DOCSLIB.ORG

Epidemiology of Hepatitis C Virus Infection Among Injecting Drug Users in Australia

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Epidemiology of Hepatitis C Virus Infection Among Injecting Drug Users in Australia 69262ournal ofEpidemiology and Community Health 1997;51:692-697 J Epidemiol Community Health: first published as 10.1136/jech.51.6.692 on 1 December 1997. Downloaded from Epidemiology of hepatitis C virus infection among injecting drug users in Australia Nick Crofts, Damien Jolley, John Kaldor, Ingrid van Beek, Alex Wodak Abstract is the case also with hepatitis B virus (HBV) Study objective-To review the epidemiol- and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). ogy of hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection Other exposures that have been found to be among injecting drug users (IDUs) in important are the receipt of contaminated Australia, and consider needs for further blood or blood products,4 tattooing,5 and den- research and prevention policies and pro- tal procedures.6 Since the introduction of grammes. universal donor screening for HCV antibody in Design-(1) Review of the results of 1990, transmission through the blood supply surveillance for HCV; (2) review of pub- has become rare.7 lished literature on prevalence, incidence, It is currently estimated that over 80% of and risk factors for HCV among IDUs; those exposed to HCV will become carriers,8 at and (3) reconstruction of incidence rates risk of long term disease including cirrhosis from prevalence studies of HCV in IDUs. and hepatocellular carcinoma.9 While actual Setting and Participants-Field and clinic rates are still unclear, it is possible that 20% or based studies of IDUs in Australia. more of those chronically infected will develop Main results-HCV has been present at such disease over 20 years or more.'0 The only high prevalences (of the order of 60-70%) available treatment, alfa interferon, is ineffec- in populations ofAustralian IDUs since at tive in most patients and is specifically not least 1971. Duration of injecting and main available to current injecting drug users drug injected were the main predictors of (IDUs) in Australia." Prospects of a vaccine seropositivity, the latter possibly a surro- against HCV are not promising in the gate for frequency of injecting and both short-term. 12 together as surrogate for cumulative There have been a number of surveys of dif- numbers of times injected. Risk of infec- ferent populations of IDUs in Australia for tion begins with first injection and contin- HCV exposure. Surveillance for diagnosed ues as long as injecting does. Current HCV infection at a national level was intro- The Macfarlane incidence is approximately 15 per 100 per- duced and has been gradually refined since Burnet Centre for son years, and up to 40 per 100 person testing began in 1990. To establish as complete Medical Research, a as of the pattern of HCV Fairfield, Victoria, years in some subpopulations. Incidence picture possible Australia may have decreased through the 1980s as a infection among IDUs in Australia, we under- N Crofts result of behaviour change in relation to took a review of available epidemiological data. D Jolley HIV, as it has for hepatitis B, but not We have also sought to identify research needs http://jech.bmj.com/ significantly so. and opportunities, and effectiveness of and National Centre in HIV Conclusions-Control ofHCV infection in requirements for further prevention pro- Epidemiology and of grammes to decrease its spread in these popu- Clinical Research, Australia will depend on effectiveness Darlinghurst, measures to control HCV spread among lations. New South Wales, IDUs. This will be a greater challenge than Australia the control of HIV in this population has J Kaldor been. Needs identified include improved Methods surveillance, especially for recently ac- NATIONAL SURVEILLANCE on October 1, 2021 by guest. Protected copyright. Kirketon Road Centre, of There are two national surveillance systems for Darlinghurst, quired infection, better understanding exact transmission modes, and urgent communicable diseases that collect informa- New South Wales, tion on the occurrence of HCV infection: the Australia improvement in prevention strategies. I van Beek National Notifiable Diseases Surveillance Sys- (7 Epidemiol Community Health 1997;51:692-697) tem (NNDSS), which receives notification Alcohol and Drug data from State and Territory Health Depart- Services, St Vincent's ments; and the Communicable Diseases Intel- Hospital, Since the identification of hepatitis C virus ligence Laboratory Reporting Scheme (Lab- Darlinghurst, (HCV) in 1989' and the availability of assays VISE), which receives reports of laboratory New South Wales, laboratories. Australia for the detection of antibody to HCV in 1990,2 diagnoses from sentinel Reports A Wodak the epidemiology of HCV infection has been of HCV infections were available for the years investigated in many populations. The major 1991 to 1994 for the first system, and for the Correspondence to: group infected and at risk of continuing infec- period 1990 to September 1995 for the second. Dr N Crofts, The as in other The NNDSS collects information on age, sex, Macfarlane Burnet Centre tion with HCV in Australia, for Medical Research, PO developed countries, is people who currently or and postcode of residence of cases, but not on Box 254, Fairfield, Victoria, previously injected or had been injected with possible route of exposure; since 1994, cases Australia 3078. illicit drugs.3 This increased risk is associated have been classified as incident or otherwise. data on Accepted for publication with the practice of sharing of equipment used The LabVISE system collects age, 5 December 1996 in injecting; especially needles and syringes, as sex, postcode, risk factor (a combination of Hepatitis C among Australian IDUs 693 J Epidemiol Community Health: first published as 10.1136/jech.51.6.692 on 1 December 1997. Downloaded from Table 1 Contributions to the overall log likelihood years in each year. Incident cases were so clas- sified in 1993-4, making up 0.4% of notifica- Status Observed Log-likelihood terms tions (73 of 16 424). Always negative u only - k (u - s) There were data available from the LabVISE Entered positive v only log [1 - exp j- A (v - s) ] system for six years (1990 to 1995), but only to Seroconverted both u & v - k (u - s) + log [ 1 - exp - X (v - u)t] September in the last year. The total number of s= date of starting to inject; u = date of last negative test; v = date of first positive test. reports for the period was 18 124, with annual totals rising from 115 in 1990 to 6118 in 1994. exposure factors and personal characteristics), Details on risk factors were available only for outcome, and method of diagnosis. the years 1992 to 1995, but over these years only 11.8% of cases had such information. Of PREVALENCE AND INCIDENCE STUDIES the 2137 cases with such data, 1847 (86.4%) Published reports on prevalence, incidence, were classified as having a history of IDU, this and predictors of HCV seropositivity among proportion remaining constant over the years. IDUs in Australia were also reviewed. Studies based on self reported HCV status were not PROPORTION OF AUSTRALIAN IDUS TESTED FOR included, because of evidence of uncertainty ANTI-HCV about reliability and validity of such data,'3 but Most of the reported clinic based studies of those using self report to assess whether seroprevalence did not report the participation subjects had had a test for HCV were included. rate of clients in anti-HCV testing. One Published reports were identified by MedLine retrospective study on the stored serum search and contact with researchers known to samples of methadone clinic attenders re- be working in this field. ported testing samples from 172 IDUs of a total of 783 people (22%), based apparently on RECONSTRUCTED INCIDENCE the availability of stored serum samples."' Of To assess the impact of programmes intro- 234 young drug users, which included an duced from 1987 in Australia to decrease the unstated proportion with no history of drug spread of HIV among IDUs on the spread of injecting in Perth in 1993, 57 (24%) reported HCV in the same populations, we modelled the having had a test for HCV; 29% (51 of 176) of incidence of HCV over the 1980s, using preva- those who reported a history of injecting drug lence data. Data from two studies were used. use (mean duration 1.9 years) had been The first was a longitudinal prospective study tested."' A similar study of 275 young IDUs of field recruited IDUs in Victoria, the full (mean duration of injecting 2.5 years) in Mel- method for which has been published bourne in 1994 found 59% reported having elsewhere. 4 The second was of IDUs attending had an HCV test.20 Of 872 respondents of all a primary care clinic in inner Sydney, New ages interviewed in four cities in 1994, 79% South Wales, the method for which has also reported having been tested for hepatitis C been published elsewhere.'5 We estimated a antibodies at least once.2' seroconversion rate as the subject's risk of test- ing positive (even at first test) as a function of HCV PREVALENCE IN AUSTRALIAN IDU the number of years of exposure since first POPULATIONS (TABLE 2) injecting, assuming zero risk for HCV infection A variety of IDU populations has been surveyed for prevalence of HCV antibody before starting to inject. The full method is http://jech.bmj.com/ presented in table 1.16 including those from whom serum samples Ninety five per cent confidence intervals for have been collected for other purposes, IDUs incidence rates were calculated using an expo- in hospital, IDUs attending clinics (metha- nential error factor for incidence rates." done, primary care, and STD), and IDUs par- ticipating in field studies. A variety of antibody tests with different sensitivities and specificities Results were used in the different studies.22 Overall, the The earliest evidence of HCV infection among prevalence among male IDUs ranged from on October 1, 2021 by guest.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Research Into Conservation Tillage for Dryland Cropping in Australia and China
    View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by Research Papers in Economics RESEARCH INTO CONSERVATION TILLAGE FOR DRYLAND CROPPING IN AUSTRALIA AND CHINA Projects LWR2/1992/009 and LWR2/1996/143 David Vere NSW Department of Primary Industries Orange Agricultural Institute March 2005 The Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR) operates as part of Australia’s international development cooperation program, with a mission to achieve more-productive and sustainable agricultural systems, for the benefit of developing countries and Australia. It commissions collaborative research between Australian and developing-country researchers in areas where Australia has special research competence. It also administers Australia’s contribution to the International Agricultural Research Centres. ACIAR seeks to ensure that the outputs of its funded research are adopted by farmers, policy makers, quarantine officers and other intended beneficiaries. In order to monitor the effects of its projects, ACIAR commissions independent assessments of selected projects. This series reports the results of these independent studies. Communications regarding any aspects of this series should be directed to: The Manager Impact Assessment Unit ACIAR GPO Box 1571 Canberra ACT 2601 Australia tel +612 62170500 email <[email protected]> © 2005 Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, GPO Box 1571, Canberra ACT 2601 David Vere, Research into conservation tillage for dryland cropping in Australia and China, Impact Assessment Series Report No. 33, April 2005. This report may be downloaded and printed from <www.aciar.gov.au>. ISSN 1832-1879 CONSERVATION TILLAGE IN AUSTRALIA AND CHINA 3 Foreword ACIAR’s impact assessment reports provide information on project impacts which helps to guide future research and development activities.
    [Show full text]
  • How Are Pharmaceutical Patent Term Extensions Justified? Australia's Evloving Scheme
    How are pharmaceutical patent term extensions justified? Australia's evolving scheme Charles Lawson· This article examines the evolving patent term extension schemes under the Patents Act 1903 (Cth), the Patents Act 1952 (Cth) and the Patents Act 1990 (Cth). The analysis traces the change from ''inadequate remuneration" to a scheme directed specifically at certain pharmaceuticals. An examination of the policy justification shows there are legitimate questions about the desirability of any extension. The article concludes that key information provisions in the Patents Act 1990 (Cth) that might assist a better policy analysis are presently not working and that any justification needs evidence demonstrating that the benefits of patent term extensions to the community as a whole outweigh the costs and that the objectives of extensions can only be achieved by restricting competition. INTRODUCTION The perennial problem faced by patent schemes all around the world is determining a proper patent t~rm - too short and it is insufi1cient incentive (or reward) and too long and it is imposing an \\nnecessary restriction on competition (contrary to the public interest and involving high social costs). Finding the appropriate patent term has never been, and is unlikely to ever be, determined to the satisfaction of everyone. Global consensus according to the World Trade Organisation's Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS), 1 however, has settled on a patent term of 20 years from the date of lodging the patent application? And the Australia-United States Free 'TJ:ade Agreement (AUSFTA) now requires Australia to make a patent term extension available for Pharmaceuticals.3 Despite this consensus, the question still remains whether a patent term extension is justified and how this might be assessed.
    [Show full text]
  • Interactions Between Feral Cats, Foxes, Native Carnivores, and Rabbits in Australia
    FINAL REPORT FOR THE AUSTRALIAN GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENT OF THE ENVIRONMENT AND HERITAGE Interactions between feral cats, foxes, native carnivores, and rabbits in Australia. Published September 2004 Prepared by: Robley, A1., Reddiex, B1., Arthur T2., Pech R2., and Forsyth, D1., ¹ Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental Research Department of Sustainability and Environment PO Box 134 Heidelberg Victoria 3084 ² CSIRO Sustainable Ecosystems Gungahlin Homestead GPO Box 284 Canberra ACT 2601 © Commonwealth of Australia (2004). Information contained in this publication may be copied or reproduced for study, research, information or educational purposes, subject to inclusion of an acknowledgment of the source. This report should be cited as: Robley, A., Reddiex, B., Arthur T., Pech R., and Forsyth, D., (2004). Interactions between feral cats, foxes, native carnivores, and rabbits in Australia. Arthur Rylah Institute for Environmental Research, Department of Sustainability and Environment, Melbourne. The views and opinions expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the Commonwealth Government or the Minister for the Environment and Heritage. This project (ID number: 40593) was funded by the Australian Government Department of the Environment and Heritage through the national threat abatement component of the Natural Heritage Trust. Table of contents EXECUTIVE SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS ......................................................................................... 1 1 BACKGROUND .....................................................................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • EPBC Act Listed Threatened and Migratory Fauna Species Review Lots 4 and 5 Ludlow Road Limestone Extraction Myalup, WA
    EPBC Act Listed Threatened and Migratory Fauna Species Review Lots 4 and 5 Ludlow Road Limestone Extraction Myalup, WA (EPBC 2019/8388) August 2019 Prepared by: Greg Harewood Zoologist PO Box 755 BUNBURY WA 6231 M: 0402 141 197 E: [email protected] Attach is a summary review of the EPBC Act Listed threatened and migratory species that DoTEE consider as being present or as having the potential to be present within the proposed action area and surrounds. Shorebirds The DotEE identified the following shorebird species of concern: x Bar-tailed Godwit (Limosa lapponica baueri) — vulnerable, migratory; x Curlew Sandpiper (Calidris ferruginea) — critically endangered, migratory; x Great Knot (Calidris tenuirostris) — critically endangered, migratory; x Greater Sand Plover (Charadrius leschenaultia) — vulnerable, migratory; x Lesser Sand Plover (Charadrius mongolus) — endangered, migratory; x Eastern Curlew (Numenius madagascariensis) — critically endangered, migratory; x Red-necked Stint (Calidris ruficolis) – migratory. The proposed action area contains no habitat suitable for any of the listed threatened/migratory shorebird species to utilise and none would ever occur under normal circumstances. The propose action area mainly contains a low woodland of limestone marlock (Eucalyptus decipiens) over scattered shrubs and bare limestone with some areas of scattered tuart (E. gomphocephala), peppermint (Agonis flexuosa) and jarrah (E. marginata) over pasture grasses (Harewood 2018). As indicated this habitat is totally unsuitable for the shorebirds in question and therefore none are considered as likely to occur. The proposed action area occurs within about 300 metres of Lake Preston. Lake Preston is the largest of 10 wetlands collectively referred to as Yalgorup Lakes which are all contained with the Yalgorup National Park.
    [Show full text]
  • THE LABOUR Flexmility IMPERATIVE John Burgess and Duncan Macdonald!
    THE LABOUR FLEXmILITY IMPERATIVE John Burgess and Duncan Macdonald! There is a widely held view of a productivity imperative which must be followed if Australia is not to become a 'banana republic'. Central to the government's agenda for recovery is a policy of micro-economic reform encompassing improved labour flexibility and industry re-structuring. Faced with a slow-down in Australian labour productivity growth in the 1980' s and a large current account deficit which continues to be unrespon­ sive to conventional macroeconomic policies, the Government has shifted its policy emphasis towards microeconomic reform. In this context one key area identified for reform is the labour market. It is argued that the central function of the current labour market reforms is to shift the balance of power in favour of capital over labour, to intensify work effort through weakening the trade union role in the workplace, to increase management control over employees and to break down the existing system of industrial awards and wage relativities. In such a context the reform terminology could take on new meanings: • improved work-place flexibility could mean increased managerial control; • award re-structuring, the erosion of working conditions and in­ dustrial awards • industrial relations reform, the diminution of the trade union role in the work-place. When the impetus for labour market reform is viewed as a part of a broader conservative political agenda for the transformation of power in labour markets, some scepticism about its objectives, rationale and effects is Helpful comments were provided by John Fisher, Frank Stilwell and Gavan Butler 16 JOURNAL OF AUSlRAUAN POUI1CAL ECONOMY No 27 inevitable.
    [Show full text]
  • Reproductive Performance in Goats and Causes of Perinatal Mortality: a Review
    CSIRO PUBLISHING Animal Production Science, 2020, 60, 1669–1680 Review https://doi.org/10.1071/AN20161 Reproductive performance in goats and causes of perinatal mortality: a review S. M. Robertson A,B,F, T. Atkinson C, M. A. Friend B,D, M. B. Allworth A,B and G. Refshauge E ASchool of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, Charles Sturt University, Boorooma Street, Wagga Wagga, NSW 2678, Australia. BGraham Centre for Agricultural Innovation (Charles Sturt University and NSW Department of Primary Industries), Albert Pugsley Place, Wagga Wagga, NSW 2650, Australia. CNew South Wales Department of Primary Industries, Trangie Agricultural Research Centre, Trangie, NSW 2823, Australia. DCharles Sturt University, Boorooma Street, Wagga Wagga, NSW 2678, Australia. ENew South Wales Department of Primary Industries, Cowra Agricultural Research and Advisory Station, Cowra, NSW 2794, Australia. FCorresponding author. Email: [email protected] Abstract. Goat meat production is an expanding industry in Australia. However, there is limited data quantifying the levels of reproductive performance, particularly under extensively grazed rangeland conditions, which would inform interventions to improve performance. This review aimed to quantify the levels of reproduction, time and causes of reproductive wastage in goats. It considers the levels of fertility, fecundity, embryonic loss, fetal loss and post-natal survival reported under Australian conditions, and comparisons are made with international reports. Key management factors that may contribute to reproductive performance include breed, seasonality, nutritional conditions, and weather conditions at kidding. While goats are potentially prolific breeders, in Australia, the variation in weaning rate (kids/doe joined) among properties is large (51–165%), although the causes of this variation are not well defined.
    [Show full text]
  • General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
    GENERAL AGREEMENT ON RESTRICTED DPC/W/76 29 February 1988 TARIFFS AND TRADE Special Distribution International Dairy Arrangement INTERNATIONAL DAIRY PRODUCTS COUNCIL Status Report on the World Market for Dairy Products Note by the Secretariat Explanatory note I. The present note has been prepared by the secretariat in accordance with Article IV:1 of the Arrangement and Rule 29 of the Rules of Procedure, and with the aim of facilitating the work of the Council and the Committees at their meetings in March 1988. 2. In preparing the note, the secretariat based itself mainly on replies tc questionnaires, other information submitted by participants and observers as well as various information arising from the operation of the Protocol Regarding Certain Milk Powders, the Protocol Regarding Milk Fat and the Protocol Regarding Certain Cheeses. Furthermore, the secretariat used supplementary information available to it from various national and international sources, notably documentation from the FAO, the IDF, the UN/Economic Commission for Europe, the OECD, the Commonwealth Secretariat, the Commission of the European Communities, Agriculture Canada and the United States Department of Agriculture. 3. rhe note provides information on production, consumption, trade, stocks, and prices for milk and principal dairy products and covers developments up to and including 1987, and the outlook for 1988. The note should be read in conjunction with the statistical information circulated in the following documents: DPC /W1 75 - Mil k Deliveries and Production - Statistical Note by the Secretariat DPC/F/14/36 - Committee of the Protocol Regarding Milk Fat - Summary Tables DPC /C 1w/ 35 - Committep of the Protocol Regarding Certain Cheeses - Summarv Tables DPC /P/Nw/ 34 - Committee of the Protocol Regarding Certain Milk Powders - Summary Tables 88-0293 DPC/W/76 Page 2 4.
    [Show full text]
  • Review and Evaluation of Lantana Biocontrol Programs
    Biological Control 17, 272–286 (2000) doi:10.1006/bcon.1999.0793, available online at http://www.idealibrary.com on COMMENTARY Review and Evaluation of Lantana Biocontrol Programs Sonya Broughton1 Department of Entomology and Zoology, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia Received February 16, 1999; accepted October 8, 1999 feeding insect species were identified as successful This paper provides a review of lantana (Lantana agents, but different species have been successful in camara L.) biological control programs worldwide. different countries (Crawley, 1986, 1989a,b). Tables on the origins of the agents introduced for the Inability to predict success is attributed to the low biocontrol of lantana, are presented, including refer- genetic uniformity of lantana and its ability to colonize ences to the biology and/or host-tests for each species. diverse habitats (Crawley, 1989a,b; Willson, 1993; Swar- Establishment and control rates of the introduced agents and cases leading to partial control of lantana brick et al., 1995). Because of this, Willson (1993) are discussed. From the review, feeding groups and suggested that agent selection procedures proposed by species contributing to control were identified. Leaf-, Harris (1973a,b), Goeden (1983), and Wapshere (1985) flower-, and fruit-feeding species were the most success- are irrelevant. Instead, species were prioritized accord- ful feeding groups, and the leaf-mining chrysomelid, ing to their success in other countries or because they Uroplata girardi Pic, was the most successful control were host-specific and added to the folivore complex agent. The main factor preventing establishment was already introduced (Harley and Kassulke, 1971; Water- the number of individuals released, while cultivar house and Norris, 1987; Willson, 1993).
    [Show full text]
  • What Do We Know Really About the Effects of Toys on Children's Behaviour and Development?
    DOCUMENT RESUME ED 302 324 PS 017 681 AUTHOR Jenvey, Vickii TITLE What Do We Know Really about the Effects of Toys on Children's Behaviour and Development? PUB DATE Aug 88 NOTE 10p.; Paper presented at the Australian Developmental Conference (5th, Sydney, Australia, August 25-28, 1988). PUB TYPE Viewpoints (120) -- Speeches/Conference Papers (150) EDRS PRICE MP01/PC01 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS *Aggression; *Antisocial Behavior; *Children; Foreign Countries; *Play; *Research Problems; *Toys; Violence IDENTIFIERS *Australia ABSTRACT In response to community concern about developmental effects on children who play with toys that portray antisocial, violent, or militaristic themes, two government committeeswere set up to investigate the issue. Psychologists have argued that playing with such toys may increase antisocial and aggressive behavior in children and have long-term effects or children's development of attitudes towards others and towards society in general. A review of research on children's play shows that there is little evidence to support such arguments. Reasons for lack of research are discussed in terms of:(1) problems of establishing criteria for defining 'antisocial,' 'violent,' and 'war toys';(2) failure to ccllect and evaluate anecdotal evidence from parents, teachers, and clinicians about the toys; and (3) inappropriate argumentative use of evidence from research into effects 'In children of violent television programs. Problems associated with play research in general include: (1) difficulties in attributing motives to observable playbehavior; (2) "te likelihood the children's spontaneous play will be suppressed in an experimental situation; and (3) age and sociocultural differences in the significance of certain games and play behaviors in childhood.
    [Show full text]
  • Environmental Justice’ in Australian Planning
    1 Bordering on neglect: ‘environmental justice’ in Australian planning 2 3 4 Jason Byrne1* and Diana MacCallum2 5 6 7 8 9 10 1. * Correspondence Author: Senior Lecturer, School of Environment, Environmental 11 Futures Centre, Building G31, Room 3.06, Griffith University, Gold Coast campus, QLD 12 4222, Australia. Phone: +61 7 5552 7723, Fax: +61 7 5552 8244, Email: 13 [email protected]. 14 2. Diana MacCallum, Lecturer, School of Built Environment, Curtin University, GPO Box 15 U1987, Perth 6845, Australia, +61 8 9266 7313, Email: [email protected] 16 17 1 18 19 Bordering on neglect: ‘environmental justice’ in Australian planning 20 21 22 23 Abstract 24 Australian environmental justice research is limited, with scant planning literature on this 25 topic. The Planning Institute of Australia’s core business omits environmental justice 26 concerns. State and local governments are silent on the matter. Few Australian planners 27 would recognise the term. Yet the basic ideals behind environmental justice underpin the core 28 principles of accessibility, equity, social inclusion, and participatory democracy which, in 29 principle, inform Australian planning policies and practice. In this paper we begin the 30 important task of crossing the borders of ignorance to engage with environmental justice in 31 Australian planning. We review the US origins of the concept, discuss the processes behind 32 the formation of unjust environmental landscapes (built and organic), and overview some 33 contemporary Australian environmental justice issues warranting closer scrutiny. We 34 conclude by charting a research agenda and pointing to changes for planning practice.
    [Show full text]
  • The Value of Australian Franking Credits: Evidence from Global Equity Markets
    University of Wollongong Research Online University of Wollongong Thesis Collection 2017+ University of Wollongong Thesis Collections 2020 The Value of Australian Franking Credits: Evidence from Global Equity Markets Hansi Hu Follow this and additional works at: https://ro.uow.edu.au/theses1 University of Wollongong Copyright Warning You may print or download ONE copy of this document for the purpose of your own research or study. The University does not authorise you to copy, communicate or otherwise make available electronically to any other person any copyright material contained on this site. You are reminded of the following: This work is copyright. Apart from any use permitted under the Copyright Act 1968, no part of this work may be reproduced by any process, nor may any other exclusive right be exercised, without the permission of the author. Copyright owners are entitled to take legal action against persons who infringe their copyright. A reproduction of material that is protected by copyright may be a copyright infringement. A court may impose penalties and award damages in relation to offences and infringements relating to copyright material. Higher penalties may apply, and higher damages may be awarded, for offences and infringements involving the conversion of material into digital or electronic form. Unless otherwise indicated, the views expressed in this thesis are those of the author and do not necessarily represent the views of the University of Wollongong. Research Online is the open access institutional repository for the University of Wollongong. For further information contact the UOW Library: [email protected] The Value of Australian Franking Credits: Evidence from Global Equity Markets Hansi Hu This thesis is presented as part of the requirements for the conferral of the degree: Doctor of Philosophy Supervisors: Professor Terry Walter and Professor David Johnstone The University of Wollongong School of School of Accounting, Economics and Finance 11, 2020 This work c copyright by Hansi Hu, 2020.
    [Show full text]
  • The Ordination of Women in Australia: an "Enduring Problem" in Historical Perspective
    THE ORDINATION OF WOMEN IN AUSTRALIA: AN "ENDURING PROBLEM" IN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE "If men could learn from history, what lessons it might teach us! But passion and party blind our eyes, and the light which experience gives is a lantern on the stern, which shines only on the waves behind us!" Samuel Taylor Coleridge, 1772-1834. Although Australian Christians began to discuss the role of women in church and society during the nineteenth century, it was not until 1927 that Congregationalists ordained the first woman as a minister. Four decades later Methodists voted to ordain women as clergy, a step repeated by Presbyterians in 1974. Since then, some Baptist and Churches of Christ congregations have received women as ordained clergy. During 1986, Anglicans began ordaining women as deacons, that is, to the first of their three historic orders of ministry. In recent years, some attention has been given to this issue by most other communions. Hence it seems appropriate to examine the ordination of women within an historical perspective, and thus to inform the ongoing discussion with the experience of the past. Such a task is not a straightforward one. Coleridge noted in 1831 that "passion and party blind our eyes" to the lessons of the past, and historical illumination "shines only on the waves behind us." 1 However, this paper contends the lantern of history might be employed usefully as a fog-light on the fore-end of the Christian ship in this country. 1 Female ordination is of some relevance to about three-quarters of the current 2 Australian population, those who identify themselves as Christians.
    [Show full text]