to Search 151 Search Algorithms 158 Query Builders 161 Presenting Results 163 Designing the Search Interface 178 Where to Learn More 191 vi | Table of Contents 9. Thesauri, Controlled Vocabularies, and Metadata . 193 Metadata 194 Controlled Vocabularies 194 Technical Lingo 204 A Thesaurus in Action 206 Types of Thesauri 209 Thesaurus Standards 213 Semantic Relationships 215 Preferred Terms 217 Polyhierarchy 219 Faceted Classification 221 Part III. Process and Methodology 10. Research . 231 Process Overview 232 A Research Framework 233 Context 234 Content 239 Users 246 Participant Definition and Recruiting 251 User Research Sessions 254 In Defense of Research 261 11. Strategy . 264 What Is an Information Architecture Strategy? 265 Strategies Under Attack 266 From Research to Strategy 268 Developing the Strategy 269 Work Products and Deliverables 273 The Strategy Report 279 The Project Plan 288 Presentations 288 12. Design and Documentation . 291 Guidelines for Diagramming an Information Architecture 292 Communicating Visually 294 Blueprints 296 Table of Contents | vii Wireframes 307 Content Mapping and Inventory 313 Content Models 317 Controlled Vocabularies 324 Design Collaboration 326 Putting It All Together: Information Architecture Style Guides 329 Part IV. Information Architecture in Practice 13. Education . 335 Transition in Education 336 A World of Choice 336 But Do I Need a Degree? 337 The State of the Field 338 14. Ethics . 340 Ethical Considerations 341 Shaping the Future 344 15. Building an Information Architecture Team . 345 Destructive Acts of Creation 346 Fast and Slow Layers 347 Project Versus Program 348 Buy or Rent 349 Do We Really Need to Hire Professionals? 350 The Dream Team 352 16. Tools and Software . 354 A Time of Change 354 Categories in Chaos 355 Questions to Ask 361 Part V. Information Architecture in the Organization 17. Making the Case for Information Architecture . 365 You Must Sell 365 The Two Kinds of People in the World 366 Running the Numbers 367 viii | Table of Contents Talking to the Reactionaries 371 Other Case-Making Techniques 373 The Information Architecture Value Checklist 376 A Final Note 377 18. Business Strategy . 378 The Origins of Strategy 379 Defining Business Strategy 380 Strategic Fit 382 Exposing Gaps in Business Strategy 384 One Best Way 385 Many Good Ways 385 Understanding Our Elephant 387 Competitive Advantage 389 The End of the Beginning 390 19. Information Architecture for the Enterprise . 392 Information Architecture, Meet the Enterprise 392 What’s the Goal of EIA? 394 Designing an Enterprise Information Architecture 397 EIA Strategy and Operations 411 Doing the Work and Paying the Bills 416 Timing Is Everything: A Phased Rollout 421 A Framework for Moving Forward 426 Part VI. Case Studies 20. MSWeb: An Enterprise Intranet . 429 Challenges for the User 430 Challenges for the Information Architect 431 We Like Taxonomies, Whatever They Are 432 Benefits to Users 454 What’s Next 458 MSWeb’s Achievement 459 Table of Contents | ix 21. evolt.org: An Online Community . 460 evolt.org in a Nutshell 461 Architecting an Online Community 461 The Participation Economy 462 How Information Architecture Fits In 471 The “Un-Information Architecture” 474 Appendix: Essential Resources . 475 Index . 487 x | Table of Contents Foreword 1 On the Web, if a site is difficult to use, most people will leave. On an intranet, if employees perform their tasks more slowly due to difficult design, the company bears the cost of the reduced productivity. In fact, I estimate that low intranet usabil- ity costs the world economy $100 billion per year in lost employee productivity. This may not be the most important problem facing the planet, but it’s not a trifling issue either. Usability is an important, though not the only, determinant for the success of a web site or an intranet. Information architecture is an important, though not the only, determinant for the usability of a design. There are other issues, but you ignore infor- mation architecture at your peril. In our recent book, Prioritizing Web Usability, Hoa Loranger and I reported on a study we conducted of how people used a broad spectrum of 25 web sites. We recorded hundreds of usability problems on those sites, but only some of these issues were so severe that they caused users to fail their task or abandon the site. Search and findability problems accounted for a whopping 42 percent of these usability catastrophes. Other issues, such as page design, content usability, task support, and even annoying multimedia were definitely important as well, accounting for the remaining 58 percent of task failures. But the very first step is to get to the correct page, and if that fails, the entire site might as well not exist. This is why information architecture is so important. Critics may say that users don’t care about information architecture. They don’t want to learn how a web site is structured; they just want to get in, get their task done, and get out. Users focus on tasks, not on structure. But it’s because users don’t care about the structure of a web site that it is so important to get the information architecture right in the design.
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